NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 26; SOVIET UNION; TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

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U.S.S.R.
CONTENTS
Thfs chapter sup, rsedes the transportation, and
telecommunication coverage in the General
Surrey dated March 1971.
A. Appraisal
B. Strctegic mobility
C. Railroads ......I
D. Highways
E. Inland watem ays
F. Pipelines
G. Forts
IL Merchant marine
I. Civil air
J. Airfields I
X Telecommunications
SECP -rT
1
3
4
11
19
34
39
56
61
65
76
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FIGURES
ii
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Page
Page
Fig. 1
Electrification on the Trans Siberian
Fig. 19
Ships constructed for the Soviet
railroad (photo)
5
merchant fleet (table)
60
Fig. 2
Selected principal railroad lines
Fig. 20
Merchant and fishing ships exported
(table)
6
by the U.S.S.R. (table)
61
Fig. 3
French -built electric locomotive
Fig. 21
Soviet aircraft (photos)
photo)
10
Fig. 22
Selected major airfields table)
68
Fig. 4
ER -1 electric trainset (photo)
11
Fig. 23
Other important airfields table)
72
Fig. 5
Soviet highways photos)
13
Fig. 6
Selected principal highway routes
Fig. 24
Comparison of telecom densities
(table)
14
(chart)
77
Fig. 7
Major lock installation photo)
22
Fig. 25
National Telegraph Center, Moscow
Fig. 8
Section of Krasnoyarsk port complex
photo)
78
Kota p s e n g e
(p
24
Fig. 26
Selected long- distance cable and
Fig. 9
Meteor -class 150- passenger hydrofoil
carrier telephone systems table)
80
photo)
25
Fig. 27
Selected radio -relay equipment
Fig. 10
4,000- horsepower towboat photo)
26
table)
81
Fig. 11
Baltiskiy class dry-cargo vessel
Fig. 28
Communications satellite facilities
Kota
26
(photos)
82
Fig. 12
Selected principal inland waterways
Fig. 29
Television standards (table)
84
(table)
27
Fig. 30
Ostankino TV Center in Moscow
Fig. 13
Selected major petroleum pipeline
(photo)
85
systems (table)
35
Fig. 31
Selected principal railroad lines
Fig. 14
Selected major natural gas pipeline
map) follows 86
systems (table)
37
Fig. 32
Selected principal highway routes
Fig. 15
Odessa photo)
40
map)
do
Fig. 16
Nakhodka photo)
41
Fig. 33
Selected inland waterways map)
do
Fig. 17
Major ports table)
42
Fig. 34
Selected major pipeline systems
Fig. 18
Merchant fleet strengths by base area
map)
do
table)
60
Fig. 35
Terrain and transportation map)
do
ii
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Transportation and
Telecommunications
A. Appraisal (C)
The transportation and telecommunications
(telecom) systems of the U.S.S.R. have not vet reached
a stage of adequac for all sectors of the national
economy and are undergoing improvements in
varying degrees. The transportation industry, in
particular, is suffering from poor bureaucratic
planning and inept operating practices.
Major developments in telecommunications and in
virtually every mode of transportation are taking place
through the governments continuing Five Year Plans.
Progress in the growth and development of better
facilities, however, is perhaps at a rate slower than
Soviet planners anticipate or desire. The continental
expanse of the Soviet Union, with its vast areas of
sparse population and much of its terrain and climate
hostile to the construction and maintenance of
transport and telecom facilities, is apparently the main
hindrance to this progress. Development of
transportation and telecom facilities is especiall
difficult or virtually impossible in the Siberian Arctic
and sub- Arctic regions where foundations are
seasonally unstable because of swamps, permafrost,
and miry tundra soils.
Distribution of the transportation and telecom
systerns is uneven. The hest developed and most
heavily utilized portions of these systems lie in
European U.S.S.R. with Moscow" as it focal point; in
sharp contrast, the remaining area (approximately
60% of the U.S.S.R.) is serviced by a sparse pattern of
transport routes and telecorn facilities (Figure 35). The
'For diacritics on place names sec the list of names on the apron
of the Terrain and "transportation map amt the nwp itself.
east -west oriented Trans- Siberian rail line (Omsk to
Vladivostok) provides the sole overland connecting
link between the eastern and western transportation
networks. In European U.S.S.R. the railroads and
highways, and to a lesser extent the waterways,
parallel each other in many areas. In the central and
eastern parts of the U.S.S. R. the transportation lines
tend to form it complementary pattern; this is
especially characteristic of the central Soviet regions
where several north south oriented giant river systems
feed into the Tracts- Siberian rail route from the north,
while it number of roads connect with the railroad
from border connections to the south.
Except for the lack of rail connections with Norway,
overland international connections via rail or highway
are made with all adjacent countries. Inland
waterways provide direct connections only with
Communist China, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Iran,
Romania, Poland, and Finland; however, the inland
fleet, using its river /seagoing vessels in combination
with smaller river craft can navigate to the remaining
adjacent countries via the Black Sea or the Danube
River.
The transportation and telecom systems are state
owned and are controlled by various ministries of the
Soviet bweaucracy. Traditionally, government
policies have favored the development of railroads as
the backbone of the overall surface transportation
complex. As a result, the nations transportation
system lacks the desired balance and coon dinaEon
between the various modes, the railroads are
overburdened, waterways are underutilized, and roads
are qualitatively underdeveloped. There are, however,
manifestations of it gradual change in government
emphasis relative to transportation facilities. Soviet
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rail managers are increasingly siphoning off more of
the traffic normally handled by rail to other modes
the passengers to air or bus transport, and sonic freight
to rivers, trucks, and pipelines. In line with this trend,
the government is gradnally expanding its autonwtive
industry, paving more roads, enlarging truck and port
terminals, and constructing more pipelines.
Over the years the railroads have continually
outperformed all other modes of transport combined,
in terms of long -haul traffic. This dominance is
reflected in statistics for 1972 which indicate that of
the total 2,193.1 billion short- tun -miles accomplished
by the three major surface transportation modes,
railroad, accounted for over 86` %f', highways SSA, and
inland waterways less than 65( The railroads are also
the chief means of passenger travel and, although their
share of this traffic has been declining, in 1972
accounted for over 60% of the passengers transported.
The highway system, while more extensive than the
railroads and waterways, is only 15Si paved. Used
mainly for short -haul and feeder services, motor
transport is gradually assuming r.uore of the rail short
distance traffic, and trucking now accounts for over
Wi, of the freight moved by surface transport
facilities.
Soviet inland waterways, despite their limited areal
distribution and lack of east -west oriented routes, are
growing in importance to the national eccnomy�
especially in the movement of raxw materials to
developing industries. An expanding river /seagoing
fleet is increasing the international- traffic capability
of inland waterway vessels.
The rapidly growing pipeline system is in important
adjunct to the other surface transport modes but
remains inadequate for national requirements �the oil
industry still relying on rail and waterway carriers for
the transport of significant amounts of crude ail to
refineries and industrial consumers; in 1972, for
example, the railroads accounted for about 44.551 of
the total petroleum transported.
Cavil air transport accounts for a comparatively
small amount of domestic passenger and cargo traffic
but is nevertheless significant for long distance travel
and for providing services to isolated communities of
the interior that are not reached by other nodes of
transportation. Aeroflot, the sole Soviet civil airline, is
the world's largest and flies to 66 countries in all
continents except Australia. The Aeroflot fleet is
estimated to total over 7,700 aircraft, most of .which
are light aircraft including helicopters and special
purpose types used for training or utility and liaison
services. The civil air fleet is not expected to expand
further; the probability is rather the opposite since the
current trend is to replace Aeroflot's lighter aircraft
with modern aircraft of greater capacities. Airfields in
the Soviet Union are fairly well (list rihuted and
adequately serve the needs of both commercial and
military aircraft.
The Soviet merchant marine, which early in 1973
ranked fifth in number of ships and eighth in
dead-weight tonnage among the merchant fleets of the
world, plies shipping routes reaching over 100
countries. Expansion of the fleet has slowed in recent
years in contrast to the rapid rate of ship acquisition
during the 1960'x; this slowdown may be attributed in
part to the governments efforts to develop prototypes
of more sophisticated ships, and also to the increasing
exportation of Soviet -built vessels. Soviet seaborne
trade, which it is estimated totaled 150 million tons in
1972, is supported by some 180 major and minor ports
adequately distrihnted along the various seacoasts. Of
growing signfficancc is the establishment of container
facilities at some of the mayor ports.
The Soviet telecom complex is basically extensive
and comparable in many respects to systems found in
the more advanced nations of the ,world. But
satisfactory telecom services are still lacking in many
communities; for example, on a per capita basis there
are now only about five general- purpose telephones
per 100 persons. The government is, however, airing
to establish a modern and versatile telecom system for
the entire country.
The Soviets current live Year Plan (1971 -75) has
provided for significant improvements to the
transportation and telecom systems. Among the major
projects underway or planned are the following:
Railroads� construction of some new lines, double
tracking the remaining single -track trunk lines, ac-
quisition of some new motive power and rolling stock,
expansion of electrification.
Highways Increasing the amount of paved routes,
construction of bypasses or circumferential highways
around some major cities, establishment of more fueling
and repair stations, improving truck terminals.
Inland waterways� Expansion of some of the port
facilities, development of new ports, installation of new
handling equipment especially for container operations,
continue modernization of the river fleet.
Maritime ports Development of some new ports;
improve existing facilities including reconstruction of
wharves and construction of special berths for container
ships; modernization and expansion of several shipyards.
Merchant marine Continue fleet modernization, ac-
quisition of 550 new ships.
Pipelines� Construction of additional crude -oil lines,
extensic,n of CEMA Friendship) system.
Civil Air Replacement of older aircraft with larger,
modern types; expansion of international services.
Telecommunications Modernization and expansion
of facilities including new intercity communications and
TV relay networks, automation of intercity telegraph
and telephone facilities, expansion of local telephone
services, improve broadcasting facilities, expand color
TV.
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B. Strategic mobility (S)
The transportation systems of the U.S.S.R. could
provide substantial support for it,tcrnal military
logistical operations, but any large -scale movement of
forces would be severely limited by the uneven areal
distribution of routes, physical deficiencies of the
networks, and various en', ironmental factors.
Regionally, European U. S. S. R., which has the
heaviest concentration of overland routes, affords
military forces the greatest degree of mobilih�; in
contrast the sparsity of the surface transport networks
elsewhere in the U. S. S. R. would i,nposc severe
limitations on force movements.
Owing to the enormity of the U.S.S.R., great
distances would generally be involved in tilt�
movement of troops and supplies, specially if
logistical support lines had to extend from European
U.S.S.R. to the central and far eastern regions.
The railroads would be the mainstay of any internal
overland militim supple movement, with the
highways and inland waterways playing supplemen-
tim roles. The most strategic and high capacity rail
lines are those extending frorn Moscow and Leningrad
to the Baltic and Black Sea areas, those that afford
international connections with neighboring countries,
and the "Trans- `;;berian line and its extensions. Because
of many bridge crossings, most of the cast -west rail
trunk lines are highly vulnerable to interdiction.
Except for i"inland and Mongolia, cross border
movement from the U.S.S.R. into the adjacent
countries is cotttPlicated by the differences in rail
gages, which necessitate transloading delays of up to 6
hours for troop trains moving with equipment.
The capability of the highway systern to support
major militar operations is seve�rcly limited by the
insufficient number of paved arterial routes. Most
roads are inferior types having low supporting
characteristics. European U.S.S.R., which has the
greatest density of roads and most of the paved
mileage, affords considerable flexibility of movement
for motorized forces. In the central and eastern regions
of the country, the sparse and poor quality roaelnets
have extremely limited capacities, and road
movement for large -scale military operations would be
generally confined to deployment to or from railheads
along the "Trans- Siberian rail route. Like the railroads,
the major points of interdiction on the roadnet are the
bridges over the nunerous watercourses. The
Caucasus, the Urals, and otber mountainous regions
are also areas where motor convovs would be
vulnerable to interdiction.
Adverse climatic conditions �hcayy snws, ice
conditions, freezing temperatures, the spring thaw,
and seasonal rains and floods �would seriously
hamper overland military operations.
The inland waterway system provides an important,
but slower, means of transporting both troops and
supplies. Because of military exigencies, Soviet
waterways probable would play it minor role in any
initial reinforcement or logistical movement; howcycr,
over a prolonged supple and resupply period of
operations, they could serve as effective long distance
lines of communication over which large tonnages of
military equipment and supplies� including 1`01,�
could be transported at it sustained rate of delivery.
The major Soviet waterways arc amply equipped with
night navigational aids allowing for 24 -hour
operations and have relatively modern river fleets and
port facilities, some of which could be readily made
available for military use. Soviet inland witterway
cargo craft are capable of transporting various types of
military bardware and supplies including such items
as tracked vehicles, armored trucks, personnel carriers,
missiles, and components loo large: for transport by
other modes. Additionally, nuncrous units of the
inlauid fleet could easily be converted into hospital
ships, troop carriers, antiaircraft barges, patrol craft,
and minesweepers. The Greater Volga waterways
system provides extensive high- capacity routes for
logistical movements from interior points deep within
European U.S.S.R. to maritime and river ports along
the Baltic, White, Black, and Caspian Seas where
cargoes would, as necessary, be transloaded to
oceangoing vessels and traussbipped to overland
modes of transportation. A major weakness of the
inland waterways system is the winter ice conditions.
which prevent navigation for periods of from 2 to 9
months �these periods depending on the geographic
locale. Serious interdiction or complete stoppat *,c to
through traffic movements could be achieved by
destruction of the vulnerable dam and lock
installations.
TlIv Soviet merchant fleet would provide
substantial scalift logistic support for military
operations: its cargo vessels have it combined lift
capability of more than 7.8 million long tons, and its
passenger ships excluding the combination car-
go; lrssenger hypes �could transport over 24,000
troops. Tile 278 merchant tanker vessels could provide
for it scalift of over -1.5 million tons of POI.. "file
maritime interregional scalift capability could be
asgnuvthed by the inland waterways river /seagoing
fleet of From S00 to -100 vessels whose capacities range
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from 1,850 to 5,000 tons; additionally, vessels of the
sizeable fishing fleet could be converted to carry troops
and military equipment. The maritime fleet is
adequately dispersed in the Baltic and Black Seas and
along the coasts of the Arctic and Far East regions.
Marine movement is restricted in some areas
especially along the Arctic seacoast� during seasonal
periods of fast ice conditions.
Mobilization of Aeroflot personnel and equipment
for military purposes would entail relatively minor
technical and administrative adjustments. The
carrier's military potential is enhanced by the fact that
many of the different types of Soviet manufactured
transport aircraft are in common use by both military
and civil aviation. Transition from a civil to a military
role would require only minor modifications. In
addition, a substantial number of Aeroflot flight
personnel are reservists in the air forces, and all
employees are believed to hold mobilization
assignments. The Ministry of Civil Aviation and
several of his deputies are military officers. Personnel
and equipment of civil airfields, air traffic control
centers, and aircraft maintenance and overhaul bases
are readily available and provide equipped
installations for rapid conversion to military use. If all
heavy and medium transports in the civil fleet were
made available to the military, it is estimated that
military cargo airlift capability would increase by 25%
and troop airlift more than double. Most Aeroflot
aircraft are not particularly well suited for military use
because they are not rear loading and cannot be used
for the transport of large vehicles. However, nearly all
of them could be �and on several occasions some have
been �used for transporting troops.
The telecom systems could adequately support
military operations. Owing to the many facilities
available for alternate routing and the special
measures taken to protect telecom systems, total
disruption of services by military action would be
difficult.
C. Railroads (S)
The 81,500 -route -mile U.S.S.R. railroad network,
owned and operated by the government, occupies the
primary position in the Soviet transportation industry,
handling most of the long -haul freight transportation.
In many areas the railroads are hard- pressed to handle
freight traffic requirements, particularly during the
harvest seasons. To cape with the problem, the
government is investing heavily iii modernizing
railroads and equipment and in constructing new
lines. The present network� compared with the U.S.
212,000- route -mile system� comprises the second
largest railroad complex in the world. Most of the
trackage is in the west; eastward the network
gradually becomes a series of individual lines running
to Siberia, Central Asia, and the Soviet Far East. The
network density is lower than that of any other
developed country in the world �only 0.96 mile of
mainline track per 100 square miles of territory.
Moscow, the largest rail center, has 11 lines radiating
in all directions and is served by two circumferential
lines. Foremost among other rail centers are
Leningrad, Sverdlovsk, Kharkov, and Chelyabinsk.
The highest freight densities occur on lines joining the
Donets Basin with Moscow, Leningrad, and regions of
the Ukraine, and on those connecting the Kuznetsk
Basin with the Ural mountains. The highest freight
flow intensity on a single line is probably that along
the Omsk Novosibirsk sector of the Trans Siberian
railroad.
The gage of the track on most Soviet railroads is
5'0" as compared to standard gage (-1'8'/2 used in
the United States and most of the other countries of
the world. Most narrow -gage trackage on the Russian
mainland is 2'i 1 gage, and the relatively small
network on the island of Sakhalin is predominately
3'6" gage. As of 1 January 1973, the mainland
network totaled 81,506 route -miles of which 82,269
miles were broad -gage lines and 2,237 miles narrow
gage. About 72% of the broad -gage net is single track;
most of the remainder is double track. Roughly 26% of
the network is electrified (Figure 1), and about 61
uses mostly diesel traction. Steam traction, in use in
only 13% of the system, is disappearing rapidly.
International connections are made with the rail
systems of all adjacent countries except Norway.
Afghanistan has no rail system, but the border is
crossed by a short broad -gage extension of a U.S.S.R.
branch line. Except for the 5'0" -gage networks of
Finland and Mongolia, all international connections
are with standard -gage (4'8 systems and
transloading is necessary. The 24 change -of -gage
points connecting the U.S.S.r.. rail network with the
systems of the Eastern European Communist countries
use the densest concentration of transloading facilities
in the world. Other transloading sites are located on
both sides of borders with Turkey, Iran, Communist
China, and Nor Korea. All goods moving through
the transloading zones usually must be transferred to
the cars of the receiving country since rolling stock
trucks are interchanged only on relatively few freight
cars and on certain Russian passenger coaches.
Development work on an automatic dual -gage
wheelset, carried on for many years, may have been
discontinued.
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,t
1
2
Since most of the railroad network traverses plains
and lowlands, grades are generally low, the steeper
grades and most tunnels are situated in mountainous
areas ;long the -southern edges of the country. Rail
operations are affected by great variations in climate,
ranging from the winters of Siberia to the subtropical
summers of Turkestan. Snow clearance during the
long winters is often it m: for problem. Characteristics
of selected principal rail 1. 's are tabulated in Figure 2
and the lines are shown on Figure 31.
