THE ANTARTIC TREATY NATIONS: THE MINERAL RESOURCES ISSUE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP08C01297R000100100001-1
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 48
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 4, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: June 1, 1981
• Content Type: REPORT

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National Secret
Foreign _ q25X1
Assessment
Center
The Antarctic Treaty Nations:
The Mineral Resources Issue
Secret
GS 81-10142
June 1981
Copy 3 7 3
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^~ iNanonai
Secret
Foreign 25X1
Assessment
Center
The Antarctic Treaty Nations:
The Mineral Resources Issue
Information available as of1 June 1981
has been used in the preparation of this report.
This report was prepared by
Geographic Research Division, Office of Geographic
and Societal Research. Comments and queries are
welcome and may be directed to the Chief, USSR-
Europe Branch, Geographic Research Division,
OGSR
This report was coordinated with the Offices of
Political Analysis, Science and Weapons Research,
Economic Research, the National Intelligence
Council, the Department of State, and the
National Science Foundation.
Secret
GS 81-10142
June 1981
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Summary
The Mineral Resources Issue
The Antarctic Treaty Nations:
The Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting is scheduled to begin
23 June 1981 in Buenos Aires to discuss procedure for negotiating a regime
to govern the development of antarctic mineral resources.
Building on tentative discussions at earlier meetings, the 14 Consultative
Nations will probably make important advances toward resolving the min-
eral resources issue. They generally agree that an antarctic mineral resource
regime is necessary, although their perceived national interests in the area
are diverse 25X1
Most nations that have territorial claims in Antarctica want to control
resource development in their respective areas. A few are willing to forgo
exclusive mineral rights in their claim areas in exchange for a share of all
antarctic minerals. Because mineral resources have been only superficially
explored and no one knows what resources are located where, the claimants
are not sure which position is in their national interest. 25X1
Nonclaimants those that have made no claims and recognize none-
generally believe that the continent should be open to all, or, at least, that
territorial claims should not be used to exclude interested nations from any
area of the continent.) 25X1
All antarctic nations, however, wish to protect their investment in Antarc-
tica and are generally resistant to demands for international sharing of the
profits derived from the development of antarctic resources. Such demands
from Third World nations are muted now but they will certainly become
louder if major mineral resources are found. 25X1
antarctic activity and the complexity of the mineral resource issue.
Thus, the antarctic nations place some urgency on negotiating a mineral
resources regime to prevent problems from arising among them and with
other nations as exploration activity expands and as mineral discoveries are
made. Meanwhile, the expansion in their antarctic programs and the in- 25X1
creasing interest shown by newcomers, such as China, are raising the level of
in the cooperative international spirit fostered by the Antarctic Treaty.
Over the last 10 years, the stage for negotiations has been set by discussions
on the issue and by the signing in 1980 of an analogous Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. Although the living 25X1
resources issue was considerably less contentious, its resolution increases
chances that the Antarctic nations will be able to resolve the minerals issue
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Antarctic Treaty (Summary of Basic Provisions) vi
Development of the Mineral Resources Issue
The Specific Problems
Antarctic Mineral Resources
Status and Programs of Antarctic Nations 9
Argentina 11 ., -
Belgium
Chile
Federal Republic of Germany
Japan 23
Norway 27
Soviet Union
United Kingdom
Acceding Nations 41
Brazil 41
German Democratic Republic 41
Other Acceding Nations 43
Nonacceding Nations 45
Other Nonacceding Nations
v Secret
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The Antarctic Treaty System
The Antarctic Treaty, which was signed in 1959 and
entered into force on 23 June 1961, established for at
least 30 years a legal framework for the area south of
60? South latitude. It guaranteed that the area would
be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and perpet-
uated the close scientific cooperation that had devel-
oped among the 12 nations that established scientific
stations in the Antarctic during the 1957-58 Interna-
tional Geophysical Year (IGY). The IGY counter-
balanced growing discord among antarctic claimant
states, some of which were dangerously close to armed
conflict over abstract national rights. The Treaty
seized upon the cooperative spirit developed during the
IGY as a means of preventing discord and preserving
peace in the area.
Summary of Basic Provisions
Article L Antarctica shall be used for peaceful
purposes only. All military measures,
including weapons testing, are prohib-
ited. Military personnel and equipment
may be used, however, for scientific
purposes.
Article IL Freedom of scientific investigation and
cooperation shall continue.
Article III. Scientific program plans, personnel,
observations and results shall be freely
exchanged.
Article IV. The Treaty does not recognize, dispute,
or establish territorial claims. No new
claims shall be asserted while the
Treaty is in force.
Article V. Nuclear explosions and disposal of
radioactive wastes are prohibited.
Article VL All land and ice shelves below 60? south
latitude are included, but high seas are
covered under international law.
Article VII. Treaty-State observers have free access-
including aerial observation-to any area
and may inspect all stations, installations,
and equipment. Advance notice of all
activities and of the introduction of mili-
tary personnel must be given.
Article IX. Treaty States shall meet periodically to
exchange information and take meas-
ures tofurther Treaty objectives,
including the preservation and con-
servation of living resources. These
Consultative Meetings shall be open to
contracting parties that conduct sub-
stantial scientific research in the area.
Article X.
Article XI.
Article XII.
Treaty States will discourage activities
by any country in Antarctica that are
contrary to the Treaty.
Disputes are to be settled peacefully by
the Parties concerned or, ultimately, by
the International Court of Justice.
After the expiration of 30 years from
the date the Treaty enters into force,
any Member State may request a con-
ference to review the operation of the
Treaty.
Article XIII. The Treaty is subject to ratification by
Signatory States and is open for acces-
sion by any state that is a member of the
UN or is invited by all the member
states.
Article XIV. The United States is the depository of
the Treaty and is responsiblefor provid-
ing certified copies to Signatories and
acceding states.
Article VIII. Observers under Article VII and scien-
tific personnel under Article III are un-
der the jurisdiction of their own states.
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The Antarctic Treaty Nations:
The Mineral Resources Issue
Introduction
The emergence of international interest in antarctic
resources-a matter not addressed by the Antarctic
Treaty-has raised new challenges for the interna-
tional system established by the Antarctic Treaty.
With a changing world resource situation, Antarctica's
putative resources are viewed as more than purely
scientific curiosities. The Convention on the Conserva-
tion of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, concluded
in Canberra in May 1980, provided a regime' for the
conservation of Antarctic marine living resources. The
task now is to resolve the mineral resources issue. This
is potentially the most troublesome issue that the
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties have had to face
since the Treaty entered into force in June 1961.
The Issue
The Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting
will be held in Buenos Aires from 23 June to 7 July
1981. The main item on the agenda will be the discus-
sion of a regime to govern possible commercial devel-
opment of antarctic mineral resources. Mounting
international interest in the mineral resource potential
of Antarctica and the current worldwide concern over
depletion of world mineral reserves have caused some
of the Consultative Nations to attach urgency to the
issue.
Since all of the 14 Consultative Nations 2 generally
agree that establishment of an antarctic mineral re-
sources regime is necessary, the specific issues remain-
ing are: who will control resource development and
how will the profits gained from such development be
shared
Development of the Mineral Resources Issue. The
antarctic mineral resource issue has steadily gained
importance among the Consultative Nations since first
considered at the Seventh Consultative Meeting held
' The term regime refers to an agreement on the acceptability of
possible mineral resource activities in Antarctica and mechanisms to
govern such activities.
in Wellington, New Zealand, in 1972. At that time, the
issue was discussed only within the context of the
potential environmental impact of such activity.
At the Eighth Consultative Meeting in 1975, in Oslo,
Norway, the parties committed themselves to finding
agreed solutions to the antarctic mineral resources
issue and to trying to ensure that no mineral resource
exploration or exploitation would take place while
timely progress was being made toward solution of the
issue. The latter commitment is known as the policy of
voluntary restraint. The nations also agreed that envi- 25X1
ronmental concerns are an important aspect of the
mineral resources issue. 25X1
At the Ninth Consultative Meeting in London in 1977,
although priority was given to antarctic marine living
resources, significant attention was also devoted to
mineral resources. A moratorium on all activity was
proposed, during which the possible effects of resource
exploitation on the antarctic environment could be
further studied and the consideration of a resource
management regime could proceed. Australia wanted
a five-year moratorium; the Soviet Union favored a 10-
year, or even 15-year, moratorium. Most of the other
Consultative Nations, however, opposed any mora- 25X1
torium at all. France, New Zealand, and the United
Kingdom argued convincingly that a moratorium
would merely delay resolution of the issues. In the end,
the Consultative Parties reaffirmed the policy of
voluntary restraint and endorsed the following
principles:
? The Consultative Parties will continue to play an 25X1
active and responsible role in dealing with antarctic
mineral resource questions.
? The Antarctic Treaty must be maintained in its
entirety.
? Protection of the environment should be a basic
consideration.
25X1
25X1
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? In dealing with the question of antarctic mineral
resources, the Consultative Nations should not preju-
dice the interests of mankind.
The most positive progress thus far was made at the
Tenth Consultative Meeting in Washington, D.C., in
1979. The Consultative Nations reached a consensus
on the basic objectives of the regime: (1) to determine
whether mineral resource activities would be accept-
able from an environmental point of view, and (2) to
govern any such activities determined acceptable. The
results of the meeting are reproduced verbatim on
rights in zones claimed by others. The alternative for
the claimant state would be a regime that denies claims
of primacy and specifies shares to all from resources
anywhere in Antarctica. Because the nature, location,
and extent of antarctic mineral resources are unknown,
none of the claimant states has decided which option is
in its best national interest.
Most of the nonclaimant states face no such dilemma.
Other than the United States and the Soviet Union,'
the nonclaimants have no basis on which to press claim
pp. 4-5.
Since the Tenth Consultative Meeting, the Consulta-
tive Nations have continued informal discussions on
the minerals issue. From these discussions, a general
view has emerged among the Consultative Nations
that the area to be covered by a regime should include
both the Antarctic continent and the continental mar-
gin. The regime, it is agreed, should concentrate upon
hydrocarbons, though in principle apply to all possible
mineral resources. Finally, the parties have generally
concurred that the regime should regulate commercial
exploration and commercial development. Regulation
would involve all activities: the retention of proprietary
survey data, drilling for the purpose of locating re-
sources, and the production and transport of the re-
sources.
The Specific Problems. Now that it appears that a
mineral resource regime may become a reality, the
Consultative Nations have begun making their per-
ceived national interests known, and they are diverse.
