SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 33, NO. 4

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• Document Page Count: 107
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 27, 2013
• Sequence Number: 4
• Publication Date: October 1, 1972
• Content Type: REPORT

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April, 1973
SATEAZ 33(4) .923-1024 (1972)
SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
ATOMHAR 3HEPIMA
(ATOMNAYA. ENERGIYA)
TRANSLATED.FROM RUSSIAN
CUNSULTANTS:BUREAU,NEW YORK
Russian Original Vol. 33, No. 4, October, 1972
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SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
Soviet Atomic Energy is a cover-to-cover translation of Atomnaya
Energiya, a publication of the'Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
An arrangement wh Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga, the Soviet book
export agency, makes available both advance copies of the Rus-
sian journal and origir'iel glossy photographs and artwork. This
serves to decrease the necessary' time lag between publication
of the original and publication of the translation and helps to im-
prove the quality of the latter. The translation began with the first
issue of the Russian journal.
Editorial Board,of Afomnaya'Energiya:
Editor: M. D. Millionshchikov
Deputy Director
I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy
Academy of Sciences of the USSR
Moscow, USSR
i
Associate Editors: N. A. Kolokol'tsov
N. A. Vlasov
A. A. BocAvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
V. S. Fursovt
I. N. Golovin
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. I. Leipunskii
A. P. Zefirov
Copyright ? 1973 Consultants Bureau, New York, a division of Plenum Publishing
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SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of Atomnaya Energiya
April, 1973
Volume 33, Number 4 October, 1972
CONTENTS
Calculation of the Output and Parameter Optimization for Chemonuclear
Installations - B. G. Dzantiev, A. K. Krasin, G. V. Nichipor,
V. T. Kazazyan, and I. A. Savushkin .............................
Nature and Thermal Stability of Radiation Defects in Single-Crystal Tungsten
- V. N. Bykov, G. A. Birzhevoi, M. I. Zakharova, and V. A. Solov'ev......
Production of Transuranic Elements in the SM-2 and MIR Reactors - V. A. Davidenko,
Yu. S. Zamyatnin, V. V. Tsykanov, V. Ya. Gabeskiriya, V. V. Gryzina,
Yu. I. Gryzin, V. V. Ivanenko, A. I. Kashtanov, A. V. Klinov,
Yu. P. Kormushkin, B. I. Levakov, V. I. Mishunin, Yu. G. Nikolaev,
V. G. Polyukhov, G. A. Strel'nikov, V. V. Frunze, A. P. Chetverikov,
Yu. V. Chushkin, V. D. Gavrilov, V. I. Zinkovskii, Yu. N. Luzin,
and N. L. Fatieva ... ................ .......................
Sputtering of Transuranium Elements by Fission Fragments - B. M. Aleksandrov,
I. A. Baranov, A. S. Krivokhatskii, and G. A. Tutin ..... ..
U238 Radiative Capture Cross Section for 5 to 20 MeV Neutrons - Yu. G. Panitkin
and V. A. Tolstikov ..........................................
Production of Spontaneously Fissioning Isomers with Nanosecond Lifetimes in
a-Particle Reactions - Yu. P. Gangrskii, Nguen Kong Khan, and D. D. Pulatov.
SR90 and Cs137 Concentrations in the Baltic Sea in 1970 - L. M. Ivanova, L. I. Gedeonov,
V. N. Markelov, Yu. G. Petrov, A. G. Trusov, and E. A. Shlyamin........
ABSTRACTS
A New Method for Measuring the Reactivity of a Nuclear Reactor - B. P. Shishin ....
The Theory Behind the "Double Overcompensation" Method - B. P. Shishin ........
Calculation of the Heat Exchange in Core Flow and of the Hydrodynamics in Laminar
Flow of Coolants in Regular Fuel Element Lattices - V. I. Subbotin,
P. A. Ushakov, A. V. Zhukov, and N. M. Matyukhin ..................
Complete Isotope Separation in Photochemical Processes - Yu. G. Basov..........
