NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 14; POLAND; SCIENCE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200070028-8
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 32
• Document Creation Date: October 25, 2016
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FIGURES
Page
Fig. 1 Organization for scientific and
technical acti ;ities chart) 3
Fig. 2 Polish.-developed telemeter (photo) 8
Fig. 3 Prof. Stephan Slopek with the
electron microscope photo) 9
ii
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Page
Page
5. Medical sciences
14
(3)
Terrestrial geophysics and
6. Other sciences
15
geology
21
a. Chemistry and metallurgy
15
(4)
Geodesy
21
b. Physics and mathematics
17
(5)
Hydrology, hydraulics, and
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
20
coastal engineering res rch
23
(1) Astronomy and space sciences
20
Oceanography
23
(2) Meteorology
20
Glossary
25
FIGURES
Page
Fig. 1 Organization for scientific and
technical acti ;ities chart) 3
Fig. 2 Polish.-developed telemeter (photo) 8
Fig. 3 Prof. Stephan Slopek with the
electron microscope photo) 9
ii
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Science
A. General (S)
Poland is a leader in science among the Communist
countries of Eastern Europe but trails far behind the
U.S.S.R. in scientific and technological achievements.
Poland has a strong scientific tradition and in its long
history has produced some outstanding scientists. A
significant development of scientific achievements
took place during the Renaissance, with the
establishment of the Academy at Krakow' in the 14th
century; it later ':)ecame the Jagiellonian University.
One of its greatest scholars was Nicolaus Copernicus,
famous for the creation of the heliocentric theory of
the solar system. During the 1880's, successes were
achieved by such individuals as Z. F. Wroblewski and
K. Olszewski, who obtained liquid oxygen and
nitrogen in large quantities for the first time. The wurk
of Madame Sklodowska- Curie, the Polish -born
Grench chemist, is known throughout the world of
science. Both the Communist Party and government
leaders have believed that science and technology are
of great significance to the country's development and
have, therefore, provided substantial financial support
for research and development in relation to Poland's
size and national income.
In recent years a general opinion has emerged that
Poland cannot compete broadly in all areas of science
and technology and that the future of Polish science
must lie in concentration of the country's research and
development capabilities in selected priority areas that
are related to overall economic needs. There has been
considerable difficulty, however, in obtaining
agreement on which areas should be stressed. The
government is forcing the issue by providing increased
funds for applied research in certain areas at the
expense of fields designated to be of lesser importance.
Changes are taking place slowly, since there is much
resistance to the government's efforts to move
scientific specialists from the universities and institutes
of the Polish Aeac =emy of Sciences (PAN) to research
laboratories under the industrial ministries. There is a
'For diacritics on place names, see the list of names at the end of
the chapter.
large gap between the work of the basic scientists and
the relatively simple needs of Polish industry. Applied
research is increasing, but Poland will depend heavily
on licensing of foreign technology to stimulate the
development of technologically oriented industries.
Progress in science is favored by government support
of research, the high level of literacy, and a strong
system of free education. The higher educational
system emphasizes the training of scientists, engineers,
and technologists. Polish scientists, although by no
means free from politics, have been less burdened by
political dogma than scientists in the U.S.S.R. and
Czechoslovakia. There are, however, several factors
which have hindered scientific progress, and one of
these is the atmosphere of uncertainty, disorganiza-
tion, and apprehension among working -level scientists
brought about partially because institute directors are
too occupied with politics to pursue research. The
politically motivated purges that followed the crisis in
the Communist Party in 1968 greatly affected
universities and scientific research institutes.
Approximately 5,000 students, professors, and research
workers were either arrested or dismissed from their
positions or association with the universities. Of the
entire group, 150 were professors, 50 of whom were
members of PAN. Morale of the scientific sector has
been greatly affected, relations between Polish
researchers and their counterparts in other Communist
countries are strained, and communications within the
scientific community are restricted. It does not appear
that politics is more important than scientific ability in
obtaining a position of leadership, especially in the
physical sciences. When two individuals appear to be
about equal in scientific ability, however, the person
with party membership is always favored.
Facilities for research have suffered from
inadequate equipment, caused in part by a shortage of
funds for foreign purchases. As a result, large amounts
of time are spent by scientific workers in the
construction of special cquipment and instruments.
Research workers are handicapped by the long delays
(1 to 2 years) in securing supplies and chemicals which
are not produced in Poland. There is a lack of
cootuination between Polish research as practiced by
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research scientists in governmental institutes and in
higher educational ;nstitutions and Pt5iish industry.
Industry managers receive bonuses for the number of
units produced and are not interested in taking risks
with new products or processes. Following World War
I1, the Polish scientific establishment was almost
completely destroyed and had to be rebuilt.
Both chemistry and physics are active fields of
research. Nuclear research is important but has been
deemphasized in recent years. Medical sciences
receive good support. Astronomy, which has in the
past been an important area of scientific activity, has
been assigned a relatively low priority by the present
government. Mathematics, which has been one of
Poland's strongest fields of research, has been
hampered because of irs low priority. The Poles have
excelled in mathematical research fields that cover
modern analysis, topology, logic, and applied
mathematics.
The Polish Government recognizes the need for
scientific cooperation with foreign countries and has
entered into cultural- scientific agreements with both
Communist and Western countries. Normally, close
'lies are maintained with other Communist countries,
especially the U.S.S.R. and Czechoslovakia, through
their respective academies of sciences, but in reality
there is little scientific collaboration among the
Eastern European Communist countries, due
apparentiy to mutual mistrust and bureaucratic red
tape. Much of the Polish scientific and technical
program is coordinated through the Council for
Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA) to avoid
duplication of effort. The Polish Soviet Commission
for Scientific Technological Cooperation was set up to
encourage exchange of scientists and scientific
information, but experience ha:, indicated that the
Poles can count on very little heap from the Soviet
Union. The Soviets appear to have little respect for the
work of Polish scientists. polish nuclear research
scientists work with Soviet scientists at the Joint
Institute for Nuclear Research, at Dubna, U.S.S.R.,
but the Soviets do not allow the Polish scientists to
work on high- priority projects. In fact, the U.S.S.R.
has been reluctant to provide technical information
which would mak� Poland more competitive with the
Soviet Union. As a result of the lack of wholehearted
cooperation, many young Polish scientists refuse to go
to the U.S. S.R. for study or research.
Scientific relations between Poland and the United
States have irr.)roved substantially during the last few
years. Prof. Jan Kaczmarek, the Minister of Science,
Higher Education, and 'i echnology, has stated that he
favors scientific ties with all countries, including the
2
United States, but the president of the Prestigious
Polish Academy of Sciences, Prof. W. Trzebiatowski,
has noted that the Soviets are displeased when Polish
relations, even in scientific fields, are too close with the
United States. Polish coordinating units for Polish
American scientific cooperation were established in
the late 1950's and early 1960's to plan and administer
research grants financed through the use of U.S. PL-
480 funds. A number of cooperative scientific and
technical programs are underway between the two
countries. In 1972 there were more than 50 active
collaborative programs in the health and agricultural
fields alone. Many prominent Polish scientists have
studied in the United States under exchange programs.
Government officials, however, are wary of this
practice, because the higher standard of living in the
United States induces many scientists to stay.
Generally, visits by Polish scientists to other countries
are limited to 3 months.
Military research and development programs are
conducted under the auspices of the Ministry of
National Defense. Autonomous control of all scientific
and teJhnological activities is maintained by the
Ministry of Internal Affairs.
Many foreign scientists visit Poland each year to
take part in symposia, meetings, and other activities
organized by PAN. It was estimated that in 1971,
about 3,000 scientists from all over the world
participated in about 340 such events. Polish scientists
also attend meetings held abroad. Poland is a member
of mane international scientific organizations,
including the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA), the International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics (IUGG), the Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission (IOC), the Conference of Baltic
Oceanographers, and the Conference on Coastal
Engineering. Other international groups whose
activities involve participation by Polish scientists
include the International Union of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics (IUTAM), the International
Scientific Radio Union, the International Society for
Scientific Education, the International Academy of
Astronautics, the Ir.`ernational Academic Union, and
the International Laboratory of Strong Magnetic
Fields and Low Temperatures.
B. Organization, planning, and financing of
research (S)
Scientific and technical activities in Poland are
organized and completely controlled by the
Communist Party and the government. Research and
development are conducted by the institutes of the
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Polish Academy of Sciences (PAN), by the universities
and technical universities under the Ministry of
Science, Higher Education and Technology, and by
laboratories and institutes under the jurisdiction of
other government ministries, including the Ministry of
Health and Social Welfare, the Ministry of
Agriculture, the Ministry of National Defense, and the
industrial ministries (Figure 1).
A Committee for Science and Technology (KNIT)
was established in 1963 to set up priorities in research
and development, undertake general planning and
coordination of scientific and technological activities,
and advise the government on funding of research
activities. The KNIT also supervise,i the application of
major scientific aiscoveries and inventions, and
encouraged the effective use of foreign scientific and
technological achievements. For many years there was
a struggle for power over scientific affairs between the
PAN and the KNIT and, in an attempt to reconcile the
differences that had developed, the government
appointed Prof. Jan Kaczmarek, then Chairman of
KNIT, concurrently as Scientific Secretary of PAN.
Since he is also a member of the Central Committee of
the Party and a member of the Presidium of the
Council of State, he holds a strong position in Polish
science and technology. In March 1972 a reorganiza-
tion of the education ministries resulted in a
restructured Ministry of Education and Training, and
the creation of a new Ministry of Science, Higher
Education, and Technology headed by Prof.
Kaczmarek. In the process the KNIT was abolished.
Responsibilities of the new ministry are to develop
national policies and priorities for scientific and
technological activities; to coordinate research and
development at all centers; to stimulate scientific
liaison with other countries; and to develop and
implement national plans for the training of research
personnel.
Created in 1952, the PAN, although less powerful
than formerly in scientific affairs, is still the foremost
scientific organization in Po!and. Structurally, it
resembles the Soviet Academy of Sciences. It is the
major instrument for conducting basic research and is
also responsible for some applied research; tie latter is
done in PAN's institutes. At the request of the
government or state administrative bodies, the PAN
organizes inquiries demanding expert scientific
opinions in connection with the development of
3
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FIGURE 1. Organization for scientific and technical activities in Poland, 1972 (C)

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particular fields of economics, technology, and
science. PAN cooperates with the state administrative
bodies that supervise higher education in the planning
and establishment of the curriculums and in arranging
postgraduate courses. The PAN, with headquarters in
Warsaw, subsidizes research by scientific workers
throughout the country and submits proposals to the
government which relate to organization of research,
the equipment of scientific centers, and the financing
of research in its own facilities and in the universities.
It trains scientific workers in its own scientific research
establishments, confers doctorate degrees, and grants
scholarships in accordance with the requirements of
the Ministry of Education and Training and the
Ministry of Finance. In Poland and abroad, it
organizes scientific meetings and participates actively
in scientific conferences.
PAN is organized into six sections: Social Sciences;
Biological Sciences; Mathematical, Physical, Chemi-
cal, Geological and Geographical Sciences; Technical
Sciences; Agricultural and Forestry Sciences; and
Medical Sciences. Sixty -three scientific societies,
including the Polish Chemical Society, the Polish
Physical Society, the Polish Mathematical Society,
and the Polish Astronomical Society, are affiliated
with the PAN. It supervises approximately 60 research
units including 24 institutes and 33 establishments
and laboratories, employing about 6,500 persons.
While a majority of these research facilities are located
in Warsa:v, some are iocated in other urban areas.
Many of the PAN institutes, especially the technical
ones, cooperate with industry and conduct research for
the Ministry of National Defense. Directors of PAN
institutes have considerable power, and often an
outstanding director will assemble a staff of talented
young scientists, thus creating a superior institute. In
order to strengthen applied research, plans have been
advanced to transfer some of the staff from the
Academy's institutes to the higher educational
institutions and ministerial research institutes
throughout the country. Also, some PAN applied
research institutes are being placed under the
jurisdiction of industrial ministries, as in the case of
the Institute of Electronics Technology, Warsaw,
which was transferred in late 1970.