Within the Consultative Nations group, differences
exist between those that claim antarctic territory and
those that do not (stations and claims map). The claim-
ant states want to control resource development in
their respective claim areas; the nonclaimants want to
share in the benefits from development of the conti-
nent.
Even for the claimants the problem is not a simple one.
In advocating a regime that recognizes exclusive rights
in its claimed zone, the claimant would relinquish
to antarctic territory and therefore have but one op-
tion: to support access for all to the whole continent.
The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Nations want to
protect their stake in the Antarctic-an investment
that has been costly. They, therefore, are concerned
about the demands for wider international involvement
in Antarctica. The President of the Third UN Con-
ference on Law of the Sea brought the issue of equi-
table sharing of Antarctic resources before the UN
General Assembly in 1975. A year later, related
discussions were held at the Colombo Conference on
Nonaligned Nations and at the meetings of the UN
Economic and Social Council and the UN Environ-
ment Program. Also in 1976, the UN Food and Ag-
riculture Organization drafted a proposal to survey the
fishery resources of the oceans south of 450 South
latitude. Indications are that the Group of 77 ? also will
seek an equitable share of whatever resources are
found in Antarctica.
Antarctic Mineral Resources
Antarctica has been only superficially explored, but it
is almost certain that the continent contains mineral
resources similar to those of South America, Africa,
and Australia-which, together with Antarctica, once
formed the super continent called Gondwana. A vari-
ety of mineral occurrences has been found in Antarc-
' The USSR and the United States have long been the two most
powerful opponents of partitioning Antarctica into national sectors.
They are also the only nonclaimant states that could reasonably
claim portions of the continent by virtue of their early explorations.
Decades ago, the claimant states deliberately left a large sector of
the continent unclaimed in the hope that the United States would
claim it and thereby simultaneously recognize their claims to the rest
of the continent. The Antarctic Treaty, however, prohibits any
additional claims.
25X1
25X1
25X1
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tica (minerals map). Most of the continent is covered by
a sheet of ice up to several kilometers thick, however,
and the known location of such occurrences is confined
to mountainous outcropping areas that extend above
difficult to avoid. Moreover, compensation for envi-
ronmental degradation from oilspills would cause
problems in adjudication.
the ice sheet.
So far, only two concentrations of minerals have been
discovered that are big enough to be termed deposits: a
sedimentary iron ore formation in the Prince Charles
Mountains and coalbeds in the Transantarctic Moun-
tains. Neither is economically exploitable, given their
quality, the existence of alternative sources in more
hospitable parts of the globe, and the difficulties and
costs in mining Antarctica. In fact, at present probably
no mineral is scarce enough and valuable enough to
justify the cost of its extraction from an antarctic
minesite.
Interest, therefore, has centered upon the possible hy-
drocarbon (oil and natural gas) potential of Antarctica.
The deposits, if they exist, would likely be located
within sedimentary basins of the continental shelf
rather than under the continental ice sheet. There are
no data upon which to make accurate estimates of
Antarctica's hydrocarbon potential, but the possibility
of offshore hydrocarbons is inferred from interpreta-
tions of geologic history and analogies with other areas
of the world. Based on preliminary research,
Antarctica's oil reserves are thought to be on the order
of tens of billions of barrels. In 1971, Gulf Oil Corpora-
tion estimated the petroleum potential under the Ross
and Weddell Seas at 50 billion barrels.
If hydrocarbons are to be found and exploited in
Antarctica, the most likely areas for offshore activity
are the Weddell, Ross, Bellingshausen, and Amundsen
Seas. The Japanese have completed one survey and are
planning to conduct two additional geophysical surveys
in three of these areas over the next several years.
Other nations, including the United States, Poland,
and the Federal Republic of Germany, have conducted
similar, if less extensive, preliminary seismic studies.
Should exploration and exploitation occur, drifting ice,
deep water, and violent weather would pose tremen-
dous obstacles to offshore drilling, and accidents
involving drilling rigs or oil tankers would be very
Despite the inconclusiveness surrounding antarctic 25X1
minerals, nearly every country active in Antarctica is
tailoring its program planning and execution to reflect
an explicit interest in mineral resources. Some Treaty
nations have even stepped up their mineral research
programs to position themselves more advantageously
when the mineral resource issue is resolved. Japan, the
Federal Republic of Germany, and the Soviet Union 25X1
have recently become more active in conducting
geologic/scientific surveys of antarctic minerals
Outlook
If the Antarctic Treaty System is to remain strong, it 25X1
must successfully deal with the growing world interest
in mineral resource development in Antarctica, includ-
ing possible competition for scarce resources should
commercial-scale development prove feasible. Build-
ing upon the progress made at earlier meetings, impor-
tant advances most likely will be made at the Eleventh
Consultative Meeting toward negotiating a minerals
regime
The Consultative Nations' actions over the past two
decades justify some confidence in their resourceful-
ness to reach agreement on the nonliving resource
issue. They have demonstrated their dedication to the
Antarctic Treaty System in pursuing scientific endeav-
ors and in fostering international cooperation on the 25X1
continent. 25X1
The marine living resource issue, although not nearly
as contentious as the mineral resource issue portends,
was an important test of the Antarctic Treaty System.
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Ma-
rine Living Resources, when it enters into force, will
establish machinery to implement its objectives: a
Commission of the Parties, a Secretariat, and the
necessary management system prior to the develop-
ment of commercial-scale harvesting of marine re-
sources. Its potential power to regulate will be particu-
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Summary of Tenth Consultative Meeting
in Washington, D.C., 1979
X-1. Antarctic Resources-The Question of Mineral
Exploration and Exploitation
Convinced of the need to preserve and further
strengthen the international regime established in
Antarctica by the Antarctic Treaty, which has for
nearly two decades guaranteed the use of Antarctica
exclusively for peaceful purposes, and in the interest of
the development of international cooperation;
Aware of the responsibilities of the Consultative Par-
ties to ensure that any activities in Antarctica, includ-
ing mineral exploration and exploitation, should they
occur, should be consistent with all the principles and
purposes of the Antarctic Treaty system, including its
objectives that activities in Antarctica should not be-
come the cause of international discord, endanger the
unique antarctic environment, or disrupt scientific
investigations;
Concerned that unregulated mineral resource activi-
ties could significantly harm the fragile antarctic
ecosystem;
Noting that the decisions on possible mineral resource
activities must take due account of the unique ecologi-
cal and scientific value of Antarctica and the impor-
tance of Antarctica to the world environment;
Recognizing that available information is insuffi-
ciently reliable to assess the possible environmental
effects of many activities in the area of exploration
and exploitation of mineral resources in Antarctica,
and conscious of the need for developing such activi-
ties in Antarctica and for promoting the development
of monitoring programs aimed at detecting the impact
of such activities on the antarctic environment should
such activities occur;
Convinced that informed decisionmaking on questions
of mineral resource activities will usually require the
availability of informationfrom such programs;
Aware also of the necessity to obtain additional sci-
entific information with a view to facilitating the
development of measures related to the protection of
the antarctic environment from possible harmful im-
pacts of mineral resource exploration and exploita-
tion, should such activities occur;
Noting that a meeting of ecological, technological,
and other related experts was held in Washington,
D.C., June 25-29, 1979, as part of the Preparatory
Meeting to the Tenth Consultative Meeting with a
view to developing scientific programs aimed at
improving predictions of the impact of possible tech-
nologies for mineral exploration and exploitation in
the Antarctic, and developing measures for the preven-
tion of damage to the environment or for its
rehabilitation;
Recalling the provisions of Recommendations VIII-14
and IX-1;
Recognizing the necessity for progress towards the
timely adoption of an agreed regime concerning
antarctic mineral resources;
1. They take note of the progress made toward the
timely adoption of a regime for antarctic mineral
resources at the Tenth Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meeting and related meetings, and of the importance
of this progress.
2. They continue consultations proceeding from the
provisions of Recommendation IX-I and from the
provisions of the present Recommendation.
To this end they should:
(i) Continue to develop a common understanding of the
general purposes of the regime and to identify the
specific elements of the regime needed to ensure
achievement of those purposes;
(ii) Continue to give thorough examination to all of the
elements necessary to ensure that the future regime
will achieve its general purposes;
(iii) Hold a meeting before the Eleventh Consultative
Meeting, preferably in the first half of 1980, to con-
sider a regime for antarctic mineral resources in its
ecological, political, technological, legal, and other
aspects; and
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(iv) in this regard, make the best possible use of the
report of the Tenth Consultative Working Group on
Antarctic Resources-The Question of Mineral Ex-
ploration and Exploitation: Legal and Political As-
pects (which is annexed to the Final Report of the
Tenth Consultative Meeting) and of the section of this
Final Report which refers to the work of the Working
Group on Antarctic Resources-The Question of Min-
eral Exploration and Exploitation: Scientific and
Environmental Aspects.
3. The agreed regime for antarctic mineral resources
should be based upon provisions of paragraphs 1, 3, 4,
and 5 of Recommendation IX-1 and on such further
principles, rules, and arrangements as may be subse-
quently agreed.
4. An agreed regime on antarctic mineral resources
should include inter alia means for:
(i) assessing the possible impact of mineral resource
activities on the antarctic environment in order to
provide for informed decisionmaking;
(ii) determining whether mineral resource activities
will be acceptable;
(iii) governing the ecological, technological political,
legal, and economic aspects of those activities in cases
where they would be determined acceptable; including:
a) establishing, as an important part of the regime,
rules relating to the protection of the antarctic envi-
ronment; and,
b) requiring that mineral resource activities under-
taken pursuant to the regime be undertaken in compli-
ance with such rules.
5. Taking account of the Report of Ecological, Tech-
nological, and Other Related Experts on Mineral Ex-
ploration and Exploitation in Antarctica (Washington,
June 1979), attached as an annex to the Report of the
Tenth Consultative Meeting, they facilitate their re-
search activities which would contribute to an im-
proved understanding of relevant aspects of the
Antarctic and its environment.
6. With a view of improving predictions of the envi-
ronmental impacts of activities, events, and technol-
ogies associated with mineral resource exploration
and exploitation in the Antarctic should such occur,
they, though their respective National Antarctic
Committees, encourage the Scientific Committee on
Antarctic Research to define programs, taking ac-
count of the Experts Report (Washington, June 1979),
with the objective of
(a) retrieving and analyzing relevant information from
past observations and research programs;
(b) ensuring in relation to the needs for information
identified by the Experts Report, the effective use is
made of existing programs;
(c) identifying and developing new programs that
should have priority, taking account of the length of
time required for results to become available.
