NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 35; INDIA; SCIENCE

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• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200070034-1
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
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• Content Type: REPORTS

SECRET
F
35/GS /S
C'i
M
India
September 1973
NATIONAL INTELLI
(D
SECRET
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
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M
WARNING
The NIS is National Intelligence and may not be re-
leased or shown to representatives of any foreign govern-
ment or international body except by specific authorization
of the Director of Central Intelligence in accordance with
the provisions of National Security Council Intelligence Di-
rective No. 1.
i
For NIS containing unclassified material, however, the
portions so marked may be made available for official pur-
poses to foreign nationals and nongovernment personnel
provided no attribution is made to National Intelligence or
the National Intelligence Survey.
Subsections and graphics are individually classified
f according to content. Classification /control desigaa-
tions are:
(U /OU) Unclassified/ For Official Use Only
(C) Confidential
(S) Secret
t
1
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This chapter was prepared for the NIS by the
Central Intelligence Agency. Research was sub-
stantially completed by March 1973.
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Fl.

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CONTUM
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Electunics
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medicine
12
6, Other "Imom
13
A. C%mlsuy and mcwnwgy
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C. AstmpuphyLical scicam
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Glossary
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rJffi I ffit- WE STNF& ffro
FIGURES
Page Page
Fig. 1 Governmental organization for scien- Fig. 3 Indigenous aircraft designs (photos-) 9
tific and technical activities (chart) 4 Fig. 4 MiG-21 built from Indian raw ma-
Fig. 2 Institute of Technology (photo) 7 terials (photo) 9
1
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Science
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Eighteenth century open -air observatory, Jaipur (U100
A. General (S)
In the years since independence India has
developed a substantial and varied scientific research
and development establishment. Its present research
and development capability is in no way comparable
with that oPthe larger developed countries of the West
or the Soviet Union, but India has developed what is
probably the strongest overall capability among the
less developed countries, excluding China. In Asia, its
capability is exceeded only by Japan and, in most
fields, by China. Over the past few years India has
developed a greatly enhanced indigenous military
production capability. Development of a scientific
establishment, nevertheless, has been uneven and is
still grossly inadequate to support India's projected
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program of economic and scientific development. The
facilities have been built, and effective research is
being done in government laboratories in nuclear
energy, defense, space, and public health, as well as in
the development of industrial processes. Nevertheless,
judged against the number of laboratories, the
manpower involved, and the research budgets
expended, India has not yet realized substantial
returns on its scientific investment. Rather, the
investment has only laid the groundwork for a
capability which, if properly managed, could make
India an important scientific and technological power
in the future.
Indian science has benefited from the strong
encouragement given to it by the central government,
which adopted an impressive national science policy
in 1958, known as the Scientific Policy Resolution.
The resolution is aimed at promoting basic and
applied research and scientific education. Scientists
take an active role in the formation of the
government's scientific policy and programs, primarily
through the National Committee on Science and
Technology (NCST), numerous committees of the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), and
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
k major new policy paper, An Approach to the Science
and Technology Plan, was released in January 1973. It
is to be refined, made more specific, and embodied in
the Fifth Five Year Plan by March 1974.
Among the many problems that hinder the national
development of science is the absence of an
established scientific tradition. Compared with Cie
developed countries, India has produced few
internationally prominent scientists. Notable is the
work in spectroscopy by C. V. Raman before 1930 and
the work in statistics by S. N. Bose. A serious and
continuing hindrance to scientific growth is the
depressed state of the economy. Indian leaders have
Leen unable to provide adequate financial support for
scientific and technical research. In addition, the
government through excessive regulation of private
industry has discouraged the development of new
products. The administration of research has become
enmeshed in politics, and the lack of coordination
among various national agencies set up by the
government has resulted in the fragmentation and
duplication of research activities. Goveinmeutal
encouragement of education and science has led to a
large increase in the number of colleges and
universities, but with a sacrifice in the quality of
education generally and of scientific education
specifically. Part of the university quality problem has
2
to do with reservation of space for those from the
Scheduled Castes and Tribes, perhaps as much as one
fourth of the slots at the Indian Institutes of
Technology. Efforts have been made to slow down the
expansion of facilities so that quality can be improved
by establishing special schools, institutes, and centers
for advanced studies.
Traditionally, Indian scientists have tended to
emphasize theoretical rather than applied research.
This emphasis has been due in large measure to the
limited funds available for undertaking applied
research and to a lack of adequate experimental
facilities. As a result, the government has found it
more economical and more dependable to import
foreign technology than to encourage its development
in India. Both government and industry have been
reluctant to rely on domestic technology and
industrial processes developed within the country. In
an effort to reverse this trend and to channel research
into more applied areas, the government has set up
numerous applied research laboratories. Un�ortu-
natP:y, in many cases the laboratories have attracted
scientists away from the universities and have taken
over some of the fundamental research which could
have been done more effectively in the universities if
they had received adequate financial support.
India probably has received a greater amount of
assistance from private and public foreign sources for
science and education than any other country in the
world. It has received teachers, apparatus, and
equipment through bilateral agreements with foreign
countries ar,d through agreements between Indian
universities and foreign universities, as well as from the
United Nations specialized agencies, such as the U.N.
special Fund, U.N. Expanded Program for Technical
Assistance, and U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cul-
tural Organization (UNESCO). Dr. Nag Chaudhuri,
scientific adviser to the Minister of Defense,'
stated recently that the United States has been the
strongest influence in the teaching of science in India,
and the United Kingdom is the strongest military
influence. India and the U.S.S.R. have cooperative
programs for the exchange of information. A series of
cultural agreements between the two countries has
provided for an exchange of Indian and Soviet
scientists.
'For a current listing of key government officials consult Chiefs of
State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments, published
monthly by the Directorate of Intelligence, Central Intelligence
Agency.
N..11
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B. Organization, planning, and financing of
research (S)
Most of the scientific and technical research
conducted in India is under the jurisdiction of the
central government, which provides the financing for
about 90% of the research done in the countrv.
Numerous ministries, research councils, committees,
departments, national laboratories, and government
sponsored universities are involved (Figure 1). There is
virtually no research or development sponsored solely
by private organizations with the exception of that
carried out by a few independent research institutes
which support fundamental research. Industrial
research is in the early stages of development, and oniy
a few production establishments conduct research in
units of their own, although there are several small
industrial research associations.
Governmental planning and financing of research
are carried out through agencies which operate in
conjunction with appropriate ministries. The most
important are the NCST, the CSIR, the ICMR, the
ICAR, the ;defense Research and Development
Organization (DRDO), and the University Grants
Commission.