The various government ministries operate about
100 research and development laboratories. These
laboratories conduct research aimed at targets set by
the ministry concerned; most of the research is
applied, although some related fundamental research
is undertaken. The research done throughout the
country in university departments, laboratories, and
other research centers of higher education is of great
4
importance to the progress of Polish science. Much of
the research conducted in the higher educational
institutions is basic in nature, but the universities and
technical universities are also undertaking applied
research to promote the national economy. The
Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is responsible
for the administration of a number of research
institutes and 10 medical academies. This ministry has
a Scientific Council which is comprised of outstanding
representatives of the various scientific branches of
medicine who act as an advisory and consultative
group to the minister. The Ministry of Agriculture
operates a number of agricultural research institutes
and experiment stations and cooperates with other
scientific institutions in the field of agricuitural
science. All abricultural research is coordinated by the
Interministerial Commission for the Coordination of
Scientific Research in Agriculture and Forestry, which
includes representatives of several ministries and
operates through Section V (Agricultural and Forestry
Sciences) of the PAN. With the demise of KNIT, the
Ministry of Science, Higher Education, and
Technology is now involved, and the national
scientific interest is represented by the ministry.
Military research and development are directed by
the Ministry of National Defense. Reportedly the
Main Council of Military Higher Schools, an advisory
body within the Ministry of National Defense,
coordinates military research and development for the
armed forces. 'Specific responsibility for actual research
rests with Zarzad -IX (Directorate IX), Techniques and
Military Technology, of the Polish General Staff.
The nuclear energy program is directed by the State
Council for the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy,
which has ministerial status. It is chaired by tLe
Government High Commissioner for Atomic Energy
and is composed of representatives of the Committee
for the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy of PAN,
various ministries and institutes, and reading scientists.
A reorganization of this body has been anticipated for
some time.
The Co-incil of Ministers directs the overall science
policy. Research and development are carried out on
the basis of central plans for the advancement of
science and technology, which are part of the National
Economic Plan, based on 5 -year and 2 -year periods.
The science and technology development plans (both
5-year and 2 -year plans) include a list of high priority
projects directed toward new technology; a list of
important basic research topics in natural, math-
ematical, and social sciences; and the principal
approaches for development of technology in various
sectors of the national economy. 1n 1971 the KNIT,
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which had been responsible for items involving
technology, directed almost all of the priority areas in
the National Economic Plan involving applied
research and product development. The plans for
basic_ research are worked out by the PAN. It is
assumed that the new Ministry of Science, Higher
Education, and Technology will take increasing
responsibility for the planning of science and
technology development. The various plans stress the
need for professional scientists and assistants in all
disciplines, and, therefore, provisions are included for
developing an effective system of training technical,
laboratory, and other auxiliary staffs for the research
establishments. The plans are very specific in that the
government supports particular research projects,
rather than financing the operation of centers.
Scientific research and development activities are
financed through funds from the state budget, special
funds, and current expenditures of enterprises. The
state budget provides directly about 40% of the total
expenditure for research and development. It provides
funds for the current expenditures of the institutes
under the PAN and for the expenditures of research
and development organizations under those ministries
which do not accumulate special funds; much of the
research conducted by higher educational institutions;
certain special tasks initiated by the former by
autonomous KNiT; and capital expenditures of all
research and development organizations. The special
funds include the New Production Starting Fund and
the Technical and Economic Progress Fund; the latter
is based on an average levy of 0.4% of the value of
industrial products. This fund is used to finance
research and development projects which carry a high
priority with respect to the national economy. Some
research and development is financed from current
proceeds of the government -owned industrial
enterprises.
In some cases the institutes of the PAN receive funds
from the various government ministries; for example,
the Institute for Fundamental Technical Problems
(IPPT) has contracts with various industrial ministries
under which it does work on industrial applications of
scientific techniques and assists in the training of
technicians. Some Polish scientists concerned with
medical and public health research receive funds from
the United States under PL -480.
According to information put out by the PAN and
the former KNiT, Polish expenditures for research and
development have been increasing at an annual rate
of over 12% during recent years. As indicated below,
the percentage of gross national product expended for
research has also increased:
1961
1.1
1968
1.5
1969
1.7
1971
2.1
1975 projected)
2.5
The 1968 expenditure for research and development
was about 10 billion zlotys. National policy calls for
this expenditure to increase to about 25 billion zlotys
by 1975, of which 8.3 billion zlotys is to be financed
by the state budget, 10.5 billion by the Technical and
Economic Progress Fund, and 6.2 billion by the
current proceeds of enterprises. The PAN budget was
only about 850 million zlotys in 1968. The Poles
recognize that one of their major problems is in
equipment investment. At the present time, the value
of technical equipment per research worker directly
involved in science programs is relatively small and
attempts are being made to bring it in line with more
advanced countries of Europe.
C. Scientific education, manpower, and
facilities (S)
The quality of scientific education in higher
educational institutions is good. Scientific and
technical training is available at 48 higher schools,
and at the PAN institutes which provide training at
the graduate level. With the exception of 10 medical
schools under the Ministry of Health and 4 military
higher schools under the Ministry of National
Defense, the country's universities and technical
universities responsible for scientific and technical
education at the college level are under the new
Ministry of Science, Higher Education, and
Technology. The ministry makes decisions on
organization of research work at its universities and
colleges and on their cooperation with other scientific
research bodies. Some vocational schools are
maintained by certain industrial ministries. The most
important military research and development center is
the General Jaroslawa Dabrowski Military Technical
Academy (WAT) in Warsaw; it trains military
engineers and awards both graduate and undergradu-
ate degrees.
Polish universities have undergone extensive
reorganizations since the student disturbances of early
1968; during 1969 many administrators were
discharged and replaced by party members. Many of
the new administrators are not scientifically
competent, and the morale of scientists has declined.
With the government's emphasis on industrialization,
5
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higher educational institutions have been pressured
into expanding their technical educational facilities.
Polytechnical universities are being strengthe:ied and
new engineering faculties are being added to schools.
Some of the technical faculties in universities have
been transferred to higher technical schools, leaving
only faculties concerned with science and the
humanities. The shortage of qualified teachers at all
levels is a serious problem. The ratio of enrolled
students to faculty members at polyteehnical
universities and specialized engineering schools is
much lower than the ratios at various state
universities. High school science teaching is very poor.
The government has tried without much success to
increase the number of sciencr, teachers by establishing
scholarship ''unds.
Postgraduate srit-itific education is avai!.able at
many of the universities, technical universities, and
institutes of the FAN; masters and doctoral degrees are
offered. Doctoral degrees in the scientific field are
awarded to persons who ha completed studies at a
higher educational institution, achieved the title of
master, master of engineering, physician or
equivalent, and shown ability for scientific research
work; succeeded in passing the prescribed doctoral
examinations; and submitted a doctoral thesis. The
titles of extraordinary professor and ordinary professor
in the field of science are awarded by the Council of
State to persons who, having previously received a
doctoral degree in science, have made substantial
contributions in scientific research or education. At the
end of 1967, about 45,000 persons with a higher
education as scientists and engineers were employed
by research and development institutions in Poland.
Of these 5,300 held doctoral degrees, 904 had the title
of professor, and 3,678 held senior scientist positions.
In 1967, 302 doctors' degrees were awarded in natural
and exact sciences and 465 doctors' degrees in
engineering and technology. It has been estimated
that between 1971 -75, there will be 4,600 doctoral
degrees granted in mathematical, physical, chemical,
and other natural sciences, and about 4,300 doctoral
degrees for the technical sciences. Powers for awarding
doctoral degrees were vested in 248 institutional units
in 1969; this number included 189 faculties and
institutes in the schools of higher education, 29
institutes and research centers of the PAN, ant 30
research institutes of the ministries. In January 1969,
approximately 1,350 research workers had been
admitted to doctoral studies; 36% of them were
registered with the ministerial research institutes.
The PAN and formerly the KNIT have been
responsible for forecasting manpower needs and
6
developing plans to secure an adequate supply of
qualified scientific and technical personnel. A
commission including the above organizations and the
Ministry of Science, Higher Education and
Technology works on scientific personnel development
plans extending to 1985. The previous shortage of
qualified scientists and technicians has become less
acute, and the major research centers and installations
are well staffed. Industrial enterprises apparently are
unable t- absorb a large number of the students with
advanced training in science and technology. Most of
these graduates take jobs in governmental research
institutes or in higher educational institutions.
The quality of Polish scientific and technical
manpower is variable. During the years 1949 -54, the
technical universities conceatrated efforts on the mass
training of specialists in narrow fields in order to fill
the shortage of qualified personnel. As a result, many
unqualified personnel, particularly in engineering and
medicine, were produced. In subsequent years there
was a return to the philosophy of a thorough basic
education at the expense of specialization, with a
consequent improvement in the quality of scientists
and engineers.
According to recent statistics, there were about
6,050 chemists with university degrees and about
6,300 qualified chemical engineers in Poland in 1970.
About one -half of the chemists and one -third of the
chemical engineers are women. A concerted effort is
underway to encourage students to study chemistry
and related subjects, but in 1971 the number of
students studying mathematics and physics unae-
ccuntably increased while there was a decrease in
chemistry students.
Polish scientists are poorly paid; consequently,
many hold more than one position. For instance, some
sala -ied workers of PAN institutes also are em
by universities or higher technical schools. The
government is attempting to limit scientists to one
position by increasing their salaries.
The Polish Government realizes that much of the
country's progress in research and development is
impeded because ofnnefficient use of qualified
manpower and the fact that Poland lacks modern and
advanced facilities for conducting the needed
research. The main contributing factor has been the
low level of foreign exchange earnings which has
prevented the government from buying better
equipment abroad. During the past 25 years, research
centers have increased their apparatus, facilities, and
machinery necessary to carry on their short- and long
range programs; however, much of tide equipment is
either improvised or poorly made. Most of the best
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equipment is located at the various institutes of PAN.
The university research laboratories lack much of the
latest research equipment, but when conducting
research for the PAN, the university investigators have
easy access to PAN equipment. The Polish
Government especially encourages joint research
projects with counterparts in other countries which
have good experimental facilities, regardless of
whether they are in Eastern or Western Europe.
Probably the best equipment Poland has is located at
the Institute of Nuclear Research. It has ion inte-
grators, nuclear research reactors, glass (neodymium)
lasers, mass spectrometers, and an improved CDC
6400 "Cybor 72" computer. Polish industry has
developed equipment for conducting spectroscopic
related research. The Poles have designed and
constructed a highpressure reaction vessel for studies of
elect roparamagnetic resonance and cryogenic
equipment for superconductivity developments.
D. Major research fields
1. Air, ground, and naval weapons (S)
Poland has attempted only limited development
and production of native weaponry and material. As a
result, the country has not developed the expertise and
experience needed to plan, initiate, and manage the
research and development of advanced weapon
systems. Much of the weapon- related research that
Poland does conduct is directed toward supporting
Soviet classified programs, although the county
receive-: d'de reciprocal support from the U.S.S.R.
Reset ;i and development capabilities are strongest
in the aerospace field but are limited to the design and
production of light transport and jet trainer aircraft
helicopters, and meteorological rockets. Although
Poland hicks the necessary research base to develop
and produce advanced aircraft systems, its aeronauti-
cal industry is, nevertheless, very active and remains
an important sector of the national economy. Poland
is a principal supplier of jet trainer and general
aviation -type aircraft, engines, gliders, and aircraft
instruments to Warsaw Pact nations and also exports
to at lea st 40 other countries.