7. Insofar as is feasible they support, as appropriate,
their respective National Antarctic Committees and
the offices administering their antarctic research pro-
grams in developments arising from the previous
paragraph.
8. The subject "Antarctic Resources-The Question
of Mineral Exploration and Exploitation" be placed
on the Agenda of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Con-
sultative Meeting.
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ANTARCTICA: Major Krill Concentrations
Antarctic
Peninsula
Ronne
Ice Shelf
J l
KR/LL, Euphausia superba
(actual size)
0 500
Nautical Miles
New
Zealand
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larly important should a krill industry develop. Krill, a
shrimplike crustacean about 5 centimeters long,
abounds in certain areas of the southern ocean area
Having successfully concluded agreement on the ma-
rine resource issue, the Consultative Nations generally
feel that the slate is now clear to discuss the mineral
resources issue. To devise a successful Antarctic min-
eral resources regime, these nations will have to strive
for:
? A system consistent with, or at least nonprejudicial
to, the basic legal and political positions of claimant
and nonclaimant states.
? A system for defining and applying acceptable envi-
ronmental standards.
? A system for providing the information necessary for
making informed decisions about antarctic mineral
resources.
? A system for adequate resource management.
? A system for enforcement
Appended is a brief description of the Antarctic posi-
tion, with a summary of recent trends in the antarctic
programs, of each of the present and potential Treaty
signatories.
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Antarctic Treaty Signatories
German Democratic Republic
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY
POLAND
Czechoslovakia
Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Nations 1
Norway Soviet Union
United Kingdom United States
1 Poland and the Federal Republic of Germany became Consultative
Nations in 1977 and 1981, respectively. The other nations were
original Antarctic Treaty Signatories.
2These nations claim portions of Antarctica as national territory.
Some of the claims overlap.
3These nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory (although
the United States and the Soviet Union have reserved the right to do
so) and do not recognize the claims of the others. No other nations
have asserted any Antarctic claims.
Antarctic Treaty
Acceding Nations
Brazil (1975)1
Bulgaria (1978)
Czechoslovakia (1962)
Denmark (1965)
German Dem. Rep. (1974)
Italy (1981)
Netherlands (1967)
Papua New Guinea (1981)
Peru (1981)
Romania (1971)
Uruguay (1980)
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Appendix:
Status and Programs
of Antarctic Nations
Until July 1977, when the consultative status of Poland
was recognized, the Consultative Nations group con-
sisted of only the 12 original signatories of the Treaty.
Each is entitled to participate in the Consultative
Meetings. The Federal Republic of Germany became
the Fourteenth Consultative Party in March 1981
The extent of activities of the Consultative Nations in
Antarctica varies; and, except for Belgium and Nor-
way, each maintains at least one year-round station.
Argentina, with eight permanent stations, and the
USSR, with seven, maintain the most; the United
Kingdom and the United States each have four. In
terms of cost and effort, the United States and the
Soviet Union have the largest antarctic operations,
with Argentina a distant third. The Federal Republic
of Germany, the newest consultative member, has
entered the antarctic arena with a flurry of activity and
commitment. While the size of antarctic activities of a
number of Consultative Parties has changed little in
recent years, the programs of the USSR and Argentina
have steadily expanded. The increased efforts of Aus-
tralia, Chile, and the Federal Republic of Germany
have also been noteworthy.
To date, 11 other nations have acceded to the Treaty,
thereby formally agreeing to abide by its principles in
any antarctic endeavors. Of these, the German Demo-
cratic Republic and Brazil may be preparing to mount
antarctic programs, which will make them eligible for
consultative status.
Among the nonacceding nations, China, Taiwan, and
South Korea have expressed interest in antarctic mat-
ters; the latter two are interested in fishing in antarctic
waters. China also indicates some interest in mounting
an antarctic program and may soon accede to the
Treaty.
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Antarctic Position
In the early 1970s, during resource discussions among
the Consultative Parties, Argentina took the position
that the Treaty prohibited mineral exploitation. In
more recent years, responding to growing national
interest in the potential mineral wealth of the national
claim and fearing a UN attempt to control develop-
ment, Argentina has called for an agreement on min-
eral resource activities that would combine (1) exclu-
sive authority for the signatories, as a group, to control
antarctic mining, and (2) special regulatory authority
for each party in its own national claim.
For a while, Argentina supported a five-year mora-
torium on antarctic resource exploitation but now op-
poses it. The Argentines view the impending involve-
ment of the international community as a serious
threat to their stake in Antarctica. To establish an
acceptable resource regime within the framework of
the Treaty, Argentina sought a leadership role among
the 14 Consultative Parties, and it played a key role in
the 1980 Marine Living Resources negotiations.
At the 1980 Preparatory Session for the Eleventh
Consultative Meeting, Argentina indicated it was pre-
pared to enter into negotiations regarding the minerals
issue. The Argentines realize that the legal basis of the 25X1
regime must be internationally acceptable to outsiders,
particularly the Group of 77. The Third World wants
to share in the riches of the Antarctic, and the Ar-
gentines seem prepared to share the untapped re-
Vicecomodoro Marambio, Argentina's most important antarctic
station, is located on an island on the Weddell Sea side of the
Antarctic Peninsula. Argentine meteorological data collected in
Antarctica isf'unneled through Marambio to Buenos Aires. During
the peak austral summer as many as 100 personnel may serve here.
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sources. They, nevertheless, are unrelenting in their
position that access to decisionmaking should be
through the Antarctic Treaty and that claimant states
should (1) maintain a privileged position, (2) have
power of consent for any operations in their area, and
(3) maintain some authority in monitoring those oper-
ations and enforcing regulations.
Argentina strongly defends its antarctic claim. It as-
serts jurisdiction not only over its claimed sector of
land but also over the territorial sea and continental
shelf. It had declared a 200-mile territorial zone
around its antarctic claim (and around its mainland
territory) prior to the conclusion of the Antarctic
Treaty. The Argentines assert that a minerals regime
should apply to both the antarctic continent and to the
continental shelf.
The Argentine Government demonstrates its sover-
eignty in Antarctica by holding marriages in its claim
area, by arranging for babies to be born there, and by
setting up schools for their children. It levies taxes on
antarctic tourists and requests passports be stamped
when entering or leaving Esperanza, the main tourist
station. It has also established an extensive network of
navigation aids and channel markers on the coast of its
claim area.
Perhaps more than any other signatory, Argentina is
likely to abrogate the Treaty if its primacy in its claim
area is threatened. For example, if another country
began a significant unilateral exploration or exploita-
tion effort in the Argentina claim, Argentina might
well react with military force even though the Treaty
forbids it. All but one of Argentina's permanent sta-
tions are run by the military.
Research Program
Spurred by a domestic deficiency in metallic minerals,
Argentina has begun geologic study of Antarctica. In
1976, Argentina's National Antarctic Board and its
Mining Secretariat signed a three-year agreement to
fund antarctic geological studies under the mining
promotion law. The country also maintains a biological
research program designed to assess the fishery poten-
tial of the southern ocean area.
Unlike some Treaty nations, such as Australia and
New Zealand, Argentina has little immediate need for
antarctic petroleum resources. It already produces 90
percent of its petroleum requirements and plans self-
sufficiency in the 1980s. It has 2.5 billion barrels of
proven onshore reserves, and recent studies indicate an
even greater potential offshore in areas far more acces-
sible than Antarctica.
Argentina maintains more Antarctic stations than any
other antarctic nation. In addition to operating five
stations during the summer months, it recently estab-
lished its eighth year-round station in Antarctica. All
Argentine stations are within its claimed territory; the
majority of them are on the Antarctic Peninsula across
the Drake Strait from Tierra del Fuego-the country's
southernmost territory
Since 1973, Argentina has steadily increased its pres-
ence in Antarctica. In 1979, more than 150 people
(including 10 spouses and children) wintered over, and
the winter-over contingent probably rose to about 180
persons during the 1981 season. The summer aug-
mentation of about 120 persons is principally repre-
sented by civilian researchers from the Argentine
Antarctic Institute and some 20 other government and
nongovernment institutions engaged in the austral
summer research effort. A total of about 900 people,
including at-home support, participate in the Ar-
gentine antarctic program.
Argentina's antarctic activities are supported by seven
vessels, including three recently added ships: the trans-
port vessel Bahia Paraiso, the research ship Dr.
Eduardo Holmberg, and the icebreaker/ supply ship
Almirante Irizar. Equipped for marine research, the
Almirante Irizar was purchased from Finland at a cost
of US $65 million.
years.
At least eight aircraft augment Argentine antarctic
logistics. Air Force C-130s are used to transport per-
sonnel and cargo the 1,350 kilometers between Rio
Gallegos, Argentina, and the Vicecomodoro
Marambio Station. Marambio, Argentina's largest
base, is one of only four antarctic stations capable of
handling wheeled aircraft. Further improvement of
Marambio's airfield has been pending for a number of
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Antarctic Position
Although the Australians reveal a sense of urgency in
their pursuit of a regime that includes the exploration
and exploitation of mineral resources, they view the
minerals issue as an integral part of the environmental
protection issue. Thus, should minerals operations be
initiated, they would want them monitored continu-
ously. Regulation of the activity should include ade-
quate provisions for modifying or halting the oper-
During negotiations in 1975, the Australians would not
agree to any statement supportive of nondiscrimi-
natory access to resources.
ations if necessary
In resource negotiations, Australia has sought a lead-
ership role among the Southern Hemisphere claimant
nations. Australia favors some sort of joint-signatory
control of mineral resources development, but it wants
maximum authority in its claim. The Australians as-
sert that claimants must be distinguished in a regime
to have greater rights than nonclaimants
Casey is one of three Australian stations, all located in the larger of
the two Australian claim areas. The main station complex is
aerodynamically designed, consisting of a row of 11 buildings
At the March 1977
Preparatory Session for the Ninth Consultative Meet-
ing, the Australian delegation emphasized that the
country's position as a territorial claimant must be
accommodated in any resource regime; and, more re-
cently, a government spokesman reiterated that Aus-
tralia would maintain its claim. At the Ninth Con-
sultative Meeting, Australia supported a five-year
moratorium on mineral exploitation, pending examina-
tion of environmental consequences and progress to-
ward devising a mutually acceptable resources regime.
separated to minimize fire hazard, but connected by a convex
passageway. The corridor allows passage between the living and the
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Geological field work has been the major element in
Australia's research program for many years. Geologi-
cal and geophysical reconnaissance surveys have been
completed over most of the major outcropping rock
areas in the Australian claim. Published geological
reports, however, seldom note any findings of (or even
interest in) economically exploitable minerals.