Linear Electron Accelerators for Radiation Flaw Detection - V. M. Levin,
V. M. Nikolaev, V. V. Rumyantsev, and B. N. Tronov ... ............
Use of Nonlinear Resonances of Betatron Oscillations for Slow Extraction of Particles
- Yu. S. Fedotov ...........................................
Occupied Hydrogen Levels in a Hot Plasma and the Relationship between Radiation
Intensity and Ionization Rate - V. A. Abramov, P. I. Kuznetsov,
and V. I. Kogan ............................................
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Concerning Automatic Processing of Information at Atomic Power Plants
- V. S. Ermakov, V. S. Kakhanovich, R. A. Kal'ko, and E. K. Zalivako.....
Comparison of High-Flux Research Reactors - A. Tsykanov ...................
Engl./Russ.
923
803
930
809
936
815
941
821
945
825
948
829
953
835
957
839
958
839
959
840
961
842
962
842
963
844
964
845
966
847
969
849
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CONTENTS
Engl./Russ.
The Sorption of Boric Acid on Anion Exchange Resins from Solutions Simulating the
Circuit Waters of Atomic Reactors and Conditions of Its Desorption
- F. V. Rauzen and E. A. Shakhov ................................ 972 850
Mechanical Properties of 1Kh16N15MZB and 1Kh18N10T Austenitic Steels Carburized in
Liquid Sodium - I. N. Luk'yanova, B. A. Nevzorov, and O. V. Starkov....... 974 852
Yields of Bi205, Bi206, and Bi207 from Lead Irradiated with Protons or Deuterons
- P. P. Dmitriev, N. N. Krasnov, G. A. Molin, and M. V. Panarin......... 976 853
COMECON NEWS
XXII Session of the Comecon PKIAE - V. A. Kiselev......................... 979 855
Collaboration Daybook .............................................. 980 855
INFORMATION
III All-Union Conference on Activation Analysis - A. A. Kist ................... 982 857
Equipment and Instrumental Base for Activation Analysis in the USSR - A. S. Shtan' ... 984 858
Activation Analysis in the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Uzbek SSR Academy of
Sciences - U. G. Gulyamov, ..................................... 990 862
CONFERENCES
Session of the Scientific Council on the Topic "Plasma Physics" of the USSR Academy of
Sciences - M. S. Rabinovich .................................... 992 863
First All-Union Radiogeochemical Conference - N. P. Ermolaev ................ 995 865
Spectrometric Methods of Radioactive Contamination Analysis of the Natural Environment
- A. N. Silant'ev ............................................ 999 867
Europe's First Nuclear Physics Conference - G. M. Ter-Akop'yan ............... 1001 868
Meeting of the International Working Group on Nuclear Data - G. Rudakov .......... 1003 869
Radiation in the World Around Us - A. M. Kuzin ........................... . 1005 870
Second European Conference on Radiation Shielding - P. V. Ramzaev ............. 1008 872
Commissioning of the RF Separator and Fast Beam Extraction Systems at the
Serpukhov Accelerator - A. V. Zhakovskii . .............. ............ 1010 872
CRITICISM AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................... 1012 874
The Russian press date (podpisano k pechati) of this issue was 9/27/1972.
Publication therefore did not occur prior to this date, but must be assumed
to have taken place reasonably soon thereafter.
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CALCULATION OF THE OUTPUT AND PARAMETER
OPTIMIZATION FOR CHEMONUCLEAR INSTALLATIONS
B. G. Dzantiev, A. K. Krasin,
G. V. Nichipor, V. T. Kazazyan,
and I. A. Savushkin
The output of a radiochemical installation is a very important specification, determining, in many
respects, the installation's efficiency. It is directly related to the energy which is absorbed by the chemi-
cal reactant. Usually, the output 0 for any radiochemical apparatus is determined by the equation [1]
0 =kM G(I, t, r, p) I (xt, wi)dV, (1)
Lr, v.
where M is the molecular weight of the irradiated medium; I is the dose rate absorbed, eV/cm3 ? see; xi
are the space coordinates; wi is a generalized symbol for the properties of the medium and the nature of
the radiation spectrum; k is a dimensional constant; Vr v is the apparatus' reaction volume; G is the
radiochemical yield, mole/100 eV; t, T, and p are the temperature, contact time, and reactant pressure.