A new long -term agreement between Poland and
the U.S.S.R. signed in 1972 indicates that Polish
aircraft development capabilities can be expected to
improve significantly during the coming decade. The
agreement provides for mutual cooperation between
the two countries in the design, manufacture, and
marketing o` aircraft. The reported terms of the
agreement also indicate a growing emphasis on
indigenous Polish design and development of certain
types of aircraft, with Soviet technical assistance, and
a corresponding decline in the licensed production of
Soviet aircraft in Polish factories. Light aircraft for
agricultural and general utih,s roles, helicopters,
gliders, and powered gliders will be emphasized in the
new program. It appears unlikely that Poland will
develop a capability for advanced aeronautical
research and development beyond that required of a
light aircraft industry. Since 1969 activities in the
aeronautical sciences have been of an academic nature
with emphasis on theoretical investigations of
boundary layer formation and heat transfer in
supersonic flow. Shock tubes are used in the
investigations, and the work appears to be broad in
scope but with no apparent direct application to
weapon system design.
Polish research in rocket associated technologies has
been confined to the development of solid propellant
motors for artillery and meteorological applications.
Emphasis has been on double -base propellants.
Generally, combustion research of a fundamental
nature has been carried out at t'.e universities, while
most of the applied work has been accomplished at the
Aeronautical Institute. Studies in liquid propellants
are limited.
Although the U.S.S.R. has successfully discouraged
Poland from establishing an independent missile
research and development capability, the country,
nevertheless, has derived some technical benefits from
the Soviet missiles that are deployed operationally in
Poland. These include the surface -to -air GUIDELINE
and GoA missiles and quite possibly the GANEF system;
the shore -to -ship SANILE r; the ship -to -ship STYX; and
the antitank SNAIII>EII, SWATTER, and SACCER systems.
Poland has only a meager capability to undertake
the design and development of space systems. Space
related activity is limited to the development and
launching of upper atmospheric sounding rockets and
ground -based observation of rockets, as well as
foreign launched earth satellites. Besides developing
the Meteor series rockets, Poland has designed and
produced equipment for use in Soviet launched
geophysical vertical probes. This equipment consists of
X -ray spectroheliographs and a system of X -ray
pinhole cameras.
There are 12 optical satellite ground tracking
stations being operated by the Polish Artificial Earth
Satellite Observation Service. Initially, these stations
were capable only of making and reporting
observations; however, they can now accomplish some
analysis and evaluation of the collected data.
Information and data obtained from these stations are
7
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forwarded to the Soviet Kosmos data center in
Moscow.
Poland has a minor capability for research and
development of ground force weapons and has
apparently not achieved any highly significant results.
Poland and Czechoslovakia have collaborated on an
8- wheeled amphibious armored personnel carrier
(APC), the OT -64 series. This APC fulfills the same
function in their armies as the BTR -60P series in the
Soviet Army. Initially, vehicles of this series were
equipped with a truncated cone turret of Soviet
design. This turret did not provide the desired
antiaircraft defense for their field forces and was
redesigned by the Poles to provide an increased
antiaircraft capability. The Poles are not known to be
active in research and development on tanks and self
propelled guns. Some research is underway on
transport vehicles and engineer and quartermaster
equipment. Poland has only a modest capability for
research and development of military transport
vehicles. At present, the country is heavily dependent
on the Soviet Union for its military transport fleet,
importing a wide range of vehicles. Engineer -type
equipment on which significant research has been
accomplished consists of bridging and stream crossing
equipment and topographic instruments. Polish Army
engineers have recently developed a new ribbon
bridge, designated PP -64, and a bridge erection boat,
designated KH -200. In the field of air- cushioned
vehicles, Poland has an extensive program underway,
second only to the U.S.S.R. among the Communist
countries. Model testing is emphasized and a few
small skirted prototypes for civilian applications have
been built.
In the development of topographic instrumenta-
tion, Poland has a small but significant research and
development capability in comparison with other
Warsaw Pact countries. The Poles are highly
accomplished in the development of electronic
geodetic distance measuring equipment. Their latest
model, the RG -10 (Figure 2), is a fully transistorized
radio distance- measuring instrument ari i is used for
precision geodetic surveys. It was adapted and tested
successfully in 1970 for hydrographic operations. To
this equipment was added in 1972 two new electro-
optical geodetic distance- measuring instruments, the
telemeters PA1 and DN1. These are of military interest
because their radiation is in the invisible infrared.
There also has been military involvement in the
development of experimental image conversion
devices for standard optical surveying equipment to
enable their use at night with targets that either
radiate in the invisible infrared (passive systems) or
i
t
1
1 J
FIGURE 2. Polish-de telemeter (U /OU)
which are eliminated by projected infrared light
(active systems). The rather active Polish research and
development program for medium- and small
capacity computers has led to the development of two
small special- purpose computer models for geodetic
computations. Some research is underway on military
clothing and individual equipment, including such
items as combat camouflage clothing for ground and
airborne troops; garments and helmets for aircrews
and tankers; and a multipurpose poncho -type
garment for chemical, biological, radiological, and
environmental protection.
The Poles continue to demonstrate a competency to
design and produce amphibious landing ships, small
combatants, and miscellaneous naval auxiliaries. The
country has designed and built a number of
amphibious landing ships, oceanographic survey
ships, and auxiliaries for use in the Soviet and other
Communist Bloc navies. Research is underway on
plastic hull construction and gas turbine propulsion.
Poland is the most active .East European country in
the design and manufacture of diving, and underwater
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salvage equipment, and manufactures a number of
Western marine diesel engines under license.
2. Biological and chemical warfare (S)
Biological warfare (BW) and chemical warfare
(CW) research and development programs are
conducted cinder the auspices of the Ministry of
National Defense. The Polish chemical industry ranks
third ar:iong East European Communist countries and
is potentially capable of supporting an expanded
research and development effort. Many Polish
institutes conduct research on subjects peripheral to
CW, and at least three have reported, in open
literature, some scientific work with direct CW
implications: the Technical University of Lodz, and
the WAT and the Military Institute of Aviation
Medicine, both in Warsaw. Currentiv, there are no
positive indicators of offensive BW research in Poland,
but activity directed to that end could readily be
obscured and integrated in the existing programs of
modern Polish institutes. Polish bacteriologists and
virologists maintain contact with highly competent
counterparts on an international level and keep
abreast of developments in their field.
Poland has the facilities and personnel to conduct
limited offensive and defensive BW research and
development. Offensive BW research was conducted
as early as 1957 on the infectivity, virulence
enhancement, and antibiotic resistance of micro-
organisms causing tularemia, plague, typhus fever,
brucellosis, cholera, anthrax, encephalitis, Q- fever,
rabies, and foot and -mouth diseases. The work was
directed by the Polish Government on orders from the
U. S. S. R.
Current research areas in biochemistry include
oxidative phosphorylation, nucleic acid metabolism,
cancer research, protein biosynthesis, toxicology, new
diagnostic testing, energy transfer in microbial
systems, and viral nucleic acids. Selected advances in
knowledge and technique derived from these studies
could be utilized for BW purposes. Polish investigators
have recently published the results of quality research
on staphylococcal enterotoxins, arbovirus isolations,
tick -borne encephalitis culturing, growing and
harvesting free Shigella endotoxin, and scrub typhus
epidemiology, which could also have BW application.
A recent advance at the Warsaw Medical Academy in
bacterial transformation involving a double protein
competence provoking factor may have BW applica-
tion in making it possible to introduce virulence or
drug resistance into otherwise harmless micro-
organisms.
Prof. Stephan Slopek, Director of the Institute of
Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Wroclaw
(Breslau) (Figure 3), was reported at that post as
recently as 1971. During early 1972, however, Prof.
Slopek was identified with the Veterinarian and
Bacteriological Institute in Pulawy. This institute
probably is the same as the State Veterinary Institute.
Information obtained in August 1972 revealed that
the Pulawy facility is well staffed and well equipped to
conduct both offensive and defensive BW. After many
years as a recognized expert on bacillary dysentery,
Prof. Slopek's work at Pulawy has taken an unusual
turn in that he is now working on the transformation
of bovine staphylococci with the aid of T
bacteriophages. Genetic manipulation of any
pathogen could enhance its resistance to therapy, its
stability to environmental effects, and /or alter its host
range. Ostensibly, research in the laboratories of this
institute appears to be directed toward the prevention
and cure of veterinary diseases, but it could readily
apply in all of its diversity to a BW program.
At the same time that offensively oriented BW
research was begun in 1957, Poland also began an
accelerated program of BW detection, identification,
and rapid diagnosis. All conventional and sophisti-
cated techniques have been investigated by the Poles
for this purpose. In late 1970 an article in the Polish
9
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FIGURE 3. Prof. Stephen Slopek, Director of the Institute
of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Wroclaw,
with the electron microscope (U /OU)

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journal Military Physician discussed the prospects for
rapid microbiological diagnosis of diseases caused by
BW agents. The Military Institute of Hygiene and
Epidemiology found that more rapid growth of
bacterial cultures resulted when cytochrome C and
amino acids were added to the conventional medium.
Such growth cut down on identification time but it
was by no means an "express method" because
traditional methods were required after obtaining the
initial isolate. The article reviewed research done with
indirect hemagglutination reactions, immunofluores-
cence, indirect imn:unofluorescence, and virus
sampling procedures by which pathogens were
propagated in either young animals or in tissue
culture. It was found that there were many problems
to be resolved in rapid BW identification and
diagnosis, particularly with viral agents. The article
cautioned that regardless of the rapid methods
envisioned for use in field laboratories, all results
should be confirmed by using conventional methods.
Further, it was stated that in some instances virulent
strains of microorganisms may give negative results
when the rapid method is tried; therefore, only
conventional methods remain for identification. Polish
findings in these areas are the same as those reached in
the West at this time.
The infection of food and other crops is a subtle but
economically significant form of BW. Reports indicate
that the Poles are achieving a good capability in
defensive anticrop BW. Their crop infectivity and
susceptibility experiments also could be exploited for
offensive purposes if necessary.
Offensive research on toxic chemicals is concerned
chiefly with organophosphorus compounds and
bacterial toxins. Polish scientists are competent, have
performed some excellent work in these fields, and
have acquired a very good potential for tine
development of nerve agents. Research has been
conducted with botulinum toxin, one of the most toxic
substances known; scientists have isolated a culture
from C. bwalinum, Type F, that is capable of
producing a toxin 10 times more lethal than the parent
strain. Antigenic analysis of the toxin showed a
serological relationship with botulinum toxins, Types
B and E. Poland is not known to have conducted
research on new types of equipment or methods for
dissemination of CW agents. Flame and smoke
warfare research is negligible.
Defensive CW research is directed primarily toward
therapeutic agents, with some effort toward protective
clothing. Work is underway on the detection of and
immunization against botulinum toxins. Research is
being conducted on new therapeutic drugs to combat
10
nerve agents and antimetabolite poisoning, as well as
studies on the mechanism of action of therapeutics
and prophylactics in nerve agent poisoning. The
therapeutic use of pyridinium aldoxime methiodide
(PAM) for toxic doses of c -:inophosphorus
compounds was found to be more effective when used
with atropine sulfate. Polish scientists continue to
conduct research along these lines in an effort to
develop improvements in this method of treating
nerve agent casualties.
The Polish Army cc itinues CW research and
developmeni work on decontamination vehicles and
protective masks. As a result of Polish research, the IRS
decontamination vehicle was modified to fit Folish
needs. This improved vehicle was first supplied in
1970 to Polish Army chemical troops to replace Soviet
decontamination vehicles. Also, Polish Army
researchers have developed the new R -20 protective
mask with reduced bulk and improved breathing. It is
probable that the Polish R -20 protective mask is a
copy of the Czechoslovak M -10.
3. Atomic energy (C)
Poland has a modest nuclear energy program
commensurate with the technical and industrial
capabilities of the country. Efforts in basic and
applied research are rather limited but there is an
extensive program on the applications of radioactive
isotopes. The long -range objective of the program is
the development of the economic uses of nuclear
energy, particularly for power production. Poland has
essentially no capability to develop nuclear weapons,
and its nuclear program will be under the safeguards
system of the IAEA under the terms of the Non
Proliferation Treaty.