For most of the last 20 years, Australia has maintained
three research stations in the larger portion of its two
claimed antarctic territories. Comparatively, the scope
of its land-based program is about equal to that of the
United Kingdom, which makes Australian efforts
considerably less ambitious than those of the United
States, the USSR, or Argentina.
Up to now, economic interests have received a low
priority in the Australian antarctic program. The Aus-
tralians have not conducted any significant research on
living resources, nor have they engaged in commercial
whaling or fishing in the area. Their strong interest in
Antarctica, however, prompted increasing attention to
the marine living resources issue. Australia's success-
ful bid for the post of secretary to the Convention on
the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Re-
sources and its lead in ratifying the Convention reflect
these interests. The Antarctic Division of the Depart-
ment of Science and the Environment, which directs
Australia's antarctic program, is in the process of
transferring its operations to Hobart, Tasmania. The
Australians want to make Hobart the center of inter-
national antarctic marine research.
Australia's antarctic program suffers from a poor
logistical capability. The Australians have neither ice-
breakers nor specialized polar research vessels, which
limits their marine research efforts. The three vessels
employed in their antarctic program-the Nanok S,
the Nella Dan, and the Thala Dan-are privately
owned and chartered by the government. The Austra-
lians also lack ski-equipped heavy aircraft, and their
landing strips are unsuitable for intercontinental
wheeled aircraft. For the past three years, in exchange
for LC- 130 (skied) service between Australia's Casey
Station and the US McMurdo Station, the Royal
Australian Air Force's "Operation Snowflake" has
supported the US effort by providing wheeled C- 130
service between Christchurch, New Zealand, and
McMurdo. Plans call for a new airfield at Australia's
Davis Station to permit direct flights from Australia to
the Antarctic.
is expected to be completed by the 1989-90 season.
During the past several years officials of the Austra-
lian Government have lobbied for the expansion of the
country's antarctic program. Recently, the director of
the Antarctic Division of the Federal Department of
Science and Technology reemphasized that Australia
must increase its presence in Antarctica because its
sovereignty over the region would be measured by the
size and quality of its scientific research program.
Following extensive debate in 1978, the government
issued a white paper that adopted a more active antarc-
tic policy. Since then, the government has increased its
antarctic budget by almost US $10 million, from $6.6
million to $16.5 million. In 1980, it announced that
Australia will spend US $55 million over the next 10
years to rebuild its antarctic bases, but there are no
plans for a station in its smaller claim. The rebuilding
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The Belgians, although not an influential force during
antarctic negotiations, are nonetheless fairly active
participants. At the December 1980 Meeting on
Antarctic Mineral Resources, Belgium outlined these
concerns: the protection of the antarctic environment,
the inclusion of the mainland and continental shelf in a
mineral regime, the inclusion of all resources in the
regime, and a reservation over the inclusion of non-
Treaty nations in any regime.
Belgium shows little interest in antarctic scientific
research or in the continent's mineral or marine living
resources. It became an original Treaty member on the
basis of its participation in the 1957-58 International
Geophysical Year. During the 1960s, it conducted
joint expeditions with the Netherlands and South
Africa.
The Belgian delegate to a recent international polar
meeting revealed that, considering the high costs, his
country is not likely to mount its own antarctic pro-
gram but might again be interested in collaborating
with other Treaty nations on a cost-sharing basis.
Belgium is firmly committed to the Antarctic Treaty
and will support any reasonable resource proposals; it
holds that the Treaty must be preserved even at the
sacrifice of mineral exploitation. Should the European
Communities (EC) get involved in antarctic affairs,
Belgium would probably support an EC consensus
position.
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Antarctic Position
Chile's antarctic resource policy closely parallels that
of Argentina. In a shift from its earlier position that
mineral resource exploitation is prohibited by the
Antarctic Treaty, Chile is now willing to accept a
regime on minerals. Chilean policy, however, calls for
resource exploitation to take place within the frame-
work of the Treaty. In other words, Chile rejects UN or
Third World involvement in the process of negotiating
the resource regime.
At the 1980 Preparatory Session of the Eleventh Con-
sultative Meeting, Chile indicated that it wanted a
regime negotiated by the Consultative Nations, and
any exploited minerals should flow only to those states
associated with the regime. In addition, antarctic
claimant states should be accorded special status in a
regime. This position is consistent with Chile's 1976
proposal for a dual-licensing system in which both the
provisions of the regime and the claimant-nation's
national mining laws would apply when mining is
conducted in a national-claim area.
The Chileans want a mineral regime established as
soon as possible. Although the regime should be all-
encompassing, Chilean observers want hydrocarbon
matters dealt with first; the other minerals can follow 25X1
later. Regarding hydrocarbons, the Chileans deem it
important that the difference between scientific re-
search and commercial exploitation be determined and
defined.
Although Chile and Argentina are at odds in other
arenas-especially involving the jurisdiction of the
Beagle Channel-and although their claims overlap,
Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Martin, formerly known as Presidente
Frei, is located immediately adjacent to Bellingshausen Station
(USSR) on King George Island, off the tip of the Antarctic Penin-
sula. Comprising only three buildings, the station functions as the
Chilean Antarctic Meteorological Center. Other than meteorology,
only incidental scientific activities are carried out here. 25X1
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each has agreed to support the other's positions on
resource issues. In fact, at the Ninth Consultative
Meeting, in an obvious attempt to strengthen this
cooperation, Argentine representatives suggested that
the two countries establish a joint base on the Antarc-
tic Peninsula, presumably in the region where the
claims overlap. But the Chileans, who bring to antarc-
tic affairs a determination to prevent Argentina from
assuming an undisputed leadership role in Latin af-
fairs, are unlikely to cooperate and instead will
endeavor to check Argentine dominance in the mineral
resource negotiations. The two countries, however,
share concern over Brazil's overtures into Antarctica,
and, the fact that, Brazil has designated an antarctic
zone of interest
The Chilean Government has consistently maintained
that its claimed antarctic territory is an integral part of
its national territory and is unlikely to accept interna-
tionalization of the continent. Indeed, the director of
the Military Geographic Institute announced in 1980
that the Institute's next task will be the mapping of the
Antarctic as an assertion of Chilean sovereignty in
ments, the Chileans also are reportedly seeking pur-
chase of an icebreaker.
As a follow up on the Chilean 1972-76 Five-Year Plan,
which called for the compilation of an inventory of the
mineral resources in the Chilean antarctic claim, the
government has published a report on the presence
there of certain minerals. Although Chile is already
the world's largest exporter of copper, it is seeking
additional deposits in Antarctica for future exploita-
tion. During the 1980-81 season, the Chileans carried
out a photographic survey of parts of the O'Higgins
Peninsula, in their claim area, while in search of min-
eral deposits. Nevertheless, Chile continues to rank
behind Argentina and the United Kingdom in the
amount of geological work conducted in the Antarctic
Peninsula area. Chile is also interested in the potential
economic benefits of using southern Chile as a logistics
base for antarctic petroleum development. A recent
Chilean report indicates that geologists from the
Chilean Antarctic Institute have found evidence of
unspecified amounts of petroleum near their
Antarctica.
Research Program
Chile has consistently increased its activity in Antarc-
tica to strengthen its sovereignty claims, to support its
search for natural resources, and to parry continued
Argentine buildup in the area. Chile maintains three
year-round research stations in Antarctica, all are
within its claimed territory in the Antarctic Peninsula
area.
In 1977, the Chilean Government indicated that it
would strengthen its antarctic program and allocated
an additional US $3-5 million for improvement of
Chilean stations. Improvements have been made to
Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Martin Base (which includes
the Presidente Frei meteorological center) in the South
Shetland Islands, including construction of an Air
Force wheeled-aircraft landing field capable of han-
dling C-130s. This airfield, Chile's first in Antarctica,
will facilitate the flow of supplies from Punta Arenas,
some 1,075 kilometers away. In addition, an Air Force
skiway has been reported under construction on the
plateau near Presidente Gabriel Gonzalez Videla Base.
After 16 years of inactivity, this summer-only station,
which marks the deepest penetration into the Antarctic
Peninsula, is being reactivated. The skiway ostensibly
will be a jumping off point for flights into the interior,
including to the South Pole. In line with these improve-
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O'Higgins Station.
Compared to Argentina, the other Latin Treaty State,
Chile has probably engaged in more living resource
research in the Antarctic and has more experience in
krill fishing. The Chilean Institute of Fisheries Devel-
opment conducted a highly successful pilot krill fishery
in 1975 and is experimenting with various krill-proc-
essing techniques. In early 1981, Chile, Argentina, and
seven other Treaty nations participated in the First
International BIOMASS 3 Experiment (FIBEX)
project, a 40-day joint krill-research program; the
Chileans provided the oceanographic ship, Itzumi, plus
a team of 20 scientists and government specialists.
In another international involvement, Chilean and
Chinese officials in 1978 and 1979 held a series of
discussions in which they agreed to set up a joint
commission to conduct oceanographic and climatologi-
cal studies as well as research on resources in Antarc-
tica. The agreement calls for Chinese scientists to work
at Chilean stations in Antarctica. Although this agree-
ment apparently is still valid, Chinese scientists seem
to be working more closely with Australia and, to a
lesser extent, New Zealand.
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Federal Republic of Germany
Inactive in the Antarctic for years, the Federal Repub-
lic of Germany (FRG) in 1975-76 and again in 1977-78
sent fisheries research expeditions to antarctic waters
to study krill catching and processing methods. This
surge in West German interest in the Antarctic was
forecast by a statement made in 1978 by the Minister
of Research and Technology, who cited Antarctica as
the world's most important reserve of unexploited raw
materials and stressed that West Germany must
participate in its development.