The standard rail is of the T- section type the R -50
(103.8 pounds per yard), R -65 (130.8 pounds per
yard), and the R -75 (151.4 pounds per yard) are the
principal rails used on main lines. Lighter rails,
ranging from 67.4 to 87.8 pounds per yard, are used
elsewhere. Rails are produced by Soviet rolling mills in
lengths of -11 and fit feet. For "seamless track the 82-
foot .rails are prewelded into 2,625 foot lengths.
Wooden crossties predominate and continue to be
used throughout the system, prestressed reinforced
concrete ties, which are preferred, are used in most
new mainline constriction and in reconstruction of
important routes. As of 1 January 1973, roughly
10,000 miles of line had been placed on concrete ties.
Because of nume waterw the railroad system
has many bridges. Steel -truss construction is most
common for large- hridges, and steel girder and
concrete slat) for smaller hridges. Double -trick bridges
are uncommof., in following a generally worldwide
practice, the Soviet rail planners add second tracks
(and second hridges) only when increased traffic
justifies the expenditure. 'funnels are !ocated mostly in
the Caucasus and Sayan Mountains, on the Trans
Siberian line sections around southern Lake Baikal,
and between Ulan -Ude and Khabarovsk. The Amur
river tunnel at Khabarovsk, built as a backup facility
for the single -track bridge situated just south, is the
only known underwater railroad tunnel in the
U.S.S.R. Railroad ferries cross the Amur (Kom-
somol'sk -na- Amore- Pivan'), the Caspian Sea (Baku
Krasnovodsk), and Kerch* strait (K.rym- Kavkaz).
Longstanding plans call for additional routes +cross
the Caspian and for a connection with the island of
Sakhalin (Sovetskaya Cavan- Kholmsk).
The nianual -block sy stem of train control is
employed on about 60 of the bread -gage network;
automatic block, supplemented by Centralized Traffic
Control, is used on about 33,600 route miles, including
the most important lines. Locomotives operating
within automatic -block territory are usually equipped
with call signals and automatic- train -stop devices.
The principal means of rails )ad communications is the
telephone; all railroad stations are connected t)v an
independent railroad telephone network, and a
separate telephone system enables the Ministry to sat
up conferences with the 26 regional railroads.
Strategically placed radio stations supplement the
telephone lines and serve as backup facilities in the
event of line failure.
Most Soviet locomotives are powered by diesel fuel
or electricity. The relatively few steam locomotives
still in service use mazut (a petroleum residual) or coal.
Provision of water presents no difficulty.
In 1972 the railroads carried 3,477.7 million short
tons of freight and producz:r! 1,891.4 billion ton miles.
During the same year they carried 3,053.4 million
passengers and produced 170.6 billion passenger
miles. Suburban passengers, mostly commuters,
purchased about 90% of all tickets sold and accounted
for approximately 27% of the passenger miles. In 1970
gross and net weights of freight trains amounted to
2,837.3 and 1,611.5 short tons, respectively; freight car
turnaround was 5.5 days, and the average length of
haul was 535 miles. Chief commodities normally
transported are coal and coke, petroleum, ores, ferrous
metal products, lumber and other building materials,
and grain.
5
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FIG:'tE 1. Electrification on the Trans
Siberian railroad (Line 8) near Lake
Baykal (U /OU)

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0' FIGURE 2. Selected principal railroad lines
(5'0" broad gage. Direction of maximum grades no)
LINE LOCATION AND LENGTH (SEE
NO. MAP, Flu. 31) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OPERATIONS
1 Moscow- Leningrad; 403.9 miles.. All double track. Nlax. grade, 0.5
radius of curvature, 2,865 ft.
2 Moscow -Brest (Poland border); All double track. Max. grade, 0.8%
683.5 miles. radius of curvature, 2,200 ft.
3 Moscow -Vadul Siret (Romania
border); 935.8 miles.
4 Moscow- Sevastopol; 958.1 miles..
5 Bakhmach- Odessa; 413.8 miles..
6 Moscow -Baku; 1,587.6 miles.....
7 Ryazan -Omsk; 1,654.7 miles.....
Arl.. Electrified; automatic block. Average train
speeds, excluding stops: 35 m.p.h. (freight.);
up to 60 m.p.h. (passenger).
Min. Electrified Moscow- Borodino (75.2 miles).
Automatic block. Average train speeds,
excluding stops: 30 m.p.h. (freight).
Single track, 227.5 miles; double track, 708.3
miles (Moscow Zhmerinka). Known max.
grades: Fastov Kazatin, 2.0 Vinnitsa-
Zhmerinku, 0.9 Known min. radius of
curvature: Kazatin Vinnitsa, 656 ft.
Zhmerinka- Oknitsa: max. interval between
passing tracks, 8.1 miles.
Single track, 48.5 miles; double track 909.6
miles. Known max. grades: Kursh -Sim-
feropol, 0.8 Simferopol Sevastopol,
1.2 Known min. radius of curvature:
Kursh- Simferopol, 2,099 ft.; Simferopol
Sevastopol, 984 ft. Simferopol- Sevastopol:
max. interval between passing tracks, 6.8
miles.
Single track, 334.3 miles; double track, 79.5
miles (Kolosovka- Odessa). Known max.
grade, Grebenka Zolotonosha, 0.8
Known min. radius of curvature (Grebenka-
Zolotonosha) 2,100 ft. Serviceable length of
shortest passing track, about 2,000 ft.
All double track. Known max. grades: Rostov
Prokhladnyy, 1.2 Prokhladnyy -Baku,
0.7 Known min. radius of curvature:
Otrozhka- Rostov, 2,099 ft.; Rostov -Baku,
1,049 ft.
All double track. Known max. grades: Kinel-
Kurgan, 1.0 Known min. radius of curva-
ture: Kinel Kurgan, 885 ft.
Electrified Moscow Kazatin (640.6 miles).
Automatic block Moscow Zhmerinka. Aver-
age train speeds, excluding stops: Moscow
Kazaiin, 30 m.p.h. (freight).
Electrified; automatic block Moscow -Sim-
feropol; manual 'block Simferopol-Sevas-
topol. Known train speeds, excluding stops:
Moscow- Simferopol, 35 m.p.h. (freight).
Electrified Pomoshnaya Odessa (170.2 miles).
Manual block Bakhmach Pomoshnaya;
automatic block Pomoshnaya- Odessa.
Known average train speeds, excluding
stops: Pomoshnaya Kolosovka, 30 m.p.h.
(freight); Kolosovka Odessa, 35 m.p.h.
(freight).
Electrified: Moscow Mine:alnyye Vody
(1,069.4 miles), Derbent -Baku (152.8
miles). Automatic block. Average speeds,
including stops, 30 m.p.h. (freight).
REMAPKS
5 major bridges, 480 -1,020 ft. long.
6 major bridges, 330 -550 ft. long.
10 major bridges, 420 -3,060 ft. long.
7 major bridges, 350 -2,000 ft. long; 4
tunnels, 950 -2,000 ft. long.
2 major bridges, 1,650 and 3,700 ft.
long.
19 major bridges, 390 -1,900 ft. long.
All electrified. Average !.rain 4peeds, excluding 12 major bridges, 492 -4,720 ft. long.
stops, 35 m.p.h. (freight).
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S
8 Moscow- Vladivostok; 5,776.9
miles.
9 Moscow Kotelnich; 503.9 miles.
10 Zaudinskiy Naushki (Mongolia
border); 153.5 miles.
11 De...,nevka- Sovetskaya Gavan;
499.0 miles.
12 Baranovskiy- Khasan (Korea bor-
der); 147.3 miles.
13 Ussuriysk- Rassypnaya Pfd (China
border); 72A miles.
14 Tars kaya- Zabaykalsk (China bor-
der); 220.6 miles.
15 Uglovoye Tikhookeanskaya; 108.1
miles.
16 Danilov- Arkhangelsk; 480.3 miles.
17 Leningrad- Vayenga; 917.1 miles..
Footnotes at end of table.
Single track, 318.7 miles; double track, 5,458.2
miles (221.8 miles Moscow Kanilov, 5,236.4
miles Kotelnich- Vladivostok). Ruling grade,
2% in each direction (Irkutsk Sludyanka).
Min. radius of curvature: 738 ft. (Omsk
Novosibirsk). Danilov Kotelnich: max. in-
terval between passing tracks, 9.3 miles.
All double track. Gork Kotelnich: max.
grade, 0.7 min. radius of curvature,
1,738 ft.
All single track. Max. grade, 1.2 Min.
radius of curvature, na. Max. interval be-
tween passing track, 16.7 miles.
All single track. Max. grade, 0.8 Min.
radius of curvature, na. Max. interval be-
tween passing track, 13 miles.
All single track. Max. grade, 1.5 Min.
radius of curvature, na. Max. interval be-
tween passing tracks, 13.6 miles.
All single track. Max. grades, 1.5 Min.
radius of curvature, na. Max. interval L
tween passing tracks, 11.1 miles.
All single track. Max. grade, 1.7 Min.
radius of curvature, 905 ft. Max. interval
between passing track, 13 miles.
All single track. Max. grade and min. radius of
curvature, na. Max. interval betweer, pass-
ing track, 11.8 m2es.
Single track, 80.2 miles; double track, 400.1
miles. Max. grade, 0.8 Min. radius of
curvature, 1,700 ft. Max. interval between
passing tracks, 12.4 miles.
Single track, 784.9 miles; double track, 132.2
miles. Known max. grades: Leningrad
Volkhovstroy, 0.8 Volkhovstroy-Mur-
mans'r, 1.5 Known min. radius of curva-
ture: Leningrad Volkovstroy, 1,968 ft.;
Volkovstroy Petrozavodsk, 1,395 ft.; Petro
zavodsk-Murn.ansk, 1,049 ft. Volkhovstroy-
Belomorsk: max. interval between passing
tracks, 12.0 miles.
Electrified: Moscow Sverdlovsk (1,129.6
miles); Nazyvayevsk- Petrovskiy -Zavod
(2,002.6 miles); Ussuriysk- Vladivostok
(69.6 miles). Automatic block on most of
line. Average train speed, excluding stops,
30 m.p.h. (freight).
Entire line electrified; automatic block. Aver-
age train speed, excluding stops. 35 m.p.h.
(freight).
Manual block. Average train speed, excluding
stops, 25 m.p.h. (freight).
do
83 major bridges, 296 -8,550 ft. long;
4 tunnels, 2,900- 18,480 ft. long.
6 major bridges, 500 -3,680 ft. long.
Broad -gage connection continues into
Mongolia; transloading facilities at
China border (Erh- lien). 4 major
bridges, 650 -1,850 ft. long.
11 major bridges, 300 -2,000 ft. long.
do 14 major bridges, 400 -1,770 ft. long.
do 1 major bridge, 420 ft. long.
do 2 major bridges, 770 -1,300 ft. long.
Entire line electrified. Average train speed, 3 major bridges, 340 -380 ft. 1 ng. 1
excluding stops, about 25 m.p.h. (freight). tunnel, 720 ft. long.
Double track, automatic block Danilov-
Obozerskiy. Average train speeds, excluding
stops: Danilov- Obozerskiy, 30 m.p.h.
(freight). Obozerskiy Arkhangelsk, 25
m.p.h. (freight).
Double track and electrified Leningrad
Volkhovstroy (75.2 miles), Kandalaksha-
Apatity (57.1 miles). Automatic block
throughout. Average train speeds, excluding
stops, 30 -35 m.p.h. (freight).
3 major bridges, 350 -3,500 ft, long.
14 major bridges, 330 -1,244 ft. long.
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Go FIGURE 2. Selected principal railroad lines (S) (Continued)
LINE LOCATION AND LENGTH (SEE
NO. MAP, FIG. 31) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS=
18 Novosibirsk -Arys; 1,559.6 miles..
19 Magnitogorsk- Tayshet; 1,944.6
miles.
Single tri&0, 895.5 miles; double track, 664.1
miles. Known max. grades: Novosibirsk
Semipalatinsk, 0.8 Semipalatinsk -Arys,
1.4 Known min. radius of curvature,
1,749 ft. Novosibirsk Semipalatinsk sector,
984 ft. Semi palatinsk -Arys. Semipalatinsk
Chu: max. interval between passing tracks,
11.8 miles.
Single track, 1,272.7 miles; double track, 721.E
miles. Max. grade, 0.6 Min. radius of
curvature, 1,312 ft. Tselmograd Barnaul:
max. interval between passing tracks, 25.4
miles.
20 Petropavlovsk -Chu; 940.7 miles.
21 Michurinsk- Gudermes; 978.0
miles.
22 Pushkino- Tashkent; 1,480.7 miles.
23 Shepetovka Mostiska (Poland
border); 214.9 miles.
24 Lvov -Chop (Czechoslovakia and
Hungary borders); 165.3 miles.
25 Armavir -Baku; 873.0 miles....
Single track, 715.8 miles; double track, 224.9
miles. Max. grade, na. Min. radius of curva-
ture, 1,312 ft. Petropavlovsk Tselinograd:
max. interval between passing track, 29.3
miles.
Single track, 640 miles; double track, 338
miles. Max. grade, 1.1 Min. radius of
curvature, 1,312 ft. Pushkino- Astrakhan:
max. interval between passing tracks, 12.4
miles.
Single track, 1,326.7 miles; double track, 154
miles. Known max. grades: Dzhusaly -Arys,
0.8 Arys- Tashke, t, 1.6 Known min.
radius of curvature: Dzhusaly -Arys, 2,296
ft.; Arys- Tashkent, 1,968 ft. Yershov-
Iletsk: max. interval between passing track,
10.5 miles.
All double track. Max. grade, 0.8 Min.
radius of curvature, 1,436 ft.
All single track. Max. grade, 2.5 Min.
radius of curvature, na. Max. interval be-
tween passing tracks, 6.8 miles. Dual gage
(5 and 4181/2') Mukachevo -Chop.
Single track, b84.8 miles; double track, 306.2
miles. Max. grade, 2.9 Min. radius of
curvature, 1,049 ft. Komsomisk-na-Amure-
Tbilisi: max. interval between passing
tracks, 6.8 miles.
OPERATIONS
Double track: Novosibirsk Berdsk (24.2
miles), Talmenka- Semipalatinsk (308.8
miles), Chu -Arys (331.1 miles). Electrified
Novosibirsk Barnaul (141.6 miles). Manual
block. Average train speeds, excluding stops,
20 -25 m.p.h. (freight).
Double track Magnitogorsk Tselinograd
(597.7 miles), Barnaul Artyshta (124.2
miles). Electrified Magnitogorsk-Tselino-
grad (597.7 miles), Barnaul- Tryshet (804.8
miles). Automatic- and manual -block opera
tiona. Average speeds, excluding stops,
30 -35 I..p.h. (freight).
Double track Tselinograd Zharyk (224.9
miles). Electrified Tselinograd- Karaganda
(149.7 miles). Automatic- and manual -block
operations. Average train speeds, 25 -30
m.p.n. (freight).
Double track, automatic block Michurinsk-
Pushkino sector. Average train speeds, ex-
cluding stops, 20 -25 m.p.h. (freight).
Double track Pushkino Yershov (57.7 miles),
Arys- Tashkent (96.3 miles). Manual block
throughout. Average train speeds, excluding
stops, 20 -25 m.p.h. (freight).
Electrified throughout. Average train speeds,
excluding stops, 30-35 m.p.h. (freight).
Electrified throughout. Average train speeds,
excluding .Mops, 20 -25 m.p.h. (freight).
Double track T;,ilisi -Baku. Electrified
throughout. Automatic- and manual -block
operations. Average train speeds, 20 -25
m.p.h. (freight).
REMARKS
8 major bridges, 395 -2,080 ft. long.
Passing track entry applies to Semi-
palatinsk -Chu sector.
21 major bridges, 470 -2,900 ft. long; 2
tunnels, 7,879 and 8,236 ft. long.
2 major bridges, 420 and 890 ft. long.
9 major bridges, 520 -5,410 ft. long.
6 major bridges, 500 -2,400 ft. long.
1 major bridge, 440 ft. long.
5 major bridges, 330 -875 ft. long. 1
tunnel, 5,500 ft. long.
42 major bridges, 300 -1,550 ft. long.
12 tunnels, 3,018 -6,650 ft. long.
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26
27
28
29
30
Leningrad Lososna (Poland bor-
der); 540.0 miles.
Kaliningrad Bakhmach; 641.8
miles.
Navtlugi Pervyye Alyat; 591.5
miles.
Sverdlovsk Guryev; 970.6 miles..
Krasnovo6sk- Tashkent; 1,157.6
miles.
Single track, 318.9 miles; double track, 221.1
miles. Known max. grades: Leningrad-
Lugs, 0.6 Daugavpils- Pytalovo, 1.6
Known min. radius of curvature: Leningrad-
Lugs, 971 ft. Max. interval between passing
tracks, 7.5 miles.
Single track, 216.2 miles; double track, 425.6
miles. Known max. grade, Zhlobin- Osipo-
vichi Pervyye, 0.8 Known min. radius of
curvature, Zhlobin- Osipovichi Pervyye,
1,844 ft. Max. interval between passing
tracks, 11.2 miles.
All single track. Max. grade, 2.9 Known
min. radius of curvature: Dzhulfa- Alyat,
869 ft. Masis Alyat: max. interval between
passing tracks, 14.3 miles.
Single track, 759.1 miles; double track, 211.5
miles. Known max. grades: Sverdlovsk
Orsk, 0.8 Kondurovka- Guryev, 0.6
Known min. radius of curvature: Sver-
dlovsk-Orsk, 1,394 ft. Orsk Curyev: max.
interval between passing tracks, 27.3 miles.
Single track, 1,037.7 miles; double track, 119.9
miles. Known max. grade: ZiE.Iin- Khavast,
1.6 Known min. radius of curvature:
Ziadin- Khavan, 1,868 ft. Khavast- Krasno-
vodsk: max. interval between passing tracks,
13.6 miles.
Double track Leningrad- Siverskaya (42.2
miles), E-ukshtas- Lososno (178.9 miles).
Electrified Leningrad -Lugs (85.1 miles).
Automatic block Dukshtas- Lososna. Aver-
age train speeds, 20 -30 m.p.h. (freight).
Single track Bobruysk- Bakhmach. Electrified
Molodechna- Pukhovichi (86.9 miles). Auto-
matic block Kaliningrad-Bobruysk. Aver-
age train speeds, excluding stops, 30 m.p.h.