Calculation of the integral in Eq. (1), as a rule, is quite difficult. In the majority of cases, one can-
not obtain an exact, analytic determination of the integral because of, the complicated nature of the depen-
dence of G(I, t, T, p) and I(vti, wi) on numerous factors. Therefore, various means are utilized for ap-
proximating the solution.
It is advisable to determine the output of chemonuclear installations through the kinetic energy of the
fission fragments, which comprises -84% of the fission energy. In this case, reduction of the problem to
a numerical integration of the outputs for the individual chemonuclear channels is an effective way to ap-
proximate the solution of Eq. (1). The output for the different kinds of chemonuclear channels can be de-
termined more precisely, taking account of many factors, if the mechanism for the formation of a useful
product is known. At the same time, the solution of the system of kinetic equations, describing the elemen-
tary reactions, permits one to determine the distribution of the end product concentrations at every moment
of time along the length of the channel.
Let us consider such an approach for the calculation of the output of experimental and industrial
chemonuclear installations, as illustrated by the synthesis of hydrazine.
The influence of the temperature conditions of a channel of a chemonuclear reactor on the final con-
centrations of the products of the radiolysis of ammonia under conditions of a nonisothermal gas flow and a
variable' dose rate was investigated in [2], based on the equations of chemical kinetics. However, the re-
sults obtained cannot yet be directly applied to the specific design of a channel, since variations in the ef-
fectiveness of the utilization of the energy of the fragments and the rate of flow of the reactant as a result
of an increase in the temperature along the length of the channel, as well as other effects, were not taken
into consideration for the simplification of the calculations.
In the present paper, a more general model for the calculation of the output of a chemonuclear chan-
nel is proposed. Calculation of the output and optimization of parameters for a channel in a chemonuclear
loop installation was carried out on the basis of the proposed model. The possibility for realizing hydrazine
synthesis on the basis of a chemonuclear reactor on an industrial scale is considered.
Calculation Procedure
From the results of the kinetic analysis carried out in [3, 41, taking into consideration the mass-
transport equation, let us describe the distribution for the concentrations of the components of the irradiated
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 803-808, October, 1972. Original article
submitted May 4, 1972.
o 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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TABLE 1. Values of the Coefficients m and gas mixture along the length of the channel z for the Aro-
n for a Channel with Diameter b = 0.2 cm cess involving the formation of hydrazine from gaseous
ammonia, on the assumption that one can neglect the dif-
Fuel I ziK_< 0,5 Z > 0,5 fusion of matter in the direction of the flow, in the form
thickness, ? m I n ,n I n of the following time-independent system of equations [5]:
0,272
-0,0447
0,237
-0,029
174
0
-0,0227
0,1607
-0,0187
,
0,116
-0,0113
0,112
-0,0133
d [(H)/ (z)] = [W -- 2k3M (H)2 - k2M (H) (R)
dz
-k4(H)(r)-k6(13)(A)1 g
d [(R)/V (z)1 = [W - 2k
M (H) (R)
M (R)2- k
2
,
dz
k5(10(r)-1-k6(11)(A)1 g
(3)
d [(r)/
(z)1
= [k
M (R)2- k
(R) (r)] g
(H) (r) - k
(4)
1
5
4
d [(H2)/v (z)] ;z-- [k6 (H) (A)+k3111(H)2+k4 (H) (r)1 S
(5)
dz g
Here (H), (R) = (NH2)1 (I,) = (N2H4), (A) _ (NH3), (112) are the instantaneous concentrations of the radical
and molecular components; M = (A) + (H2) + (I') + (R) + (H) (A); ki, k2, k3, ... , ki are the rate con-
stants for the respective elementary reactions entering into the system of equations (2)-(5); g is the mass
flow of the reactant, kg/sec; S is the transfer cross section for the reactant in the channel, m2; y(z) is the
instantaneous density of the reactant along the length of the channel, kg/m3.