The FRG has shown considerable interest in geologic
exploration. The German Antarctic North Victoria
Land Expedition 1979-the first West German ex-
pedition in 40 years-conducted a geological/
geophysical survey in North Victoria Land. During the
1979-80 season, the MS Explora conducted seismic
studies in the Ross Sea. Similar studies were carried
out in the Ross and Bellingshausen Seas during the
1980-81 season. Through these efforts, the FRG ob-
tained 48-channel seismic reflection data on 6,700
kilometers of traverses in the Ross Sea. (The data are
Since then, the FRG commitment to its antarctic
program has increased considerably. The US $180
million allocation for the period ending in 1983 is
second only to the US budget. Budgeted items include
construction of a $20 million research station, a $93
million polar research/supply ship to be launched in
1982, and a 45-man scientific polar research institute,
which opened in January 1981 at a cost of $20 million.
The institute's annual operating budget is estimated at
$15 million.
In 1979 the FRG acceded to the Antarctic Treaty, and
in 1981 it was recognized as a Consultative member.
Some feared that the USSR would block FRG efforts
to gain Consultative status and would hold out for
concurrent approval of the German Democratic
Republic, but this never materialized. The FRG
sought the support of the United States, Japan, Ar-
gentina, and others in their quest for acceptance as a
Consultative member. When FRG plans for establish-
ing a research station on the Ronne Ice Shelf during
the 1980-81 season proved unfeasible because of ice
conditions, an alternate site was chosen, with Norwe-
gian Government concurrence, at Atka Ice Port in the
Norwegian claim area. The Argentines hurriedly in-
spected the Georg von Neumayer Station on the eve of
the Preparatory Session for the Eleventh Consultative
Meeting. This action was taken because the Ar-
gentines were the hosts of this meeting and they
wanted the proceedings to go smoothly.
being made available to the US Geological Survey for
interpretation.) The FRG also plans geologic and geo-
physical exploration in the Pensacola and Ellsworth
Mountains. Plans for the 1981-82 season include an
expedition to North Victoria Land, supported by a ship
and four helicopters. Reportedly, the FRG had to rule
out purchasing an LC-130 for use in the Antarctic 25X1
because of costs, but may seek US C- 130 aircraft
support for the Ellsworth Mountains operations.
It appears that mineral exploration, especially for ura-
nium, will be the focus of West German activity in
Antarctica. West German scientists are currently
participating in a systematic uranium resource evalu-
ation of Antarctica. The project was initiated in 1976
by the United States and is scheduled to continue
through 1982. To date, no substantial concentrations
of uranium have been detected, but concentrations of
thorium minerals have been found. 25X1
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Antarctic Position
The French do not consider their claim area an impor-
tant economic zone, nor are they assertive in their
position as a claimant state. Nevertheless, viewing it
critical to the Antarctic Treaty System, the French
want a minerals regime. Although they have not
clearly defined their position on a mineral resources
regime, they seek one that generally relates to all
minerals, but specifically to hydrocarbons. The French
do not seem currently interested in exploiting antarctic
mineral resources themselves, but then they do not
believe that the Antarctic will be a supplier of hy-
drocarbons for many years.
Parties of applications for mining rights, including any
from an international seabed authority that a new Law
of the Sea Treaty might establish. After having called
in 1972 for a 10- to 15-year mining moratorium,
France now advocates an early resolution of the min-
erals question.
A French spokesman indicated in 1975 that, if it would
help the Consultative Parties reach agreement, France
would put its territorial claim in abeyance and support
access to the whole continent for all on an equal basis.
During the 1976 Preparatory Meeting, however,
France shifted from that position, indicating that it
During earlier negotiations France firmly supported
Treaty signatories having authority to regulate all
mineral resource activity south of the 60? South lati-
tude. It favored joint approval by all the Consultative
The French conduct a wide range of scientific research at Dumont
d'Urville, including meteorology, upper atmospheric physics, geo-
would prefer a regime setting aside some special, as yet
undefined, role for each antarctic claimant in its na-
tional area. 25X1
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Apparently, the French are more concerned with
commercial exploitation of marine and mineral re-
sources on the continental shelves of their sub-Antarc-
tic-island possessions than with the Antarctic re-
sources. In 1972, the state-controlled oil company,
Societe National Elf Aquitaine, applied for a license to
carry out preliminary prospecting for hydrocarbons in
the sedimentary basin off the Kerguelen shelf; the
application is still pending. The naval supply and sci-
entific research vessel Marion Dufresne will conduct
surveys southeast of Reunion Island, in the
subantarctic area, to evaluate the economic worth of
concentrations of seabed mineral nodules
Research Program
France operates only one year-round station, Dumont
d'Urville, within its claimed antarctic territory. French
scientists based there have been active in glaciological
studies on the interior icecap but have conducted little
research in the offshore zone. Most French scientific
work takes place outside the Treaty area on the French
islands of Kerguelen and Crozet.
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Antarctic Position
Until the Ninth Consultative Meeting, Japan favored
delaying exploitation of antarctic nonliving resources
until more complete information on the nature of
antarctic hydrocarbon and mineral resources became
available. Now contending that a mineral resources
regime is required, it no longer supports a moratorium
on mineral exploitation and exploration. In 1979, the
Japanese decided to concentrate on offshore antarctic
hydrocarbon exploration.
The Japanese have also shifted their position on inter-
nationalizing Antarctica. In 1973, Japan favored mak-
ing Antarctica a UN trust territory for the benefit of
all mankind, with special consideration for developing
nations. Since then, it has strongly supported Treaty
authority over commercial development and has ac-
corded priority to living resources. Tokyo opposes the
establishment in Antarctica of national territorial seas
and economic zones that would in effect curtail its
fishing activities. 25X1
Research Program
Resource-poor Japan will be in the forefront in assess-
ing the potential of antarctic resources. It needs the
living resources to replace the portion of its global fish
catch it is losing by the growing number of national
200-mile coastal fishing zones, and the mineral re- 25X1
sources to supply its industries. Until recently, Japan
had focused primarily upon marine living resources ir25X1
Antarctica, sharing leadership with the USSR in
commercial whaling, fishing, and krill catching.
In recent years the Japanese have stepped up explora-
tory fishing activity in the southern ocean area and are
likely to continue this expansion. During the 1977-78
season, the Japanese sent two fishing fleets into the
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area, including some 16 trawlers-more than three
times the number sent the previous year. From Decem-
ber 1980 to February 1981, two oceanographic re-
search ships, the 2,359-ton krill research vessel Kaiyo
Maru and the Umitaka Maru, participated in the First
International BIOMASS Experiment project. The
main task in the research project is an acoustical
survey of antarctic krill. The Japanese are reliably
reported to have operated 1 1 krill trawlers, in addition
to the two krill-research vessels, in antarctic waters
during the 1980-81 season. Their total catch was es-
timated at 40,000 tons and valued at $25 million. F_
The 20th Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition
(JARE) in 1978 was the first to include a minerals
exploration component. During the 21st JARE, geolo-
gists surveyed the Yamato and Belgica Mountains and
the ice-free areas along the Prince Olav coast. Geologi-
cal research continued in 1980 during the 22nd JARE,
when the ice-free areas in the inland mountains and
along the coast were surveyed.
In late December 1980, the Japanese embarked upon a
three-year geological and geophysical survey of the
southern ocean area. The first stage of the survey
involved tests made by the research vessel Hakurei
Maru in the Bellingshausen Sea off western Antarc-
tica. The work included: onboard gravimeter and
magnetometer surveys, a 12-channel reflection seismic
survey, sonobouy refraction surveys, piston coring with
heat flow measurement, and dredging. The vessel sur-
veyed more than 3,000 kilometers of traverses, in water
depths ranging between 400 and 5,500 meters. Dr.
Yasufumi Ishiwada, Executive Director of the Japa-
nese National Oil Corporation and chief scientist
aboard the Hakurei Maru, indicated that the survey
area contained little petroleum potential.
Some Treaty nations, such as Australia and New
Zealand, are skeptical that the Japanese will fully
share all data derived from their seismic studies. The
Japanese, anticipating this lack of trust, have endeav-
ored to make public their hydrocarbon prospecting
program to allay apprehension of those who envision a
Japanese plot to secretly develop data on antarctic
resources.
Japan maintains two antarctic research stations:
Syowa, a coastal station of moderate size; and Mizuho,
a small station in the interior. In 1976, the Japanese
Ministry of Education, the body that supervises
antarctic research, recommended the following
programs:
? Promotion of basic research for resource
development.
? Promotion of basic research development.
? Establishment of additional bases and observation
stations.
? Improvement of logistics support, including
construction of a new icebreaker.
? Creation of a new organization, if required, to handle
antarctic resource development.
Some of these recommendations are being imple-
mented. The keel of a new icebreaker was laid in
March 1981; the ship will enter antarctic service dur-
ing the summer of 1983. The new icebreaker will have
a displacement of 11,647 tons, compared to the 7,760-
ton displacement of the Fuji, Japan's only antarctic
icebreaker. At this time, the Japanese have no plans for
additional facilities, and plan to continue their antarc-
tic research program within the current organizational
framework.
Reportedly, the survey cost $2.6 million. The funds
came from taxes levied on oil imports into Japan with
the condition that the money be used exclusively for oil
surveys. The expedition was organized by the Technol-
ogy Research Center of the Japanese National Oil
Corporation, a semiofficial body that had been
commissioned to undertake the survey for the Agency
of Natural Resources and Energy, a division of the
Ministry of International Trade and Industry. Similar
geophysical studies are planned in the Weddell Sea
(1981) and Ross Sea (1982).
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Antarctic Position
As one of the signatories located nearest Antarctica,
New Zealand is mainly interested in preserving the
viability of the Antarctic Treaty, especially the provi-
sions that call for demilitarization of the continent and
protection of the antarctic environment and eco-
systems. It has been more vocal than most other coun-
tries in expressing a desire to derive economic benefit
from investments made in Antarctica over the years;
its primary interest is in offshore hydrocarbons. Con-
sequently, although New Zealand wants to extend the
provisions of the Treaty to encompass all possible
resource exploitation, it wants hydrocarbons em-
phasized.
Taking the position that exploitation of antarctic re-
sources is inevitable, New Zealand opposes a mora-
torium on resource-related activities in Antarctica. In
its view, a moratorium would merely delay resolution
of the disagreements among Treaty parties concerning
regulation of such activities. Instead, New Zealand is
pushing for an early establishment of a formal, binding
resource regime.
Because it lacks resources to exploit unilaterally any
mineral or hydrocarbon deposits found in the Ross
Dependency (a term used by New Zealand), New
Zealand had been willing to trade its rights as a
claimant state for a guaranteed share of the profits
from resource exploitation anywhere in Antarctica.