(freight).
Electrified Navtlugi Pervyye Norashen (309.4
miles). Manual block. Average train speeds,
17 -20 m.p.h. (freight).
Double track, electrified, automatic block
Chelyabirsk -Orsk (340.5 miles). Average
train speeds, excluding stops, 20-30 m.p.h.
(freight).
Double track Samarkand Dzhizak (70.2
miles), Khavast Tashkent (94.4 miles).
Electrified Syr Darinskaya- Tashkent.
Manual block. Average speeds, excluding
stops, 20-25 m.p.h. (freight).
5 major bridges, 300 -910 ft. long. 1
tunnel, 1,470 ft. long.
6 major bridges, 530 -1,130 ft. long. 1
tunnel, 3,940 ft. long.
8 major bridges, 320 -760 ft. long. 1
tunnel, 5,000 ft. long.
4 major bridges, 500 -1,800 ft. long.
4 major bridges, 410 -5,300 ft. long.
na Data not available.
'Direction of maximum grades is unknown.
ir
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As of I January 1972 the locomotive inventory
totaled about .30,100 units, mostly diesels and
electries. Steam locomotives, now used on low density
lines and as switchers, move only 3.5% of the rail
hauled freight. Although Soviet produced locomotives
are technically somewhat inferior, the inventory is
generally adequate to handle traffic re(Iuirements.
Production of electric locomotives is concentrated at
plants in Novocherkassk and Tbilisi, which have an
annual combined output of 300 units. Diesel
production: is concentrated tit Kharkov, Voro-
shilovgrad, and Kolomna, with a combined annual
production of about 1,500 units. Additional
locomotives (mo electric), are imported from
France (Figure 3). E ast Germany, Hungary, Austria,
and Czechoslovakia. At the beginning of 1972 the
freight car inventory wtaled about 1.2 million units.
The (I'nality of freight ca-' is somewhat inadequate,
and the quantity does not me; present -day demands.
Approximately 9550 of the fleet consists of 4 -axle (or
snore) cars; all cars have automatic couplers and
airhrakes. Domestic production of freight cars
amounts to about 64,000 units annually; builders are
located throughout the country, but the larger plants
are at Nizi niy "Tagil, Atltayskaya. 'Lhdanov (hunk
cars), and Kryukov.
Container shipping between Japan and Western
Europe via the Trans Siberian Railroad is increasing
steadily and is expected to nnushro;w.i during div next
few years. According to the Soi irts, such traffic
amounted to 3,000 containers dwing the first half of
1972, a figure which is expected to grow to between
15,000 and 20,000 units during 1973. Container
transfer yards have been established in Moscow,
Leningr [crest, and other areas. About 80% of all
Soviet containers have capacities of .3 tons or less, but
larger units are being used increasingly with
development of modern facilities. Experimental
flatcars are available to transport 10- and 20 -ton
containers.
Most of the passenger cars a.e built tit Kaliningrad,
Riga, and Leningrad. All -metal cars comprise most of
the total fleet, which has 2-, 3 and 4 -axle cars. Most
of the 2 -axle equipment is in service on suburban lines,
and the heavier equipment on Ivrig- distance routes.
Electric (Figure 4) and aicscl multiple -unit trains are
used for local and commuter service within large
metropolitan enters.
The Soviet railroads am divided into 26 regional
systems functioning as independent units under the
Ministry of Railways. The railroads had 2,337,000
employees in 1971, of whom 2,013,000 were classified
as operating personnel. Considerable attention is given
to research, education, and training. The Central
Scientific Institute of Railroad Transportation, located
just south of Moscow, is probably the largest and most
advanced railroad instihnte in the c:rumtry. About 14
institutes offer degrees in railroad engineering, and
other railroad schools provide job training as well as
basic educational courses.
The current Five Year Plan (1971 -75) calls for
further dieselization and electrification, double
tracking the remaining single -track trunk routes,
acquiring new motive power and rolling stock,
installing modern signaling, and construction of sonic
new lines.
The 'Tyumen- Surgut route, one of the most
important construction projects underway in Western
Siberia, will provide service front a major oil
producing region in the northern part of the Tyumen
Oblast. Presently completed to it point north of
FIGURE 3. French -built electric loco-
motive, series F.05 (C)
IO
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FIGURE 4. ER -1 electric train-
set (U /OU)
Tobolsk, the line %will eventually cross the Oh River at
Surgrat and run eastward along; the Oh to terminate at
Nizhnevartovskiy.
The Central Siberian and South Siberian railroads
probably will be completed by 197.3 and should
provide considerable relief for the highly overworked
Trans- Siberian line in this area. The Central Siberian
line, originating north of Rarnaul at the Talmenka
junction, runs west through Karasuk, Kokelhetov,
Kustanay, and terminates at Dzhetygara. The South
Siberian Railroad, originating on the 'Trans- Siberian
line at Tayshet and running west through Abakan,
Novokuznetsk, Tsclinograd, and Kartaly to Mag-
nitogorsk, is to be extended to Chishmy, on the
Moscow- Kurgan trunk -Dote.
After several years of delay, the Soviets have started
work on the highly difficult task of bridging the Amur
River between Komsomol sk -na -Amore and Pivan in
the Far East. The structure, when completed, not only
will elieiinate the need for train ferry operations across
the Arnor, but also will obviate the custom, in winter,
of laying tracks across the frozen river.
D. Highways (S)
highway transport is used primarily for short -haul
movement of freight and passengers, and provides a
feeder and distribution service to other modes of
transport. Long distance international and domestic
intenirh;ni trucking exist on several routes, but the
amount of freight hauled in these operations is
coanpor:,tively small. The average length of haul is
slightly over 9 miles. In 1972 trucks carried 18.8 billion
short tons of freight and produced 178 hillion ton
miles.
Quantitatively, the road network is generally
adequate to meet current economic requirements. In
terms of quality, however, the network is deficient;
over 84% of the total mileage comprises loose- or
natural- surface roads.
The unevenly distributed national network ranges
from a relatively dense net in European U.S.S.R. to a
very s .arse network in Asiatic U.S. S.R. Most paved or
improv -rd roads are located in the central and western
parts of European U.S.S.R and along the southern
border. The north central and northeastern regions of
the country have few roads. The Pacific oastal region
and Sakhalin island are served by sev(,ril improved
r,; .ids. No continuous paved road crosses the entire
country in an east -west direction. The U.S.S.R. road
network makes connections with all bordering
countries. The network density of slightly less than 0.1
-rile of road per square mile of area is less than the
densities in countries along the western border; about
equal to neighboring Communist China, Mongolia,
North Korea, and 'l'urkey; and greater than that of
Iran and Afghanistan. From the standpoint of duality,
the countries along the western border have superior
roads, while the countries along the southern horder
have equal or inferior roads. In 1971 the U.S.S.R. had
845,618 miles of roads. A breakdown of this mileage
by surface type: is as follows:
PERCENT
SURFACE MILES OF'IOTAL
Paved concrete; bituminous, includ-
ing surface treatment; stone block;
cobblestone) 128,340 15.2
Crashed stone, gravel 188,852 22.3
Earth including tracks) 528,426 62.5
U.S.S. R. roads are classified administratively into four
categories: all- union; republic; oblast, kray, or
autonomous republic; and local. All -union roads are
primaril v long distance main routes which connect
large hadustrial and agricultural centers, serve
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international traffic, and carry heavy freight or
passenger traffic. Republic roads are main or
secondary routes which connect the main administra-
tive, political, and economic centers of autonrmous
republics, krays, and oblasts within a union republic.
Roads of oblast, kray, or autonomous republic
importance are short distance routes which connect
important areas within an oblast, kray, or autonomous
republic. Local roads link rayon centers, rural
settlements, villages, and state and collective farms.
Although the administrative classification of roads
does not signify any particular type of road
construction, the all -union roads are generally paved,
these routes comprising less than 10% of the total
network.
Most main routes in European U.S.S.R. have
bituminous surfaces (Figure 5) 16 to 23 feet wide, with
3- to 10 -foot earth or gravel shoulders.
Other main routes have surfaces 30 to 40 feet wide.
Four -lane divided highways total about 500 miles,
including the 68 -mile Moscow circumferential
highway, the Kaunas to Vilnyus highway, and
approaches to some large urban areas.
In Asiatic U.S.S.R. most main routes are constructed
of crushed stone or gravel and are 16 to 20 feet wide.
Bituminous surfaced roads 18 to 20 feet wide
connect the more important cities in Soviet ':antral
Asia. These roads generally have a surface thickness of
less than 2 inches laid on a crushed stone, gravel, or
sand base 10 to 20 inches thick, depending on the
condition and type of subsoil. The surface of gravel
roads in areas of stable soil and good drainage usually
consists of 2 inches of gravel and sand; elsewhere the
gravel or crushed stone roads range in thickness from 4
to 12 inches and have a base of large rocks, slag, or
rubble. Improved earth roads are usually constructed
by grading and rolling the natural surface. Earth
shoulders are predominant throughout the roads
network, but the better roads have gravel shoulders
from 3 to 10 feet wide.
Because of the flat to rolling terrain in European
U.S.S.R., roads there have gentle curves and grades,
while in the Caucasus and the mountainous southern
border areas many roads have steep grades and sharp
curves.
Information is riot available on the total number of
road bridges in the U.S.S.R. Timber bridges, although
common on secondary and local roads, are gradually
being replaced by prefabricated, reinforced- concrete,
deck -type structures. Steel bridges are used mainly in
large urban areas and at wide -gap river crossings. In
several of the cities there are doubled. combination
rail- highway bridges. Load capacities of bridges vary
12
considerably; recently constructed reinforced- concrete
bridges have load capacities of about 66 short tons
under controlled speeds and spacing of vehicles;
however, low capacity bridges (less than 10 short tons)
still exist on many roads. Reinforced- concrete, steel,
and masonry bridges are in fair to good condition; the
timber bridges are generally in poor condition.
There are few road tunnels and galleries, and the
small number of ferries and fords are usually limited to
secondary roac`. crossings. known tunnels and galleries
are of reinforced concrete construction. Ferry craft
vary from cable- operated barges with capacities of one
or two vehicles to modern, diesel- powered craft each
with a capacity of at least 25 vehicles.
Characteristics of selected principal highway routes
are tabulated in Figure 6; the routes are shown on
Figure 32.
Road construction and maintenance activities are
government controlled. The Main Administration for
Highway Construction (Glavdorstroy), subordinate to
the Ministry of Transport Construction, is responsible
for the planning, design, and construction of all -union
roads and any others of military significance. Planning
and construction of the other roads, as well as road
maintenance, is carried out by units of the Ministry of
Motor Transport and Highways in each republic, with
subordinate directorates at kray and oblast levels. In
addition. some industries and enterprises build and
maintain roads to serve their own needs.
Roads are constructed by highly mechanized groups
assigned to specific road construction districts. Road
maintenance and repair are performed by units (Road
Repair Points) of 25 to 35 men, each unit being
responsible for sectors 30 to 55 miles in length.
Supplementary sources of labor include military
personnel and members of collective and state farms,
industrial enterprises, and other economic organiza-
tions. In general, roads are slowly and poorly
constructed.
Many problems bar effective and efficient road
construction and maintenance. There is a general
shortage of appropriated funds, road construction
materia,ls, roadbuilding equipment, and skilled
personnel. Moreover, mountainous terrain, unstable
soils, and poor drainage hinder cons' suction and
maintenance in many areas. Road construction
materials, in particular suitable gravel and crushed
rock, are in short suppiv in some parts of the country
and must be transported to construction sites �at
times by rail over long distances. Bituminous materials
are available in a .equate amounts; Portland cement,
although sufficient in quantity, is used only in the
construction of especially important roads.
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Bituminous- surfaced stretch of Len%grad.
Murmansk road. A lengthy part of this route
has a gravel surface which is being replaced
with bituminous surfacing. (U /OU)
Moscow- Minsk -Brest highway. This 668 -mile
route is the most important road connecting
Moscow with Poland and routes leading to
Western Europe. (S)
The U.S.S.R. has rolotively few routes similar
to the re.ently completed 59 -mile Vllnyus-
Kaunbs highway shown here (U /OU)
FIGURE 5. Soviet highways
13
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FIGURE 6. Selected principal highway routes (S)
ROUTE LOCATION AND LENGTH
N. (SEE MAP, FIG. 32) PHYSICAL CHARACTER :STiCS
1 Poland border Moscow; 668 miles
Bituminous, concrete surface 30 -42 ft. wide;
5- 10 -ft. earth shoulders. Gentle grades,
moderate curves. 6 large bridges, 500 -1,300
ft. long; 8 underpasses.
2 Finland border Moscow via Lenin-
grad; 560 miles.
3 Poland bonder- Rostov via Kiyev,
Kharkov; 967 miles.
4 Poland border- Leningrad via
Riga; 616 miles.
5 Finland border- Leningrad via
Murmansk, Petrozavodsk; 1,051
miles.
Czerhoslovakia border Rovno via
L'vov; 303 miles.
Bituminous, concrete surface 24 -80 ft. wide,
short stretches of 4 -lane divided highway
lead N. from Moscow and Leningrad for
18 and 2: miles respectively; 3- 15 -ft. earth
and gravel shouders. Moderate grades and
curves. 8 main bridges, 500 -1,720 ft. long;
7 underpasses, 1 tunnel (at Moscow), 2
limited clearance bridges.
Bituminous, concrete surface 20 -25 ft. wide;
3 -8 -ft. earth and gravel shoulders. Gentle
to moderate grades and curves. 12 large
bridges, 500 -5,000 ft. long; 8 underpasses.
Bituminous, concrete surface 20 -30 ft. wide;
3 -8-ft. earth and gravel shoulders. Gentle
to moderate grades and curves. 6 large
bridges, 750 -2,275 ft. long; 12 underpasses,
1 limited clearance bridge.
Finland border -about 30 miles N. of Kola:
gravel surface 21 -26 ft. wide; 0 -3 ft.
probably earth shoulders. 30 miles N. of
Kola- vicinity oi' Loukhi; bituminous sur-
face 20-24 ft. wide; 3 -5 ft. gravel shoulders.
Loukhi vicinity of Medvezh'yegorsk:
gravel surface 22 -24 ft. wide. Medvezh'-
yegorsk Petrozavodsk: bituminous surface
22 -24 ft. wide; 5 ft. gravel shoulders. 7
large bridges, 500 -2,000 ft. long. Bottle-
necks include 2 limited clearance bridges,
I ferry.
Bituminous surface, 17 -20 ft. wide; 2 -6 -ft.
earth and gravel shoulders. Moderate curves
and grades. No large bridges or bottlenecks.
OPERATIONS
Most important road Moscow- western
Europe. Provides best approach to Moscow
from W., N. of extensive Pripet Marshes.
All towns or urban areas of appreciable
size skirted or bypassed thus facilitating
rapid vehicular movement. About 17 fueling
points, 7 repair shops along route.
In addition to providing major highway
connection with Finland, road connects 2
largest Soviet population and industrial
centers, Moscow and Leningrad. Only few
urban areas bypassed. About 12 fueling
points, 6 repair shops along route.
Major highway connection with Poland.
Route serves most important U.S.S.R.
mining and basic metallurgical district and
vast agricultural areas of Ukraine. Only
few urban areas bypassed. About 18
fueling points, 12 repair shops along route.
Major highway connection with Poland.
Route also connects with lateral routes
extending from various ports and naval
bases on Baltic Sea. Very few urban areas
bypassed. Fuel and repair facilities located
in large cities and some of large towns or
villages.
Major highway connection with Finland;
branch road links with Norway. highway
connects Leningrad, largest port, with
Murmansk, only ice -free seaport cn
U.S.S.R. Arctic coast. Road supplements
existing RR. to provide only 2 overland,
N. -S. lines of communication in region.
Principal connection with Czechoslovakia.
Route serves L'vov, transportation and
light industries center, and petroleum fields
of western FkraipP.
REMARKS
Generally fIP'. terrain. Usually in fair
to good condition.
Flat to undulating terrain. Usually
in fair to good condition.
Mostly flat to undulating terrain.
In fair to good condition. Rovno-
Kiyev being converted to 4 -lane
divided highway.
Generally flat terrtrin. In fair to
good condition.
Mostly flat to undulating terrah
Loukhi Medvezh'yegorsk section
being reconstructed; to be bitu-
minous surfaced and probably in
operation by 1974.
Hilly terrain. In fair to good condi-
tion.
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7 Romania border Zhitomir via
Chernovtsy, and Vinnitsa: 286
miles.
8 Romania border Rostov via
Kishinev, Odessa, Melitopol;
634 miles.
9 Odessa -Pskov via Kiyev, Vitebsk;
849 miles.
!0 Minsk Sovetsk via Vilnyus; 281
miles.
11 Sevastopol- Moscow via Khar'kov;
920 miles.
12 Junction 40 miles S. of Orel
Junction 56 miles N. of Kiyev;
226 miles.
13 Shakhty Kashira; 613 miles.....
14 Volgograd- Moscow; 627 miles...
15 Moscow- Dzhusaly via Kuyby-
shev; 1,810 miles.
Z"
Bituminous surface 16 -26 ft. wide; 0 -6 -ft.
earth shoulders. Moderate curves and
grades. 5 large bridges, 550 -984 ft. long;
1 underpass.
Bituminous, gravel surface 20 -26 ft. wide;
2 -6 -ft. earth shoulders. Moderate curves
and grades. 4 large bridges, 600 -2,465 ft.
long; 2 underpasses.
Bituminous, concrete surface 16 -30 ft. wide;
3- 12 -ft. earth and gravel shoulders. Mod-
erate curves and grades. 9 large bridges,
500 -5,000 ft. long; 8 underpasses.
Vilnyus- Kaunas: 4 -lane divided highway.
Concrete surface, each roadway 24.5 ft.
wide, 3 -ft. concrete shoulders. Remainder
of route: Bituminous surface 20 -26 ft. wide,
3 -6 -ft. shoulders. Moderate curves and
grades along entire route. 1,150 -ft. bridge
at Kaunas, 2 underpasses.
Bituminous surface 18-40 ft. wide. 3 -8 -ft.
gravel and earth shoulders. Sharp curves
near Sevastopol; 8 large bridges, 500 -1,560
ft. long; 17 underpasses.
Concrete surface 23 ft. wide, 10 -ft. gravel
shoulders, gentle grades; 1,300 -ft. bridge
over Seym at Baturin, 2 underpasses.
Bituminous, concrete surface 26 ft. wide,
3 -6 -ft. earth, gravel shoulders. 18 -mile
stretch S. of Voronezh is 4 -lane divided
highway. Moderate grades and curves. 5
bridges, 720- 1,600�ft. long; no bottlenecks.