Considering that the total pressure of the mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of all the com-
ponents, let us define the change in the concentration of ammonia along the length of the channel by an al-
gebraic equation of the form
(A) = RT (z) -j(H)+-(R)+(r)+(H2)j. (6)
Then for the output of the end product, one can write the following equation:
n
of M;g; ,Cin (7)
Yin
n=1
where ACin is the change in the instantaneous concentration of the i-th product in the n-th section of the
channel's length; Mi is the molecular weight of the i-th product.
For the determination of the rate of initial decomposition of the ammonia W, one can utilize the for-
W = G(_nH3) ? 10-21(z), (8)
where G(_NH 3) is the amount of the initial radiative discharge from the decomposition of the ammonia; I(z)
is the value of the absorbed dosage along the length of the channel, eV/cm3 ? sec.
In order to complete the system of equations (2)-(6), one should provide a law for the variation in the
temperature T(z), the dose rate I(z), and the reactant's density y(z) with the coordinate z.
Assuming that the variation in the dose rate along the length of the channel is expressed by the product
of the neutron flux, varying sinusoidally along the length of the channel, and the efficiency for utilizing the
fission fragments' energy, let us write -
I(z)=1maxsin nH {-26) 8(Z),
eff
where 6 is an effective correction. In the case of chemonuclear fuel in the form of a stack of parallel slabs,
one can utilize the formulae from [1, 6] to calculate E(z).
For chemonuclear fuel with cylindrical channels, the value of the efficiency is not expressible in ele-
mentary functions. In this case, the calculations for the efficiency can be accomplished by the Monte Carlo
method [7]; one can approximate the results of the calculations with good accuracy (not worse than ?6%) by
a linear law:
,( Z n z - +M.
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0, kg/yr
0, kg/yr
= 10abs. atm
121 1 1 8 I
4 8 12 N, kW 8 12 16 N, W.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 1. Dependence of the output for a channel of the CNI-5 on the installation's thermal out-
put, for a change in the latter due to the distance between the fuel layers.
Fig. 2. Dependence of the output of a CNI-5 channel on the installation's thermal output with
variation in the latter due to variation in the fuel thickness.
The values of the coefficients n and m, for example, for the case of thin layers (1-5 p) of UO2, applied to
the inner surface of a cylinder with diameter b = 2 mm, and gaseous ammonia as reactant at a pressure
p = 10 abs. atm are presented in Table 1.
For the calculation of the dependence of the range of the fission fragments on the reactant's density
along the length of the channel RB(z), one utilizes the relationship
RB (Z) = Rf. e }, (Z)
For the dependence of T(z), in the case of a sinusoidal law for the distribution of the heat release, on the
length of the channel, one can utilize the expression
T(z)=To+ ZT [1--cos Hnz
eff
Here To, Y,, and Rf e are the temperature, reactant density, and range of the fragments at the channel's
entrance; AT is the temperature increment for the reactant along the length of the channel.
The variation in the density y(z) was found from the ideal gas equation.and was taken into considera-
tion when calculating the efficiency and the exposure time of the reactant in the irradiation zone at the given
dose rate I(z).
Solving the system of equations (2)-(7) with the initial conditions:
(NH3) =-o ( ) (H) _ (1) _ (HTo 2) 2-0 = 0,
we find the distribution of the concentrations of the products and the size of the output along the length of
the channel for selected values of the reaction rates and the prescribed laws governing the behavior of the
parameters. The values of the constant ki, needed in the calculation, are cited in [3, 4].
The given algorithm was programed on a "Minsk-22" electronic computer. The fourth order Runge
-Kutta method was utilized for the solution of the system of nonlinear, kinetic equations.
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TABLE 2. The Essential Radiochemical Characteristics of the CNI-5 when p = 10 abs.
atm
verage
Average
Concentra -
Maximum
Total ther-
Average
g
Output
cific
Pe
realizable
tion of N2H4
dose rate in
between
d f
f
output
contact
fficiency ,
of N H ,
z 4
P
t p of
amount G
,
at channel
s
0'
]
reactant
layers,
a
of channel,
time,
Et/EZ
kg/yr
zH4, kg
mole/100
,
.
exit.