The share could have been in the form of taxes, royal-
ties, or license fees, or, in the case of petroleum, a share
of the oil. At the 1975 Preparatory Session for the
Scott Base, located on Ross Island about three kilometers from the
US McMurdo Station, is New Zealand's main base in the Antarctic.
It was built to accommodate about 20 personnel, but the number
may swell to more than 50 people during the peak austral summer
period. New construction to alleviate overcrowding and to provide
additional space for scientific experiments is almost complete. The
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Ninth Consultative Meeting, however, the New Zea-
land delegation instead spoke of preserving a special
role for the claimant states in any arrangement signa-
tories might establish for resource exploitation. This
does not necessarily reflect a change in New Zealand's
basic attitude, but rather a realization that the other
claimant states would not follow a New Zealand lead
and relinquish their claims.
New Zealand, however, is somewhat in a quandry. On
one side are the groups pressuring to develop antarctic
resources, and on the other side are the obstructionist,
who take the view that the Antarctic must be interna-
tionalized for mankind.
Research Program
New Zealand maintains one permanent base, Scott,
and one summer station, Vanda, in the Ross Depend-
ency, its claim area. Field programs conducted from
these stations include geologic, glaciologic, biologic,
geophysical, and topographic surveys.
New Zealand and the United States work closely in
their antarctic endeavors. Scott Base is heavily de-
pendent for support on nearby McMurdo, and during
the peak of the summer season New Zealand C-130s
fly supplies to McMurdo. This air lifeline from New
Zealand enables the United States to carry on its
substantial antarctic program despite the great dis-
tance between the United States and Antarctica.
New Zealand intends to expand its activities in the
Ross Dependency, especially in the offshore area, to
include mineral and petroleum resources exploration.
During the summer of 1979-80, seeking data useful for
assessing petroleum potential, New Zealand deployed
an ice-based drilling rig to obtain core samples of the
sediments in McMurdo Sound. Plans call for New
Zealand, in cooperation with Australia and the United
States, to make a geologic expedition to North Victoria
Land in 1981. Earlier expeditions to this region have
identified a possible belt of copper and zinc ores.
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Antarctic Position
Because Norway is self-sufficient in petroleum and
will have large surpluses in the 1980s, it has no
immediate need for Antarctica's potential hydrocar-
bon resources. Domestic mining interests, however,
have sought permission to begin exploration in the
Norwegian claim area. Perhaps to forestall any com-
plications arising from such unregulated activity, the
Norwegian Government was among the first to urge
Treaty nations to adopt some mechanism for regulat-
ing resource exploitation. The Norwegians oppose any
formal moratorium on resource activity, feeling it
would merely delay resolution of the issues.
While Norway is a claimant state it does not always
act like one. Maintaining the integrity of the Treaty
and the control Treaty nations now enjoy over all
antarctic endeavors are of greater importance to Nor-
way than maintaining its sovereignty over its own
claim. Nevertheless, the Norwegians seem willing to
grant the United Nations some limited role in regulat-
ing the exploitation of antarctic offshore resources. For
example, in 1974, they proposed to let an LOS Treaty
determine whether the Antarctic Treaty mineral juris-
diction should cover the entire Treaty area or extend
only to the edge of the antarctic continental shelf. They
also, at a March 1977 meeting of Treaty nations,
opposed efforts of some to exclude the UN Food and
Agricultural Organization from participating in
discussions of marine living resources. Furthermore,
they have taken an internationalist position in seeking
an acceptable accommodation for the Group of 77.
Nonetheless, Norway intends to maintain its claim and
to demand special consideration for claimant nations
in any negotiations for an antarctic resource regime.
At the 1980 Preparatory Session for the Eleventh
Consultative Meeting the Norwegians took the view
that the mineral regime should have broad application,
but that hydrocarbons should be emphasized. In the
area of offshore hydrocarbon resource development,
Norway could offer its extensive North Sea expe-
rience.
Research Program
Norway is the least active of the claimant states. It
mounted no independent expeditions between 1960
and 1976, but during the 1976-77 season it conducted
surveys off the Norwegian claim area and established
two temporary research stations along the coast. A
second seaborne expedition in 1978-79 completed a
variety of geophysical and oceanographic surveys-
including 3,000 kilometers of seismic, gravimetric, an,4
magnetometric readings. This expedition involved 40
scientists and reportedly cost about $1.2 million.
In keeping with Norway's small antarctic research
program, scientists from the Norwegian Polar Institute
participated in a joint iceberg research project during
the 1980-81 season. The project was a continuation of
the iceberg research program started by the 1978-79
Norwegian Antarctic Research Expedition. Currently,
Norway does not have an active program on marine
living resources but is participating in the First Inter-
national BIOMASS Experiment.
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Poland's policy on mineral resources has not been
clearly defined. Indeed, to date the Poles have ex-
pressed no interest in mineral resource exploration.
They, however, indicated at the 1980 Consultative
Preparatory Session that Poland is interested in seeing
an antarctic regime that would include all minerals. OPoland operates one year-round and one summer-only
Poland's resource-related research has focused on ma-
rine living resources, especially krill. The Poles, operat-
ing from several trawlers in the Scotia Sea, have been
conducting an experimental krill fishery since 1957.
During the 1980-81 season, Poland's Academy of Sci-
ences and Marine Fisheries Institute launched a joint
expedition as part of the First International
BIOMASS Experiment project. A similar expedition
is planned for the 1982-83 season.
The Soviet Union welcomes the presence of a fellow
Communist state on the continent and has been ex-
tremely helpful to Poland in establishing its antarctic
presence. The Poles seem to be independently operat-
ing their antarctic research program; at least, there is
no evidence that the Soviets are involved.F___1 25X1
antarctic station. Arctowski, a major year-round sta-
tion, is near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, adja-
cent to some of Antarctica's most productive fishing
and krill-catching areas. Arctowski was established in
1977 as a center for meteorological observations and
ecological, biological, geological, geophysical, and
glaciological studies. Dobrowolski, the small summer-
only station, is used for geophysical observations. The
USSR turned this station over to the Poles in 1958, but
it was not occupied between 1959 and 1978.
Dobrowolski was to be converted to a year-round sta-
tion, but Poland's severe economic difficulties have
forced cancellation of this plan. 25X1
Arctowski is one of three stations on King George Island. (The poor choice because the area floods and is muddy during the spring.
USSR and Chile also have stations there.) Reportedly, the station The area, however, is an excellent locationfor studying krill and
site was selected with Soviet assistance. The site may have been a other marine resources.0 25X1
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The Polish domestic economic situation is undoubtedly
affecting Poland's overall antarctic program. The Sec-
retary of the Polar Research Committee of the Polish
Academy of Sciences has revealed that extensive large
summer expeditions will be discontinued in favor of
small research teams. Moreover, the 1981-85 draft
research program includes many economizing meas-
ures.
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Antarctic Position
Mineral-rich South Africa will have no need to exploit
the mineral resources of Antarctica for many years,
and it has expressed no immediate interest in doing so.
South Africa lacks petroleum, however, and discovery
of significant deposits in Antarctica would definitely
attract South African interest. Its technological ca-
pabilities and proximity to Antarctica would give it
advantage over most other Treaty signatories in devel-
oping antarctic resource deposits.
South Africa opposes any moratorium on resource-
related activity in Antarctica. Instead, it has been
pressing for establishment of a formal mineral resource
regime. Perhaps to preempt any attempts by the
United Nations or other international groups to gain
control or influence over antarctic matters, in 1975 the
South Africans proposed that the signatories establish
a condominium to exercise sovereignty collectively
over Antarctica. The South Africans are sensitive to
pressures from the Third World and strongly oppose
those countries sharing the potential wealth of the
Antarctic.
The new vessel, the Agulhas, made its maiden voyage
to Antarctica in 1978. Acquisition of the ship allows
South Africa to upgrade its geologic and ocean-
ographic research programs in the Antarctic. In addi-
tion to conducting oceanographic surveys, it can ply
between South Africa and SANAE on resupply trips.
Reportedly a 55-meter ice-strengthened fisheries re-
search vessel, the Africana, is under construction and
will enter antarctic service in 1982.
Research Program
South Africa maintains one year-round station,
SANAE (the South African National Antarctic Ex-
pedition), that focuses on geophysical and meteorologi-
cal research.
Previously, South African research activities in
Antarctica included a geological program inland from
SANAE. It was designed, in part, to locate mineral
deposits similar to those in areas of Africa that were
adjacent to Antarctica in the geological past. These
field activities were suspended in 1976 pending ac-
quisition of a larger research/supply vessel for use in
Antarctica.
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Antarctic Position
The Soviet Union is strongly committed to maintaining
the Antarctic Treaty System and to protecting the
interests of the Treaty nations. Up to the time of the
Ninth Consultative Meeting in 1977, however, the
Soviet delegation had adopted an extremely obstruc-
tionist stance in mineral resource negotiations. They
objected to any consideration of a new legal regime,
proposing instead the initiation of additional envi-
ronmental and geological studies. They also strongly
supported (in 1975) a 10- to 15-year moratorium on
mineral and petroleum exploitation, apparently to pre-
vent interference in the area by outside parties and to
delay others until they were ready to begin exploita-
tion.
At the 1977 meeting, the Soviets proposed a five-year
moratorium, showed some willingness to allow
progress on formulating a resources regime, and en-
dorsed a policy of voluntary restraint in the interim.
These commitments have held through the Tenth Con-
sultative Meeting in 1979.F____1 25X1
At the Preparatory Session for the Eleventh Consulta-
tive Meeting, the Soviets indicated a desire to see
efforts toward setting up a minerals regime that would
include all mineral resources and related activities.
Apparently, they are beginning to understand that
solution of the minerals question is essential to main-
taining the Treaty. The Soviets insist that the final
regime must be negotiated by, and reflect the interests
of, the Consultative Nations and must incorporate
advantages for the Treaty members.
Molodezhnaya, the Soviet Union's main station, is the second
largest base on the continent. Research programs include surface
and upper air meteorology; geomagnetic, ionspheric, aurora, me-
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Research Program
The extensive Soviet antarctic geologic-research
effort-aside from its genuine scientific value-has in
effect established Soviet presence and legitimacy in
many parts of the continent, giving the Soviets a major
voice in eventual settlement of the claims issue. The
USSR, similar to the United States, has neither recog-
nized nor made territorial claims in Antarctica and
maintains stations in parts of the continent claimed by
a number of countries.