Bituminous, gravel, earth surface 18 -30 ft.
wide, 0 -2 -ft. earth and gravel shoulders.
Moderate grades and curves. 3 large bridges,
600 -1,000 ft. long; 5 underpasses.
Moscow- Ryazan (109 miles): Bituminous,
concrete surface, 4 -lane divided highway.
Remainder of route: Bituminous, crushed
stone, gravel surface 15 -25 ft. wide; 3 -8 -ft.
earth, gravel shoulders. Moderate curves
and grades. 12 large bridges, 500 -2,340 ft.
long. Road crosses Volga atop 15,400 -ft.
concrete dam. 8 underpasses, 2 limited
clearance bridges.
Principal connection with Romania.......... Undulating to hilly terrain. In good
condition.
Principal connection with Romania. Route Flat to undulating terrain. In fair
serves Black Sea port of Odessa and to good condition.
industrial, military, and transportation
centers of Nikolayev, Kherson, Melitopol,
and Zhdanov.
Route intersects all important E. -W. through Mostly flat to undulating terrain.
routes in European U.S.S.R. and roughly In fair to good condition.
parallels border of Communist Eastern
Europe.
Route connects 2 important E. -W. through Flat to undulating terrain. In good
routes in European U.S.S.R. condition.
Originating at Sevastopol, largest Black Sea
naval base and major shipbuilding and
industrial center, route serves heavy
industry complexes of Khar'kov and
Dnepropetrovsk and Moscow industrial
center. Road bypasses all major cities.
Route connects 2 important N. -S, through
routes in European U.S.S.R. All large
cities and villages bypassed.
Important N.-S. route connecting Rostov
and Moscow areas.
Mostly undulating terrain. Hilly
near Sevastopcl. In fair to good
condition.
Flat to undulating terrain. In good
condition.
Do.
Important N. -S. route linking industrial and Flat to undulating terrain; gravel and
transportation center of Volgograd with earth sections, in fair to poor
Moscow. condition, being rebuilt and sur-
faced with bituminous.
Route serves Moscow and important indus- Flat to undulating terrain. In fair
trial centers of Kuybyshev, Orenburg, Orsk. to good condition.
Route also serves as overland connection
between European U.S.S.R. and Soviet
Central Asia.
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FIGURE 6. Selected principal highway routes (S) (Continued)
ROUTE
NO.
16
LOCATION AND LENGTH
(SEE MAP, FIG. 32) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OPERATIONS
Major E. -W. route connecting industrial areas
of Moscow, Gor'kiy, Kazan with petroleum
producing area around Perm and iron and
steel producing areas around Sverdlovsk
and Chelyabinsk. Ferries on route severely
restrict sustained vehicular movement.
Moscow Chelyabinsk via Gor'kiy,
Kazan, Sverdlovsk; 1,265 miles.
Important N. -S. route serves Moscow, indus-
trial city Yaroslavl, transportation center
Vologda, and White sea port Arkhangel'sk.
Route is alternate for RR. line into
Arkhangel'sk. N. of Vologda numerous
ferries and fords severely restrict and
hamper sustained vehicular movement.
Important N. =S. route connects industrial
and transportation centers of Rostov,
Volgograd, Saratov, Kazan. 2 ferries across
Volga restrict and hamper vehicular move-
ment.
Important N. -S. route connects European
U.S.S.R. with Caucasus. Also serves indus-
trial and transportation centers and inland
waterway ports of Volgograd and
Astrakhan.
Major N.--S. trunk route in Caucasus. Con-
nects industrial and transportation center
of Rostov, industrial center of Tbilisi, petro-
leum producing and refininZ area of Baku.
Ordzhonikidze Tbilisi (Georgian Military
Highway) subject to washouts, landslides,
snow blockage. Traffic restricting tunnels
and galleries are on this section.
Major N. -S. trunk route in Caucasus.
Alternate approach route to Baku.
Baku Ordzhonikidze; 435 miles..
Principal connection with Turkey. Major
N. -S. trunk route in Caucasus. Steep grades
and sharp curves severely hamper vehicular
movement.
17 Moscow Arkhangel'sk; 804 miles
18 Rostov -Kazan via Volgograd; 959
miles.
19 Grozryy- Volgograd; 580 miles...
20 Baku- Rostov via Ordzhonikidze;
921 miles.
21
22
Turkey border Junction Route 20;
664 miles.
Moscow -near Orekhovo- Zuyevo: (40 miles):
Bituminous, concrete surface 4 -lane divided
highway. Also 4 -lane divided highway for
short distance W. approach to Gor'kiy.
Remainder of route: Bituminous, gravel
surfaced 20 -30 ft. wide, 3 -6 -ft. earth
shoulders. Moderate curves and grades; 3
large bridges, 700 -2,810 ft. long; 9 under-
passes. Ferries cross Volga, Vyatka, and
Kama.
Bituminous, gravel, earth surface 15 -25 ft.
wide; 0- 10 -ft. earth, gravel shoulders.
Gentle grades and curves. 3 large bridges,
1,300 -3,430 ft. long; 6 underpasses, 3 ferries,
5 fords, 1 limited- clearance bridge.
Bituminous, concrete, gravel, improved earth
surface 18 -25 ft. wide; 2 -5 -ft. earth
shoulders. Moderate grades and curves.
2 large bridges. 750 and 530 ft. long; 1
underpass; 2 ferries.
Bituminous, gravel, improved earth surface
20 -29 ft. wide, 0 -6 -ft. earth shoulders.
Gentle grades and curves. 3 large bridges
655 -2,500 ft. long; 1 limited- clearance
bridge.
Bituminous, concrete, crushed stone surface
12-40 ft. wide; 0 -6 -ft. earth shoulders.
Steep grades and sharp curves. 4 large
bridges, 492 -2,000 ft. long; 5 underpasses,
3 tunnels, 2 galleries.
Bituminous, stone block surface I8 -30 ft.
wide; 2 -6 -ft. earth shoulders. Moderate
grades and curves. 3 large bridges, 690 -1,000
ft. long; no bottlenecks.
Bituminous, concrete, gravel, improved earth
surface 15 -30 ft. wide; 0 -6 -ft. earth, gravel
shoulders. Numerous steep grades and
sharp curves. 17 large bridges, 525 -2,310 ft.
long; 4 underpasses, 1 limited clearance
L_:a
REMARKS
Flat to hilly terrain. In fair to good
condition.
Mostly flat terrain. Some sections of
earth surfaced roads in poor condi-
tion. Vologda Arkhangel'sk being
rebuilt; will be bituminous sur-
faced.
Mostly flat to undulating terrain.
Some sections of loose- surface roads
in poor condition.
Flat to undulating terrain. In fair to
good condition.
Hilly to mountainous terrain. Some
sections in fair to poor condition.
Ordzhonikidze -Baku requires fre-
quent maintenance.
Some mountainous terrain. In fair
condition.
Mountainous terrain. Some sections
(loose surface) in poor condition.
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22A
22B
22C
22D
23
23A
23B
24
25
25A
ff
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Samtredia- junction 19 miles N
of Tbilisi; 147 miles.
Turkey border Tbilisi; 137 miles.
Iran border Kazakh; 232 miles..
Iran border -Baku; 108 miles....
Chelyabinsk- Irkutsk via Novosi-
birsk; 2,155 miles.
Mongolia border Novosibirsk; 613
miles.
Mongolia border- Aclnnsk; 690
miles.
Chimkent- Chelyabinsk; 1,061
miles.
Iran border Barnaul via Tashkent,
Alma -Ata; 2,557 miles.
Afghanistan border Khavast; 293
miles.
Bituminous surface 18 -25 ft. wide; 3 -6 -ft.
earth, gravel shoulders. Some steep grades.
1 large bridge, 530 ft. long.
Bituminous, crushed stone surface 18 -25 ft.
wide, 0 -6 -ft. shoulders. Sharp curves, steep
grades. No large bridges or bottlenecks.
Bituminous surface 20-25 ft. wide; 3 -ft.
shoulders. Sharp curves, steep grades. 2
large bridges, 505 and 1,260 ft. long; I
limited clearance bridge
Bituminous surface 18 -25 ft. wide; 6 -7 -ft.
earth shoulders; moderate curves and
grades. 1 large bridge, 1,020 ft. long; no
bottlenecks.
Predominantly gravel surfaced, some bitu-
minous and unimproved earth 18 -25 ft.
wide. Moderate curves and grades. 14 large
bridges, 550 -3,305 ft. long. Bottlenecks
include 2 limited- clearance bridges, ferry
crossing Yaya about 56 miles E. of Tomsk.
Concrete, bituminous, crushed stone surface
15 -25 ft. wide; 0 -3 -ft. earth shoulders.
Steep grades, sharp curves. 5 large bridges,
500 -1,525 ft. long; bottlenecks include 3
underpasses.
Mostly crushed stone, some bituminous,
unimproved earth surface 20 -25 ft. wide.
Steep grades, sharp curves. 6 large bridges,
580 -1,625 ft. long; 2 limited clearance
bridges.
Mostly gravel, some bituminous surface 15 -20
ft. wide. Gentle curves, grades. One large
;ridge, 485 ft. long; no bottlenecks.
Short stretches of 4 -lane divided highway
near Tashkent, Alma -Ata. Remainder of
route bituminous, gravel surface 15 -30 ft.
wide; 0- 10 -ft. gravel, earth shoulders 0 -10
ft. wide; moderate grades, curves. 5 large
bridges, 500 -2,600 ft. long; bottlenecks
include 10 underpasses, 2 limited- clearance
bridges.
Bituminous, cobblestone surface 15 -26 ft.
wide, 0- 10 -ft. gravel shoulders. 4 -lane
divided highway 13 miles N. from
Dushanbe. Numerous sharp curves, steep
grades. One large bridge, 980 ft. long; one
underpass; ferry crossing at Afghanistan
U.S.S.R. border.
Important E. -W. route connects 2 N. -S. Some mountainous terrain.
trunk routes.
Principal connection with Turkey. Road
subject to closure by snow mid -Dec. to end
of Mar.
Principal connection with Iran. Route subject
to closure by snow mid -Dec. to end of Mar.
Principal connection with Iran. Route subject
to flooding after heavy rains in marshy
areas. In places road runs on embankment
thus impeding off -road dispersal.
Important E. -W. highway connects 5 major
industrial urban areas: Chelyabinsk, Omsk,
Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk.
Some mountaineus terrain. In fair
condition.
Mountainous terrain. 4 -lane divided
highway under construction Yere-
van-Sevan vicinity, 7 -mile stretch
Sevan N. completed. 8,000 -ft.
tunnel under construction between
Sevan and Dilizhan.
Flat terrain. Some sections in poor
condition.
Mostly flat to undulating terrain.
Some sections in poor condition.
Principal connection with Mongolia. Route
serves coal- and iron -ore mining Kuznetsk
Basin and heavy- industry centers of Biysk,
Barnaul, Novosibirsk.
Principal connection with Mongolia. Route
serves Kyzyl, transportation center, and
coal mining and industrial centers of
Minusinsk, Abakan.
Principal N. -S. route connecting Soviet
Central Asia with Chelyabinsk and rich
industrial Urals region. Sections subject
to drifting sand in desert areas.
Southernmost E. -W. route parallels Iran,
Afghanistan, China border regions. Prin-
cipal connection with Iran.
Mountainous terrain.
Hilly to mountainoue terrain.
Flat to undulating terrain.
Some mountainous terrain. In fair
to good condition.
Principal connection with Afghanistan. Sub- Hilly to mountainous terrain. In fair
ject to snow blockage during winter. 3 condition.
mo;intain passes facilitate interdiction.

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FIGURE 6. Selected principal highway routes (S) (Continued)
co ROUTE
NO.
25B
25C
25D
26
26A
26B
27
28
29
LOCATION AND LENGTH
(SEE MAP, FIG. 32)
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OPERATIONS
REMARKS
Principal connection with China. Road subject Mountainous terrain. Probably in
to snow blockage in winter, early spring. fair condition.
China border- junction 38 miles
W. of Frunze; 513 miles.
Principal connection with China...........
do
China border Sary -Ozek; 142
miles.
China border Ayaguz; 196 miles..
Irkutsk -China border; 996 miles.
Mongolia border Ulan -Ude; 147
miles.
Mongolia border junction 40 miles
S. of Chita; 191 miles.
Never Magadan; 1,908 miles.....
Svobodnyy- Khabarovsk; 538
miles.
North Korea border Khabarovsk;
530 miles.
Bituminous, improved earth surface 15 -22 ft.
wide; 0 -3 -ft. earth shoulders. Numerous
steep grades, sharp curves. One large bridge,
800 ft. long; 2 tunnels, 5,340 and 8,830 ft.
long.
Bituminous surface. 20 ft. wide; gentle grades,
curves. No large bridges, bottlenecks.
Bituminour., gravel surface 20 -25 ft. wide.
Moderate grades, curves. No large bridges,
bottlenecks.
Mainly gravel, crushed stone surface, some
bituminous stretches, 18 -25 ft. wide. Steep
grades, sharp curves. 5 large bridges,
500 -2,500 ft. long; 2 limited clearance
bridges.
Bituminous surface 18 -20 ft. wide. Some
sharp curves. 2 large bridges, 1,100 and
1,195 ft. long; 2 limited clearance bridges.
Bituminous surface 20 ft. wide. Some sharp
curves. 2 large bridges, 855 and 2,040 ft.
long; 2 limited clearance bridges.
Mainly gravel, crushed stone, some bitu-
minous surface 9 -20 ft. wide. Several sharp
curves, steep grades. 7 large bridges, 550-
900 ft. long; 1 limited clearance bridge, 3
ferries.
Mostly gravel, some bituminous surface 18
and 25 ft. wide, 3 -5 -ft. shoulders. Moderate
grades, curves. No large bridges, bottle-
necks.
Bituminous, gravel surface 20 -25 ft. wide;
0.5 -2 -ft. shoulders. Moderate grades,
curves. 16 large bridges, 500 -2,700 ft. long;
1 limited clearance bridge, 2 underpasses.
30 Khabarovsk- Sovetskaya Cavan; Bituminous, gravel, unimproved earth surface
460 miles. 15 -25 ft. wide. Moderate curves, grades.
No large bridges; 9 fords Pivan- Sovetskaya
Cavan.
Fla' terrain. Probably in fair condi-
tion.
Flat to undulating terrain. Probably
in fair condition.
Principal connection with China. Roue
connects 3 major transportation, industrial,
military centers of Irkutsk, Ulan -Ude,
Chita.
Most important road connection with Mon-
golia. Extension of road into Mongolia
connects its capital, Ulaanbaatar, with
the industrial, commercial, and transporta-
tion center of Ulan -Ude and the Trans
Siberian Railroad.
Principal connection with Mongolia........
Provides only overland mode of transport
through base area of E. Siberia. Serves rail
facilities at Never, river port of Yakutsk,
Okhotsk seaport of Magadan. Road also
serves widespread areas of important
resources including iron ore, gold, coal.
Road serves river port of Blagoveshchensk,
major transportation, industrial, oil- distri-
bution urban area of Khabarovsk.
Principal connection with North Korea. Most
important trunk route serves most highly
industrialized area of U.S.S.R. E. of Lake
Baykal. Short lateral road links important
naval base and RR. center of Vladivostok
and seaport of Nakhodka, largest com-
mercial port on U.S.S.R. Pacific coast.
Route serves important river port and
industrial center of Komsomol'sk -na -Amure
and important naval base of Sovetskaya
Cavan..
Some hilly to mountainous terrain.
In fair to good condition.
Hilly terrain. Usually in good condi-
tion.
Hilly to mountainous terrain. Prob-
ably in fair condition.
Some hilly to mountainous terrain.
Road crosses several swampy areas;
usually in fair to good condition.
Flat to undulating terrain. In good
condition.
Flat to undulating terrain. In fair to
good condition.
Flat terrain. In fair to good condition.
Combination road -RR. bridge
under construction at Konisomol'sk-
na- Amure.
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Motor transport op ^rations are performed by union
republic organizations which provide bus, truck, and
taxi services for the general public, and by truck fleets
operated by the sociali red industries and state and
collective farm% for their own needs. Each of the 15
union republics has a Ministry of Motor Vehicle
Transport, or similarly named organization, which
controls and regulates motor transport activities
including the hauling of passengers and various kinds
of freight for state and public and cooperative
organizations. Bus lines connect most popuiated
centers. Several motor transport organizations are
engaged in international haulage tinder the trade
name Sovtransavto. Truck lines connect the U.S.S.R.
with the Mongolian People's Republic, Afghanistan,
Iran, 'Turkey, Finland, the Eastern European Warsaw
Pact Countries, and France, Italy, Austria,
Switzerland, and the Netherlands.
Although rapid industrial growth, improvement of
the road network, and increased niotor vehicle
production have caused a considerable increase of
traffic volume, the overall amount is less than that of
Western Europe. The largest part of road traffic is
short -haul trucking operations concentrated around
densely populated centers, large industrial or
construction sites, and collective farms. Motor
transport is the principal mode of transportation only
in areas of central Asia and eastern Siberia, in districts
without railroads or waterways. Overall, traffic
consists mainly of trucks; animal -drawn vehicles
continue to be significant outside the major cities and
especially in the northern rural areas of the country.
The principal types of freight hauled by motor
transport consist of manufactured goods, agricultural
products, construction materials, and fuel.
Automotive repair and fueling facilities are
generally inadequate. "There are shortages of garages,
gasoline or diesel -fuel stations, spare parts, and skilled
technical personnel. Garages equipped for major
repair work are few and mainly in large cities. The
government has been engaged in extensive construc-
tion of gasoline stations and technical repair stations.
Most of these facilities arc located in large cities.
Elsewhere, gasoline stations and garages are few and
far between.
The U.S.S.R. is self- sufficient in motor fuels.
Gasoline with octane ratings up to 96, diesel fuel, and
lubricants are available in adequate amounts.
Road transport operations are greatly hampered by
climatic conditions. Most traffic interruptions occur
during periods of prolonged rain, especially in spring
and autumn, when many secondary roads become
muddy and virtually impassable. During dry periods
dust conditions prevail on earth, gravel, and crushed
stone roads. In winter, freezing temperatures, ice
conditions, and snowdrifts obstruct vehicle movement
)n most roads. In the northern regions permafrost
damages bridges, roads, and culverts. Roads in
mountainous areas have numerous sharp curves, steep
grades, and narrow 1.nd low- capacity bridges and are
subject to snow blockage and spring washouts.