19
l0
eV
cm
kW
sec
/cm 3
eV
mole/liter
g,
/cm ? sec
0,25
8,0
0,312
0,206/0,161
14,0
0,0140
0,107
0,43 1,2
0,1
0,50
14,4
0,177
0,132/0,107
16,8
0,0168
0,112
0,29 1,38
0,75
19,8
0,126
0,092/0,073
16,2
0,0162
0,104
0,20 1,34
0 25
6
0
0
/
1 2
0
0
,84
0
0,2
0
,50
12,0
0,29 1
0,143
,158
0
25,6 I
0
,0157
0,165
0,61
1
/
,
1
1
7
,
I
,
0,35
0,50
6,0
0,66
159
0,160
0
22,4
0,0
1
8
2
0
0
0,93
0
50
*Et and EZ are the values of the efficiency at the entrance and the exit, respectively, of the channel when R=8P.
In this way, the method considered in conjunction with the neutron-physical calculations permits one
to determine the output for a different type of chemonuclear installation and the assignment, including be-
havior, of such factors as dose rate, temperature, reactant density, and so forth, which is a significant
approximation to the actual conditions occurring in experimental and industrial chemonuclear installations.
Calculation of the Output and Parameter Optimization for a Channel
of a Chemonuclear Loop Installation
The method considered was utilized for the calculation of the output and optimization of the parameters
for a channel of a chemonuclear loop installation (CNI-5). The fundamental design and basic technical char-
acteristics of a channel in a CNI-5 are cited in [8, 9]. As a basic criterion for determining the best chan-
nel design, it is advisable that one choose the dependence of the output on the thermal output of the channel.
Such a choice is determined by the fact that, first of all, the total thermal output of the channel, as a rule,
limits the possibilities for the experimental equipment and the conditions for radiation safety at the assembly
site of the loop installation (for the CNI-5, the maximum thermal output is ^-10 kW) [8, 9]; second, the
thermal output is directly connected with the thermophysical, hydraulic, and radiation conditions for con-
ducting the procedure. At the same time, if one expresses the change in the thermal output via the change
in such parameters as the fuel thickness and the distance between the layers of fuel, one can carry out a
complete optimization for construction of the channel.
The calculation was carried out a pressures of 5 and 10 abs. atm for the gaseous ammonia with tem-
perature To = 323?K at the entrance to the channel and temperature Texit = 473?K at its exit. Thus, the
channel was warmed up along its length at a constant temperature of 150?C. The original data for the cal-
culation (dose rate, consumption, etc.) and the values of the thermal output as a function of the distance be-
tween the fuel layers and their thickness are taken from [9].
The dependence of the output on the installation's thermal output, for a change in the latter due to a
change in the distance between the plane fuel layers, arranged perpendicular to the axis of a channel with
given length H, is shown in Fig. 1. , The curves represent two fuel thicknesses df, equal to 2 and 4 p. It
is seen that this dependence has a sharply defined maximum; while with an increase in the fuel thickness,
the absolute value of the maximum increases and is shifted in the direction of a larger thermal output.
Thus, if for df = 2 .s, the maximum of the output occurs at a thermal output N = 6 kW and results in 20.2
kg/yr of hydrazine; then, for df = 4 ?, the maximum corresponds to an output N = 10 kW and equals 27
kg/yr in magnitude.
The analogous dependence of the output on the fuel thickness for a fixed distance b = 0.1 cm between
the layers and pressures of 5 and 10 abs. atm is presented in Fig. 2. This dependence has a smoother
character, and one is able to conclude that the maximum is attained in the 14-15 kW interval of the thermal
output, I. e. , for 4-5 p fuel layer thicknesses.
As is seen from Table 2, an increase in the channel's thermal output is due to an increase in the den-
sity of the loaded fuel layers which results, as was to be expected, in an increase in the maximum dose
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2960 5 2950
f300
72-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 R, cm 0 2 4 6 8 N, kW
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Fig. 3. Diagram of the output of the active zone for an industrial chemonuclear reactor (N
= 500 MW, df = 4 ?).
Fig. 4. Output of the channel of an industrial reactor as a function of its thermal output (df
=4?).
rate and, which at first glance is strange, a decrease in the concentration of hydrazine at the channel's
exit. This effect is associated with a decrease in the density and an increase in the flow rate of the radio-
lyzed gas, i. e. , with a decrease in the average time of contact.