The 26th Soviet Antarctic Expedition (SAE), con-
ducted during the 1980-81 season, was the largest ever
mounted by the USSR. A total of eight ships-five
research/passenger and three cargo vessels-operated
for three to seven months, supplying coastal bases and
conducting research near the continent. About 1,400
persons, including 600 scientists and technicians,
participated in the SAE.6 About 300 scientists re-
mained in Antarctica to conduct research during the
1981 austral winter at the USSR's seven year-round
stations.
Near the end of the 1980-81 summer season the So-
viets made their first direct operational flight from the
USSR to the Antarctic.
The Molodezhnaya
wheeled-aircraft landing strip has long been needed to
facilitate visits by senior Soviet scientists and admin-
istrators. Soviet air operations in the Antarctic, never-
theless, are still hampered by the lack of an air-staging
area in the Southern Hemisphere comparable to the
US facility in New Zealand.
Another highlight of the 1980-81 Soviet season was the
completion of the first full year of service by Russkaya,
the Soviets' newest year-round station. Established in
January 1980, this station fills the last gap in a
circumantarctic network of Soviet stations that is
unmatched by any other country.
The Soviet antarctic geological and geophysical survey
program, the largest of any of the countries, con-
centrates on researching useful land-based resources.
Soviet geological reports typically include an analysis
of the economic geology of studied areas. Each sum-
mer season since 1971, the Soviet Union has operated a
large field station as a base for geological, geophysical,
and mapping surveys. Druzhnaya, which is located at a
point where the UK and Argentine claims overlap, is
the current field base. It supports work in the Weddell
Sea and in the Pensacola Mountains, the latter possi-
bly the most promising regions in Antarctica for min-
eral exploration.
According to A. F. Treshnikov, former head of the
Soviet Arctic and Antarctic Institute, the next thrust
of Soviet geologic research will be directed toward the
base of the Antarctic Peninsula. The peninsula is
considered a particularly favorable geologic environ-
ment for copper, molybdenum, lead, zinc, tin, tung-
sten, and other mineral deposits. As a consequence, the
26th SAE was assigned the important task of estab-
lishing three new summer scientific bases-Sheld,
Geolog, and Druzhnaya II-all to engage in geologic
research. Druzhnaya II, the largest of the three, is
about 400 kilometers from Druzhnaya. These new
facilities will permit continued expansion of the
USSR's geologic program.
The USSR's current geologic program does not sug-
gest that commercial exploitation is in the offing. The
Soviet Union has large reserves of metallic mineral
resources and hydrocarbons in Siberia and in Soviet
offshore areas that are likely to be tapped long before
any major resource exploitation is started in Antarc-
tica. Furthermore, offshore drilling, the activity that is
probably most likely to yield the first antarctic hy-
drocarbons, is currently one of the Soviet Union's
weakest technological areas.
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The USSR, among the world's leading fishing nations,
is losing access to many of its traditional fishing
grounds because of the proliferation of 200-mile na-
tional coastal zones. Considering its huge capital
investments in distant-water fishing fleets and its
dependence on fish for dietary protein, USSR interest
in antarctic fish, particularly krill, is not surprising.
The USSR maintains an antarctic whaling fleet and
has conducted an exploratory fishery in antarctic wa-
ters since the mid-1960s. Small fishing fleets accom-
panied by research vessels operate each austral sum-
mer in the Scotia Sea and in the waters south of
Kerguelen and New Zealand.
These fleets have been concentrating on krill since the
1970s. In 1977-78, they caught 60,000 tons of krill. A
reliable Japanese report indicates that 30 Soviet krill
trawlers were sighted off the east coast of Antarctica at
140? East longitude in mid-January 1981. Two
months later, the R/V Melville reported sighting
about 35 Soviet krill trawlers off Elephant Island near
the Antarctic Peninsula, on the opposite side of the
continent. Because these were probably different
fleets, it is possible that at least 65 Soviet vessels were
engaged in krill fishing during the 1980-81 season. A
US scholar thinks this number is conservative; he
believes the number of vessels may be as high as 100
and that these vessels may have caught as much as
500,000 tons of krill. Although speculative, his catch
estimate matches the high end of the 300,000 to
500,000 tons the Chileans say the USSR caught dur-
ing the 1980-81 season. Officials of the US Govern-
ment estimate that the Soviet catch has remained
approximately at 100,000 tons for the past few years.
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United Kingdom
Antarctic Position
The United Kingdom has taken one of the strongest
environmental positions and has led efforts to establish
a system for the conservation and rational use of
antarctic resources. UK negotiators favor a regime
that benefits the Consultative Parties. At the 1980
Consultative Meeting Preparatory Session, the United
Kingdom questioned the need to negotiate a regime if
substantial benefits are to go to the international
community. The United Kingdom is basically opposed
to any UN initiatives related to the southern ocean
area, but-aware of possible international political
repercussions-is exploring ways the Treaty Nations
can permit, but control, limited UN activities.
Prior to the Ninth Consultative Meeting in 1977, the
United Kingdom seemed willing to subordinate its
interests as a claimant state in favor of non-
discriminatory access to minerals and hydrocarbon
Faraday is the smallest of the UK's four antarctic stations and is
one of two British stations on the Antarctic Peninsula. It engages in
resources under a regime regulated by the Consulta-
tive Parties as a group. At the meeting, however, the
British representatives stressed the opposite-that
British rights as a claimant state must be taken into
account when such a regime is devised. This shift
probably reflected pressure from British industrial in-
terests anxious to ensure a major UK role in any
antarctic resource exploitation. It may also have been a
trial balloon; the British probably noted that their
unselfish lead would not likely be followed by the other
claimant states. Whatever the reason, the United
Kingdom now stresses the need for early resolution of
the resource issue and opposes any moratorium on 25X1
resource activity in the Antarctic. This position may
change, however; a policy review is currently under
way to establish a definitive UK position on minerals.
25X1
a limited amount ofscientc research including meteorology, upper
atmospheric physics, and geophysics. 0 25X1
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Research Program
The United Kingdom considers itself the dean of the
antarctic club. It has a long tradition of performing
sound geological and biological research. The British
Antarctic Survey (BAS) maintains four permanent
stations in Antarctica; one other station is operated
during the summer season as a base for geological
surveys. Marine research programs conducted adja-
cent to the British Antarctic Territory are supported
by two survey vessels and one Navy patrol ship.
Current BAS efforts include geological reconnaissance
surveys, basic marine biology research, and seal sur-
veys within its claimed area. This work appears to lack
direct commercial motivation. The BAS geologic work
is confined to the Antarctic Peninsula and includes
research in petrology and geochemistry. Marine geo-
physics research is carried out by the HMS Endurance
on routine crossings of the Scotia Sea. During the
1980-81 season, scientists from the United Kingdom's
Scott Polar Research Institute participated with Nor-
way in a joint iceberg research project in the Scotia
Arc area.
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Antarctic Position
The United States has been the leader in Antarctica
since the 1930s when exploration of the continent
began in earnest. The United States has always main-
tained that the entire continent should be open to
citizens of all nations; accordingly, it does not recog-
nize the antarctic claims of any other country and has
made no claims of its own but reserves the right to do so
should circumstances change. The maintenance of
permanent US stations within the claimed zones of
other Consultative Nations and at the politically
important South Pole supports the US position that the
entire continent should be open to all nations that
agree to abide by the provisions of the Treaty.
As for the antarctic resources issue, general US policy
has been to ensure that:
? The viability of the Antarctic Treaty is preserved.
? The antarctic environment and ecosystems are
protected.
? Antarctic resources are used wisely. 25X1
? The United States has the opportunity to share in the
benefits of resource activities in Antarctica.
At the Ninth Consultative Meeting, the United States
urged acceleration of efforts to develop an internation-
ally acceptable antarctic resource regime. It also urged
that all signatories refrain from commercial explora-
tion or exploitation of antarctic mineral and petroleum
resources while the regime was being negotiated. The
United States indicated, however, that while it prefers 25X1
voluntary restraint to more formal arrangement, it
would not object to a binding moratorium if the other
12 nations favored one.
McMurdo, with some 100 buildings, is the largest station in Antarc- chapel, and a hospital. The station operated on nuclear power from
tica. Its sprawling appearance somewhat resembles a mining town, 1962 until 1972, when the nuclear plant was dismantled; electric
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The United States hosted the Tenth Consultative
Meeting and a preliminary session in December 1980
for the Eleventh Consultative Meeting. At the meet-
ing, the United States got general acceptance that a
basic purpose of a minerals regime was to establish:
(1) that mineral resource activities are acceptable in
Antarctica, and (2) regulations governing such activi-
ties.
Research Program
US activities in the Antarctic, although primarily sci-
entific, reflect US economic and territorial interests.
US whalers and sealers have long since ceased operat-
ing in antarctic water, and the fishing industry has
shown little, if any, interest in antarctic fish or krill;
but the information gained from US antarctic
oceanographic- and marine-biological surveys would
prove useful should such interest arise. Similarly, other
ship-based research contributes data useful in assess-
ing potential resources of the continental shelf. For
example, geological cores drilled in the Weddell Sea
shelf in 1972, produced traces of natural gas. Assess-
ment of the minerals resource potential is a major goal
of the US onshore research program.
Although the United States operates fewer stations
than the USSR or Argentina, its research program is
the largest and most sophisticated in Antarctica. This
results in large part from superior logistics-especially
air transport-which permit the conduct of wide-rang-
ing field programs during the few months of good
weather in the austral summer.
The four permanent US stations are: McMurdo, the
main US base and logistics center, which is in the
sector claimed by New Zealand; Amundsen-Scott, at
the South Pole where all claims converge; Siple, on the
interior icecap in Chile's claim area; and Palmer, on an
island off the Antarctic Peninsula in an area of over-
lapping claims.
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Acceding Nations
Brazil acceded to the Antarctic Treaty in 1975 at the
urging of the Brazilian Institute for Antarctic Studies
(IBEA). This privately funded institution, created in
1972 and supported by the Brazilian press, has repeat-
edly called for the Brazilian Government to play a
more active role in Antarctica. Although the Brazilian
press continues to suggest that the departure of Bra-
zil's first independent antarctic expedition is im-
minent, Brazil has yet to conduct an expedition. The
government has, however, sought information from
other countries regarding antarctic logistics and sci-
entific matters in apparent preparation for antarctic
operations. Reportedly, IBEA recently acquired a po-
lar research vessel, which is being outfitted and re-
paired at a US shipyard.