As of January 1972, the U.S.S.R motor veiieles
inventory was estimated at 7,240,000 units comprising
4,900,000 trucks, 2,050,000 passenger cars and
290,000 buses. Many of the vehicles are of recent
manufacture and in fair to good condition. The
U.S.S.R. produces its own vehicles but imports a small
number of special- purpose vehicles, buses, and
motorcycles from Communist Eastern Europe. In
1971, the U.S.S.R produced 613,700 trucks and buses
and 529,000 passenger cars. The Soviet Union has
been modernizing and greatly expanding its motor
vehicle industry. During the past few years, several
vehicle assembly plants have been established, and
others are being built or planned. The Italian Fiat
Motor Company is equipping a passenger -car plant at
Tolyatti. The planned output is to be 600,000 units
per year when full production is reached, probably in
1974. Moreover, a large heavy truck plant is currently
tinder construction at Naberezhnyye Chelny on the
Kama River: upon completion it will be the world's
largest truck plant with a planned production capacity
of 150,000 three -axle, diesel- powered trucks a year.
The U.S. S. R.'s road development program is
primarily concerned with the reconstruction and
improvement of the existing network and secondly
with the building of new, long- distance intercity and
short- distance feeder roads. Under the current Five
Year Plan about 68,000 miles of paved roads are
programmed to be constructed.
Significant new roads under construction include
the following: Tambov to Volgograd, Leningrad to
Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk to Vologda, and Kuybyshev
to Ufa. Large bridges are under construction at
Komsomol'sk- na- Amure, Astrakhan' and Riga. In
many large cities bypasses or circumferential roads are
under construction in order to expedite through traffic.
E. Inland waterways (S)
The extensive and well developed Soviet inland
waterway system is used primarily in providing mining
and other basic processing industries a dependable
low -cost means in long -haul transportation of
strategically and economics ly important bulk
commodities. The system also clays a significant role
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in sL. scheduled interurban passenger service
combined river maritime operations in foreign trade,
and the internal intersea transfers of small naval
vessels. Undergoing extensive improvements, the
inland waterways are playing an increasingly
important part in the national transportation pattern
and are most instrumental in supporting the Soviot's
efforts to increase industrial output ao.d foreign
commerce and to expand mining and agric!dtural
production. The system is utilized far be;ow capacity
and is more than adequate for current traffic
requirements. Port facilities, craft, and shipping
channels on most major routes are well developed and
maintained. There are high operating efficiency
standards, and the work force is generally ample in
numbers and is well trained and efficient. Major
weaknesses in the system include a lack of lengthy
east -west interconnected routes necessitating in many
instances costly and time- consuming transshipment
operations, the closure of many routes from 2 to 9
months each year because of fast ice conditions, and
the need of modern and more efficient managerial
techniques and procedures.
Excluding the Caspian Sea, there are 89,850 route
miles of navigable inland waterways in the U.S.S.R.,
comprising the Inrgest inland waterwav system in the
world. The system serves most of the Soviet union's
major centers of population, production, and
transportation, including the largest maritime ports
and major railheads. They are oriented mainly in a
north -south directional pattern with few lateral sast-
west) interconnections. The European U.S.S.R.
waterways provide strategically important internal
transport links between the Baltic, White, Black, and
Caspian Seas and international connections �some
indirectly �with adjacent countries. The unevenly
distributed system is dense and fairiv well integrated
in the heavily populated and highly productive areas
with numerous interconnections made by a high
degree of canalization and many dam /lack
installations. They provide by far the most important
waterwa routes in terms of volume of traffic, types of
cargo hauled, and significance of areas served. Except
for the Amur system, the waterways in Asiatic U.S.S. R.
form lengthy north -south routes, are widely separated
and unconnected, and must rely on maritime /river or
rail /river transshipment for through east -west, north
south cargo movements. In vast area% ni ;ill;i of the
"Trans- Siberian railroad, where increasing industrial
development requires north -south freight movement,
the Asiatic waterways are the primary means of
surface transport.
20
Tl:e most significant inland waterways are grouped
in seven large systems as follows: the Greater Volga
and Dnepr systems in European U. S.S. R. and the Aral
Sea- Am.udar'va, Ob- Irtysh, Yenisey, Lena and Amur
systems in Asiatic U.S.S.R. Taternationa! connections
are made with inland waterways of Poland, Romania,
Finland, Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, and the
People's Republic of China. Connections to Poland
are made via the Pripyat' waterway and the Soviet
Polish controlled parts of the Frisches Haff on the
Baltic. Soviet access to Central Europe from the Black
Sea is available on the Communist controlled
international 7anubr, of which its uppermost delta
channel forms part of the common boundary between
the U.S.S.R. and Romania. Joint Soviet Finnish
control is exercised over the Saymenskiv Canal, a route
crossing the international border northwest of
Leningrad. Other significant connections include: the
upper Amudar'ya, forming part of the common
boundary between the U.S.S.R. and Afghanistan, the
jointly shared Soviet- Iranian Caspian Sea, and the
jointly shared sections of the Amur and the Ussuri with
the People's Republic of China. Minor approaches to
the latter are made via the Argun, Sungacha, Khanka
Lake, Ili and the upper Irtysh, and to Mongolia via
the Selenge Gol.
The Greater Volga and Dnepr systems in European
U.S.S.R. are the most highly developed and active
waterways in the country, characterized by numerous
dam /lock installations, extensive canal links between
major rivers and waterways, and long sections of large
man -made reservoirs and natural lakes. Accounting
for more than half of the total inland waterway
freight, the Greater Volga provides heavily trafficked
access to, exit from, and transit between the most
industrially advanced and urbanized areas west of the
Ural Mountains, including such major centers of
Soviet waterway activity as Moscow, Rybinsk,
Yaroslavl', Kazan', Saratov, Gor'kiy, Kuybyshev,
Volgograd, and Perm.
The Volga river and eight other connecting
waterv�ys, comprising the Greater Volga system,
p.-,,vide unified deep -water inland transport
network. It currently accommodates the internal
passage of 2,000- and 2,700 -ton river /seagoing vessels
between the Baltic, White, Black and Caspian S ^as
and 5,000- and 6,000 -ton craft between the Baltic,
Black and Caspian Seas. During low -water periods,
reduced loads are required for all river /seagoing
vessels on the lower Don exit to the Black Sea and on u
short section of the mid -Volga near Chevoksary for
5,000- and 6000 -ton craft where cargo is temporarily
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transloaded to an accompanying barge. Small naval
c +ift movements, including newly constructed
submarines from Gor'kiy and Leningrad, are made to
fitting -out facilities on the White Sea. Only upon
completion of a dam under construction at
Chevoksary, the cascading of the lower Don, and the
expansion of the Belomorsk !ock on the White Sea
Canal, will the deep water system permit the
unimpeded passage of fully loaded river /seagoing
vessels of all types between the four seas. The Dnepr
system is the most important waterway system west of
the Volga. It provides important transportation within
the Dnepr basin, particularly from the iron and coal
regions to important industrial complexes such as
Kherson, Zaporozh've, Dnepropetrovsk, Kiyev, and
Gomel'. The system allows access to the Black Sea and
makes an international connection with the Polish
waterway system in the vicinity of Brest, where
through movement is impeded by lockless dams
and /or weirs near the border.
The major Asiatic systems, comprising mostly
natural free flowing rivers with relatively little
regulation, are becoming increasingly active and are
playing a major role in the exploration and industrial
development of the vast regions east of the Ural
Mountains including the current exploitation of
petroleum and natural gas resources in western
Siberia. Except for the self- contained Aral Sea
Amudar'ya waterway, the individual Asiatic systems
provide rapidly growing industrial, mining, and
agricultural centers of the interior access to important
maritime /river ports in their northern or eastern
Extremities and make vital connections in the south to
key rail /river transshipment points along the Trans
Siberian railroad. River shipping is closely allied with
the movement of cargo in maritime or river /seagoing
vessels and is closely coordinated with the east -west
movement of freight on the Trans Siberian railroad.
From a strategic standpoint, the Amur and its
tributaries comprise one of the more important
systems, occupying a key position in the industrial,
agrarian, military, and political activity of the Soviet
Far East. The system serves major port areas with
shipbuilding, aircraft- production, steel- production,
petroleum refining, and machine tooling capabilities.
Komsomol'sk -na -Amore and Khabarovsk, two
important ports, rank as two of the most important
industrial complexes, and the former has the only
naval shipbuilding activity in the Soviet Far East
capable of building nuclear- powered submarines.
Along with rail, the system plays a vital role in the
movement of large amounts of raw materials and
semifinished and finished products. most of which are
channeled into an expanding industrial base. The
Amur accommodates fully loaded 2,000 -ton river /sea-
going vessels from the Tatar Strait upstream to
Blagoveshchensk, a route that forms a part of extensive
river /seagoing routes extending into the Sea of
Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, the Kuril Islands, and the
eastern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula.
The primary traffic interruption factor is fast ice
which normally suspends operations on waterways in
European U.S.S.R. from 2 to 7 months annually,
excluding the ice free southern half of t! e Caspian
Sea. In Asiatic U.S.S.R. the waterways are icebound
from 5 to 9 months annually, except certain sections of
the Aral Sea Amudar'ya system in the extreme south,
which are icebound only for a period of 1 to 2 months.
Operations are also hampered by short periods of drift
ice preceding the freeze and following the spring thaw.
On some major waterways icebreakers are used to
extend the navigation season during both drift -ice
periods. Intensive research and experimentation since
1970 is producing new potential methods for
mbating ice formations. Operations on unregulated
waterways in both European and Asiatic U.S.S.R. are
hindered by seasonal reductions in water level,
extreme flooding, excessive shoals and silting, and
shifting navigation channels. Generally, the middle
and lower sections of the larger rivers are broad and
have meandering courses, multiple channels, and
shoals. Seasonal variations have been greatly reduced
on those rivers regulated by dams. On open lakes and
reservoirs, navigation is occasionally suspended
because of strong winds and heavy wave action.
Soviet inland waterway facilities include locks,
dams, weirs, safety gates, levees and groins, pumping
stations, bridges, navigational aids, and ports.
The heavily cascaded and canalized inland
waterway system has at,..ut ;,,NCO regulatory structures
for the control of water flow on the 11,600 miles of
artificial waterways. The major waterways have
slightly more than 30 dams in operation, most of
which are large multipurpose dams, eight more in
various stages of construction, and several more
planned. The significant concentration is in European
U.S.S.R. where dams have canalized lengthy sections
of the Dnepr and Greater Volga systems, creating
stable reservoirs suitable for deep -draft navigation.
Many of the dams are earthfill structures. All are
bypassed by locks, and several support rail and
highway crossings.
The major waterways of the system have over 90
major locking installatio +:s (Figure 7), more than 95%
of which are located in European U.S.S.R. The well
constructed and efficiently operated locks are mostly
21
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of concrete construction, varying in arrangement from
those with single chambers to one installation
comprising two parallel rows each with six tandem
chambers. The locks vary in size throughout the
country but are generally of uniform dimensions on
the individual waterways. The gates are of steel,
mostly of the miter or lift type. Most locks are also
fitted with repair and emergency gates. Lifts range
from less than 10 to more than 100 feet, and locking
cycles vary from 10 to 15 minutes at single chamber
locks to 40 to 50 minutes at multichambered
installations. Locking operations are semiautomatic.
Most locks are lighted for night operations and
provide for one -way lock traffic. Of the major
waterways, only the locks on the Volga and Kama
rivers of the Greater Volga system allow for two -way
traffic with parallel chamber arrangements.
The majority of bridges spanning the waterways are
of the fixed span type, but a few have movable spans.
Most are of steel or reinforced concrete construction.
None of the bridges impose any major restrictions on
normal vessel operations.
Shipping channels on major waterways are marked
with an extensive, modern, and well maintained
system of floating and shorebased navigational aids
22
for both day and night shipping. Visual navigational
aids in use include range lights, beacons, buoys, and
lighthouses. The use of radar, ship -to -shore radio and
radio telephone and other audio devices is continually
expanding.
Ports serving the waterway system include inland
ports and those with a joint maritime /river function.
Excluding the maritime /river ports, the system is
serviced by 54 major inland ports -36 in European
U.S.S.R. and 18 in Asiatic U.S.S.R. Each major port
usually consists of a complex of two or more
extensively developed facilities, most having at least
1,000 feet of berthing, and each transfers over a
million tons annually. All are focal points of industry
and transportation, and some are major transshipment
centers for maritime, rail, highway, and inland
waterway cargo. The majority are adequately
equipped with quayage, open and covered storage
facilities, mechanical handling equipment, and rail
and /or highway clearance facilities. Significant
features of most ports include a high degree of
mechanization and standardization in cargo handling
facilities, the extensive use of floating cranes and
specialized bulk transloading devices, the division of
berthing facilities into sections for handling specific
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FIGURE 7. Large 15,000 -ton pusher barge train entering one or the
two chambers at Rybinsk lock on the Volga river (U /OU)

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cargoes, and the use of floodlights for night operations.
Occasional bottlenecks occur at some ports during
peak traffic periods due to a shortage of freight cars,
inefficient allocat5n of manpower and equipment,
poor planning and supervision in operating techniques
and procedures, and insufficient quantities of high-
speed cargo handling equipment. Year -round port
activity is increasing primarily due to prolonged port
operations during the winter period by more intensive
use of icebreakers, the establishment of higher labor
productivity standards, the expansior of containerized
cargo operations, the provision for 'getter coordinated
river /rail operations, and the utilization of river craft
for winter storage purposes as well as loading craft for
the coming navigation season. Ongoing port
development includes construction of new ports,
enlargement of existing facilities, the installations of
heavy -duty cargo- handling equipment, nd the
introduction cif containerized cargo operations. ;Major
new port construction is underway at Balakovo,
Novochebolsarsk, Tol'yatti on the Volga, Med-
v �zhyegorsk on Lake Onega, Kambarka on the Kama,
Tomsk on the Tom, Surgut on the Ob', Tobol'sk on
the Irtysh, and Osetrovo on the Lena. Leading centers
of combined maritime /river operations are Kherson,
Leningrad, Arkhangel'sk, Kaliningrad, Reni, and
Izmail in European U.S.S.R.; and Dudinka, Igarka,
and NikIllayevsk -na -Amure in Asiatic U.S.S.R. In
terms of location, complexity of the transport
function, cargo turnover, and extent of facilities, key
inland ports in European U.S.S.R. are Zaporozh'ye,
Dnepropetrovsk and Kiyev on the Dnepr; Astrakhan',
Valgograd, Saratov, Kuybyshev, Tol'yatti, Ulya-
novsk, Kazan', Gor'kiy, Kineshma, Yaroslavl' and
Rybinsk on the Volga; Cherepovets on the Rybinsk
reservoir of the Volga Baltic Waterway; Baku,
Krasnovodsk, and Makhachkala on the Caspian Sea;
Rostov, Ust'- Donetskiy, and Volgodonsk on the Don,
Perin' on the Kama; and the Moscow complex served
by the ports of Yuzhnyy, Zapadnvy, and Severnyy. In
Asiatic U.S.S.R., key inland ports are Omsk and
Tobol'sk on the Irtysh; Surgut, Kolpashevo, and
Novosibirsk on the Ob'; Krasnoyarsk (Figure 8) on the
Yenisey; Ust'- Kut /Osetrovo and Yakutsk on the Lena;
and Komsomolsk -na- Amure, Khabarovsk and
Blagoveshchensk on the Amur.
In 1972, Soviet waterway shipping carried 435.4
million short tons of cargo and generated a ton -mile
performance of 123.3 billion. The average length of
haul was about 300 miles. Passengers carried and
passenger -miles in 1971 were 14E.5 million and 3.5
billion, respectively. The average journey was 25
miles. Sand, gravel, and other construction materials
constitute about 50� %0 of the total freight traffic, rafted
and shipped timber and lumber about 25 and crude
oil and petroleum products about 9 Coal and ores,
grain and other foodstuffs, and general cargo comprise
the remaining 16 The traffic patterns of the several
systems vary to some degree but are mainly long -haul
north -south freight movements. With the exception of
rafted timber, dependence on inland shipping is
inversely related to the accessibility of other carriers,
and the shippers choice of transport services is dictated
by urgency rather than economic advantages. In some
parts of Asiatic U.S.S.R., however, inland waterway
transport is the only medium of bulk haulage
available, although, in many cases, other modes are
relied upon for through east -west movement. Despite
the significant role of the Asiatic waterways, the
waterways in European U.S.S.R. handle at least 90%
of all waterway traffic, exclusive of the Caspian Sea.
With few exceptions traffic moves continuously day
and night on the major waterways, especially in
European U.S.S.R. Vessel movement and traffic -flow
patterns are subject to controls and prearranged
schedules, the strict adherence to which is considered
essential. Operations are aided by a regional vessel
cargo dispatcher system and a well developed system
of visual and audio navigational aids. Of the 81,600
route -miles equipped with navigational aids, slightly
more than 60% also have lighting facilities for night
navigation. Cargo vessel types in operation are
generally large high- capacity units and include self
propelled barges, barge trains towed astern, pusher
trains, and passenger -cargo craft. Self- propelled dry
and liquid cargo craft mainly in the 600- to 2,000 -ton
classes are hauling an increasing proportion of the
total waterway cargo traffic. Barge train formations
vary according to waterway. On the Greater Volga,
pusher barge tows are commonly fleeted two in line in
both upstream and downstream operations. Barges
towed astern normally comprise 1 to 4 units with a
total capacity ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 tons while
large pushP- trains range from 1 to 4 units of 3,000
trr. -ach with a maximum capacity of 12,000 tons. A
r.c'.u; trend in recent years is the increased
utilization of push- towing and self propelled barge
operations, including the increasing use of 2,000
2,700 3,000 5,000 and 6,000 -ton vessel capable of
both river and maritime navigation. River /seagoing
vessels operate on all major systems except the Aral
Sea- Amudar'ya and are providing direct and
continuous long -haul movements of cargo from key
inland ports deep in the interior to maritime parts in
Eastern and Western Europe, and to the Middle and
Far East. In addition, they are used to a limited degree
23
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in inter system transfers of cargo, and to achieve
maximum utilization some river /seagoing classes are
deployed to ice -free maritime routes in the
Mediterranean and Black Seas during the winter.