The NCST was established in November 1971
under the Department of Science and Technology of
the then Ministry of Planning, Science, and
Technology. Subsequently, NCST was placed under
the newer Ministry of Industrial Development. As the
government's adviser on scientific matters and on the
formulation and implementation of science policy, the
NCST works closely with the Planning Commission,
which has been placed under the Ministry of
Planning. The NCST replaced the Committee on
Science and Technology (COST) and absorbed its
functions. In addition to its advisory duties, the NCST
determines the development and utilization of
research resources; allocates funds for research
received, from the government and from foreign
sources; promotes better cooperation between
government and nongovernment scientific and
technical institutes and professional societies; and
makes recommendations on scientific and technical
cooperation with other countries and international
organizatir as. The NCST has been charged with
setting priorities for future research. Although five full
time members were to have been appointed to the
NCST, the appointments never occurred. The 10 part
time members are under a chairman, C. Sub
ramaniam, who now is the Minister of Industrial
Development.
Governmental planning and financing of research
are carried out through agencies and departments
which operate in conjunction with appropriate
ministries. In addition to the NCST, one of the most
important agencies is the CSIR, which is the largest
and most influential organization concerned with the
direction and financing of scientific research and
development. It was constituted originally in 1942 and
has been placed under various ministries. It was
moved from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry
of Planning, Science, and Technology and, most
recently, has been placed under the newer Ministry of
Industrial Development. The CSIR is a semiauteno-
mous body; the Prime Minister serves as its chairman,
and the Minister of Planning serves as vice president.
The CSIR operates 35 national laboratories, institutes,
and museums, and in 1970 employed 16,000 people,
including 4,000 scientists, 5,100 technicians, 2,400
administrative personnel, and several thousand
supporting personnel. Its research facilities are
intended to be concerned mainly with applied
research, and much of the effort is defense oriented.
Some of the facilities are ill fitted to translate the
findings of their research programs into pilot -plant
and semicommercial production because they lack
qualified staff members with specific industrial
experience. Industry tends to favor proven foreign
technology and is reluctant to take the risk of going
ahead on a commercial basis with the relatively
unproven products and processes of the CSIR
laboratories and institutes. The CSIR also supports
basic research in the universities and independent
research institutes, provides research grants and
fellowships to research associations, and disseminates
scientific knowledge and information. Other functions
include maintenance of a National Register of
Scientific and Technical Personnel and of documen-
tation and information services, and the responsibility
for temporary placement of well qualified Indian
scientists and technologists returning from abroad.
Similar to the CSIR but much more restricted in
scope are the ICMR, which has the major
responsibility for the promotion and coordination of
medical research, and the ICAR, which promotes
agricultural research. The ICMR is a private
organization financed mostly by the Ministry of
Health and Fam,,ly Planning. It maintains research
facilities of its own and supports and coordinates
medical research in other research institutes, medical
colleges, universities, and hospitals. The ICAR, under
the Ministry of Agriculture, has no institutes of its own
but supports agricultural research projects in the
research laboratories of various college: and institutes.
3
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It maintains a research and reference library and acts
as a clearing house of information for research and
other agricultural and veterinary matters.
Defense research activities are carried out in about
30 research and development establishments
functioning under the Defense Research and
Development Organization, under the Department of
Defense Production of the Ministry of Defense. The
DRDO is responsible for coordinating and directing
scientific research relating to defense problems. It also
controls several research laboratories L nd testing
installations, including the Gas Turbine Research
Center at Bangalore and the Aeronautical Testing
Laboratory at Kanpur.' Recently, Departments of
Space and Electronics have been established as well as
a Space Commission and an Electronics Commission.
The Prime Minister serves as Minister for the
Department of Space, and Dr. S. Dhawan is secretary
for the Department of Space.
The University Grants Commission, a statutory
body set up in 1953 and responsible directly to
Parliament, supports scientific research and promotes
education in the universities. It is an influential organ
of the government and has the authority to take the
necessary measures to promote and coordinate
university education and to determine and maintain
standards of teaching, examination, and research. The
commission disburses grants to national and state
universities for higher education in arts, sciences, and
commerce; sets up committees to review teaching and
research in various fields; and has set up and financed
20 Centers of Advanced Studies, mostly in science.
The Department of Atomic Energy is probably the
most effective of the various governmental depart-
ments concerned with scientific research. It has better
facilities and scientists than the other departments and
is in a favorable position because the Prime Minister
also serves as the Minister of Atomic Energy (there is
no ministry, but rather a Department of Atomic
Energy). The Department of Atomic Energy and its
subordinate Atomic Energy Commission are headed
by Dr. Homi Sethna, who is a secretary of the
Government of India. The DRDO and Atonic Energy
Commission are responsible for formulating and
implementing policies in all matters bearing on
nuclear energy research in agriculture, biology,
industry, and medicine, and for the development of
nuclear power. The department and commission are
also responsible for preparing the budget for the
program. The Bhabha Atomic Research Center
'For diacritics on place names see the list of names on the apron
j of the Summary Map in the Country Profile chapter and the map
itself.
(BARC), Trombay, about 15 miles from Bombav, and
the Atomic Minerals Division (which is subordinate to
the Physical Research Laboratory) at New Delhi
conduct scientific and technical research for the
department. The BARC is the national center for
research and development in atomic energy and is the
largest single research facility in the countrv. The work
of the BARC is done by five groups: Physics Group,
Electronics Group, Engineering Group, Metallurgy
Group, and Biology Group. The Atomic Mineral's
Division is responsible for the survey, development,
and acquisition of atomic minerals. Other facilities
under the department which are concerned with
nuclear research are the Tata Institute of Fun-
damental Research in Bombay and the Saba Institute
of Nuclear Physics in Calcutta. The Tata institute
works also with the Department of Space.
Although industrial research is very limited, some
industrial organizations have established research
associations as the result of encouragement and partial
financing extended by the CSIR. The increasing
research activities of the associations are due to
exemptions offered by the government under the
Indian Income Tax Act, which exempts the
contributions made by industry to approved research
organizations from the computation of their total
income.
Some of the Indian research establishments were
organized originally as private foundations. Most of
them are almost wholly supported by governmental
grants, although they still have independent boards of
directors. Among the most effective of these
institutions are the Indian Statistical Institute,
Calcutta; the Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research, Bombay; the Raman Research Institute,
Bangalore; the Bose Research Institute, Calcutta; the
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science,
Calcutta; the Shri Rain Institute for Industrial
Research, Delhi; the Birbal Sahani Institute of
Paleobotany, Lucknow; and the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore.