The German Democratic Republic (GDR) acceded to
the Antarctic Treaty in 1974, but has never conducted
an independent antarctic expedition. It is, however, the
most active of the nonconsultative countries, conduct-
ing the bulk of its antarctic research at the Soviet
Bellingshausen, Druzhnaya, and Novolazerevskaya
Stations. Over the years, nearly 100 East German
scientists have participated in Soviet research expedi-
tions; nine are wintering-over with the USSR during
the 1981 austral winter. In 1980, the GDR was
granted conditional membership in the Scientific
Committee on Antarctic Research, an international
organization.
Conflicting reports regarding GDR intentions in
Antarctica began circulating in 1980. Indeed, the
Prior to its Treaty accession, Brazil reportedly had
considered making a territorial claim overlapping the
claims of Argentina and the United Kingdom. By
acceding to the Treaty, however, Brazil has in effect
postponed any such claim for the Treaty's duration.
Brazil is expected to establish a research station in the
Antarctic Peninsula-Weddell Sea area and on that
basis apply for full consultative status. Chile has
offered Brazil assistance in establishing a research
program by sponsoring Brazilian scientists to the
Antarctic, additional support can also be expected
from Peru. Such joint efforts are aimed at emphasizing
Latin American presence in Antarctica. (s NF)
stage appeared set for the GDR to seek Consultative
status by establishing an independent scientific pro-
gram and a research station in Antarctica; prepara-
tions were evidently under way for an independent 25X1
expedition. Costs, however, forced cancellation of
these plans.
The GDR was
the only nonconsultative nation to sign the Antarctic
Marine Living Resources Convention, and the scien-
tific work of its Institute for Deep-sea Fishing and Fish
Processing during the 1980-81 season included surveys
of the sea areas of the South Orkney and South Shet-
land Islands. The GDR has also shown interest in krill-
catch techniques. 25X1
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Secret
The other nine nations-Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Papua New Guinea,
Peru, Romania, and Uruguay-that have acceded to
the Antarctic Treaty do not now conduct independent
antarctic expeditions. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and
Romania have sponsored individual scientists on Soviet
expeditions, but none has been as active as East Ger-
many. Denmark's antarctic endeavors are limited to
serving as the country of registry for several ships that
provide logistics support to Australian and French
antarctic expeditions. The Netherlands acceded to the
Treaty in 1967 after having sponsored a joint expedi-
tion with Belgium from 1964 to 1967, but it has shown
little interest in the Antarctic since then. Italy, Papua
New Guinea,' Peru, and Uruguay are the most recent
signatories to the Treaty, but are not expected to
mount independent operations.
' Papua New Guinea (PNG) technically became a Treaty signatory
during the period in which it was a trust territory of Australia.
Following independence, PNG reviewed those treaties to which it
was bound and ultimately decided to accede formally to the Antarc-
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Secret
Nonacceding Nations
China may accede to the Treaty within the near future
and reportedly intends to construct a research station.
The State Council has approved a National Antarctic
Survey Committee to oversee the Chinese antarctic
program. A Chinese survey team reportedly accom-
panied the French expedition to Dumont d'Urville in
February 1978 as part of the French-Chinese agree-
ment on scientific and technical cooperation. In 1978
and 1979, Chinese and Chilean officials held a series of
discussions during which they agreed to set up a joint
commission to conduct oceanographic and climatologi-
cal studies and research on resources in Antarctica.
The agreement also calls for Chinese scientists to work
at Chilean stations; however, no evidence suggests that
this agreement has been implemented.
limited to providing technical advice.
The Chinese have also sought antarctic assistance
from Australia and New Zealand. During the 1979-80
season, two Chinese scientists conducted research at
the Australian Casey Station; two Chinese scientists
are wintering-over at Casey during the 1981 austral
winter. New Zealand's assistance has been mainly
work in polar waters.
The Chinese State Oceanographic Bureau has in-
dicated it plans to expand its oceanographic research
into most areas of the world, including the Antarctic.
The Bureau intends to establish an information ex-
change arrangement with other countries and to
participate actively in international conferences on
oceanic affairs. To improve its oceanographic research
capability, in 1978 China bought a Japanese 4,200-ton
oceanographic survey vessel specially strengthened for
As part of this oceanographic effort, the Chinese are
establishing a National Committee on Antarctic Re-
search to represent all organizations with antarctic 25X1
interests, including the Chinese Foreign Ministry. An
Antarctic Division has already been established within
the National Bureau of Oceanography. Antarctic ma-
rine science is obviously a major Chinese interest.
An active scientific effort in Antarctica and a high
profile in political matters affecting the continent
would be in keeping with China's modernization pro-
gram. Whether such a course of action offers any
threat to the current antarctic situation depends on
whether China chooses to operate within or outside of
the Treaty framework. At present, it appears that the 25X1
Chinese will work within the framework of the Treaty.
Such a decision should please even the USSR, which is
quietly following Chinese overtures into the Antarctic.
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Secret
Taiwan has displayed increasing interest in exploiting
marine living resources in the southern ocean area. Its
Council for Economic Planning and Development is
currently studying a plan to explore fishery resources
there. The experimental fishing vessel Haikung has
twice visited the area and in 1977 caught 125 tons of
krill. China's demonstrated interest in the Antarctic,
however, is a major setback for any Taiwanese plans to
seek additional participation in antarctic activities.
For the past three years South Korean vessels have
conducted experimental antarctic cruises in search of
krill. During the 1979-80 season the 5,500-ton fisheries
research vessel Nambuk surveyed krill and fish re-
sources in the southern ocean area. According to the
Koreans, these expeditions gathered valuable experi-
ence and data for future operations. More than 500
tons of krill were caught during the 1978-79 season.
South Korea has also expressed interest in the coal and
petroleum potential of Antarctica and in the conduct of
an expedition on the continent. Although the govern-
ment has stated that it would like to accede to the
Treaty, political considerations would almost certainly
exclude the South Koreans from early admission as a
full Consultative Nation.
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 Argentina
i
SI' Aof M-n II rr +
G I.g S / nuts' .
TIERRA, ~/
DEVF/{
Ag
Ael
Co
Cr
Cu
Fe
Ma
Ma
Nb
Ni
silver
gold
cobalt
chromium
copper
iron
manganese
molybdenum
niobium
nickel
South
Uu1H 0.
OWCH Known Mineral Occurrences and
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SHAG RACKS.
The Falkland Islands. South Georgia. and the
South Sandwich Islands are administered
by the UK and claimed by Argentina
SOUTH_,
SHETLANO'n?
Passage Cu, Pb, 2n
ISLANDS'
Cu 'Antarctic
Fee LARSEN
?Ag, Cu Pb In
ANTARCTICA
? Mineral occurrence
Exposed rock
Coal-bearing area
Probable area of oil
and gas exploration
Azimuthal Equal-Area Proleclion
Scale 1:23,630,000
kilometers
200 400
Cu. FSt?Mo? ~lll SHFLE
e,h
Pb lead
Pt platinum
S sulfur
Sn tin
Ta tantalum
Tb thorium
Ti titanium
U uranium
V vanadium
Zn zinc
A t I a n t i
Cu, Ma-
Adela~Au i ?
nautK [ miles
200 400 600 800
CtiF~P
exad r Fe Ma, Ph
',Old ?
Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn
.r
..
Cue
IC-
SHELF
Cu,Pb
ELLSWORTH' Ellswous
LAND Mountains
C
U
O c e a n
. anraebc
C/rote
ru :;
Berkner
Island
o?re. -ePensacola
CO, Cu, Pb,d ?e''. Mountains
Pt, Ti, V
GETZ -`E5ecunve
ICE co-- Range
SHELF
` SULZtlEh`CERiwy
.Ce ICE SH[,F rl~
N Aes+om
tT"`~hachlefon
Range
C OAS-
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Massdd ; Muhhg-Hofmann a,0 So, Rondane
Mouniams Woh roar MounEo,ns
Q U E E N
Heimelron(
oP
oue
Elizabeth
l Range
,x 3arhham
:, ` 5r ill Ch-I,,11
i~M1yR`a ns
., 11~rd 1'R;Th
~...
cnntrnental "" ''O tiz pT't Q
she)' 1111 t1-7
South Pacific Ocean
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Indian
Ocean
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/04: CIA-RDP08CO1297R000100100001-1
Secret
Secret
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/04: CIA-RDP08COl297R000100100001-1
ANTARCTICA: Stations and Claims
Note: Seven of the 14 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Nations
have made no claims to Antarctic territory (although the
United States and the Soviet Union have reserved the right
to do so) and do not recognize the claims of the other
nations. Brazil, an Acceding Nation, has designated a zone
of interest.
'Bouvet Island
(Norway)
South Atlantic Ocean
South Georgia
(Falkland 18.1
Falkland Islands
(Islas Malvinas)
(Administered by U.K.,
claimed by Argentina)
South
Sandwich Islands
. (Falkland Is.)
Urcaua (Argentina)
Signy
4 (U.K,) BRAZILIAN
Bellingshausen
Soviet Uy)on)
k ((,, ~
APetrel (Argentina)
i
Arctows
oand) ~SPer8n28 (Argentina)
Teniente Marsh
(cniler -'Vicecomodoro
Ca itAn At re Prat ' neral Maremhio
P 8ernatdo (Argentina)
(Ctile ,0tHlg?trtS -
Oe ePtlen (Chile)
(Argentina)
Primavera oen~ente tins) ze
(Argentina) Primavera
Almirante Brawn
Palmer*
Faraday 1G./fl
(U.S.)
Ps
sP%
Ocean 'General
son M /s
Rothera
(U.K.)
Presidents A
Videla,)
S O U t h(Chile)
Pacific
Summer Stations Year-round Stations
peak population average population
SANAE
(South Africa)
(France)
Leningradskaya
(Soviet Union)
Macquarie island
(Australia)
South Pacific Ocean
Campbell Island
(New Zealand
Antipodes Islands
(New Zealand)
Bounty Islands'.
(New Zealand)
New
Zealand
O
Q 75-135
A 30-50
Q 15-29 ?
A 7-14 ?
ties Crozet
(France)
Iles Kerguelen I
I'!
(France)
McDonald Islands .
(Australia) Heard Island
(Australia)
Indian Ocean
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/04: CIA-RDP08CO1297R000100100001-1
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