From Table 2, it is seen that the contact time changes more rapidly than the dose rate increases.
Thus, for the case where p = 10 abs. atm and df = 2 p, the average time of contact decreases from T= 0.98
sec, when b = 0.35 cm, to T = 0.312 sec, when b = 0.1 cm, i. e. , 3.1 times; whereas the dose rate in-
creases correspondingly from 0.52 ? 1019 to 1.2 ? 1019 eV/cm3 ? sec, i. e., only 2.3 times. According to [3, 4],
for the conditions under consideration, one can assume that on the average the variation in the hydrazine
concentration along the length of the channel is determined by the square root of the dose rate and the con-
tact time T. The simultaneous effect of these factors results in, regardless of the increase in the dose
rate, a concentration of the hydrazine in the exit leading from the channel. Insofar as the installation's
output is proportional to the concentration of the end product in the mass flow weight rate of the reactant,
then this results in an optimum.
The more extreme character of the extremal dependence of the output. on the thermal output, with a
change in the latter due to the density of the fuel layer charge, than on the fuel thickness is associated with
an additional increase of the reactant rate as a result of a decrease in the unoccupied volume of the channel.
On the basis of the optimization of the parameters attained for the CNI-5, one can recommend: with
up to 10 kW output, one utilizes a fuel layer with a thickness not greater than 4 p. In addition, for all
thicknesses in the 1-4 p interval, a 0.2 cm separation between the layers is necessary for the attainment
of maximum output. Results of the calculations point out the possibility of utilizing the research reactor
for conducting chemonuclear experiments on a pilot scale.
The Possible Organization of the Industrial Synthesis of Hydrazine
Based on a Chemonuclear Reactor
The investigation was conducted, using as an example a reactor utilizing chemonuclear fuel in the
form of a 4 p thick layer of UO2 (909 pure) applied to an aluminum backing. The design of the chemo-
nuclear element (CEL) consists of a multiple-set corrugated spiral with a 2 mm long corrugation, wrapped
in a 5 cm diameter, stainless steel, cylindrical channel [10]. Water was used as a moderator material.
The reactor's dimensions H X D = 3 X 3 m, the thermal output N = 500 MW, and the U235 charge is approxi-
mately 700 kg. The 10-group diffusion method [10] was utilized for the calculation of the reactor's neutron-
physical characteristics.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
Necessary changes, taking into account the specific properties of the calculation of a chemonuclear
reactor's operating period, were introduced on the basis of the results, discussed in [12]. The reactor's
output was determined by summing the outputs of its individual zones. The output of each zone was found
by summing the outputs of the individual chemonuclear channels Oc (within each channel, the absorbed
dose rate can be considered constant along the radius and variable along the length).
According to this, for the output of a chemonuclear reactor, one notes
7
Or = ? n, Oc. M,
1
where nm is the number of channels in zone m; Oc m is the output of a channel in zone m; m is the number
of the reactor zone. The outputs of an individual channel in a zone were. calculated relative to its average
thermal output.
The average thermal output of a channel in a zone was found from the relation
N09.,
nm
where No is the reactor's thermal output; qm is that fraction of the total energy release. in the m-th zone of
the reactor.
For the determination of qm in the multigroup diffusion approximation on the assumption that the spa-
tial distribution of the energy release does not vary within the active zone during a time interval Atk, one
can note
10
dV Yj F'fjDj,k-1 (r)
_ Vm j=1
Qm 10
5 dV Y, Efj(Dj,k-1 (r)
where Vm, Va z are the m-th zone and the total active zone volumes; Efj is the macroscopic fission cross
section; f k is the integral of the neutron flux for the j-th group at the k-th moment of time. The output
was calculated for a reactant pressure p = 10 abs. atm in the temperature interval from To = 323?K up to
Ta z = 523?K. The results of the calculations are presented in Figs. 3 and 4.