The annual budgets of the Indian space and atomic
energy programs have increased rapidly in recent
years, but large portions of the budgets have been
allocated to capital expenditures for atomic power
plants, a reac fuel reprocessing plant, and other
items. The operating budget for the BARC scientific
departments for FY1971/72 (1 April -31 March) was
about US$15.6 million. The operating budget for
space projects has been increasing at a much faster
rate than the BARC budget and was about $8.6
million in FY1971/72.
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Wio
The output of engineering institutes has expanded
sufficiently to meet the demands for engineers, and in
1969, 40,000 engineers were reportedly unemployed.
Highly specialized personnel in certain fields are not
readily available, however, and many jobs in
universities and research organizations remain vacant.
The scientific manpower deficiency has been
aggravated somewhat because many students, a large
number of whom represent the outstanding young
scientific talent of the country, have gone to foreign
countries for advanced education in engineering and
the sciences and have not returned. In 1967 the
number of Indian scientists and technologists abroad
was about 20,000 to 25,000, half of whom were in the
United States. Since job opportunities for scientists
and engineers especially have been somewhat
restricted, the loss to other countries has not created
serious problems except in a few specialized areas. The
government is attempting, with some success, to
persuade foreign- trained Indian scientists to return to
their homeland. The CSIR maintains a pool which has
been responsible for the temporary placement of a
limited number of well- qualified Indian scientists and
technologists returning from abroad. In recent years,
the pool has been expanded greatly and has become a
sanctuary for unemployed scientists. There is a deep
rooted dissatisfaction among scientists, both at home
and abroad, about the commitment of India's
political, administrative, industrial, and educational
leadership to use science purposefully as a means of
social transformation or government action. Probably
the most dramatic indication of disillusionment is the
significant overseas migration of high level
professional talent in manv fields.
Salary scales of Indian scientists have improved,
although they are still low; a new Ph. D., who could
be quite good, commands less than $100 a month
salary. The social status of scientists is gradually being
raised. Many scientists, however, still consider
administrative positions in the government to be
preferable to scientific positions. Educated Indians are
becoming more aware of the role of scientists and
technologists in the progress of the country, but most
of the population has little understanding of the
relationship of science to its welfare.
Laboratory facilities for research are generally
inadequate, although there are a few well equipped
laboratories. Many higher educational institutions
and research institutes lack modern scientific
equipment. Probably the largest and most important
research facility is the BARC. It has well- equipped
laboratories for research in physics, chemistry,
electronics, metallurgy, and biology; the facilities
0
include three nuclear reactors. The BARC has about
10,000 employees, about 2,000 of whom are scientists
and 4,000 of whom are technicians. It has a training
school in which more than 150 graduate scientists and
engineers receive training for 1 year in various
disciplines concerned with nuclear energy. The
National Chemical Laboratory at Pune (Poona),
under the CSIR, has excellent facilities for research in
chemistry and chemical engineering. Many other
CSIR laboratories are also equipped for their special
types of work. The All -India Institute of Medical
Sciences, New Delhi, founded in 1956, is housed in
extensive, modern facilities.
D. Major research fields
1. Air, ground, and naval weapons (S)
India's capability to manufacture foreign- designed
weapons is advancing at a moderate pace. Although
foreign- designed systems are produced, the industrial
capacity is insufficient to meet military requirements.
Defense research activities are carried out in about 30
research and development establishments functioning
under the Defense Research and Development
Council (DRDC), which is attached to the
Department of Defense Production of the Ministry of
Defense. The DRDC is responsible for coordinating
and directing scientific research relating to defense
problems. It also controls several research laboratories
and testing installations, including the Gas Turbine
Research Center at Bangalore and the Aeronautical
Testing Laboratory at Kanpur. The Defense Research
Laboratory (Materials), Kanpur, is devoted to research
and development of plastics, polymers, POL, and
chemicals. Desert research activities are conducted at
the Defense Laboratory, jodhpur, which also field
tests equipment under desert operations. India is
virtually self- sufficient in the production of small arms
and quartermaster equipment and can produce most
of the ammunition needed by the army. Considerable
effort is being made to stimulate applied research in
solid- propelled rocketry, propellants, ammunition,
airframes and components, and avionics.
Aeronautical research related to the design,
construction, and operation of aircraft is conducted by
the National Aeronautical Laboratory (NAL) of the
CSIR and the Indian Institute of Science, both at
Bangalore. Limited basic research is conducted at
these organizations and at academic institutions where
excellent courses in aeronautical engineering are
offered. The only aircraft company in India,
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL), is under the
i
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W4
t
FIGURE 3. Experience with these two indigenous designs
should aid future development efforts (S)
Department of Defense Production of the Ministry of
Defense. HAL is a vast complex with manufacturing
facilities for aircraft and helicopters in Bangalore,
Kanpur, and Nasik; for aircraft engines in Bangalore
and Koraput; and for electronics in Hyderabad.
India has developed two aircraft of indigenous
design �the HF -24 Marut single -seat, twin -jet fighter
and the HJT -16 Mk II Kiran two -seat basic jet trainer
(Figure 3). Although both systems have been test
flown and are being produced in limited numbers,
they have design weaknesses that restrict their
performance. Neither system is a state -of- the -art
achievement nor competitive with many foreign
systems. Nevertheless, the Indians have acquired
design and engineering experience from these
p-ograms which can be applied to future development
efforts. Attempts are underway to acquire similar
capabilities in the technologies needed for aircraft
engine development and production. The Bangalore
Division of HAL is producing engines, based on
foreign designs, for the Marut and Kiran, a transport,
and the French Alouette III helicopter, being
produced in India under license from the French. The
HAL is fabricating MiG -21 (FISHBED) fighter
airframes and engines from locally produced
components, under a license agreement %%ilh the
1,' i.S.6. (Figure 4). HAI, at Bangalore also produces
indigenously designed agricultural aircraft, nanied
Ilevathi, for crop spraying. This piston pow( red single
engine plane is heavier and n(ore expensive than
similar Western aircraft.
Aerodynamics research is accomplished by the
HAL, NAL, and the Indian Institute of Science in
wind tunnels capable of continuous testing up to
Mach 5.0. The facilities appear adequate to support
the needs of the developing aircraft industry. 'I'hc
major facilities are located at the NAL's Wind 'funnel
Center near Bangalore Airport. Although most of the
work underway focuses on solving design related
problems, some basic research on boundary laver Ilow
is being done.
Structures research is good but limited in scope.
Both basic and applied structures research is
conducted at the Bangalore Division of IIAL, the
aircraft structures and materials division of NAL, the
Indian Institute of Science, and the Madras Institute
of 'Technology. Full -scale aircraft strength and
vibration test facilities, as well as smaller equipment
for component testing, are available.