In European U.S.S.R., river /maritime routes
originate primarily from interior inland ports of the
Greater Volga system northward to maritime ports on
the White, Barents, Baltic, and North Seas and
southward to maritime ports on the Mediterranean
and Black Seas, including; river /maritime ports along
the Danube River. River /seagoing vessels also
regularly operate between ports of the Greater Volga
and Dnepr systems. In the Soviet Far East,
river /maritime operations stem from Amur river ports
across the Sea of Okhotsk to Magadan, the Kuril
Islands, and Kamchatka Peninsula as well as south
through the Sea of Japan to North Korean and
Japanese ports. The northern Siberian waterways
operate solely on domestic routes between inland river
24
ports astride the Trans- Siberian Railroad and mining
and gas and oil exploitation sites as well as with
maritime ports on the Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian
Seas.
One of the largest in the world, the inland waterway
fleet comprises an estimated 17,200 craft, of which
about 14,000 units are in commercial cargo
operations, 1,200 in passenger service, and 2,000 in
construction and maintenance. About two thirds of
the commercial fleet operates in European U.S.S.R.
and the remainder on the Asiatic waterways.
Undergoing extensive modernization in recent years,
the fleet is fairly well developed and maintained and is
generally adequate in numbers and capacity for
present traffic demands. The fleet is being
standardized and is largely dieselized. There is about a
2:1 ratio between self- propelled and dumb barges.
The relatively high speed, high- capacity passenger
fleet includes large numbers of modern hydrofoils
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FIGURE 8. Section of Krasnoyarsk port complex on the Yenisey. The
complex is the largest in Siberia, and extensive transshipment
facilities typify major river junctions with the Trans- Siberian rail-
road. (U /OU)

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(Figure 9), capacities of which number 30 passengers
or more. About 75% of the total fleet inventory is
under the control of the Ministry of the River Fleet,
R.S.F.S.R. Russian Soviet Federated Socialist
Republics); the remaining 25% is under the
Autonomous Union Republics.
The commercial fleet composition by numbers,
capacity, and horsepower is not available. The
aggregate carrying capacity of the barge fleet is in
excess of 12 million tons. Of the total R.S.F.S.R. fleet
in 1968, which is probably representative of the fleet
as a whole, the self propelled dry cargo vessels
accounted for 29.5% of the carrying capacity, the self
propelled tankers 24.2 and the dry- and liquid
cargo dumb barges 46.3 The average capacities of
the larger self propelled classes were 1,060 tons for dry
cargo craft and 1,530 tons for tankers. The larger dry
cargo aril tanker dumb barges averaged 1,000 and
2,630 tons, respectively. Towboats and tugs averaged
363 h.p. for the larger classes, and 250 h.p. for the
smaller units. Although 2,000- and 4,000 -h.p. diesel
towboats (pusher type) are being serially produced,
small stearn driven units represented 29% of the
R.S.F.S.R. towing fleet in 1968.
The Soviet inland waterway fleet is undergoing
gradual change in composition, capacity, and
operating efficiency. Continuous progress is being
achieved on complete dieselization, expanded use of
pusher -type towboats (Figure 10), standardization of
vessels to a restricted 57 basic classes, introduction of
light- weight craft constructed of aluminum or special
alloy materials, equipping of craft with modern and
sophisticated navigational gear, and the increased
acquisition of larger type craft, including those with a
limited maritime capability. Intr:,duoA in the early
1960'x, the river /seagoing fleet operated by the
Ministry of the River Fleet of the R.S.F.S.R. now
number an estimated 300 to 400 units, most of which
comprise six basic classes �the dry cargo carriers,
Baltiskiv (2,000 -ton) (Figure 11), Sormovskiy (2,300
ton), Morskoy (1,850 -ton), and Volga -Bait (2,700
ton); the 2,700 -ton mixed dry and liquid -cargo carrier
Nefterudovoz; and the 5,000 /6,000 -ton tanker
Volgoneft. These modern, shallow draft inland
merchant ships are normally loaded to a draft ranging
from 10.8 to 11.5 feet. They meet internati nal
maritime regulations and are equipped idi modern
navigational instruments� including radar, ship -to-
shore radio and radiotelephone, radar direction
finders, remote main engine and auxiliary machine
controls, and echo sounding gear. All are powered by
twin diesel engines with ratings from 1,000 to 2,000
h.p. and are constructed with double bottoms and
sides, with hulls reinforced for navigation in ice floes.
Operating speeds achieved under various river,
reservoir, and sea conditions range from 9 to 11 knots.
Most units were built in the U.S.S.R.; other suppliers
include Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Ro-
mania, and Finland.
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FIGURE 9. Meteor -class 150-passenger-capacity hydrofoil used
mostly in short -to- medium distance interurban passenger service (U /OU)

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The administrative and operational control of
inland waterway trznsportation is exercised by the
Ministry of th River Fleet, R.S.F.S.R., the
directorates of river shipping in the Council of
Ministers of other union republics, and the Ministry of
Maritime Fleet, all of which are directly subordinate
to the U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers. The Ministry of
River Fleet exercises effective control of 84% of all
navigable waterways; 20 of the 28 major inland
waterway shipping companies subordinate to this
ministry account for 87% of the annual waterway
26
tonnage and 94% of the total cargo turnover. Three
companies, operating on the Caspian Sea, the Danube
River, and the Aral Sea Amudar'ya, are subordinate to
the Ministry of the Maritime Fleet, and five
companies to the directorates of river shipping in the
Council of Ministers of the various Union Republics.
All companies are organized on river or river basin
lines. On the integrated waterway system the vessels of
one company also operate within the established
territorial jurisdiction of other companies, except for
the towing craft. In addition to the transport function,
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FIGURE 10. Soviet 4,000 horsepower towboat designed for push
towing operations. Pusher units of this class are the newest and largest
in use on the inland waterways. (U /OU)
FIGURE 11. Baltiskiy class (Series 781) 2,000 -ton dry -cargo river/
seagoing vessel, the predominant class in Soviet river /maritime
operations. (C)

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M
4
FIGURE 12. Selected principal inland waterways (S)
ROUTE LOCATION AND LENGTH (BEE
NO. FIG. 33) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Kherson Kiyev; 577 route miles
via lower Dnepr river.
2 Kiyev- Brest; 499 route miles via
widdle Dnepr river and Pripyat'
waterway, consisting of Pripyat'
river, Pins, river, Dnepr -Bug
canal, Mukhovets river.
3 Leningrad Voznesen'ye; 267 route
miles via Neva river, Lake
Ladoga, Svir river.
Mostly regulated stream; channel width
230 -650 ft.; safe draft 7 -12 ft.; multi
channeled with shoaling below 6 reser-
voirs; low water in Mar., Apr.; high water
end of May to early June, rising by 16 -18
ft.; -tide negligible; current velocity 0.6-
2.0 m.p.h. from mouth to mile 60, insig.
beyond to Kiyev. Waves to 10.5 ft, on
reservoirs; 4 single, one 3- chambered -in-
tandem locks; controlling dimensions:
396 -ft. length, 58 -ft. width, 12 -ft. depth
over sill; 6 RR. bridges.
Composite summit -level route mostly im-
proved stream; channel width at least 60
ft.; safe draft 5 ft. at low water; min.
radius of curvature 650 ft.; normal cur-
rent velocity low, not exceeding 1.3
m.p.h.; Pripyat' river portion generally
tortuous with many horseshoe bends; 14
bridges (9 highway, 5 RR.); 2 pipeline
crossings; 12 single chambered locks with
controlling dimensions of 260 -ft. length,
36 -ft. width, 5 -ft. depth over sill.
Composite waterway consisting of natural
stream, lake, regulated stream; safe draft
11 -13 ft.; channel width 1,300 -4,300 ft.;
normal current velocity to 3.5 m.p.h. on
Neva river; water level fluctuations 2 -10
ft.; structures: 2 single- chambered locks;
dimensions: 659 -ft. length, 70 -ft. width,
19.6 -f t. depth over sill; at least 11 bridges,
1 under construction; controlling under
bridge vertical and horizontal clearances
est. min. 50 ft. and 120 ft. respectively.
4 Belomorsk- Voznesen'ye; 288 route
miles via White Sea canal, Lake
Onega.
Composite summer level route consisting of
canalized stream, lakes, reservoirs, regu-
lated streams; channel width 118 ft.; safe
draft 11 ft.; current velocity insig.; wind
waves up to 3 ft. on Lake Onega; 19 locks
with controlling dimensions of 470 -ft.
length, 56 -ft. width, 11.5 -ft. depth over
sill; at least 5 bridges, 15 dams.
OPERATIONS
Navigation season 8 months; fast ice mid
Dec. -early Mar.; supports self- propelled
craft to 2,000 tons and 1,800 -ton dumb
push barges, which, coupled together,
comprise principal tow; heavy traffic
density, with up to 20 million tons moved
annually; principal cargoes: mineral con-
struction materials, coal, ore, POL.
Navigation season 7 months; fast ice mid
Nov.- mid -Mar.; shallows and curves may
require 1 -way .operations on sections
Pinsk Mozyr' en Pripyat' river; accom-
modates 600 -800 -ton craft; barge tows
usually comprise 1 -2 barges; traffic den-
sity moderately heavy; principal cargoes:
iron ores to Brest for transshipment to
Poland via RR. and Polish coal to
U.S.S.R.; other cargoes: mineral con-
struction materials, timber.
Navigation season 7 months; fast ice late
Nov. -early May; route supports self
propelled craft up to 6,000 -tons; used
extensively by river /seagoing vessels in
foreign commerce and small naval craft in
intersea transfers; strong winds forming
seiches to 3 ft. affect operations for short
periods; traffic normally heavy; principal
cargoes: mineral construction materials,
timber, coal, POL, ores; Lake Ladoga
bypass canal, 102 route miles long, used
by small craft unsuited for lake
navigation.
Navigation season 6 months; fast ice early
Nov.- mid -May; supports 3,000 -ton craft
including river /seagoing, small naval and
coastal vessels; traffic normally heavy;
principal cargoes: timber, mineral con-
struction materials, coal, ores.
RE161ARKS
Most important inland waterway for
Ukraine; RR. and maritime transship-
ping connection with international trade
at Kherson, important maritime /river
port 17 miles upstream from Black Sea;
recently constructed Kanev dam, 1 of 5
on route, now creating reservoir about
490 miles upstream from mouth, will
allow passage of 5,000 -ton river /sea craft
to Kiyev; major inland river ports
handling 5 -7 million tons annually:
Kiyev, Zaporozh'ye, Dnepropetrovsk.
Waterway important for import /export
trade with Poland; shipbuilding and
repair facilities at Pinsk; Kiyev is major
port; other significant ports: Brest,
Mozyr'.
Most important waterway segment for
import /export trade; vital link in Greater
Volga unified waterway system linking
Baltic, White, Black, Caspian Seas; RR.
and maritime transshipping connections
with international trade at Leningrad,
most important maritime /fluvial port on
Baltic Sea, handling about 12 million
short tons of river cargo annually.
Important as transient route connecting
northern seas with Baltic and central
economic regions; Petrozavodsk is major
port; other ports of some significance:
Medvezh'yegorsk, Belomorsk, a mari-
time /river facility. Locks to be recon-
structed, enlarged to accommodate up
to 5,000 -ton craft.
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to
00 FIGURE 12. Selected print ipal inland waterways (S) (Continued)
ROUTE LOCATION AND LENGTH (SEE
Nu. Flo. 33) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OPERATIONS
REMARKS
5 Voznesen ye- Rybinsk; 334 route
miles via Lake Onega, Volga
Baltic canal, Rybinsk Reservoir,
Volga river.
6 Moscow- Rybinsk; 237 route miles
via Moscow canal, upper Volga
river, Rybinsk reservoir, Volga
river.
Rybinsk- Kamskoye. Ust'ye; 601
route miles via middle, upper
Volga river.
Mostly natural lake and /or reservoir; canal-
ized stream; channel width 130 -133 ft.;
safe draft 11 -13 ft.; minimum radius of
curvature 3,300 ft.; current velocity insig.;
continuous dredging necessary on some
sections to maintain channel characteris-
tics; 8 locking installations (7 single
chambered, 1 parallel single- chambered
locks); controlling dimension-: 660 -ft.
length, 70 -ft. width, 15 -ft. depth over sill;
at least 4 bridges; controlling underbridge
vertical and horizontal clearances est.
min. 50 ft. and 70 ft. respectively.
Composite waterway consisting of land -cut
canal, canalized stream, reservoir; chan-
nel width 150 ft.; safe draft 12 -16 ft.; no
significant current velocity; min. radius of
curvature 9,800 ft.; 11 locking installa-
tions (7 single- chambered, 3 double
chambered in tandem, 1 parallel single
chambered locks); controlling dimensions:
980 -ft. length, 98 -ft. width, 18 -ft. depth
over sill; at least 8 bridges; controlling
underbridge vertical and horizontal clear-
ances est. at least 50 ft. and 98 ft.,
respectively.
Partially improved stream, reservoir; chan-
nel width 330 ft.; safe draft 8 -13 ft.;
normal channel velo ^.ity 0.7 -1.2 m.p.h.;
min. radius of curvatur0 13,000 ft.; dredg-
ing of channel required Gor'kiy- Chebok-
sary because of shoals, bars, low water
levels; 2 parallel single- chambered locks
over sill; at least 4 bridges; controlling
underbridge vertical and horizontal clear-
ances at least 75 ft. and 330 ft.
respectively.
Navigation season 6 months; route necom-
modates up to 6,000 -ton self propelled
barges; storms, high waves interrupt
navigation for short periods on lakes and
reservoirs; Onega bypass canal, 42 route
miles long, avail9ble for small craft; traf-
fic density heavy; principal southbound
cargoes: timber, mineral construction ma-
terials, ore, chemicals; principal north-
bound cargoes: coal, POL, salt, grain.
Navigation season 6.5 months; fast ice mid
Nov. -late April; icebreakers used; route
accomodates up to 6,000 -ton craft;
traffic density heavy; principal cargoes:
mineral construction materials, POL,
grain, timber, salt; speed restriction of
7.5 m.p.h. on Moscow canal.
Navigation season 6.5 months; fast ice mid
Nov. -late April; route capable of sup-
porting self- propelled craft up to 2,700
tons; 5,000- and 6,000 -ton self propelled
craft must partially offload to lighters on
short section near Cheboksary because of
restrictive depths; most densely trafficked
waterway segment in U.S.S.R.; principal
cargoes: mineral construction materials,
timber, ore, chemicals, coal, POL.
Important mainly as transient route con-
necting central regions with Baltic,
White Seas; major ports: Cherepovets,
Rybinsk; 1 lock in common with
Route 6.
Most important waterway connecting
Moscow and nearby centers to other
major segments of Greater Volga sys-
tem; major ports: Moscow, Rybinsk;
former handles over 12 million tons
annually and is country's largest port
complex, consisting of Yuzhnyy (S.)
Port, Zapadnyy (W.) Port, and Severnyy
(N.) Port; 1 lock in common with Route
5; route mileage derived from confluence
of Moskva river with Moscow canal.
Important for serving central economic
regions and through connections to other
regions; completion of dam at Chebok-
sary will improve navigation conditions
mainly by reducing sailing distance and
increasing channel depths; major ports:
Rybinsk, Yaroslavl', Kineshma, Gor'kiy,
Kazan.
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8 Perm- Kamskoye Ust'ye; 562 route
miles via middle, lower Kama,
middle Volga rivers.
Kamskoye Ust'ye- Volgograd; 744
route miles via lower Volga
river.
10 Volgograd Astrakhan; 301 route
miles via lower Volga river.
Canalized stream; channel width 260 ft.;
safe draft 11 -13 ft.; normal current veloc-
ity 0.6 -1.3 m.p.h.; low water levels mid
Oct., early Nov.; high water early May
mid- or late -July; wide, multichanneled
waterway route with occasional shoaling,
controllable through dredging; large dams
form long consecutive reservoirs; 1 paral-
lel single- chambered lock -1,085 ft. long,
98 -ft. wide, est. 12- 15 -ft. depth over sill;
at least 4 bridges; controlling underbridge
vertical and horizontal clearances at least
60 ft. and 100 ft. respectively.
Canalized stream; channel width 330 ft.;
safe draft 12 -13 ft.; normal current
velocity up to 1.2 m.p.h.; broad, multi
channeled river interspersed with reser-
voirs; some dredging below dams neces-
sary to correct channel shifting; 4 locking
installations, 1 parallel double chambered
in tandem, 3 parallel single- chambered
locks- 980 -ft. length, 98-ft. width, 18 -ft.
depth over sill; at least 4 bridges; con-
trolling underbridge vertical and hori-
zontal clearance at least 75 ft. and 650 ft.
respectively.
Partially improved stream; channel width
330 ft.; safe draft 11 -13 ft.; normal cur-
rent velocity 0.6 -1.2 m.p.h.; extensive
mud and sand shoals below Volgograd
controlled through dredging; no locks; 1
movable span bridge.
Navigation season 6.5 months; ice late
Nov. -late Apr.; accommodates self
propelled river /sea vessels up to 2,700
tons and towed or pushed 3,000 -ton dumb
barges; high waves, storms on reservoirs
may cause suspension of traffic ''or short
periods; traffic density heavy; down-
stream movements far exceeds upstream
shipments; principal cargoes, amounting
to over 45 million tons annually: timber,
POL, mineral construction materials,
chemical fertilizers, industrial goods
much of which moves in transit traffic
between European U.S.S.R. and Siberia
in coordination with RR. transport.
Navigation season 7.5 months; ice early
Dec. -mid -Apr.; supports 2,000 -6,000 -ton
self propelled craft and composite barge
trains up to 15,000 tons; high waves,
storms on reservoirs may cause suspension
of traffic for short periods; traffic density
heavy; principal cargoes: timber, mineral
construction materials, POL, salt, coal,
grain.
Navigation season 8.5 months; ice mid
T'iec. -early Mar.; supports up to 6,500
ton self- propelled craft; principal cargoes:
POL, timber, salt.
co
Route provides access to region noted for
forestry, extractive, metallurgical indus-
tries and along with RR. forms impor-
tant arterial connection for trans -Ural
freight; the Kama, largest tributary of
Volga, makes important connections
witi, Belays and Vyatka rivers; lower
Kama dam under construction at
Naberezhnyye Chelny, about 165 miles
upstream from confluence of Kama with
Volga; major port: Perm; other signifi-
cant, ports: Chaykovskiy, Kambarka.
Important as high- capacity deep -water
transient waterway connecting central
regions with Caspian and Black Sea
basins; major ports: Ul'yanovsk,
Tol'yatti, Kuybyshev, Saratov,
Volgograd.
Transient waterway for Caspian Sea
freight to central regions of country and
Azov -Black Sea basins; the principal
shipping route through low, marshy
delta approach from Caspian Sea via
Bakhtemir channel with 13- 14 -ft. draft;
water diversion dam with navigation
lock under construction N. of Astrakhan;
major ports: Astrakhan, Volgograd.