The calculations showed that in such a reactor, one can produce 15,500 tons/yr of hydrazine with an
average energy release G = 2.3 mole/100 eV, and an operating period forr the reactor of X500 days. The
output of a single channel ranges from 120 tons/yr at the center of the active zone to 20 tons/yr at its per-
iphery. This can account for the fact that in passing from the center of the active zone to its periphery the
dose rate falls from 5.85 ? 1020 to 0.85 ?1020 eV/cm3 ? sec in the time it takes for the average contact time to
increase from 0.0375 to 0.26 sec. These two parameters compensate each other, therefore the concentra-
tion of hydrazine at the channel's exit does not vary in practice and consists of (0.700-0.763) ? 10-4 mole
/liter.
Thus, variation in the output corresponds in practice to a variation in the reactant's mass flow weight
rate, which is 8.0 kg/sec at the center of the active zone and 1.36 kg/sec at its periphery. The plotted de-
pendence of a channel's output on its thermal output indicates that this dependence has a linear character
(see Fig. 4). This is associated with the fact that, under the conditions for an industrial reactor, we have
a linear accumulation of the end product's concentration along the length of the channel. Derivation of the
dependence permits one to carry out the calculation of the outputs of other active zones of the chemonuclear
reactors.
It is seen from the diagram presented in Fig. 3, that the maximum value of the output occurs in the
fifth zone, located at a radius of 70-90 cm. This is due to the fact that, in passing from the first zone to
the seventh, in spite of the drop in the output of the individual channels, the number of channels in the zones
rises. It also follows from the diagram that there are broad possibilities for the optimization of the active
zone for a chemonuclear reactor for the purpose of increasing its output. Thus, the results obtained indi-
cate the possibility for organizing hydrazine synthesis on the basis of a chemonuclear reactor on a large
scale and permits one to carry out an analysis of the economic outlook for this process.
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LITERATURE CITED
1. A. Kh. Breger et al. , Fundamentals of Radiochemical Apparatus Construction [in Russian], Atomiz-
dat, Moscow (1967).
2. B. G. Dzantiev et al., At. Energ., 29, 71 (1970).
3. B.. G. Dzantiev and G. V. Nichipor, Izv. Akad. Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz. -Energ. Nauk, No. 1, 48
(1969).
4. B. G. Dzantiev, A. K. Krasin, and G. V. Nichipor, Izv. Akad. Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz. -Energ.
Nauk, No. 1, 53 (1970).
5. V. B. Nesterenko and B. E. Tverkovkin, Izv. Akad.Nauk BSSR. Seriya.Fiz. -Tekhn. Nauk, No. 2,
20 (1968).
6. B. A. Litvinenko, Izv. Akad.Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz. -Tekhn. Nauk, No. 3, 16 (1966).
7. L. P. Roginets and,S. G. Rozin, Izv. Akad. Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz. -Energ. Nauk, No. 1, 50 (1968).
8. A. K. Krasin, E. P. Petryaev, and G. I. Strelkov, Izv. Akad. Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz.-Energ.
Nauk, No. 1, 29 (1968).
9. A. K. Krasin, B. A. Litvinenko, and I. A. Savushkin, Izv. Akad. Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz. -Energ.
Nauk, No. 3, 5 (1968).
10. M. Steinberg and J. Farber, BNL-827 (T-322) (1963).
11. V. A. Naumov, Izv. Akad. Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz. -Tekhn. Nauk, No. 1, 26 (1965).
12. I. A. Savushkin, Izv. Akad. Nauk BSSR. Seriya Fiz. -Energ. Nauk, No. 2, 5 (1970).
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NATURE AND THERMAL STABILITY OF RADIATION
DEFECTS IN SINGLE-CRYSTAL TUNGSTEN
V. N. Bykov, G. A. Birzhevoi, UDC 621.039.531:669.27
M. I. Zakharova, and V. A. Solov'ev
The damage suffered by bcc metals as a result of neutron irradiation is similar to that suffered by
fcc metals [1]. At the present time the five stages in the annealing of defects in bcc metals based on the
van Bueren [2] and Thompson [3] classifications have been the ones principally studied. There are certain
indications as to the existence of a sixth stage, which appears after irradiation with large integrated fluxes
[1, 4-6] or at high temperatures [7]. Stages in the annealing of radiation defects in tungsten are presented
in Table 1.