The r�uclear energy program began in 1955 with the
conclusion of a bilateral agreement with the U.S.S.R.
through which the Poles acquired a research reactor
and a cyclotron and received assistance in training
personnel. Poland also has benefited from its
membership in the Joint iinsiitute for Nuclear
Research at Dubna in the Soviet Union. It has
concluded bilateral agreements for cooperation in the
nuclear field with a number of countries and carried
out a program for reactor research with Norway and
Yugoslavia under the auspices of the IAEA.
In June 1955 the Polish Government established the
Institute of Nuclear Research (IBJ) under the auspices
of the PAN. The IBJ has research facilities in Swierk,
Warsaw, and Zeran, and a laboratory at Lodz. Overall
direction of the nuclear program is given by the High
Commissioner for Atomic Energy.
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The Swierk center is the site of the Soviet supplied
research reacto EWA, a tank -type reactor which
went into operation in 1958 with a deign power level
of 2 megawatts thermal (M Wt) with 10% enriched
uranium fuel. With changes in the cooling circuit and
the use of higher enriched fuel, the power level of
EWA was increased to 4 M Wt in 1964, to 8 M Wt in
1967, and to 10 M Wt in 1969. Other facilities at
Swierk are a zero -power exponential assembly for
reactor physics studies, called HELENA; a 100 -watt
graphite- moderated critical assembly, ANNA; and a
10- kilowatt pool -type reactor, MARL ANNA was
used in a joint Polish- Norwegian- Yugoslav research
program. MARYLA is a prototype of a university -type
training reactor and was used to study the different
fuels used in EWA. In September 1969 construction
was started on a high -flux materials testing reactor
that is expected to go into operation in 1974 with a
power level at 30 MWt. This reactor, named MARIA,
will be operated for several years at 30 M Wt level but
is expected to be increased to 60 M Wt later.
In addition to the reactors, the Swierk site has a 34
million electronvolt (MeV) betatron and a 10 -MeV
proton linear accelerator. A linear electron accelerator,
which provides energy ranging from 4 to IS MeV, was
supplied by the Soviet Union to the IBJ center in
Zeran in November 1972. This accelerator is to be used
to develop processes for the sterilization of medical
equipment.
The IBJ has subordinate to it a Department of
Solid -State Physics; a Department of Plasma Physics
and Technology, which is carrying out a program for
the development of magnetohydrodynamics; and a
special Center for Isotope Production and Distribu-
tion. All are located in Warsaw, although the isotopes
are produced in the reactors at Swierk.
Nuclear research also is underway at the Institute of
Nuclear Physics (IFJ), formerly a component of IBJ, at
Bronowice near Krakow. The principal facilities of the
IFJ are a 12.5 MeV (proton) Soviet supplied cyclotron,
and a Polish -made 4 MeV Van de Graaff accelerator.
The IFJ is concerned primarily with nuclear reaction
problems and studies of the structure of atomic nuclei.
The Lodz center of the IBJ carries out studies in
radiation chemistry, and a small group is studying
cosmic radiation in an underground laboratory for the
detection of high energy mesons and photons. In
addition, most of the universities and technical schools
and a number of industrial and governmental
organizations conduct nuclear research. The office of
the High Commissioner for Atomic Energy has direct
responsibility for several specialized organizations,
including the Central Laboratory of Radiological
Protection and the Trust for the Production of Nuclear
Equipment, formerly named the Bureau for Nuclear
Equipment. Both have headquarters in Warsaw.
The principal Polish application of nuclear energy is
the use of radiation or radioisotopes for research,
medicine, and industry. A prograrr for the
development and production of equip nent using
radioisotopes is carried out by the Trust for the
Production of Nuclear Equipment. The industrial
equipment includes devices for nondestructive testing
and process research and control. For example, a
betatron with a maximum energy of 33 MeV has been
installed in the plant laboratory of the Polkowice
mining plant for the automatic -determination of the
copper content of the plant concentrates. The betatron
was produced by IBJ, but most of the equipment is
produced in the Trust for the Production of Nuclear
Equipment plants in Bydgoszcz, Katowice, Krakow,
Poznan, Sluzewiec, Szczecin (Stettin), and Zeran.
During 1970 Poland undertook a study of the
prospects for nuclear power. Original plans called for
the construction of a 1,000 megawatt electric (M We)
nuclear power station in the Gdansk area by 1980. In
1972 a program developed with the aid of the U.S.S.R.
called for the construction of the Soviet 440 -M We
Novovoronezh pressurized water type power reactor to
go into operation between 1980 and 1982. An
additional 1,000 -M We nuclear power capacity is to be
added later. A site has been selected near Gdansk;
cooling water for the reactor will come from Jezioro
Zarnowieckie.
Polish uranium ore is of low grade. Poland supplied
minimal amounts of uranium ore to the Soviet Union
until 1958 when the operative agreement was not
renewed. The IBJ at Zeran has been attempting to
develop economic means of extracting uranium from
the low -grade ores and has a small pilot plant for
uranium concentration. The Institute of Nuclear
Technology of the Academy of Mining and
Metallurgy, Krakow, also is interested in developing
methods of detecting uranium ores. The fuel for the
reactors in operation at Swierk has been supplied by
the U.S.S.R., and it is expected that the Soviets will
furnish the fuel for the reactor under construction and
the planned nuclear power reactor.
4. Electronics (S)
Electronics research and development programs are
modest and of limited international significance. The
programs are hampered by shortages of technical
personnel, facilities, and high purity raw materials. It
is only in the development of radar equipment,
11
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computers, and lasers that Poland has shown
excellence. Sane good work has been done in other
areas, including wide -band communications, semi-
conductors, thin -film techniques, ceramics, and color
television.
Considerable effort is being devoted to the
development of various types if radar, including
marine, air search, and height- finding radars. By
international standards, Polish radar technology is
well advanced. The Poles appear to place major
emphasis on the development of ground and
shipbome radar sets, relying primarily on Soviet
designs for airborne installations. The marine
electronics industry has attempted to reverse the need
for relying upon equipment purchased from abroad
and has developed a second generation transistorized
marine radar, the RN -231. It is similar iu appearance
and operation to the U.K. Decca radar navigation
system and has met with some success after prolonged
shipboard tests. It does not exhibit any advances over
other systems, however. A civil air -route surveillance
radar developed in 1966, the Avia -B, incorporates a
moving target indication capability, an important
sophistication; for conformity to standards set by the
International Civil Aviation Organization. Another
notable achieveme was the development in 1967 of
a millimeter wavelength, high- resolution radar for
airport and harbor surveillance. In some areas, Polish
radars incorporate a measure of sophistication
probably not employed in Soviet air surveillance
radars. In addition, an air- surveillance and a height
finder radar were developed in 1967 and 1968,
respectively, for use by the air defense forces in
Poland.
The Microelectronics Department of the WAT is
concerned with the development of microelectronics
and in 1967 produced an electron phonon amplifier
for converting supersonic impulses into electronic
impulses, claiming to be the first to build such a
device. Polish scientists have presented papers at
recent international conferences and since 1970
apparently have been doing work on microamplifiers
of hundreds of megahertz with many stages on one
substrate using pi circuits (a 3- element network) for
tuning. Considerable interest is being shown in
Western technology.
The Warsaw Polytechnic Institute is developing
infrared detectors and associated subsystems,
including an infrared target seeker for missile
guidance. The sensing device of the subsystem consists
of four infrared detector cells. A correction signal is
generated for the guidance system when the radiation
does not fall equally on all four cells. The cells
12
probably are lead sulfur or leas: selendes, since the
Institute of Physics in Warsaw has done considerable
work with these materials.
The Palish laser research and development program,
one of the most active in Eastern Europe, is a key
category within the Five Year Plan for the scientific
and technical development of electronics and
communications. A separate coordination plan for the
program is directed by the Institute of Quantum
Electronics, under the WAT, which is responsible for
types of laser research having potential military
application. The institute conducts research and
development and acts as coordinator for several other
research facilities in the development and production
of laser equipment, materials, and subassemblies. The
institute has cooperated with East Germany in
resolving several related problems and is establishing
areas for a cooperative effort with the U.S.S.R.
During 1969 a project was underway to convert
aircraft radar echos into black and white aerial
reconnaissance photographs for real -time display and
evaluation at headquarters, using computer processing
and television -type display. Research on radar
camouflage techniques reportedly has been done at
the Wroclaw branch of the Industrial Telecom-
munications Institute, Warsaw. A classified project is
underway at the Gdansk Technical University on
electronic support measures and has concerned the
development of a receiver capable of automatically
scanning the D E F H and I -bands and of
measuring the frequency and pulse widths of radar
signals.
Mu,h of the Polish electronics research effort has
been devoted to work on semiconductors. Poland has
an advanced tube technology, particularly in high
power tubes, but it lags the West in the development
of semiconductors. Because of tbq high impurity levels
in their domestically grown crystals, the Poles usually
import silicon crystals and wafers from abroad.
Semiconductor research is oriented heavily toward
computer applications. The Institute of Tele -Radio
Research, Warsaw, has been making hybrid integrated
circuits since 1968, and the MORS (Morska Obsluga
Radiowa Statkow) plant, Gdansk, was conducting
intensive research on circuits utilizing large quantities
of monolithic and hybrid integrated units in 1969.
Since 1971 Poland is believed to have been assigned
primary responsibility for the major solid -state
research and development effort within the Warsaw
Pact. The largest semiconductor manufacturer in
Poland, TEWA, in Warsaw, has purchased technology
and facilities from France and the United Kingdom.
The WAT in Warsaw undertakes considerable
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research and development of electronic devices. 'I' he
director of WAT, Gen. J. S. Kaliski, is Deputy Minister
of National Defense and a full member of the PAN.
Poland is one of the few Communist countries that
openly discusses military applications of television. In
1966 the Polish Army displayed portable manpar_k
television surveillance systems that consisted of
cameras and transmitters and were intended for use at
tactical command posts. In late 1970 the Alpha -3
transistorized closed circuit television system was
being studied by the army for training and for field
use. This prototype system apparently was produced
at the Warsaw Television Factory.
The Quantum Electronics group of the Institute of
Electron Technology and Research at the Warsaw
Polytechnic University has a substantial laser research
and development program. The group utilizes many
types of operational lasers, including argon and
krypton ion lasers, transversely excited atmospheric
(TEA) lasers, and neodymium -glass lasers. Research
also is conducted at the Institute of Physics of PAN,
the universities of Wroclaw, Poznan, Torun, and
several other scientific institutions. Gas dynamic lasers
are also under development.
Research begun in 1966 at the Warsaw Polytechnic
Institute led to the design of the ML -1 laser microtool.
It is used for welding and drilling and has application
in thin film and integrated circuits technology. The
Poles have built lasers since 1963 with domestically
produced materials, and have conducted laboratory
experiments in modulation and detection of laser
beams. A precision linear measurement system was to
be completed aarly in 1970, using a continuously
operating gas lz:ser with a small digital computer to
produce the results. Laser; constructed since 1963
inclut. ruby, helium -neon, semiconductor types, and
a carbon dioxide gas dynamic unit operating at a
continuous power level of 1 Wowatt.
High pdor'. is accorded optics research; the
present Five Year Plan (1971 4 i5) includes develop-
ment of a modern optical glass facility. The Industrial
Institute for Electronics conducts research in ceramics,
glass and electronics, and manufactures radios and
radars, mainly for the Polish Army. Poland proposed
to effect the transition to totally transistorized
communications equipment by 1970, including the
national telephone/ telegraph system, but the plan has
not been realized fully. The Poles are considering
integrated digital communications systems.
Poland has a considerable interest in the
develcpment, manufacture, and use of computers,
and ranks next to the U.S.S.R. among the European
countries in computer capabilities. The laboratories of
the Wroclaw Electrote,hnical Works kELVJRO) has
been successful in translating new machine designs
into industrial production models and is the leading
facility for development of production models of
computers. ELWRO is the most successful computer
producer in Poland, producing both digital and
analog machines. The plant developed and produced
the ODRA series of machines, which was the first East
European model for which complete s 7rvicing
provision was specified. ELWRO received consider-
able assistance from British International Computers,
Ltd., in the design of the ODRA models 1304 and
1314. In the cooperative U.S.S.R. -East European
Communist country plan for an IBM -360 compatible
development of a series of computers, called the Ryad
or ES series, Poland is responsible for the model 30.