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ca
0
FIGURE 12. Selected principal inland waterways (S) (Continued)
ROUTE LOCATION AND LENGTH (SEE
NO. FIG. 33) PHYSICAL CHARACPERIST'C8
on
Caspian Sea; about 162,000 sq.
miles between lower European
and central Asian U.S.S.R.
Natural lake; safe draft at least 23 ft.; con-
tinuous falling water levels requires
dredging at approaches to Bakhtemir
channel and most major ports.
12
13
Volgograd- Rostov; 370 route miles
via Volga -Don canal, lower Don
river.
Novyy Port- Khanty- Mansiysk;
771 route miles via lower Ob'
river.
Dredged stream, land -cut canal interspersed
by large reservoirs; channel width 120-
200 ft.; safe draft 8 -12 ft.; normal current
velocity insig.; dredging of shipping chan-
nel necessary on shallow Tsimlyansk
reservoir and sections of Don, particularly
during low water periods; many islands
and course meandering on lower Don; 16
single- chambered locks; controlling
dimensions 490 -ft. length, 59 -ft. width,
14.5 -ft. depth over sill; at least 9 bridges;
controlling underbridge vertical clearance
53 ft.
Natural stream, some partially improved
stream; channel width at least 260 ft.;
safe draft 7 -30 ft.; normal curent velocity
1.0 -4.2 m.p.h.; river surface width 3,800
ft. to 2.5 mi.; many anabranches, multi
channeled, many islands, shifting chan-
nels, sand shoals; low water Apr., Sept.,
Oct.; high water late May -Aug.; no
structures; lower Ob' approached from
bay by 2 deltaic channels about 100
miles long, northernmost of which is
principal shipping lane.
OPERATIONS
Navigation season 8 months; ice late Nov.
Apr.; S. Caspian generally ice free and
open year round; supports up to 9,500
ton self- propelled units and 5,000 -ton
dumb barges; most larger units of fleet
self contained to Caspian Sea operate be-
cause of mstricted depths through Volga
delta channel, necessitating costly and
time consuming offshore lightering and /or
transloading operations; strong winds,
high seas interrupt vessel movements and
port operations for short periods; princi-
pal cargoes: POL, agric::cural products,
industrial equipment; Azeable amount of
passenger traffic; important RR. /passeil-
ger ferry service Krasnovodsk -Baku,
providing E. -W. RR. link.
Navigation season 8 months; ice early Dec.
early Mar.; supports self propelled craft
to 2,000 -ton capacity fully loaded and
5,000 -ton self propelled craft partially
loaded as low as 54% of capacity; reduced
loads of latter necessary because of criti-
cal shallows on lower Don; heaviest traf-
fic volume Kalach- na -Donu- Rostov,
amounting to 7 million tons annually;
principal cargoes: coal, timber, grain,
mineral construction materials.
Navigation season 4 -5 months; fast ice
period late Oct.- mid -June in bay, mid
Oct. -late June on river; normally sup-
ports navigation for self- propelled craft
up to 2,000 -ton capacity and dumb barges
to 3,000 tons; violent northerly winds
occasionally halt operations; traffic
moderate; principal cargoes: timber, food-
stuffs, POL, general cargo, mineral con-
struction materials; shipping closely
geared to maritime operations in N. and
requirements of gas and oil field activity
along Taz, Pur, Nyda, Nadym rivers.
REMARKS
Largest lake in world serves oil -rich Cas-
pial: Basin and provides important link
in Soviet transport system by extending
important Volga into Caucasus and
central Asia including major connection
with Iran; major ports: Baku, Krasno-
vodsk, Makhachkala, Shevchenko; RR.
ferry terminal at Shevchenko nearing
completion.
Forms part of militarily and economically
significant transport artery intercon-
necting Black and Azov Seas with other
important waterways of Greater Volga
system; plays significant role in moving
products to and from strategic Donets
Basin industrial complex; major ports:
Volgograd, Volgodonsk, Ust'- Donetskiy,
Rostov, the latter 37 miles upstream
from mouth of Don.
Primary transport route where there is
almost complete absence of RR., high-
way facilities; important section of Ob'
provides access to sea and maritime
shipping lanes of Northern Sea routes;
ports of any significance: Khanty-
Mansiysk, important river transloading
point, Novyy Port, which is minor
maritime /fluvial transloading port on
Northern Sea route.
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14
15
K hanty Mansiysk -No vosibirsk;
1,054 route miles via middle Ob'.
Khanty- Mansiysk -Omsk; 439
route miles via lower Irtysh.
Partially improved stream; cbaLnel width
13b -260 ft.; safe draft 7 -10 ft.; min.
radius of curvature 650 -2,600 ft.; normal
current velocity 2.5 -3 m.p.h.; river sur-
face width 1,700 -4,500 ft.; multichan-
neled, island studded, shifting sand shoals
anti channels; numerous sandbars; low
water Apr., Sept., Oct.; high water May
Aug.; water levels Novosibirsk�down-
stream for about 165 miles controlled by
Novosibirsk dam: no locks; 3 bridges (2
RR., 1 highway); controlling underbridge
vertical and horizontal clearances 40 ft.
and 385 ft. respectively.
Mostly natural stream, some partially im-
proved sections; channel width at least
100 ft.; river surface width 1,000 -3,000
ft.; safe draft 8 -10 ft.; normal current
velocity 1 -3 m.p.h.; meandering, braided,
multichanneled, shifting channels, sand
and gravel shoals; dredging required an-
nually; low water Apr., Sept., Oct.; high
water June -Aug.; no locks; 4 bridges (3
Rit., 1 highway); controlling underbridge
vertical and horizontal clearances 50 ft.
�snd 370 ft. respectively.
Navigation season 6 months; fast ice early
Nov.- mid -May; year -round navigation
made possible Novosibirsk dam down-
stream for 75-100 miles by increased
water temperature and turbulence from
released water of dam, 10 miles S. of
Novosibirsk; normally supports naviga-
tion for self propelled craft to 2,000 -ton
capacity and dumb barges to 3,000 tons;
600 -1,000 -ton self propelled craft and
2,000 -h.p. pusher tug with barge tows to
12,000 -tons predominant; traffic normally
heavy; volume of freight traffic at least
15 million tons annually; principal
cargoes: POL, grain, mineral construction
materials, timber, coal, general cargoes.
Navigation season 6 months; fast ice late
Oct. -early May; normally supports navi-
gation for 2,000 -ton self- propelled craft,
3,000 -ton dumb barges; predominant are
600 -1,000 -ton self propelled craft and
2,000 h.p. pusher tugs with up to four
3,000 -ton barges; traffic very heavy with
downstream haulage predominant; esti-
mated annual freight tonnage over
17,000,000 tons; principal cargoes: timber,
mineral construction materials, grain,
POL, manufactured goods, general cargo.
Co
Novosibirsk, largest port on Ob', major
river -RR. transshipment point, site of
major shipbuilding, repair yard; Surgut,
new large highly mechanized facility
supporting oil, gas exploitation, princi-
pal recipient of Ob' and Irtysh freight
traffic; Kolpashevo, rapidly expanding
major port primarily for oil and timber
exploitation, is only long -haul mode of
transportation available.
Most important and heavily trafficked
section of Ob'- Irtysh inland waterway
system; Omsk, largest port and most
important river -RR. transshipment
point on Irtysh; site of major ship-
building and repair yard; Tobolsk, large
new river /rail transshipment port pri-
marily developed to supply gas and oil
exploitation in Soviet north.
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to FIGURE 12. Selected principal inai.Id waterways (S) (Continued)
ROUTE .00ATION AND LENGTH (SEE
No. FIG. 33) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
16
Dudinka Krasnoyarsk; 1,261
route miles vis. lower, middle
Yenisey.
OPERATIONS
Mostly natural stream; some partially im-
proved sections; channel width at least
100 ft.; safe draft 7.8 -12.5 ft.; normal cur-
rent velocity 0.6 -3.0 m.p.h.; rapids on
several stretches of middle Yenisey; river
surface width generally 0.6 -2.0 miles but
narrows to less than 1,600 ft. at rapids;
shifting sandbars, shoals; low water Aug.
Oct.; high water May -early Aug.; no
locks, 2 bridges (1 RR., 1 highway); con-
trolling underbridge vertical and hori-
zontal clearances are 32 ft. and 450 ft.
respectively.
17
Tiksi- Ust'- Kut /Osetrovo; 2,100
route miles via Lena delta, Lena
river.
Mostly natural stream, some improved
stream; channel width 100 -265 ft.; safe
draft 6.5 -10.5 ft.; current velocity 0.5-
6.0 m.p.h.; river surface width 600 -2,500
ft.; multichanneled; shifting channels and
shoals, sandbars, numerous islands; low
water late Oct.; high water late May -late
July; no structures.
Navigation season 3 -7 months; fast ice mid
Oct. -early June; normally supports self
propelled craft up to 10,000 tons on mari-
time /fluvial section of .lower Yenisey
(Dudinka Igarka), 2,000 -ton self -pro-
pelled barges and 3,000 -ton dumb barges
on fluvial section (Igarka Krasnoyarsk');
typical barge tow is 2,000 -h.p. pusher tug
and four 3,000 -ton barges; partially
loaded 5,000 -ton river /seagoing craft
operate to Krasnoyarsk; upstream tow
assistance and 1 -way operations near mile
995 and mile 1,319 of middle Yenisey due
to rapids and narrows; traffic normally
heavy in both directions and closely
geared to maritime operations to N. and
Trans- Siberian RR. to S.; 20 -ton con-
tainer route Krasnoyarsk- Dudinka; prin-
cipal cargoes: POL, timber, manufactured
and agricultural goods, ores, construction
materials, general cargo.
Navigation season 3-6 months; fast ice mid
Sept.- mid -June; normally supports navi-
gation for self propelled craft up to 2,150
ton capacity and dumb barges up to
3,000 -ton capacity; vessel movements
occasionally interrupted for short periods
by dense fog, strong winds, rough water;
traffic heaviest Yakutsk- Ust' -Kut with
downstream shipments predominant;
through E. -W. shipments dependent on
transshipment /transloading to and from
maritime craft in N. and branch line of
Trans Siberian RR. in S.; principal car-
goes: POL, timber, coal, agricultural and
industrial products, containerized
materials.
REMARKS
Only adequate N. -S. long -haul surface
transport route in region undergr:ng
extensive mining and industrial develop-
ment, including Norilsk mining and
industrial complex; important maritime/
fluvial ports: Dudinka, Igarka, 261 and
423 route miles upstream from mouth of
Yenisey at entrance to Kara Sea; Kras-
noyarsk, major inland waterway port
astride Trans- Siberian RR., is site of
large shipbuilding and repair facilities;
Igarka is important timber transship-
ment port.
Most important N. -S. transport route in
E. Siberia; major port, shipbuilding/
repair facilities available at Yakutsk,
Ust'- Kut /Osetrovo; Tiksi, maritime port
on Northern Sea Route, is important
maritime /river transshipment site; Lena
Steamship Co. is responsible for port
facilities on Yana, Indigirka, Kolyma
rivers including diamond and gold min-
ing activities along these rivers; river'oea
craft of Lena transload to shallow draft
vessels at points near river mouths.
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18
15
20
Nikolayevsk� Khtbarovsk; 577
route miles via lower Amur.
Khabarovsk Blagoveshchensk;
587 route miles via middle Amur.
Iman� Khabarovsk; 233 route miles
via Ussuri, Iman rivers.
Partially improved stream; .-hannel width
360 ft.; safe draft 12 -17 ft.; normal cur-
rent velocity 1.9 m.p.h.; river surface
width 0.4 -3 miles; multichanneled; shift-
ing channels, many islands, extensive
gravel and sand shoals; low water Apr.,
Oct.; high water July, Aug. frequently
accompanied by intensive flooding; no
locks; I bridge; vertical and horizontal
underbi,dge clearances 50 ft. and 400 ft.
respectively; combined RR.- highway
bridge under construction at Komsomol'sk.
Partially improved stream; channel width
260 -980 ft.; safe draft 10.5 -21.5 ft.;
normal current velocity 3.7 m.p.h.; river
surface width 1,500 -5,000 ft.; low water
mid -Feb. through March; high water
Aug., Sept.; critical shoals near Soyuz-
noye, Konstantinovskoye; lower and up-
per sections: multichanneled, many
islands, sloping sandy clay banks; mid-
section: relatively narrow raver bed, few
islands, steep banks; no structures.
Partially improved stream; channel width
at least 100 ft.; safe draft 3-6.5 ft.; normal
current velocity 2.4 m.p.h.; river surface
width 1,600 -3,300 ft.; braided, multi-
channeled; many islands; shifting shoals;
low water June, Aug.; high water May,
July, Sept.; no structures.
Navigation season 6 months; fast ice early
Nov.� mid -May; pilotage compulsory;
normally supports navigation for self
propelled craft to 2,000 -ton capacity and
dumb oarges to 3,000 tons; operations
occasionally impeded by summer fog,
monsoonal flooding for short durations;
traffic density heavy; principal cargoes:
POL, coal, grain, timber, fish, salt, bulk
construction materials, general cargo.
Navigation season 6 months; fast ice 15
Nov. -5 May; normally supports naviga-
tion for self- propelled craft to 2,000 -ton
capacity and dumb barges to 3,000 -tons;
operations occasionally impeded by shift-
ing channels, extensive shoals; traffic
normally heavy; principal cargoes: coal,
grain, bulk construction materials, gen-
eral cargo.
01
Navigation season 7 months; fast ice mid
Nov.� mid April; normally supports navi-
gation for self propelled craft to 500-600
tons; operations interrupted for short
periods by intense flooding after monsoon
rains; traffic currently light due to Sino-
Soviet dispute; principal cargoes: coal,
general cargo.
Most important section of Amur system;
shipping associated closely with RR.,
maritime transshipment operations;
Nikolayevsk is principal upriver ter-
minus of maritime navigation; impor-
tant river -RR. pipeline transshipment
effected at major river ports of Komso-
mol'sk and Khabarovsk and river /mari-
time transshipment at Nikolayevsk;
Komsomol'sk site of major naval ship-
building yard; Khabarovsk, the largest
port, is principal upstream river /sea
terminal.
Shipping associated closely with RR. trans-
shipment operations; Blagoveshchensk,
major port, RR. /river transshipment
point and upstream river /sea navigation
terminus; site of major river shipbuild-
ing yard; route forma part of Sino- Soviet
border.
Route forms Sino- Soviet border; Iman is
small river /RR. transshipment port.
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each company is responsible in its area for operating
most shipbuilding and repair yards, port facilities,
personnel training schools, and the fleet. There are 17
basin /canal administrations, under the control of the
Ministry of River Fleet, R.S.F.S.R. and the Union
Republics, which maintain all waterway routes and
associated structures such as locks and dams.
Earlier development plans for the waterways are
gradually being realized with the completion of new
dams, river dredging, the development of new ports
and repair facilities, the enlargement of existing
facilities, and the increasing use of push towing and
large river /sea craft. In port operations the emphasis is
on mechanization and containerization along with
port construction and rehabilitation.
Tire completion of long -range programs in
European U.S.S.R. will provide deep -draft navigation
for river /seagoing vessels up to 6,000 -ton capacity
between the Black, Caspian, White, and Baltic Seas.
Dams with bypass locks are under construction at
Kanev on the Dnepr, Cheboksary and Volzhskoye on
the Volga, Nikolayevskaya on the lower Don,
Naberezhnyve Chelny on the Kama, arid at Takhia-
Tash and near Pitnyak on the Amudar'ya. Locks are
being reconstructed and enlarged at Zaporozh'ye on
the Dnepr, Svir'stroy on the Svir and Sheksna on the
Volga Baltic Canal, and locks oil the White Sea
Canal. Plans also call for the reconstruction of the two
locks at Gorodets on the Volga.
The Siberian rivers are to an increasing extent
supplementing the Northern Sea Route in support of
establishments above the Arctic Circle. Work on the
Krasnoyarsk shiplift on the Yenisey was scheduled for
completion in 1973. The 2,000- ton capacity inclined
shiplift is to he the largest in the world. However,
technical problems and testing will delay the opening
until 1974 at the earliest. Dams are under construction
at Zeya on the Amur system, Shushenskoye on the
Yenisey, and near Ust'- Ilimsk on the Angara.
Extension of the Karakum Canal on the Aral Sea
Amudar'ya system beyond Ashkhabad to the Caspian
Sea is continuing. To arrest the rapidly falling water
level of the Caspian Sea, several plans are in the
investigative stage involving diversion of the Pechora
and /or the Sukhona river flows from north to south by
means of a series of dams and canals which will
increase the water flow via the Kama and Volga rivers
southward to the Caspian Sea.
Characteristics of selected principal inland
waterways providing 11,857 route miles of primary
navigation are tabulated in Figure 12, the routes are
shown on Figure 33. Although representing only 13%
of total Soviet navigability, the selected waterways
34
account for over 90% of the yearly waterway tonnage.
They include most of the important high- capacity
through routes between major production and /or
strategic areas and all high- capacity routes that make
significant international connections.
F. Pipelines (S)
The development of pipeline systems in the Soviet
Union has been one of the most important issues
associated with the continued expansion of petroleum
and natural gas industries. Most consumers now have
a far greater preference for liquid and gaseous fuels in
place of coal, and petroleum production has been
accelerated to satisfy the increased domestic demand
and to earn foreign exchange credits. The difficulty of
transporting petroleum and natural gas over the vast
distances and difficult terrain encountered in the
U.S.S.R has not been completely solved. The Soviets
lack the technology and modern oilfield and pipeline
equipment needed to fully exploit their extensive
reserves of petroleum and :iatural gas and are trying to
bridge t1 is gap by procuring assistance from Western
sources.
As of January 1973, the U.S.S.R. had about 74,800
miles of pipelines: 23,000 miles for crude oil; 5,800
miles for refined products; and 46,000 miles for
natural gas.
Plans call for the construction of an additional 2,300
miles of crude oil pipelines by the end of 1973. The
major Soviet oil pipelines can be grouped into seven
systems, five large and two secondary. A primary effort
is being made to complete the large- diameter CEMA
(Friendship) pipeline system which transports crude
oil from the Urals -Volga oilfields to refineries in
western U.S.S.R, Poland, East Germany, Hungary,
and Czechoslovakia. The first line of this 2,700 -mile
pipeline system became operational in 1956, but
growing oil requirements in Eastern Europe called for
the doubling of the system. This work, scheduled for
completion in 1973, will more than double the
carrying capacity of the CEMA system. A major crude
oil pipeline system over 1,600 miles in length was
recently completed to bring oil from fields near the
Oh' river to refineries at Omsk, Tomsk, and Angarsk.