There is no concrete evidence that the Indians hove
it ballistic missile research and development program!
underway. India has the industrial capacity and
know -how to fabricate surface launched guided
missiles and is gradually acquiring the capability to
design and develop such weapons. The Indians are
assembling the French SS -11 antitank missile from
imported components and have concluded an
agreement with the French firm, Aerospaliale, for the
licensed production of the Itarpon antitank missile
and for options on obtaining production licenses for
the Hot and Milan antitank weapons. Bocket
components and propellants are manufactured at
several facilities, the most important of which is the
FIGURE 4. First MiG -21 with airframe built entirely from
Indian raw materials at HAL's Nasik Division (S)
q
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HJT -16 Mk II Kiran

W11
factory of Bharat Dynamics, Ltd. in Calcutta. This
facility has design and development departments and
produces the French antitank missiles. Capabilities in
the rocket propulsion field have increased remarkably.
The Indians have successfully developed solid
propellants for their meteorological rockets and are
working on a 1 -meter diameter solid propellant rocket
motor for a satellite launch vehicle under develop-
ment. India has not demonstrated a capability to
develop liquid rocket systein.
The Indian research at,d development capabilit} A
ground force weapons is limited; most of the efforts are
devoted to the adaptation of foreign designs and
development for domestic production. The most
advanced project of this type is the modification of i t
main battle tank initiated in 1964 under an agreement
with the British firm, Vickers Armstrong, Ltd. The
Indian version is a medium tank, designated
Vijayanta, which mounts a t05- millimeter gun as its
main armament and which, when fitted with at nylon
screen for flotation, has an amphibious capability.
The Indians have progressed from assembly of British
supplied parts to the manufacture of the main
components for the tank at the I leavy Vehicle Factory
at Avadi near Madras. The Vijayanta has been used as
the basis for other developments, including an
armored recovery vehicle and a self propelled 130-rum
gun artillery system.
India has developed and tested antipersonnel and
antitank mines, and a mechanical mine planter of
native design has been introduced into the army.
Research is continuing on propellants for small arms
and artillery, and some work is underway on
explosives. Other research projects have included a
canister ammunition for 57 -mm and 106 -mm
recoilless rifles. The French have provided technical
assistance on development of 120 -mm mortar
ammunition. An indigenous research effort has been
underway on developing a 75-mm pack howitzer with
supporting ammunition and a 105 -rum howitzer.
Reportedly, the 73 mm pack howitzer is in
production.
A major effort is being expended in the
development of clothing and individual equipment.
Military research facilities have performed high-
quality research, particularly on textiles. The trend in
clothing design and development is characterized by
emphasis on the environmental parameters, especially
protection from cold- weather conditions. Consider
able work also has been done on shelters, fuel, and
rations for troops in the Himalayan area. Some work is
underway applicable to troops in deserts. Research is
continuing on biodeterioration of textiles, cellulosics,
10
rubbers, leathers, polymers, paints, and metals. Much
of the researc is done cinder the supervision of the
Defense Research Laboratory (Materials), Kanpur.
Limited work is being carried out on military
transportation, airdrop, bridging, and topographic
equipment. The Indian Institute of 'Technology in
Ma. !is has a materials conveying and handling
laboratory with moduai experiment d and testing
equipment. Only limited research and development
have bees, perforated on bridging equipment. Little
e ffort is devoted to military tnotor- transport
equipment.
India does not have a naval weapons research and
development program, and efforts by the navy to
initiate such a program have been unsuccessful. Until
expansion of the naval base at Vishakhapatnam is
completed in mitt -1974, the only naval yard capable
of handling the larger Soviet- supplied ships is the one
-it Bombay. Since 1962 the largest dockyard,
Mazagaon Docks, Ltd., Bombay, has built British
Lt:nxo:ntlass destroyers, while smaller dockyards
in Calcutta have constructed smaller naval
combatants.
2. Biological and chemical warfare (C)
India is not known to have a biological warfare
(BW) or chemical warfare (CW) research and
development program, and it has signed the Biological
Warfare Convention of 1972. The country adheres to
the Geneva Protocol of 1920, which pans the offensive
use of toxic chemicals or biological weapons. Several
institutes engaged in microbiological research aimed
at improving health standards of the Indian people
could he employed in the support of BW research.
Microbiological research is underway on drugs and
vaccines to control endemic human and animal
diseases, such as cholera, enteric fever, typhoid, foot
and -mouth disease, encephalitis, yellow fever, and
anthrax. Research on plant diseases is direct( d against
rice blast, bacterial blight of rice, wheat rust, and viral
diseases of potatoes and sugarcane.
3. Atomic energy (S)
India has established it fairly advanced nuclear
energy program, under the direction of the Atomic
Energy Commission, encompassing basic research, the
use of radioisotopes, 'and the development of nuclear
power. The overall program is somewhat limited due
to a shortage of trained personnel, lack of foreign
exchange to purchase needed equipment abroad, and
an insufficient industrial base to support a large scale
program. Nevertheless, the nuclear program reached a
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stage of development several years ago which would
permit India to embark on a small nuclear weapons
program if it should decide to do so.
The principal efforts of :he Atornic Energy
Commission have been the establishment of the
Bhabha Atornic Research Center (BARC) and the
construction of nuclear power stations. The major
research facilities of the BARC are ASPARA, it I-
megawatt (MW) swimming pool reactor, which went
into operation in 1956; CIRUS, a 40-MW heavy water
moderated, natural uranium fueled research reactor,
which went critical in 1960; and ZERLINA, it zero
energy critical assembly, which went into operation in
1961.
The enriched uranium fuel for the ASPARA reactor
was supplied by the United Kingdom, but the natural
uranium fuel for the CIRUS and ZERLINA reactors-
was produced by India except for one -half of the first
fuel load of the CIRUS that was supplied by Canada.
Ileavy water for the CIRUS and 'ZERLINA was
supplied by the United States. A small heavy water
production plant at Nangal went into operation in
1962. This plant produces heavy water as a hyprndnc(
of a fertilizer plant and has a capacity of 14 tons per
year. In addition, a 67.2 -ton heav water plant is
under construction at Vadodaraa (formerly Baroda),
clue to go into operation in 1973. Three other heavy
water plants are also under construction �a lux) -ton
plant at Kota, due to go into operation in 1971, a 71.3-
ton per year plant at Tuticorin, clue to go operational
in 1974-75, and a 62.7 ton plant at Talcher, che to go
into production in 1976.
India plans to establish, with French assistance,
another nuclear research center near Madras at the
future nuclear power station of Kalpakkam. The�
center is expected to take about 5 years to build and
will inc�Inde it 10 -MW test reactor for work on fast
reactor technology, which would he aimed at utilizing
India's extensive thorium depeasts for producing
power.