Originally responsible for the software, Poland now
has been assigned responsibility for peripheral and
other hardware as well.
The Institute of Mathematical Machines (IMM)
has displayed strong capabilities in basic research on
logic design and in the development of new
programing languages and automatic programing
techniques; some of the results have been adapted by
the U.S.S.R. The only model that has achieved
production status in Poland is the UMC -1 vacuum
tube model. A number of more recent development is
the ZAM series. The most recent is the ZAM -51
prototype, which has a design sophistication that
appears to be beyond Polish production capabilities.
Measuring Instrument Works in Warsaw has shown
an interest in further development r disc storage
drives and cathode ray tube terminals and is
attempting to market its minicomputer, the K -202,
which is built %Ah Western components. It uses
integrated circuitry and reportedly has a per operation
rate of 2 nanoseconds. The Poles are experiencing
difficulties in preparing second- and third generation
computers because of delays in mastering production
techniques and solid -state technology. Relatively
strong emphasis is placed on acquisition of Western
technology to produce electronic data processing
systems and components.
The application of computers includes their use in
data processing for economic planning and
accounting, as well as in problem solving to support
military, scientific, and industrial projects. The
number of computers in the country increased from
100 in 1967 to more than 140 in 1938. In 1966 the
government instituted a national program to establish
computing centers throughout the country under the
direction of the Organization of Electronic Technical
Computers (ZETO). The purpose of the program is to
13
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promote industrial production by establishing large
computing centers in strategic locations for the use of
all agencies, research and development institutes, and
production and commercial installations. About 14
centers have been established and appear to be
operating. The government is planning to establish a
computer center called CYRONET in Swierk to
provide advanced scientific computation facilities for
the Warsaw community. Initially, there are to be 11
terminals in Warsaw institutes and schools. Other
regional centers are planned.
5. Medical sciences (S)
Polish biomedical scientists are making relatively
few contributions to medical knowledge, but those
that are made are of good quality. The government
does not place a high priority on medical and
biological research and progress is hampered by
shortages of funds, facilities, and equipment. Much
needed support is furnished by Western governments
and foreign foundations. In an effort to improve its
research position, Poland is committing foreign
currency to acquire advanced research laboratory
equipment. In addition, study abroad, especially in
the United States, by biomedical scientists is
encouraged. Biomedical research is directed by the
Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, the PAN, and
universities; the PAN is expected to assume a role in
coordinating the research. Emphasis in biomedical
research is being placed on practical problems of
improvement of health care, advancement of
pharmaceutical research, and protection of the
environment. Achievements have been made in
environmental physiology, microbiology, hematology,
and molecular biology.
Physiologists have stressed studies on the adaptation
of the human body to the environment and to
conditions of work. Some good electronic instrumenta-
tion has been developed to assist in determining the
parameters of performance of mechanical tasks and to
register the effects of noise and heat on the health of
workers in selected occupations. The Nencki Institute
of Experimental Biology of the PAN in Warsaw has
produced excellent apparatus for study of night and
color vision and is doing superior research on coronary
circulation. The Poles have established a comprehen-
sive research and research training program in
orthopedics and powered prostheses and in
rehabilitation of the disabled.
Research in hematology is traditionally of high
caliber. Research is devoted to the diagnosis and
therapy of blood diseases, especially hemophilia, and
to the refinement of blood donor systems. Hematologi-
14
cal studies are undertaken in cooperation with the
countries of Eastern Europe.
Microbiological research is, in some limited areas,
on a par with that done in the United States.
Biochemical, radiological, and physiological tech-
niques are being employed by workers at the State
Institute of Hygiene, Warsaw, in the study of the
neural action of toxins isolated from staphylococcic
organisms. Controlled epidemiological study of the
efficacy of vaccines is being utilized in the selection of
the most promising for large -scale vaccination
programs. The technology of research in immunology
has been carefully developed and refined to assist
research workers in the analysis of the phenomenon of
resistance to diseases. The Poles are carrying on
excellent research in immunological diagnosis of
infectious diseases. Environmental studies are
underway to control water pollution in the Vistula
River.
Biochemical research reflects international interests
and approaches, and research personnel have been
trained abroad. Research is being devoted to the
structure and function of proteins and to the
molecular basis of resistance to infection. In work
confirmed in the United States, scientists at the
Biochemistry Department of the Hematology Institute
and the Immunopathology Department of the State
Institute of Hygiene have shed some light on the
structure of the Australian antigen. The Institute of
Molecular Biology of the Department of Biophysics,
Krakow, has developed advanced competence in the
observation of vital constituents of cells and tissues.
The Poles have demonstrated interest, stimulated by
Western work, in the role of biogenic amines, for
example, serotonin and its derivatives, and in the
etiology of mental disturbances. Attention has been
directed to the application of lasers in ocular surgery
and to examination of the neurological effects of
exposure to microwave radiation.
An effort is being made to improve the Polish
pharmaceutical industry. Research is underway in
support of the production of antibiotics and of
psychotropic agents, vitamins, hormones, and anti
inflammatory agents. The Institute of Organic
Chemistry of the PAN has synthesized a derivative of
erythromycin, an antibiotic of considerable clinical
importance. Arterial hypotensive agents and
psychotropic drugs have been given particidar
attention by Polish pharmacologists.
Research in radiation is a relativei; new field for
scientific investigation in Poland, but it is developing
steadily. Excellent work has been devoted to study of
the mechanism of ionizing radiation and its effect on
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the production of cellular energy, bone calcium, and
tumorous cells. The Department of Radiology of the
Gdansk Medical Academy has contributed to
pneumoencephalographic identification of organic
changes in the brain of drug addicts. Environmental-
ists have studied the effects of natural radioactive
isotopes and toxic substances released into the
atmosphere by fuel consumption in power plants.
Military medical research is under the direction of
the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare; its liaison
office with the army is staffed entirely by military
personnel. The overall planning of triservice military
medical research is performed by the Scientific
Research Division, Health Department, Polish Armed
Forces. Military medical research facilities are better
equipped than civilian facilities and have qualified
personnel; however, civilian resources also are used
extensively for military medical research, probably for
political reasons, and the results of all medical research
are automatically made available to the armed forces.
Two important military facilities engaged in
biomedical research are the Military Institute of
Aviation Medicine (MIAM), Warsaw, and the
Central Institute for Air Medical Examinations
(CIAMF.), Otwock. These facilities conduct research
on operational aviation medical problems, including
the design and use of personnel protective devices,
physiological conditioning, physical training, hypoxia,
altitude adaptation, and selection criteria. Since 1960
the Military Institute of Aviation Medicine has
contributed basic research toward the Soviet manned
space program on the effect of weightlessness and
possibly also on human factors research relating to
spacesuit design. The General Karel Kaczkowski
Military Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology,
Warsaw, and the Military Medical Academy, Lodz,
also perform research for the services. There is a
continuing exchange of space medical personnel with
the U.S.S.R.
6. Other sciences (S)
a. Chemistry and metallurgy
Poland has a broad and well- balanced program of
chemical research. Most of the important branches of
chemistry are covered in depth, with the greatest
strength in organic chemistry. The country has a large
number of facilities, both educational institutions and
research institutes, which conduct fundamental and
applied chemical research. Because of the country's
interest in developing the organic chemical,
pharmaceutical, synthetic fiber, petrochemical,
plastics, and fertilizer indust-ies, app!ied research is
receiving increasing emphasis, but important
fundamental chemical research is continuing. Poland
has a number of outstanding chemists who have
obtained worldwide recognition for their achieve-
ments in special fields.
Several of the higher educational institutions and
research institutes are strong in synthetic organic
chemistry and in the study of organic chemical
reactions. The Technical University of Warsaw is
doing important work on the synthesis of organic
nitrogen and boron compounds, heterocyclics, and
antituberculosis drugs. Involved in the research at the
iiversity is Prof. Tadeusz Urbanski (possibly now in
semiretirement), one of Poland's most outstanding,
chemists. He is noted for his synthetic studies and his
extensive work on the preparation, properties, and
reactions of organic nitro compounds, including
explosives. The synthesis of pharmacologically active
organic compounds is a subject of particular interest at
the Pharmaceutical Institute, Warsaw, and the
Medical Acr.demy at Warsaw. Jan Michalski,
Professor of Organic Synthesis, Technical University of
Lodz, heads an active group which works on
substituted pyridines and organic phosphorus
compounds (especially those containing sulfur and
selenium atoms). Organic chemists at the University of
Lodz have been concerned with significant work on
the synthesis of aminoalcohols, heterocyclic nitrogen
and sulfur compounds, and in the use of the Mannich
reaction for the synthesis of heterocyclic systems.
There is a substantial amount of organic research
related to natural products. Thus, the University of
Warsaw does research on steroids (including the
synthesis of nitrogen analogs), terpenes, and sugar
derivatives; the PAN institute of Organic Chemistry,
Warsaw, does work on steroids and monosaccha rides.
A good capability exists in physical organic
chemistry. Michalski's interests at the Technical
University of Lodz extend to organic reaction
mechanisms and stereochemistry. Research at the
Technical University of Warsaw is strong in reactions
of nitroparaffins and organic anions and in reaction
mechanisms generally. The Institute of Organic
Chemistry has an outstanding capability in physical
organic chemistry and does work on nuclear magnetic
resonance, steric effects, isomerization, and infrared
spectra and structure of substituted unsaturated
carbonyl compounds.
There is considerable organic chemical research
related to the country's plans for large increases in
production of synthetic fibers, plastics, phar-
maceuticals, agricultural chemicals, and other organic
products. Petrochemical research and development
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have been stimulated by the large oil refinery and
petrochemical plant at Plock, which supplies a large
part of the Polish requirements for petroleum products
and chemicals. However, in an effort to make Poland
largely self- sufficient in the production of chemical
products by 1980, the country is acquiring licenses for
advanced chemical technology from many foreign
countries. Research on high polymers is underway at
several locations, including the Technical Universities
of Lodz and Wroclaw and the Organic Synthesis
Research Institute at Blachownia Slaska, but Poland
has made only modest contributions in this field. For
some time, most polymer technology has been
imported.
In physical and inorganic chemistry, there is a
strong effort in catalysis and inorganic reaction
mechanisms under Alfons Krause at the Adam
Mickiewicz University in Pozr_an. Krause and his
coworkers have accounted for a great number of
publications on homogeneous and heterogeneous
catalytic reactions, inhibitors of catalytic reactions,
development of catalysts for commercial processes,
and reaction mechanisms, boti catalytic and
noneatalytic. Considerable recent work by this group
has been concerned with decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide solutions in the presence of various metal
ions. Them is some fundamental research in
electrochemistry at the University of Warsaw,
including studies on polarographic reduction. Dr.
Wiktor Kemula at the Institute of Physical Chemistry,
Warsaw, *..ho has a permanent staff of about 20
persons, is recognized internationally for his work on
polarography. chromatography, and potentiometric
titrations. Much of his work has dealt with the
hanging mercury drop electrode. He and his associates
have developed many techniques in instrumental
analytical chemistry, including a polarographic
method of monitoring chromatographic separations.
Most of the universities and technical universities
engage in some inorganic chemical research. The
Institute for Inorganic Research at Gliwice, under the
Ministry of Chemical Industry, conducts research or
artificial fertilizers, and several of the agricultural
colleges are concerned with soil chemistry.
The Institute of Nuclear Research, Warsaw, has a
e siderable interest in isotope production. It does
research on chromatographic separations, solvent
extraction, and lanthanide and actinide chemistry.
This institute is active in analytical research, including
activation analysis studies. The Institute of Nuclear
Physics, Krakow, engages in research on solvent
extraction and partition chromatography and on
organic analytical reagents for metal analysis.