Another pipeline from the Ob' river fields is under
construction to AI'met'yevsk and Kuybyshev.
Construction of a crude oil pipeline between Irkutsk
and Nakhodka in the Soviet Far East has been
planned and is likely to be built, but its construction
seems dependent upon the acquisition of equipment
arid technical assistance from Japan.
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FIGURE 13. Selected major petroleum pipeline systems (C)
-Oo
TERMINALS
From
To
PRODUCTS
LENGTH
DIAMETER
TRANSPORTED
CAPACITY
REMARKS
Miles
Inches
BbOday
CEMA (Friendship) system:
Kuybyshev
Unecha.....................
823
40
Crude...........
800,000
Main CEMA trunk line.
Do
....do......................
823
48
....do..........
�1,200,000
Parallel line.
Unecha
Mozyr......................
183
32
....do..........
540,000
Do
����do......................
183
na
....do..........
na
Parallel line, under construction; expected
M ozyr
Brest.......................
297
24
....do..........
240,000
completion 1973.
Do
Do
....do......................
Uzhgorod....................
297
na
....do..........
na
Parallel line; reported completed 1972.
453
21
....do..........
160,000
Do
....do......................
453
28
....do..........
*320,000
Parallel line.
U necha
Polotsk.....................
279
28
....do..........
360,000
Do
....do......................
279
na
....do..........
na
Parallel line, under construction; expected
Polotsk
Ventspils....................
341
25
....do..........
240,000
completion 1973.
Almetyevsk
Do
Kuybyshev
170
32
....do..........
340,000
Feeds crude oil into CEMA system.
Do.......................
....do......................
170
na
....do..
no
Parallel line.
Uzen
....do......................
170
no
....do..........
na
Do.
....do......................
926
40
..do..........
600,000
Feeds crude into CEMA system. Pipeline
heaters located every 50 miles because of
Kuybyshev
Rovno (via Bryansk)
1,120
21
Products........
*165,000
high- viscosity oil being transported.
Extension
planned to Poland or Czecho-
Unecha
Ventspils....................
621
24
....do..........
240,000
slovakia border.
Transports diesel fuel, crude oil.
Tuymazy
Kuybyshev..................
220
14
Crude...........
83,000
Do.......................
Trans Siberian system:
do......................
220
32
do..........
340,000
Parallel line.
Almetyevsk
Tuymazy
62
21
....do..........
151,000
Do
Tuymazy
....do......................
Omsk.......................
62
827
28
21
....do..........
340,000
Do.
Do
....do......................
827
28
....do..........
....do..........
120,000
300,000
Do.
Do
....do......................
827
32
....do..........
380,000
Do.
Ufa
Do
....do......................
740
15
Products........
114,000
Parallels Tuymazy �Omsk line.
Omsk
.do......................
740
20
....do..........
190,000
Parallel line.
Irkutsk.....................
1,500
28
Crude...........
340,000
Anzhero- Sudzhensk
....do......................
*900
40/48
....do..........
na
Under construction; expected completion
Omsk
Novosibirsk..................
432
20
Products........
190,000
1973. Parallels previous line.
Novosibirsk
Chita.......................
1,575
no
....do..........
na
Planned.
Irkutsk
Nakhodka...................
2,188
48
Crude...........
na
Planned; construction dependent upon Japa-
Ca
e I Fotnotes at end of table.
nese aid.
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ca
o
FIGURE 13. Selected major petroleum pipeline systems (C) (Continued)
TERMINALS
From To
Tyumen system:
Ust- Balyk Omsk.......................
Aleksandrovskoye............ Ust- Balyk
Do Anzher0- Sudzhensk...........
Do Almetyevsk (via Kurgan).....
Do Kuybyshev..................
Shaim Tyumen.....................
Central Asian system:
Omsk....................... Pavlodar....................
Pavlodar Chimkent...................
Nebit Dag Chardzhou..................
Chimkent................... ....do......................
Northwestern system:
Almetyevsk Gorkiy......................
Do....................... ....do......................
Do....................... ....do......................
Do....................... ....do......................
Gorkiy Yaroslavl....................
Do ....do......................
Yaroslavl Kirishi......................
Kirishi Leningrad...................
Gorkiy Ryazan.....................
Do ....do......................
Ryazan..................... Moscow.....................
Do....................... ....do......................
Do ....do......................
Voy Vozh Ukhta......................
U khta Yaroslavl....................
Caucasus system:
Baku....................... Batumi.....................
Do....................... ....do......................
Do....................... ....do......................
Groznyy Dnepropetrovsk
Far Eastern system:
Okha Komsomolsk- na- Amure.......
Do....................... ....do......................
Komsomolsk Khabarovsk.................
na Data not available.
546
10
PRODUCTS
34,000
515
LENGTH
DIAMETER
TRANSPORTED
CAPACITY
REMARKS
Miles
Inches
700
B61.Iday
....do..........
816
40
Crude
900,000
63,000
156
28
....do.........:
na
181
621
48
....do..........
1,500,000
1,140
48
..do..........
na
Under construction; expected completion
1973.
*1,430
56
....do
na
Planned; expected completion 1976.
267
21
....do..........
140,000
250
32
....do..........
151,000
*1,000
24
..do..........
na
Under construction; dual 24 -in. pipelines;
expected completion 1975.
600
na
....do..........
na
Planned.
450
na
....do..........
na
Do.
360
21
....do..........
160,000
360
32
....do..........
480,000
Parallel line.
360
32
....do..........
*480,000
Do.
360
na
....do..........
no
Do.
245
28
....do..........
340,000
245
na
....do..........
na
Do.
*320
na
....do..........
na
*60
na
Products........
na
260
28
Crude...........
340,000
260
na
....do..........
na
Do.
125
24
....do..........
240,000
125
16
Products........
85,000
125
na
....do..........
na
100
na
Crude...........
na
600
na
....do..........
na
Under construction; expected completion
1973.
546
10
....do..........
34,000
515
28
....do..........
na
552
na
Products........
Ila
700
na
....do..........
*114,000
390
12
....do..........
63,000
390
17
do
na Parallel line.
181
na
....do..........
na
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FIGURE 14. Selected major natural gas pipeline systems (U /OU)
TERMINALS
From To
Northern system:
Nadym.........................
Novyy Port
Vuktyl..........................
Ukhta..........................
Do.........................
Do.........................
LENGTH DIAMETER CAPACITY
Miles
Ukhta.......................... *650
Sa lekhard *635
Ukhta 119
Torzhok 857
...do 857
...do 857
Do......................... ...do..........................
Kot las Arkhangelsk
Nadym......................... Punga..........................
Do......................... ..:do..........................
Punga.......................... Serov
Do......................... ...do..........................
Serov Nizhniy Tagil....................
Nizhnyaya Tura Perm...........................
M essoyakhskaya Norilsk
Do......................... ...do..........................
Central Asian system:
857
*300
435
435
Inches Cu. m./day
REMARKS
56
no
Under construction; expected completion 1976.
na
no
Planned.
40
na
na
48
41,000,000
Main trunk line of "Northern Lights" system.
48
na
Parallel line.
56
na
Parallel line; reported under construction; completion
1,150
na
na.
56
na
Parallel line; pls nned.
na
na
Under construction; completion no.
48/56
na
Moscow (via Beyneu, Ostrogozhsk).
na
na
Parallel line; under construction; expected completion
Moscow (via Khiva and Ostro-
2,250
1974.
*270
32
17,800,000
270
na
na
143
40
na
186
40
25,000,000
183
28
na
183
na
na
Bukhara area gasfields............
Nizhniy Tagil (via Chelyabinsk)
1,558
40
Do
Chelyabinsk
1,238
40
Do
Alma -Ata (via Chimkent)
1,150
20/28
Do
...do..........................
1,150
40
Do.........................
...do..........................
1,150
na
Do
Moscow.........................
2,000
40
Do.........................
...do..........................
2,000
40
Koturdepe
Moscow (via Beyneu, Ostrogozhsk).
1,558
40/48
Shatlyk gasfield
Moscow (via Khiva and Ostro-
2,250
56
gozhsk).
Kelif
Bukhara........................
*250
no
Do.........................
Dushanbe.......................
190
32
Ashkhabad......................
Mary...........................
230
na
Footnotes at end of table.
co
4
Parallel line.
World'e northernmost pipeline.
Parallel line; reported under construction; completion
na.
29,000,000
"Bukhara- Urals" pipeline.
29,000,000
Parallel line.
no
no
Do.
no
Parallel line; reported under construction; completion
no.
*29,000,000
"Central Asia- Center" pipeline.
*29,000,000
Parallel line.
*65,000,000
Third "Central Asia Center" pipeline: under con-
struction; expected completion late 1973.
*82,000,000
Fourth "Central Asia- Center" pipeline; under con-
struction; expected completion late 1973.
na
Brings natural gas from Shibarghan, Afghanistan.
na
Under construction; expected completion 1973.
2,000,000
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a FIGURE 14. Selected major natural gat pipeline systems (U /OU) (Continued)
TERMINAL&
From 1
Western system:
Dashava area gasfields............ Soviet -1
Do do......
Do Soviet -Czech border..............
Do ...do..........................
Do.........................
Do
Ivatsevichi
Torzhok.........................
Moscow
Do
Leningrad.......................
Do
Novgorod
Leningrad
Southern system:
Shebelinka
Do.........................
Do.........................
Do.........................
Nikolayev
Stavropol area gasfields...........
Do.
Leningradskaya area gasfields......
Do
Do.........................
Baku...........................
Stavropol........................
Far Eastern system:
Kham pa
Tas -Tu m us
Okha...........................
Yakut sl
Kiev............................
Serpukhov.......................
Riga............................
Minsk..........................
Leningrad (via Torzhok)
...do
Tallin
...do
Riga............................
Soviet Finland border
Bryansk (via Orel)
Nikolayev
Ostrogozhsk.....................
Voroshilovgrad
Kishinev
Moscow
...do
Serpukhov (via Rostov)
Rostov..........................
....do
Mozjk
Groalyy
Tas -Tu m us
Yakutsk
Korsakov
Nakhodka
no Data not available.
*Estimated.
LENGTH DIAMETER CAPACITY
Miles Inches Cu. m. /day
REMARKS
63
12
no
63
28
12,500,000
115
32
na
115
na
no
Parallel line; under construction; expected completion
1973.
321
20
12,500,000
760
20
12,500,000
324
28
no
*350
no
na
*400
28
12,500,000
*400
40
no
*215
na
no
*215
na
no
*300
no
*6,850,000
95
no
na
Planned; expected completion 1973.
338
28
12,500,000
310
28
11,000,000
Double pipeline to Dnepropetrovsk.
150
40
29,000,000
160
40
29,000,000
170
na
no
813
28
12,500,000
813
28/32
17,800,000
Parallel line.
650
40
29,000,000
63
32
17,800,000
63
32
17,800,000
Do.
480
20/28
no
360
20/28
12,500,000
125
21
4,700,000
250
21
4,700,000
620
26
na
Planned.
*1,500
no
no
Do.
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The widespread use of large diameter pipe has
substantially aided the exploitation of gasfields, but
the long distances between gas- producing areas and
the primary consuming centers have put a severe strain
on Soviet pipe manufacturers. Nevertheless, long
distance large- diameter trunk pipelines are being
built. The third and fourth strings of the Central Asia
Moscow gas pipeline system use 48 -inch and 56 -inch
pipe, and the third and fourth strings of the "Northern
Lights" gas line, which will bring natural gas from
northwest Siberia to Moscow, is to be of 56 -inch pipe.
Tabulated details of selected crude oil, refined
products, and natural gas pipelines are given in
Figures 13 and 14; the pipeline systems are shown on
Figure 34.
G. Ports (S)
The U.S.S.R. has 62 major ports, 122 minor ports of
some significance, and numerous other ports too small
to be of more than local importance. The major and
minor ports are distributed among the following four
coastal maritime areas as follows:
MAJOR M I N OR
Black Sea coast
17
23
Baltic coast
12
24
Pacific coast
15
55
Arctic coast
18
20
Each maritime area has its own merchant and naval
fleets and operates its own port system. The Baltic and
Black Sea areas have the greatest concentrations of
ports and port activity, and most U.S.S.R. maritime
trade is carried on from there; the ports in these areas
serve heavily industrialized and populated regions and
have the best rail, road, inland waterway, and cross
country pipeline clearance facilities.
With the execption of Leningrad, the larger Soviet
commercial ports do not compare in size or extent of
facilities with the major ports of other leading
maritime nations. Inadequacies such as the lack of
deep -water berths and approaches, lack of oil
bunkering and storage terminals, and lack of railroad
cars have at times hampered port operations and
caused delays. However, the U.S.S.R is striving to
improve the situation to better meet the needs of their
growing merchant marine. They recently inaugurated
container service in a few ports �the method for
speeding up cargo handling operations using
internationally standardized van -sized boxes.
Maritime shipping and the ports occupy a key place
in the Soviet transportation system. In many instances
the Soviets have found it more economical to move
their freight by sea rather than overland, even though
the sea distance might be twice as long via other
means.
Soviet ports still rel he, VI 041 cargo transfer
between railroad cars an t interruption
to the rail service adV( *t operations.
Most cargo is handled u_ he wharves,
and little lightering is ca. rnchorages or
moorings. Rapid handling ianes are used
extensively; ship's gear is seldom employed. Many
Soviet ports, and particularly those of a naval
character or those where sensitive military activities
are performed, are not open to non Communist
shipping.
U.S.S.R. ports are affected more by weather and
climate than those of any other large maritime
power �ice constituting the most serious obstacle.
Almost half the coastal waters are unnavigable for part
of the year, and many ports are closed During winter.
The most favorable climatic conditions exist in the
Black Sea, where the ports are usually operational year
round. Most ports are predominantly commercial in
nature, only a few being exclusively naval; many
commercial ports, however, provide some degree of
support to the naval forces as operating bases or
shipbuilding /ship repair centers.
The Black Sea area, sitt'Of Y)ajor t ?uropcao, U.S.S.R.
transport facilities, hardICS about 509 of 1, total
seaborne trade. Most post -World War I port
development in the U.S.SR_ has taken place' W this
area. Several ports have lrrn consi derably 11111411VI'd
with new and deeper "Ihltves, new storage Ivr111111111s,
ship- repair facilities, 41d handling rt ttllnn(
Il'ichevsk, a fairly larp 14frt. 1, .y built.
Novorossiysk, Odessa (Figure 15), and II'ichevsk are
the most significant Black Sea c(. nercial ports,
together handling about 4i, million tons of cargo
annually. One of the largest supertanker terminals in
Eurasia is located at Novorossiysk. N 4ayev is the
largest, most important shipbuildinf, enter in the
area, followed by Kerch and Kherson. The best
commercial ship- repair facilities are at Odessa and
II'ichevsk. Sevastopol /Balaklava has the finest natural
harbor in the Black Sea and is the area's principal
naval base, headquarters of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet,
and the most important naval ship- repair and supply
port; several other ports have small logistical support
bases or minor naval facilities. Black Sea naval ports
provide logistic support for maintaining Soviet naval
presence in the Mediterranean Sea. Zhdanov is a
principal exporter of coal, and Novorossiysk, Batumi,
Feodosiya, and Tuapse are primarily oil shipping
39
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ports. Kerch and Poti are mainly ore shipping ports,
while Yalta, Sochi, and the minor port of Sukhumi are
noted health resorts. Reni and Izmail, in addition to
Kherson, are important a .change ports for the
transshipment of cargoes between oceaagoirg and
river vessels. Ports open to non Communist shipping
are Batumi, Novorossiysk, Zhdanov, Odessa,
11 ichevsk, Tuapse, Poti and the minor port of
Sukhumi. Most military and commercial cargoes
destined for Cuba, North Vietnam, or Egypt and other
Arab countries originate from Black Sea ports.
The Baltic Sea plays an extremely important role in
the Soviet Union's maritime shipments. It occupies
second place among the seas of the U.S.S.R. in total
volume of freight turnover. Especially significant is its
role in foreign trade. Baltic seaports handle up to 20%
of export cargo and over 30% of import cargo passing
through seaports of the Soviet Union. In this regard
the Baltic Sea surpasses all other seas in the U.S.S.R.
Petroleum and petroleum products, timber, coal, coke,
metals, machinery and equipment, and grain
predominate in shipments over the Baltic Sea.
Leningradskaya Oblast is the Soviet Union's most
highly developed region in an economic sense and the
most important on the Baltic Sea. Of distinction in the
oblast's industry are shipbuilding, machine building,
and the aluminum, chemical, oil- refining and
cellulose -paper industries. Leading to Leningrad,
sect nd in freight turnover and the most complex
transportation center in the U.S.S.R., are 12 railroad
trunk lines, 10 major highways, and some sea and river
routes, pipelines, and air routes. Ventspils, the largest
Baltic port in respect to freight turnover, is a
specialized petroleum port +hvut 90% of its freight
turnover is petroleum and petroleum products).
Klaypeda, an important indu%i&d c:-nter, is the locale
40
of shipbuilding and ship- repair plants, cellulose -paper
and fish processing combines, and other industrial
enterprises. Additionally, Klaypeda occupies second
place in the Baltic after Ventspils in the export of
petroleum and petroleum products. Riga is a major
seaport with year -round navigation. Coal, petroleum
and petroleum products, various ores, grain, sugar,
and cotton predominate in the port's freight turnover.
Tallin is a large industrial center. Electrical
engineering, radio engineering, instrument making,
shipbuilding and ship- repairing, cellulose paper, and
light and food industries have been developed in the
city. Kaliningrad is the largest city in Kalinin
gradskaya Oblast. There are machine building, fish
processing, and other enterprises in the city. An
oceangoing fishing and refrigerator fleet and a
whaling fleet are based there. Kaliningrad is a naval
headquarters, and Baltiysk is the principal naval
operating base for the Baltic Fleet. The Kronshtadt
naval base guards the approaches to Leningrad. Riga,
Liepaya and Tallin are important naval bases. Vyborg
and Pal'diski are small naval bases. Ports open to non
Communist shipping are Leningrad, Klaypeda,
Ventspils, Riga, Tallin and Vyborg.
In the Pacific area over 90% of the port facilities are
located in southeast Siberia, in a maritime zone
extending from the Amur river south to the North
Korean border. This area is served by the Trans
Siberian railroad and the Amur river system, and
several of its ports can be kept open year round.
Vladivostok and nearby Nakhodka (Figure 16) lie
close to Japan, Communist China, and North Korea,
and they dominate in carrying on foreign trade in the
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