The Indian Covecnment has sated that it does not
intend to develop nuclear weapams, but government
officials have indicated a:rat development of nuclear
explosives fo; peaceful uses i5 weviving serious
consideration. Such explosives would have an obvious
military potential. India has all the facilities necessary
for the production of small amonnts of plutonium for
use in mclear explosives. C;ARC; Ixassesscs facilities for
uranium metal production, fuel fabrication, irradiated
fuel reprocessing, and plutonium metal reduction.
India plans to ha -e three nuclear power stations in
operation by about 1975. The first nuclear piaster
station located at Tarapur, about 60 miles north of
Bombay, .vent into full operation in joe.^ 1969 with an
installed electric power capacity of 380 megawatts
electrical (MWe). '['his station consists of two .S.-
supplied Boiling water reactors using slightly e niched
uranium provided by the United States. 'The second
unclear power station is heing constructed near Rana
Pratap Sagar Dun in Rajasthan with Canadian
assistance and will have two natural uranium fueled,
heavy water moderated reactors, identical to the 200
MWe Canadian CANDU -type reactors. One of the
two reactors began operation in August 1972, while
the second reactor is expected to go into operation by
1975. 'These reactors are to be under safeguards
intended to prevent diversion of plutonium to
weapons use. India is constructing it third nuclear
power station at Kalpakkam, in 'Tamil Nadu, which is
identical to the Rajasthan station; work has started,
hot there is no firm project date for the station to go
into operation.
Uranium and thorium ruining have been underway
since 19:1 using monazite deposits of the southwest
coast of India. The country possesses one of the wvorld's
largest deposits of rnonuzite, the principal source of
thorium, and also has large low grade reserves of
uranium. Uranium is he�ing mined in the State of
Bihar at jaduguda (near jarnshedpur) by the� 0raninrn
Corporation of India, Limited. A mill capable of
processing 1,0(x1 tons per dry� of low grade ore has
been in operation since 1968. Plans arc underway to
develop it 2,5(x) tons per clay mill at Narwapahar, near
jaduguda.
4. Electronics (S)
Electronics research and development continue to
grow at ever increasing rates, largely because of
tcc�hnic�al assistance from tit(- United States, the
Un -ted Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. The research
is mostly applied and centers on the improvement of
existing systems and component The 'Telec�orn-
munic�ations Research Center at New Delhi of the
Ministry of Coinmunic�ations has the most active
electronics research program in India. The center has
designed or improved telo phone exchange, converter,
and ringing equipment. Ine!ustrial elcc�tronic�s research
is carried out by four rnajur prodneers of electronic
equipment� Bharat Ele0ronic�s, Bangalore; the
electronics division of the IIAI, in Ifyderathad; the
Electronic Corporation :,f India, ltydenabadt and the
Indian Telephone Industries. Each of these companies
wars established to assemble specific equipment under
license and subw(Iiientl} ac�cluired an indigenous
c.apahility to develop the equipment. The Indians are
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cluing good quality research in radio propagation, but
the work is not extensive.
The Indians have made considerable progress in the
design of converters for translating teleprinter codes to
pulses that operate step -by -step switc... Radio relay
equipment operating at 7 gigahertz and providing 300
telephone channels has been developed. The National
Physical Laboratory of the CSIR at New Delhi has
conducted extensive ionospheric research. Significant
electromagnetic research in the field of surface wave
phenomena has been carried out by the Indian
Institute of Science. Some: work has been clone on the
practical application of laser co inmunications.
Limited research has been conducted ,n transistorized
devices such as telephone repeaters and carrier
equipment.
5. Medical sciences, including veterinary
medicine (S)
India is mak;ng oibstantial progress in its national
program to improve the quality of biomedical research
but is still far from achieving the research level of
advanced countries� especially in fundamental sttudics.
Research programs are coordinated by the CSIR and
the Ministry of Health and Family Planning, with its
associate(I Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR). The council has see ^n permanent research
institutes �the National Institute of Nutrition,
Ilvderabad; Virus Research Center, Pune (formerly
Poona); Cholera Research Center, Calcutta;
Tuberculosis Chetnotherapy Center, Madras;
Occupational llcalth Research Institute, Ahtnada-
badl Institute for Research in Reproduction, Bombay;
and the Indian Registry of i'athology, New Delhi. The
latter fuc�ility has five peripheral centers. Biomedical
establishments of the CSIR include the Indian
Institute of Experimental Medicine in Calc�ath. and
the Central Drug Research Institute, Central Indian
Medicinal Plants Organization. and Industrial
Toxicology Research Center, all in Luc�know.
Edoc�ation in pion iedicine is of poor quality. The
government has embarked ou it program. %%ith U.S.
assistance, to improve training in the discipline. The
most important medic!-1 school is the All India
Institute of Medical Sciences in New Delhi, which
n ceivcs support front tit(- United States and the World
Ilealth Organization (W110) and through the
Colombo Plan. The institute provides a good
education in biornedic�in(% its professors are among the
world's Ix�%t.
Priouty areas of research sopp orted by the 1(:*IR
include reproductive hiology. family planning,
nutrition. and disease control. Microbiological
12
research is not outstanding. The ICMR has created a
division of clinical immunology and epidemiology
which supports research to combat infectious diseases
such as plague, cholera, and viral diseases, and
noninfectious diseases such as cdiubctes, epilepsy, and
diseases of the cye. I'lague studies a undertaken by
the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the
Ilaffkine Institute in Bombay, and National Institute
of Comnnunicable Diseases in Delhi. The Indian
Institute of Experimental Medicine is investigating
the epidemiology and prophylaxis of cholera and is
developing phage- typing techniques for study of
classical and El Tor strains of cholera infections and
for differentiation of the types of cholcrogenic vibrios.
Research at the Central Research Institute at Kasauii
is directed to the development of vaccines and scrums,
the preparation of national reference standards, and
training of personnel.
Some impressive physiological research is done on
ncurophysiology, cardiovascular function, and sleep.
Biochemical studies arc practical and include the
isolation of enz involved in microbial rnetabo-
lisrn, the biochemistry of pneumoconiasis, the
isolation front tissues of tcrnor growth inhibitors, and
the biochemical and biophysical organizatio i of
intercellular tissues. Lyophilized snake venon, pore
fatty acid esters, and papaio have been isolated.
Studies are undemay to synthesize Organic chemicals
by fermentation. A promising area of research at the
Assam Medical College in northeast India is the study
of henuglobinopathies and their relation to tribal
groups. S. R. Mukheriee of the Department of
Experimental Medical Sciences of the Institute of
Postgraduate Medical Education and Research in
Calcutta has dis- overed an antiepileptic� drug and has
contributed to research on the endocrinological.
physiological. and pharnac�ologic�al effects of
indigenous plant (bugs. Ile also has clone research on
c�ardiovasculai honneostasis.