16
Scientists at this institute are capable in research on
neutron activation analysis and X -ray fluorescence
analysis.
Outstanding research in analytical chemistry is
done by rof. Zbigniew Gregorowicz tt the Technical
University of Silesia at Gliwice. He and his
collaborators have done ext ^nsive work in develop-
ment of titrimetric, spectrophotometric, and
gravimetric techniques, oxidation reduction indica-
tors, and methods for determining rare metals.
Research in biochemistry is increasing in
importance but is less highly developed than other
branches of chemistry. The PAN InstitUe of
Biochemistry and Biophysics, Warsaw, does research
on nucleic acids, lipids, and protein biosynthesis.
Investigators at the University of Lodz are doing
research on protein and nucleic acid synthesis and on
hemoglobin. Several of the Academies of Medicine
engage in a variety of biochemical research projects.
Among the East European countries, Poland has one
of the most active programs in deterioration of
materials, its causes, and preventive techniques.
Researchers participate freely in a data exchange
program administered through the Biodeterioration
Information Center in the United Kingdom. Materials
studied by the Poses for determination of their
susceptibility or resistance to microbial attack include
adhesives, leather, lubricants, paper, plastics, rubber
(natural or synthetic), soaps, textiles, and wood.
Poland has an active well- balanced metallurgical
research and development program. The metallurgical
industry is a very important cog in the country's
economy, and this is reflected in the breadth and
scope of its metallurgical research. Although the bulk
of the research is directed toward solving metals
production problems, a significant effort is directed
toward gaining a better understanding of materials
behavior under various service conditions. The quality
of Polish metallurgical research is excellent, especially
their extensive work in applied areas, and the scope of
the overall effort is about properly balanced between
the applied and the basic or fundamental. A neater
emphasis on fundamental research cannot be justified
in a country of Poland's limited resources. Poland
excels in research on corrosion and stress corrosion,
foundry technology, and mechanical metallurgy. In
overall quality and quantity, the program is above
that in East Germany buy below that in Czecho-
slovakia.
Pound has a long history as a metals producing
area. A plentiful supply of coal combined with
deposits of iron ore and certain nonferrous ores formed
the basis of a metallurgical industry in the past and led
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to the establishment of a steel and foundry industry.
Carbon from the coal also led to the establishment of
an alumina reduction industry. Poland also has
deposit i of copper and zinc ores, and these havz
formed the basis of the nonferrous metal industry.
Research on steels is carried out principally at the
Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy in Gliwice, which
works closely with steel mills in incorporating new
developments into commercial practice, and the
Academy of Mining and Metallurgy in Krakow. The
former is the research institute for the Polish steel
industry and directs its attention to improved methods
in the refining and production of steel. Efforts include
the preparation of iron ore for refining, blast furnace
operations, vacuum malting and treatment, continu-
ous casting, and metal working. The academy in
Krakow, by contrast, concentrates its efforts on the
physical metallurgy of steels and the development of
improved ;reels. Dr. A. Krupkowski of this academy is
an outstanding metal thermodynamicist and, with Dr.
W. Truszkowski, has done excellent basic research on
mechanical metallurgy. High quality research in
foundry technology is done at the Foundry Research
Institute in Katowice. This institut- ranks among the
leaders in the Eastern European countries in foundry
research. Recent efforts have included the study of
various molding sands, foundry mechanization, and
the development of improved casting alloys.
The Institute of Ferrous Metals 'n Gliwice has done
extensive research on the refining of nonferrous metals
and on the physical metallurgy of nonferrous metals.
Excellent research on powder metalu:gy has been
done at the institute by Dr. W. Rutkowski,. whose
recent efforts have been in conjunction with the
institute of Nuclear Physics in Krakow on the
dispersion strengthening of uranium with uranium
oxide.
The corrosion of metals is studied at several
facilities, but the most outstanding research on this
subject has emanated from the Institute of Physical
Chemistry in Warsaw. Dr. M. Smialowski has done
extensive research on stress corrosion cracking and
hydrogen stress cracking. Ile is a world- renowned
expert in these two important technical areas and has
lectured extensively throughout the United States. His
wife, Dr. Z. Szklarska- Smialowska, also at this facility,
has done excellent base research on the corrosion of
steels. She is known world -wide for her research on the
pitting corrosion of stainless steels.
Excellent research on fracture mechanics, damage
criteria, and fatigue has been done at the Institute for
Fundamental Technical Problems (IPPT) in Warsaw.
These efforts have been directed toward gaining a
better understanding of failure criteria for metal
components under various service conditions. This is
an area of technology that involves both the
metallurgists and the mechanical stress analysts. As
part of this overall program, Dr. S. Pileski has done
extensive basic research on dislocation movements and
pile -ups during the fatigue loading of aluminum.
A modest amount of fundamental research is
conducted at the technical universities. This effort has
included the study of stacking faults, magnetic
domains in thin films, high silicon electrical steels, and
research on the oxidation of metals.
Research on welding is well covered at the Central
Institute for Welding Technology in Gliwice.
Relatively little research on nuclear metallurgy is
conducted. Relatively little research on gas turbine
superalloys, titanium, or refractory metals is
undertaken in Poland; nickel, cobalt and titanium are
not produced in Poland. The research effort is geared
generally to the metals produced that are of
importance to the nation's economy. Finally, virtually
all research efforts are carried on in government
laboratories or technical universities; practically no
research is done in plant laboratories.
b. Physics and mathematics
Physics research in Poland, which has been growing
significantly during the past few years, generally
covers a limited number of subbranches that the Poles
feel are important to their na*ional economy. Nearly
50% of their physics research effort is devoted to solid
state properties and materials development and
improvement. Polish interest in magnetohydrody-
namics, plasma physics, and laser technology has
grown significantly during the past few years to the
point where it absorbs about 14% of their basic physics
effort and has become strongly interrelated. The trend
toward nuclear sciences has leveled off and is
diminishing substantially, with the exception of
nuclear engineering. This is shown by the combined
effort in both high- and low- energy nuclear research,
falling slightly below 14% of the Polish effort. The
Poles do have access to the experimental facilities of
the Soviet Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at
Dubna. The remaining effort in physics research,
nearly equally divided, consists of: vacuum
technology, gravitation and relativity, acoust and
shock vibration, and molecular and atomic structures.
Solid -state physics research during the past 3 or 4
yt"ers has been experiencing a tremendous growth at
the various PAN institutes, institutes and laboratories
of the schools of higher learning and technical
universities, and the various academies of Poland. The
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main areas of concentration have been in magnetic,
semiconductor, and metallurgical materials. Most of
the research is aimed at implementation of Poland's
electronics and computer industries, with some
involvement being directed toward steel manufactur-
ing and processing. The Technical University of
Wroclaw and the Semiconductor Institute of PAN
appear to have the major portion of support in this
work. Their activities consist of research into properties
of ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials,
magnetic influences, thermodynamics of spin models,
spin wave theories, relaxation, temperature effects on
domain structures, thin permalloy tapes, piezomag-
netic ferrites, disordered systems, and magnetic
anisotropy. Good research is being done in studying
spin v theories associated with anti ferromagnetism
at the University of Wroclaw where phase transitions
frem antiferromagnetism at various low temperatures
are being studied. Similar work is being done at the
Techi.ical University of Warsaw in connection with
static spin pair correlation functions. The institutes of
PAN have the major programs dealing with
semiconductor properties, and the various universities
in Warsaw and the Nicholas Copernicus University of
Torun deal with investigations related to bulk
materials. At the Institute of Electronics Technology,
studies are underway with semiconductor devices of
the conventional types, purely for the purpose of
gaining information on operational mechanisms.
Computer oriented electronic materials are being
studied at Nicholas Copernicus University in
connection with the switching phenor.enon of
amorphous carbon. The solid -state physicists aid other
specialists who are active in metallurgical fields. At the
Technical University of Warsaw, such activity is
commonplace in studies related to powder metallurgy
with objectives of improving materials used for relay
contacts, aluminum -zinc alloys, and work associated
with crack growth, corrosion, and creep. A modest
series of programs is being expanded at the Technical
University of Wroclaw in relation to photoelectric and
photoconductive effects and behavior of several
semiconductors. At PAN the research is concerned
with effects of quenching and electric fields on
photoconductivity, whereas, at the Wroclaw research
laboratory, optical constants are being reviewed for
certain types of thin films. Some work in optical
spectrosv is underway also at the Marine
Engineering College on optical and infrared
parameters.
Poland ranks high in its past development of lasers
and their application to industry and metrology. At
the present time, this expertise is being applied in
IV
studies of plasma heating and magnetohydrodynamics.
An increased trend is shown for these studies at the
institutes of PAN under the direction of one of
Poland's foremost physicists, L. Kaliski. He is
considered the leading authority on plasma heating
and his latest works deal with the phenomenon of
cumulation -laser heating of deuterium tritium plasma
to gain understandings on energy increase for
attainment of critical temperatures. His group shows a
good understanding of the subject concerning
magnetic focusing and thermonuclear fusion
processes. Another physicist, E. Infield, has a well
established reputation throughout Europe in the
magnetohydrodynamic work he is performing at the
Institute of Nuclear Research, Warsaw. His work
involves plasma confinement and successful
establishment of equilibrium configurations, as well as
other :activities concerned with ball lightning.
Except for activities associated with nuclear
engineering related to electrical power generation,
research in the nuclear sciences has been declining.
Most of the low- energy nuclear research has become
applied in nature and is concerned with nuclear
reactions and scattering and the mechanisms
associated with them. The major portion of low
energy research takes place at the various nuclear
research institutes located in Warsaw and Krakow,
and in the Swierk /Otwock area. The activities at these
institutes involve studies of the osmium isotope
reactions with natural osmium at 14.8 MeV neutron
energy, the development of dosimeters, and the
process for the forming of lithium fluoride powders to
study excited states of krypton and rubidium isotopes.
At the Institute of Nuclear Research at Warsaw,
nuclear specialists are studying the gamma ray spectra
from the indium isotope reaction at various neutron
energy levels by means of inelastic scattering. At the
Universi y of Warsaw, research is underway that deals
with deuterium- tritium reactions with rare -earth
nuclei from both a theoretical and experimental
standpoint. Since the Poles collaborate with others at
the large accelerator laboratories (Dubna and
Serpukhov in the U.S.S.R. and CERN at Geneva) in
experimental high- energy nuclear physics, they have
become active and well respected in their relations
with international teams. In Poland the subjects of
special interest include hypernuclear physics and
strong reactions. Several Polish theoretical physicists
are researching high-energy problems; among them is
J. Werle, who is well known for his work on
phenomenological theories of strong; reactions. Centers
at Krakow and Warsaw pursue research in high energy
and elementary particle physics which has evolved
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from cosmic ray work undertaken at both centers. A
conAde able amount of cosmic ray physics is still
carried out at Lodz. At Nuclear Institutes of Warsaw
and Krakow, studies are being conducted dealing with
hadron interactions and the development of models
for hyperon- nu,!eon reactions. At the Jagiellonian
University in Krakow, physicists are engaged in
studying hyperon polarizations resulting from meson
baryon reactions. At the same university. others are
probing theories involved with hadron scattering
associated with the model for diffractive production of
particles in high- energy collisions.
The Poles have been hampered in various
subbranches of physics research that require the use of
vacuum technology, primarily because they lack the
necessary equipment. To overcome this deficiency,
efforts are being made to produce their own high
vacuum machinery. Such developments occur at the
Institute of Electronics Technology where work is
underway on studies of characteristics for orbiton ion
getter pumps, zeolite traps, evaporators, diffusion
pumps, seals, and instrumentation. Although Poland
ranks high in mathematics, there is little activity in
research on gravitation and relativity. Probably the
best specialist in Poland on relativity is Dr. B.
Kuchowiez at the University of Warsaw. His work
involves searches for exact solutions of gravitational
field equations that relate to the general relativistic
treatment of stellar structures. In acoustics,
ultrasonics, vibration, and shock waves, Poland's
programs are relatively modest. Most of the research is
applied and is being done at PAN institutes and
various university laboratories. Probablv the most
advanced work is that being done by J. K. Zienuk in
his experiments dealing with ultrasonic holography at
a PAN institute in Warsaw. Other important work is
concerned with velocities and polarization of elastic
waves propagating in cubic crystals. This research is
done by J. Mielnicki, also at a PAN institute in
Warsaw. To be successful in such research,
experimental work requires nearly perfect crystals.
Shock and vibration research in Poland is related to
aerodynamics and some of it involve the propaga-
tional problem of plane shock waves in pl -stic bodies
that possess elastic unloading properties. Research in
conies is good. The Polish work involves characteristics
of sound, tone, and directivity, with possible
applications to musical instruments.
The most advanced Polish research in molecular
and atomic physics occurs at the Nicholas Copernicus
University where investigators are studying electronic
strnct �es and the spectra of organic molecules. Also,
some research there involves the study of hyperfine
splitting of radical ions in the electron -spin resonance
spectra. Others at the University of Warsaw are
studying interaction energies of ground state hydrogen
atoms
Among the Communist countries, Poland probably
is second only to the U.S.S.R. in amount of attention
given to mathematical research, although it is closely
rivaled by the much less populous Hungary. Poland
has a long and commendable history of performing
mathematical research, although political difficulties
have intervened at times. All of the main fields are
investigated actively by Polish mathematicians, wh^
are recognized internationally as competent. Dr.
Kazimierz Kuratowski of PAN is the leading Polish
mathematician and one of the most outstanding in the
world. In their present circumstances, the Poles are
producing new mathematics at a good rate, but its
form seems subject to some political influence. Thus
they tend toward applicable forms of mathematics but
lack the computing capacity that many applications
of mathematics require.
It is estimated that between 1% and 2% of the
world's mathematical research is done in Poland.
Subject areas strongly represented in this research are
analysis (especially differential and functional
equations and function analysis), logic, and topology.
Also well represented are geometry, mathematical
physics, and subjects related to economics and
statistics. Algebra is represented somewhat weakly but,
on the whole, the Polish effort may be considered
fairly well balanced. It is interesting also that much
foreign mathematical research is published in Poland,
with a large share coming from the United States, with
the Soviet Union well represented, and with
contributions from many other widely scattered
countries. Polish journals seem to offer an
international forum, a situation probably fostered by
periodic use of Poland for international symposia. The
Poles also publish their work abroad moderately often,
distributing it to many countries.
Fairly sophisticated applications of mathematics to
military and industrial decisionmaking are being
made in Poland. These applications draw on the
principles of operations research and the capabilities
C)f computer and data transmission hardware to
produce systems which serve as decisionmaking aids.
Systems are currently in use on an experimental or
limited operation basis, and plans call for integration
into large -scale systems. The technology itself is
several years behind that of the United States and of
the Soviet Union, but the Poles are making good use of
the available technology and knowledge to develop
these systems.
19
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Poland's mathematical standing in Eastern Europe
should profit soon from the establishment of a new
international mathematical training center for
advanced training of scientific personnel. The new
Stefan Bantach Center is to begin work in 1973 with
its seat at the Institute of Mathematics of the PAN,
Warsaw. With this center, the academies of Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Romania,
Hungary, and the Soviet Union will contribute to
tasks established in the CEMA program, and the
center will also conduct common research and
promote exchange of information.
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
(1) Astronomy and space sciences� Theoretical,
primarily stellar, astronomy in Poland is of high
quality. One of the greatest strengths is in the classical
fields of theoretical and observational astronomy. The
Poles are noted for their work on eclipsing binaries and
stellar evolution. Optical observational astronomy is
limited by the climate and by the general inadequacy
of equipment. Considerable astronomical scientific
exchange occurs between Poland and the West,
particularly France and the United States.
The Warsaw Astronomical Center for theoretical
astronomy is a joint effort of the Institute of
Astronomy, Warsaw, of PAN, and of the Astronomical
Observatory of the University of Warsaw. Other
principal astronomical observatories in Poland are
located at the Jagiellonian University, Krakow,
recognized center for the study of eclipsing binaries;
the Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan; the
Nicholas Copernicus University, Torun; and the
University of Wroclaw. The observatory at Poznan
operates a latitude station for PAN at Borowiec,
important for its cooperative program, and a similar
station at Irkutsk, U.S.S.R., located 90 to the east on
the same parallel. The observatory at Torun is the
recognized center for observational astronomy in
Poland and was to have been equipped with a 2 -m
reflector. This project, however, was canceled in
December 1969 after the mirror blank had been cast
by the Zeiss Jena Company of East Germany. It is also
the principal center for radio astronomy and is
equipped with several interferometers, primarily for
solar otserving. An array for long baseline
interferoio- try is under construction. An average size
60 -cm optical reflector is being constructed by Zeiss
Jena for installation in 1973 at Grojec, near Warsaw,
and efforts are underway to improve the present
inadequate computer facilities that are available to
Polish astronomers.
20
Polish astronomical research has continued to
emphasize the study of binaries and stellar evolution.
Other activity has been primarily solar research,
although some lunar, meteor, and cometary
astronomical studies have been made. Some space
biological and space medical research has been
conducted, but generally space research, coordinated
by the Committee on investigation and Peaceful Uses
of Outer Space, PAN, is limited principally to ground
based activities. Polisa space activity is limited
primarily to satellite tracking, and an optical tracking
network provides data for the computation of satellite
ephemerides and for utilization in geodetic research.
Certain stations in the network participate in the
Soviet- sponsorr INTEROBS and in the French
coordinated Eu ROBS programs for the study of upper
atmospheric density. Besides developing the Meteor
series rockets, Poland has designed and produced
equipment for use in Soviet launched genphysi .�al
vertical probes. This equipment consists of X -ray
spectroheliographs and a system of X -ray pinhole
cameras. Poland a.so participated with other
Communist Bloc countries and the U.S.S.R. in
designing the scientific payload for Interkosmos 6.
This payload consisted of emulsion plates to register
very high energy cosmic rays and was returned to earth
after 4 days for analysis of the data.
The Institute of Nuclear Physics, Krakow, has made
very high energy cosmic ray observations from
balloons. In 1971 the Institute was collaborating with
Moscow State University in preparing a similar
experiment to be satellite- borne. PAN's Institute of
Geophysics, at Warsaw, has a cosmic ray observatory
at Belsk Duzy. Recent observational research in
Polane has emphasized the study of the ehacoeteristies
of and problems involved in the observation o` cosmic
ray air showers. The Industrial Telecommunications
Institute, Warsaw, has had an ionospheric sounding
station: only a small amount of ground -based
ionospheric research is conducted in Poland.
(2) Meteorology �The Poles have an active
meteorological research program of good quality. The
program is broad in scope, including actinometry,
aerology, atmospheric chemistry and diffusion, cloud
physics, and synoptic meteorology. The Institute for
Hydrometeorology and Water Economy, created in
March 1973 within the Ministry of Agriculture,
controls the national weather service formerly the
autonomous State Institute of Hydrology and
Meteorology �which conducts much of the research,
but some work is done in the universities and by PAN's
Institute of Geophysics at Warsaw. Outstanding work
in atmospheric electricity has been done in Poland.
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Research is conducted also in climatology and
physical and synoptic meteorology. There is a
meteorological radar installation near Warsaw. The
limited amount of weather modification research is
directed primarily to fog dispersal and hail
suppression. For the latter purpose a small rocket, the
Taski -2, having a ceiling of about 3 kilometers (km.),
has been dev for seeding hail clouds.
The most noteworthy ,meteorological research effort
is the sounding rocket program, centered at the Rocket
and Satellite Research Department, Krakow. The
principal vehicle has been the Meteor -1, a single
stage, solid- fueled rocket having a ceiling approaching
40 km. Chaff is released at predetermined heights to
permit the radar tracking of stratospheric winds. From
i965 through 1969, about 200 of these rockets were
launched from Krakow and from Ustka, near the
Baltic coast. More advanced rockets capable of
reaching 60 km. or more are becoming available.
These are the Meteor -2, which lofts a drop sonde to
measure pressure and temperature, and the Meteor -3,
a two- stage, solid- fuel_2d replacement for the Meteor-
The Rocket and Satellite Research Department is
also the site of Poland's only automatic picture
transmission (APT) meteorological satellite data
receiving station. To date, this facility has been used
only to receive data from Soviet satellites when the
Soviet APT program becomes operational.
(3) Terrestnil geophysics and geology� Terrestrial
geophysical and geological research in Poland is
competent but not significant internationally. The key
organization in geophysics is the PAN's Institute of
Geophysics at Warsaw, which has six geophysical
observatories, variously equipped to make geomag-
netic, seismic, or telluric current observations. One
observatory, at Hel, conducts full time geomagnetic
observations, while others make intermittent
measurements. There is also a 21- station network in
Poland to observe geomagnetic secular variations. The
small amount of recent Polish theoretical geomagnetic
research has included a study of the origin of the
geomagnetic field. Microseismic, standard. and deep
seismic observations are made. Routine w�rk includes
the determination of earthquake epicenters,
magnitudes, and mechanisms, and Poland is
cooperating with Czechoslovakia, Romania, and the
U.S.S.R. in a study of the Mohorovicic discontinuity.
The emphasis in geology is upon mineral
prospecting, using both geophysical and geological
techniques. Activity is directed by a Central Bureau of
Geology, which is on the ministerial level. The bureau
has subordinate to it various regional entities, for
example, the Institute of Geology, Warsaw, which is
analogous to a national geological survey, as well as
other organizations. In 1968, an agreement was
reached by Poland and the U.S. S. R. for cooperation in
geophysics and geology, directed primarily to mineral
prospecting along the Polish- Soviet border. Some
scientific geological research is conducted in the
universities and by the Research Center for Geological
Sciences, Warsaw, of PAN.
(4) Geodesy �The Chief Geodetic and Cartographic
Administration, Warsaw, conducts long -range
technological and scientific research in geodesy and
cartography in addition to further development and
improvement of geodetic control networks. The above
administration is directly subordinate to the Ministry
of Internal Affairs, and coordinates project
assignments levied from the committees of the Council
of Ministers. The military organization for geodetic
and cartographic research and mapping programs is
headed by the Ministry of National Defense, and
subordinate to it are the Polish Military Topographic
Service, the Military Cartographic Works, and WAT.
Polish scientists maintain active contact with scientists
throughout the world through participation in
international programs and conferences. Poland is an
active member of the International Council of
Scientific Unions and its Committee on Space
Research, among other international organizations.
Within Warsaw Pact countries, Poland encourages
close scientific ties under the auspices of the Council of
Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA) and through
the respective acadt mies of science. Poland is an
active participant in the general assembly conducted
periodically by the International Union of Geodesy
and Geophysics and was represented by very
competent scientists at the XV General Assembly held
in Moscow in 1971.
The planning for 1971 -75 outlines the importance
of continuity in the following ficids: a) research in
earth revolution, connected with participation in the
international time, latitude, and longitude service; b)
study of the earth's crust movements, tides, and mean
sea level; c) chronological study of gravity changes
with the use of satellite triangulation; d) gravimetric
observation, especially in the Baltic area; e) study of
atmospheric influences in observations and measure-
ments; f) search for new methods in basic geodetic
surveys; g) development of automated systems for
geodetic data transformation; h) photogrammetry;
and i) development of a most suitable scale and
format for maps compiled by automated data bank
procedures.
The country is covered with a new astrogeodetic net
of 181 first -order triangulation points, providing a
21
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base for second -order fill nets and for lower order
networks covering the whole country with at least one
triangulation point for every square, 16 kilometers on
each side. The national network, tied to the Polish
reference datum point Borowa Gora, was adjusted and
computed in the unified Soviet "System of 1942" and
tied in with the networks of neighboring countries. A
very well planned and dense net of Laplace points
puts the Polish astrogeodetic network on the
internationally acclaimed high standards of accuracy.