I'll(- Central Drug Research Institute of the CSIR is
doing routine work on the development of new
therapeutic agent%, both synthetic and those derived
front plants. Pharmacological screening of the drugs
includes tests for li%potensive, aotic�omolsaot. central
nervous system stimulant and depressant, spa %cool} tic.
analgesic. (Buret c�, antihistaminic. ancd anti
inflamnatr\ ac�tilm. Bioc�henti-al and bioph%sic�al
studies of drugs are aimed al blocking the metabolic
patlma}% of pathogenic organist% and at attacking
%ulnerable enzyme %\stems of helmi [it hs and amoebas.
Intensive')iologic�al screening of nedic�inal plant% is an
integral part of the drug de\elopnit.Li project of the
institutes. Medicinal client. r% is given considerable
11
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r
attention in the survey and screening of medicinal
plants to discover new drugs and alternative sources of
drugs in use. The plants are screened for antifilarial,
antihelminthic, antiviral, antifungal, antiamocbic,
and antitumor acti ity. A national herbarium is
maintained in Calce is which supports research on
plants of medical and economic importance to India.
The Industrial Toxicology Research Center is
sta �dying the mode of action of toxic substances
encountered in industry, agriculture, and mines and is
elucidating the mechanisms of tissue injury in order to
suggest therapeutic and preventive measures.
Psychopharmacological tests aiso are carried out to
detect behavioral changes associated with intoxication
by substances which affect the brain.
The Central Food Technology Research Institute of
the CSIR in Mysore, in collaboration with FAO, is the
International Food Technology Training Center for
the countries of South and Southeast Asia. The
institute is developing improved methods of
processing, storing, and preserving food materials and
has produced a protein -rich dairy product which
includes buffalo milk, peanut meal, and skim milk
powder. A feasibility study is underway on a field
testing instrument for use in the assay of fortified and
high protein staple and processed foods. Irradiation of
foodstuffs is being carried out, and tests are underway
on preservation, prevention of infestation, and
pasteurization. The medical aspects of radiation are
being studied in conjunction with the Indian nuclear
energy program, and it training course in food
irradiation is given at the BARC.
In the area of family planning, India is undertaking
extensive demographic research and studies in
reproductive biology and fertility control. Drug and
mechanical contraceptive devices are being developed
by the Central Drug Research Institute.
Military medical research for the three services is
conducted by the Defense Institute of Physiology and
Allied Sciences at New Delhi, tit Defense Research
Laboratory (Materials) at Kanpur, and the Institute of
Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences at Delhi. The
emphasis is on high altitude and mountain warfare
operations, especially on i,;:xl and water requirements,
pulmonary edema, and injuries sustained under cold
weather conditions. The Indian Air Force School of
Aviation Medicine at Bangalore conducts research on
aviation physiology, including light flash effect,
particular,'y on night vision, factors affecting mental
and psychomotor functions of aircrews, and the effect
of tropucal heat and humidity on personnel during
preflighi procedures. Research related to naval
physiology concerns close living on submarines and
ships, noise on aircraft carriers, arterial Lir embolism
during ascent from hallow dives, and speed
perception.
The Indian veterinary medical research capability is
limited. Veterinary research is primarily applied and
oriented to the animal diseases of major economic
significance. The Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, with laboratories at Izatnagar and
Mukteswar, both in Uttar Pradesh, has an active
program to develop methods for large -scale
production of effective vaccines for hemorrhagic
septicemia and rinderpcst. Veterinary research also is
carried out by the Institute of Veterinary Preventive
Medicine at Ranippettai (formerly Ranipet) and the
Central Leather Research Institute at Bangalore. In
geacral, research emphasizes the development of
improved vaccines and biologicals and of methods for
quantity production. The animal diseases of major
importance are foot and -mouth disease, Nesscastic
disease, rinderpcst, tuberculosis, salmonellosis,
anaplasmosis, brucellosis, rabies, and glanders.
Infectious infertility diseases, especially vibriosis and
trichomoniasis, are a major cause of economic loss to
the livestock industry. Significant financial support is
provided by the U.S. Agency for International
Development, the U.N. Food and Agriculture
Organization, the United Kingdom, and private
foundations.
6. Other sciences (S)
a. Chemistry and metallurgy
A substantial amount of research in chernistry and
metallurgy is conducted. Although much of it is
routine and lacks originality, the research has been of
sufficiently high duality to offer satisfactory solutions
to many of the problems associated with materials
development. The universities devote a large part of
their effort and personnel to basic chemical research.
Most of the applied research is done in such facilities
as the BARC, the National Chemical Lahoratorv, the
Central Elect rocheinicaI Research Institute at
Karaikkudi, and various central and regional
laboratories set up for specific fields of chemical
research. Chemical and metallurgical research by
private industry is very weak.
India appears strongest in ooganic chernistrv, and
some of the be.,, research has been done in this area.
Nigh quality hasic research has heen clone on the
isolation, characterization, and synthesis of natural
products derived from native plants. Probably the best
work is done by researchers at the Uni%ersity of Delhi
under the direction of T. R. Seshadri on chalcones,
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flavonoid compounds, coumarins, terpenes, plant
pigments, and other natural products. The Punjab
University has an active research program on
terpenoids and on heterocyclic compounds containing
both nitrogen and sulfur. The Institute of Science at
the University of Bombay stresses research in organic
chemistry, particularly the synthesis and reactions of
heterocyclic compounds. The National Chemical
Laboratory is strong in organic chemical research and
is doing research on the synthesis of heterocyclic
compounds, such as azulenes, thiophenes and relater]
compounds, and epoxides. It recently has become
interested in the synthesis and reactions of isocyanates.
Considerable work is done on anthraquinone and
violanthrone dyes and on the applications of nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrome-
try to problems concerning dyes. Only a small amount
of research is devoted to polymers, synthetic fibers,
and synthetic rubber, fields of chemistry that receive
extensive study in the more industrially advanced
countries. In general there is only limited activity in
physical organic chemistry, partly because of a
shortage of modern instruments at most laboratories.
Research in biochemistry is very weak. Some
research is pursued at several facilities, including the
biochemistry department of the All -India institute of
Medical Sciences in New Delhi. The department has
done some research on estrogen binding, brain
ribonucleic acid, and polypeptides.
A considerable amount of research is underway in
inorganic and analytical chemistry. Much of the
research in inorgaude chemistry is concerned with the
study of ferrocyanogen complexes in general, heavy
metal soaps, interaction of metal ions with gelatin,
and polarographic and spectrophotometric studies.
The BARC has been actively working on neutron
activation analysis, spectrographic determination of
metals, and spectrophotometric analysis, particularly
as related to the field of nuclear energy. Many
problems in inorganic chemistry related to the
preparation and processing of nuclear fuels arc studied
in the BARC laboratories. The Indian Institute of
Science, the University of Allahabad, and the
University of Delhi have active programs for the
development of specialized analytical techniques. The
institute has developed an extraction technique which
is used in conjunction with neutron- activation
analysis. Analytical techniques related to soil and
fertilizer chemistry also are being studied by the
Fertilizer Corporation of India at Sindi, several
universities, and agricultural colleges.
Research in physical chemistry is fairly broad and
includes studies on chemical kineticw, structural and
quantum chemistry, surface phenomena and catalysis,
thermodynamics, and electrochemistry. One of the
important physical chemists in the country, Ram C.
Paul of Punjab University, has worked extensively on
Lewis acid complexes and on the properties and uses
of polar solvents such as organic acid chlorides,
dimethylformamide, nitro compounds, and ethyl
acetate. The Central Electrochemical Research
Institute is the major Indian facility for research in the
theoretical and applied aspects of electrochemistry. It
works on electroplating of metals and alloys,
electrolytic and electrothermal processes for
production of metals and chemicals, electrolytic
oxidation and reduction of organic compounds,
corrosion, and corrosion inhibition.
For an underdeveloped country, India conducts a
surprisingly large amount of metallurgical research.
Most of it is of a fundamental nature, however, and is
of little benefit in improving the very low level of
metallurgical technology in the country. The research
is not well ce; rdinated. The effort is supported by
foreign funds, mainly from the United States, the
U.S.S.R., and the United Nations. Most of the
research is undertaken at the National Metallurgical
Laboratory of the CSIR at Jamshedpur and at the
BARC. Some research also is carried out by the Indian
Institutes of Technology in Kharagpur, Kanpur, and
Bombay; the Indian Institute of Science; the Defense
Metallurgical Laboratory in Hyderabad; the National
Aeronautical Laboratory in Bangalore; the University
of Roorkee; and the Banaras Hindu University in
Varanasi. The effort at the institutes of technology is
directed primarily to producing engineers.
Research at the National Maillurgical Laboratory
has concerned a wide variety of subjects including the
benefication and reduction of ferrous and nonferrous
ores, the physical metallurgy of steel, the development
of special steels, oxidation and corrosion studio.;, and
the conservation of critical metals. The laboratory
operates several pilot plants, a corrosion research
station at Dighw; in West Bengal, and a foundry
station at Batala.
The Defense Research Laboratory, a well- equipped
and staffed facility, conducts research on military
metallurgical problems. Considerable research has
been conducted on corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking of military hardware. Studies have been done
oil roasting of copper ores, the powder metalbirgy of
copper, coatings for refractory metals, expo sive
welding, and stress corrosion cracking of low-alloN and
stainless steels. The National Aeronautical laboratory
has done considerable high quality research on
recry�stallization, age hardening in aluminum alloys,
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and creep and rupture of heat- resistant alloys. The
laboratory excels in crystallography and electron
microscopy.
The BARC has carried out extensive research on
materials for nuclear application. The work has
concerned the production of nuclear metals, the
fabrication of nuclear grade zirconium alloy mill
products, the cladding of fuel elements, corrosion of
nuclear metals, and the effects of radiation on the
properties of structural materials.
Most of the university conducted research is done at
the University of Roorkee and the Banaras Hindu
University. The main area of research is metal physics,
especially the electronic structure of metals and alloys.
b. Physics and mathematics
Although India possesses the potential for
conducting research in a number of subfields of
physics, capabilities with few exceptions are low. In
general, efforts underway are only attempts to refine
research done by other countries 10 to 20 years ago.
Almost half of the physics research is devoted to the
broad areas of solid -state physics. Research in high
and low- energy nuclear physics also is stressed. The
remaining subfields of physics receiving a significant
amount of attention are optics, gravitation and
relativity, atomic and molecular physics, acoustics and
ultrasonics, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) of fluids,
and quantum electronics. A large -Amount of research
is done in theoretical physics because of the lack of
equipment needed to conduct experimental research.
The best physics research is carried out by the BARC,
the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, the Saha
Institute of Nuclear Physics, and the Indian Institutes
of Technology at Bombay and Kanpur.
Solid -state physics research has concentrated on the
study of properties of materials. Research in
crystallography is done in the universities and supports
the solid -state physics research effort. Physicists are
studying crystal structures of many semiconductor
elements and compounds. Some research has been
done on the preparation, purification, and growth of
single crystals of indium antimonide which can be
utilized for further developments of photosensitive
elements. The Solid -State Physics Laboratory in New
Delhi is active and modern.
India is doing a limited amount of basic research in
nuclear physics, f lost of the universities and technical
institutes conduct research in the field, but most
of it is of an academic nature related to advanced
degrees. High -en rgy nuclear physicists are investigat-
ing many aspects associated with nuclear structures
and energy levels and are highly competent in their
theoretical studies dealing with hadron scattering and
interactions. Some work has been done in cosmic ray
research with the support of the United States, the
United Kingdom, and Japan. Research in low energy
nuclear physics is devoted to the study of reactions and
decay schemes associated with isotopes. The most
impressive work, although conventional by world
standards, is being done at the Saha Institute of
Nuclear Physics, where investigators are studying
neutron emission from prompt fragments in the fission
of excited nuclei.
A modest amount of research is being carried out in
physical and geometrical optics, with most of the work
concentrated at the National Physical Laboratory and
the Indian Institutes of Technology in Bombay and
Delhi. Physical optical research is closely related to the
study of (lark field images u:;fler coherent
illumination. A significant portion of optical physics
research is related to spectroscopy and dark- ground
microscopy. Some geometrical opti research is
related to optical components associated with lasers.
Among the many applications of lasers being
investigated are uses for communications and
holography. Most of the laser research occurs at the
Institute of Technology in Bombay, where the effort is
centered on holography.
Research in theoretical physics has stressed the study
of gravitational fields and relativity. Most of such
studies are underway at the Institute of Theoretical
Physics and various larger universities. Some
experimental work is underway on a limited scale on
the effects of varying axial magnetic fi ^Ids on the
stability of gravitating cylinders.
Research in atomic and molecular physics is
concerned with studies dealing with Raman, infrared,
vibrational, and emission spectra of various chemical
compounds associated with organic molecules.
Ultrasonics and acoustics research is limited to the
study of shock waves by researchers at the Defense
Science Laboratory. The Indians are showing an
increasing interest in MHD. Studies are theoretical
and have concerned the general theory of hydromag-
netic wave propagation in a magnetoactive plasma.