In fhe international project of determining the
shape of the geoid, the Institute of Geodesy and
Cartography (IGiK) and PAN continue the work of
astrogeodetic leveling. A map of deflections of the
vertical, with graphicaNy represented components,
was compiled at the scale of 1:2,000,000. In the field
of geodetic astronomy, scientific work is directed by
the IGiK, with collaborative support from PAN 's
Astronomic Station at Borowiec, near Poznan, the
IGiK Astrogeodetic Station at Borowa Gora, and the
Astrogeodetic Station, Jozefoslaw, of the Warsaw
Polytechnical Institute. The fundamental astrogeo-
detic point, Borowa Gora, is tied to the fundamental
points of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
Hungary, Romania, and the U.S.S.R. All the stations
participate in the time service program, and Borowiec
and Jozefoslaw are also latitude stations. The results of
observations are sent to Bureau International de
1'Heure (BIH) in Paris, to International Polar Mot;on
Service (IPMS) in Mizusawa, Japan, and to the
U.S.S.R. Scientific Research Institute for Physical and
Radiotechnical Measurements in Moscow; the results
are published also in the bulletins of the stations.
In satellite geodesy, observations of artificial
satellites have been a part of astrogeodetic work since
1957. The Geodetic Committee of PAN plans and
coordinates scientific research on a national scale to be
carried out by the IGiK and other research institutions.
Currently, six observation stations in Poland are part
of the international system COSPAR and cooperate
with the Pulkovo Observatory (a section of
Leningrad), U.S.S.R., which is the coordinating
station for artificial satellite observations.
The East European Sub- Commission for Satellite
Geodesy coordinates geodetic studies based on optical
tracking data of satellites obtained through the
multilateral cooperation of the Academies of Sciences
of the Warsaw Pact countries. In 1969, this Sub
Commission was included in the Working Group on
Cosmic Physics for international cooperation among
socialist countries, called Interkosmos. The results of
scientific research on satellite geodesy as well as on
geophysical problems solved on the basis of satellite
22
trackings data are published in annual issues of the
international volume Observations of Artificial
Satellites. The Poznan station is equipped with the
PO -2 camera which was designed and built in Poland.
International satellite tracking programs during the
1970 -75 period in which Poland is an active
participant include the following:
The Riga -Sofia Program, which is based on 1968
observations of the Echo -2 satellite.
The Dynamics Program, which anticipates
photographic observations of faint satellites by
dynamical methods, based on numerous observations
for a long time. The satellites to be observed are
Nlidas -4, Geos -A, and Geos -B.
The Arctic- Antarctic Traverse Program (alEo known
as The Big Are Program, a Soviet conception), an
extensive program of combined photographic angle
measurements of this traverse, involving seven
tracking stations positioned over the 12,500 kilometer
are from Spitzbergen (Svalbard) tc Mirnyy (a Soviet
station in Antarctica).
The International Satellite Geodesy Experiment
(ISAGEX), which is intended to provide more
information on the gravitational field of the earth.
The program was proposed by the French Centre
National d'Etudes Spatiales ii. the framework of
COSPAR. S, to be observed are Peole, Geos -1,
Geos -2, D1 -C, D1 -D, BE -B, and BE -C, all equipped
with laser reflectors.
The EXGEOS, a cooperative program between
West and East European Sub Commissions for
Satellite Geodesy with a goal of establishing an ideal
satellite triangulation network to cover Europe.
Satellites to be observed are Geos -A, Geos -B, Explorer
19, and Explorer -39.
Among Warsaw Pact countries, Poland ranks second
to the U.S.S.R. in the development of computerized
techniques. Studies and research on new methods of
automated adjustment computation continue at IGiK,
at the Warsaw Polytechnical Institute, and the
Krakow Academy of Mining and Metallurgy. The
leading facilities for the development and production
of digital computers are the Institute of Mathematical
Machines in Warsaw and the Wroclaw Electronic
Plant (ELWRO).
During the 1971 -75 time frame, Polish economic
planners anticipate an overall production of 500
omputers, mainly domestic models R -30, ODRA-
1305 (medium capacity), ODRA -1304, -1204, -1205
(small capacity), and K -202, ODRA -1325 (minicom-
puters). According to current statistics, 10� %0 of
computer equipment would be allotted to geodetic-
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cartographic computerized operations. A complex
project, identified under the newly adopted name of
Geodetic Cartographic Informatics, is in preliminary
planning stages. Technically, this project envisions
automation in the field of mapping to combine
geodetic, cartographic, gravimetric, and stereophoto-
grammetric background material into a centralized
data bank.
(5) Hydrology, hydraulics, and coastal engineering
research Poland is one of the leading Fast European
countries in hydrologic and hydraulic research. Most
research is directed toward a more thorough utilization
of water resources for irrigation, navigation, flood
control and river regulation, power, and water
supplies. Recent efforts funded by the United Nations
Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) deal chiefly with test models and field
investigations for optimum development of the Vistula
river basin. Polish hydrologic institutes are becoming
increasingly aware of the need for effective pollution
control and of managing biochemical, industrial, and
nuclear wastes. Continuing research is being
conducted to improve the design of various hydraulic
structures and to devise new hydraulic components
and instrumentation. Numerous tests have been
conducted with the aid of wind tunnels in studying
the phenomena of fluid mechanics in hydraulic
structures.
Poland is one of the leading Warsaw Pact countries
in coastal research. In recent years coastal research has
concentrated on marine dynamics, shore processes,
and shore protective works. Research is done in
forecasting coastline changes, wave dynamics, delta
sedimentation, migration and stabilization of coastal
dunes, coastal shoreline processes and movement of
particles in the littoral zone, and various problems of
harbor and basin sedimentation. Polish scientists
participate in several international organizations
relating to coastal engineering problems and also work
closely with their counterparts in East Germany and
the U.S.S.R.
(6) Oceanography �The marine sciences have
increased in importance in Polish scientific circles,
although they are not first in its research efforts. Polish
oceanographic capability ranks about the same as
Denmark and East Germany. Applied research is
receiving much greater emphasis than basic research.
Oceanography appears to be the research arm of the
maritime economy rather than a scientific discipline in
itself. Polish marine science facilities are subordinated
primarily to ministerial agencies and to a lesser degree
to the Polish Academy of Sciences, because the
ministerial agencies, especially the Ministry of
Transportation, Ministry of National Defense, and the
Ministry of Education and Training, have more funds
for research in the marine sciences than organizations
associated with PAN. In general, although funds for
research are limited, Polish oceanographers do
excellent and reliable work. A Special Committee on
Oceanographic Research (SCOR) i es established in
1961 (still active to date) under PAN to coordinate
marine science activities and give direction in the
expenditure of the academy's funds for oceanographic
research.
Poland's marine economy is highly developed and is
an increasingly important component of the economy.
Polish oceanographic research is directed toward
biological oceanography investigations for the
development of marine fisheries and toward
forecasting of the coastal r,.n vironment such as tidal
predictions, ice, and v eather. In coastal work,
considerable effort is given to sediment transport in
the littoral zone, wave effects on beaches, shoreline
processes, harbor engineering, and sand dune
migration. In addition, Polish oceanographers are
concentrating on the monitoring of radioactivity in
the sea and air, geomorphology and geology of the
Baltic Sea, use of radioisotopes as tracers, and the
study of wave dynamics.
Poland is strong in biological and geological
oceanography and weak in physical oceanography,
although activity in the latter appears to be increasing.
This accelerated pace is noticeable in underwater
sound propagation studies and sea level changes.
Most of the oceanographic instruments and
equipment used by Polish oceanographers is of foreign
manufacture, primarily from the U.S.S.R., Great
Britain, France, West Germany, and the United
States. Some of the indigenously made devices include
oceanographic winches, underwater television, and an
echo sounder for use with fishing nets. In addition,
Polish oceanographers do -igned and constructed a
series of underwater habitats Medusa 1, which was
the first undersea habitat put into operation by
Poland, was tested in 1967. Medusa II, a
modification, underwent trials in 1968. Medusa III, a
larger version of Medusa 11, was deployed in the Gulf
of Danzig at a 60 -meter depth for 2 weeks during the
summer of 1970.
The most important Polish oceanographic
organizations are the Research Center for Oceanog-
raphy, under the State Institute of Hydrology and
Meteorology; Marine Fisheries Institute, subordinate
to the Ministry of Transportation; and the
Hydrographic Office of the Navy, all located in
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Gdynia; Institute of Hydroengineering and the
Maritime Institute, both at Gdansk; and the Marine
Station at Sopot. The Marine Fisheries Institute has
just acquired the 293 -foot research ship Professor
Siedlecki, which displaces 3,650 tons and has
numerous laboratories. It is expected to be put in
service in early 1973 and is designed to operate in the
North Sea and the North and South Atlantic Oceans.
The Institute also operates five other small research
ships.
The Department of Fisheries, established in 1951 at
the Higher School of Agriculture, is still operating and
trains personnel in a 5 -year program that includes
oceanography.
Attendance of Polish oceanographers at most
international meetings has been rather poor; however,
24
Poland is a member of several important international
oceanographic organizations such as the Inter-
governmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC),
Irtemational Council for the Exploration of the Sea
(ICES), ar_d the Conference of Baltic Oceanographers.
Poland cooperates closely with East European
Communist countries in scientific exchange programs
and joint oceanographic surveys. Poland joined the
U.S.S.R., East Germany, Finland, and Sweden in
oceanographic investigations in the Baltic Sea during
1969 and early 1970. Research included measurements
of temperature, salinity, nutrient content, oxygen,
hydrogen ion concentration, and alkalinity. This
program, designated the Baltic Sea Year, was proposed
by Sweden at the 6th Conference of Baltic
Oceanographers held at Sopot.
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Glossary (u/ou)
ABBREVIATION
FOREIGN
IBJ...........
Instyiui Badan Jadrowych...........
IFJ...........
Instytut Fizyki Jadrowej
IGiK.........
Instytut Geodezji i Kartografii........
IPPT.........
Inslytui Podstawowych Problemow Teeh-
niki
KNIT.........
Komitet Nauki i Techniki............
PAN..........
Polska Academia Nauk
WAT.........
Wojakowa Academia Techniczna im-
ienia Generala Jaroslawa Dabrow-
skiego
ZETO........
Zaklady elektronioznej Teehniki Obli-
czeniowej
ENGLISH
Institute of Nuclear Research
Institute of Nuclear Physics
Institute of Geodesy and Cartography
Institute for Fundamental Technical
Problems
Committee for Science and Technology
Polish Academy of Sciences
General Jaroslawa Dabrowski Military
Technical Academy
Organization of Electronic Technical
Computera
Places and features referred to in this chapter (u /ou)
J COORDINATES
'N. 'E.
Belsk Duiy 51 50 20 49
Blachownia Alaska 50 22 18 17
Borowa Gdra 52 29 21 02
Borowiec 52 17 17 02
Bronowice 50 06 19 53
Bydgoszcz 53 09 i8 00
Danzig, Gulf of (gulf) 54 40 19 15
Gdansk 54 21 18 40
Gdynia 54 30 18 33
Gl iwice 50 17 18 40
Grnjec 51 52 20 52
Hel 54 37 18 47
J6zefosl aw 52 06 21 02
Katowice 50 16 19 01
Krakow 50 05 19 55
1.6di 51 45 19 28
Ok@eie 52 11 20 57
Otwock 52 08 21 19
Plock 52 33 19 42
Polkowice 51 30 16 04
Poznan 52 25 16 58
Pulawy 51 25 21 58
Sluiewiee 52 10 21 00
Sopot 54 27 18 34
A wierk 52 07 21 21
Szczecin Stettin 53 25 14 35
Torun 53 02 18 36
Ustka 54 35 16 51
Warsaw 52 15 21 00
Wroclaw Breslau) 51 O6 17 02
2arnowiec:cie, Jezioro (lake) 54 46 18 04
Zeran (sec of Warsaw) 5 18 20 59
SECRET NO FOREIGN DISSEM
SECRET'
25
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