The best research is centered at the Institute of
Technology in Bombay where all aspects or M HD and
magnetogasdynam cs are being explored.
Contributions in mathematics have been insig
nificant. The quantity of research has increased since
1966 but is still meager and generally of low quality.
The emphasis has been on applied statistics !a.gely
because of strong governmental support and
encouragement, which is based on the need for
accurate and practical statistical methods for
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population surveys and governmental planning
operations, The Indian Statistical Institute in Calcutta
conducts research in the field and acts as a consumer
research organization. The Indians have begun
research in analysis, especially in fun. -tion theory and
infinite series. Mathematicians at the universities are
maintaining some interest in sets, logic:, and number
theory, but the research is superficial. There is some
interest in differential geometry, but no activity in
topology.
India has had modest computer research and
development projects at the National Computing
:enter of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
and at BARC; most of the Indian applications,
however, have depended on imported computers. The
BARC has developed a small computer, the TDC -12.
India also has made some computer ancillary devices
under license and has negotiated with the United
States and West European countries for licenses to
produce electronic components and circuits for both
domestic use and export. Several Indian facilities have
received technical advice and a few models of
computers and related devices from the U.S.S.R. The
government has established a National Computer
Corporation with headquarters at New Delhi. India is
a member of the International Federation of
Operations Research Societies but has not made any
contribution to this branch of mathematics.
e. Astrogeoph; diea! sciences
Research in astrr._ :omy is increasing. The most
important center of research is the Nizamiah
Observatory of Osmania University of Hyderabad.
The section of the observatory near Rangapuram, 40
miles southeast of Hyderabad, is equipped with a 48-
inch reflector supplied by the United States. The
Department of Astronomy at the university, together
with the observatory, has been designated a Center of
Advanced Study in Astronomy by the University
Grants Commission. The observatory has participated
in the international preparation of astrographic
catalogs and during 1965 cooperated with Mount
Wilson Observatory, California, for the measurement
of star radials. It also has conducted studies of variable
stars and theoretical studies on the dynamics of
galaxies and of close binary systems. The observatory
is the best equipped in southern Asia and is important
to international astronomy because there is no other
low latitude observatory of comparable capability
between Egypt and Japan. Other optical astronomical
research, some of which is solar, is conducted at the
Astrophysical Observatory, Kodaikanal, of the Indi-
Meteorological Department. Research in astrophysics
also is carried out by the Uttar Pradesh State
Observatory at Naini Tal and the Department of
Physics and Astrophysics of the University of Delhi,
designated a Center of Advanced Study in Theoretical
Physics and Astrophysics by the University Grants
Commission.
While a minor amount of research is clone
elsewhere, the principal facility for radio astronomical
research is the radio telcscop., at Ootacamund, in
southern India. It was designed and built under the
direction of the Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research and became operational in 1970. Located
near the earths geographical equator, it is unique in
that its longitudinal axis is parallel to that of the earth,
permitting it to follow radio sources continuously for
up to 9 hours 30 minutes. The telescope will be used to
study radio emissions from distant galaxies and from
pulsars and quarsars.
India is active in ionospheric: and radiophysical
research, and individual scientists have clone
outstanding research in the fields. The Institute of
Radio Physics and Electronics of the University of
Calcutta has been designated a :enter of Advanced
Study for Radio Physics and Electronics. Ionospheric
and radio propagation .studies are conducted by a
11111 -bcr of other organizations, notably the Radio
Propagation Unit of the National Physical Lal::)ia-
tory, New Delhi, and the Physical Research
Laboratory of the Ahmadabad Education Society,
Ahmadabad. Research has included, in addition to
making ionosonde observations, ionospheric absorp-
tion and drift studies, Faraday rotation measurements
of satellite transmission, and very low frequency
propagation investigations. Airglow and cosmic ray
studies also are made, the latter mainly by the Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research and the Physical
Research laboratory.
Meteorological research is largely of an applied
nature. Emphasis has been placed on data collection
and transmission and on designing and producing
instruments. India has a well established weather
service, the India Meteorological Department; it is
headquartered in New Delhi and aas an Institute of
Tropical Meteorology in Parr. The dcpartr,rnt and
institute have cmpha :zcd research on rainfall in
India. Work in weather forecasting is not highly
advanced, but gtxod work is clone ill the study of
monsoons and the general circulation cf the
atmo.phere. A U.S. installed automatic picture
transmission (APT) receiver is located at &ombay to
receive transmission from U.S. meteorological
satellites. Other receivers are located at Calcutta. New
Delhi, and Madras. India is establishing a radar
F]
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stctrin- w4rrli nit Ihtsswl altnig I's cwsta alwl o ltlnp
wvrfli111. and rrw3rc+ cenlcr at %IQjCaL
Shave Ihr catty IIX N Indio lwt dre'rkgwd and
sulost:eltr i I}' lnalntolurd all ardlse,dlgxt ulnecrliberkt:
Irieatth prnKram. T'Iuaslgh its 1ru111dpxtintl III
irlle"Wirmul Progrurns Mimi as a it-Mill 11r lic-nerits
derisrel f rum flerr�lK IM1111ml a� i sla lcr. Ihr oeuntry
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auwimrd wirntts, padlnslatly Ilwsse rllolinR to
ctunmunlevtknes Ilk- Irwliatni ltatr evnductrd wilh
the Sot'irts n tcIlading rclrket ptlegram for
InhietoruleKlral P11rlxncs tnrr Ihr lust hullo&
100, NI-1110 Ifrekrh vV r 1lrlenchr'd. 'I ltr up 1wr
al ntmpllrric &matt h prnR ranr rrmirrd u lrlx6l is 19111
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111 Pmdure the Cenfoun'. T1w Rni %Ullch or Able
1nrll2n�asanuiueiutrd Ctslboure eururrrd In Frhneiii
1969, Tlic Irt-hiticul lslow' aolniletr in Iltc
prsiloctitat III the CcA lalue bar eltal;Ilyd Indi: to
dm-drl}i its am wsurniidK hx:kt^t pmum. Tile lint of
Iho rinlrlc .IaRe Qafsl"I U'F'.as wr.1 lest n" iti
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In's oge sounding nxW. m Ie+l flertl i late I4ifA.
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lw Aolrini and Almelo wait-+ Are w0er drsrlopmenl.
Irulia alw 4 de rloping a four- stag,& xdid prupe1111k11
wirtlltt' ixnricb trlIiqr %ilh is liftclff mtIgh of 17
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Iabepwri rrlxwtrd that Pnrtut }pr fltbtirAlirnr of
bH11;1*t fiat Wrltltr is ulldrlst:ry The 2-WLg Rahlnl
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Smiti C js prw6 laUlw'h vrhide fmrn u 641101 Imd lib
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