An analysis of these data shows that certain ambiguities occur in the interpretation of the types of de-
fects corresponding to different stages of annealing in tungsten. Furthermore, all earlier experiments were,
as a rule, carried out with polycrystalline samples at doses of up to 1.5 ? 1021 neutrons/cm2; the processes
underlying the formation and annealing of defects may differ, however, very considerably in single crystals
and polycrystalline aggregates, particularly for large integrated neutron fluxes.
We shall now consider the nature of the radiation defects in single-crystal tungsten irradiated at 450-
500?C with a dose of 1.4. 1022 neutrons/cm2 (4 . 1021 neutrons/cm2 at an energy of E > 1 MeV), and the stabil-
ity of these defects at temperatures up to 2200?C.
TABLE 1. Stages of Defect Annealing in Irradiated Tungsten
(
?K#
Temperature range,
Annealin
stages an~
Activation energy,I
Type of defect (
Literature
cited
.
substages
eV
20-100
I
0,06
Up to 45?, recombination of Frenkel pairs;
[1, 41
15
I1
45-100?, migration of free interstitial
30
38
12
13
atoms
60
14
75
15
100-400
II
0,5-1,7
Not interpreted
11, 4]
190
Iii
270
112
400-700
III
1,7-1,9
Intrinsic interstitial atoms, impurity inter-
[4, 5, 8,
(0,15-0,17)
stitial atoms, vacancies
9-111
720-920
IV
No data
B!vacancies, impurities, impurity com-
[4, 5, 9]
(0,22-0,29)
plexes
(0,22-0,25)
IV1
(0,25-0,29)
1V2
920-1270
V
3,1-3,3
Vacancies
[4, 5, 9, 12:
(0,31-0,35)
1270-1800
VI
I No data
~Iot interpreted
[1, 4, 6]
(0,35-0,45)
I
Maximum of the annealing rate shown in brackets as (T/Tm).
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 809-813, October, 1972. Original article
submitted August 31, 1971; revision submitted March 1, 1972.
m 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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TABLE 2. Resistivity of Irradiated and Nonirradiated, Samples of Tungsten (Single-Crys-
tal) and W-Re Alloys Measured at 298, 77, and 4.2?K
298? K
77? K
4,2? K
Characteristic of sample
P /In-cm
AP/P, %
p. P0, cm
AP/P, %
P. 40. cm
Ap/p, %
Nonirradiated tungsten
5;63
- I
0,57
10,2.10-4
-
Irradiated tungsten
6,55
18
1,36
139
9,5.10-1
93000
Irradiated tungsten after annealing at up to
2200?C for 1 h
5,82
2,5
0,72
26 I
2,6.10-1
250
Tungsten + 0.1% rhenium
5,99
6,4
0,75
31,6
1,0.10-1
90
+0,2%
5,98
6,2
0,80
40,0
1,5.10-1
150
+0,9%
6,4
13,7
1,52
167
4,4.10-1
430
+2,6%
7,8
38,5
3,5
513
7,7.10-1
760
Note: The quantity pp = Pirr Pnonirr Or AP = Ptir+ite-P14r
We used electron-beam zone-melted tungsten single crystals with disorientation angles of 30"-30' be-
tween the subgrains and a dislocation density of 2 ? 106 cm-2. The impurity content of these crystals, ac-
cording to chemicospectral analysis (wt. %), was: Ta < 3 ? 10-2; Nb < 1. 10-2; Mo 8 - 10-3; Ni, Co, Zn
< 3 ? 10-3 (each); Cr 2.8. 10-3, Zr, Ti, Pb, Al, Ca, Sb, Ba < 1. 10-3 (each); Sn, Bi < 3: 10-4 (each); Fe,
Mg, Mn, Cu, Cd, Ag < 1. 10-4 (each). From the middle of a single-crystal bar [13] we cut samples 2.5
mm in diameter and 25 mm long. After machining, the work-hardened layer was removed by electropolish-
ing.
The samples were irradiated in the active zone of a BR-5 reactor in hermetically-sealed tubes of
standard packs. After irradiation, the samples and controls were annealed in a high-temperature vdcuum
furnace at a residual pressure of no greater than 1 . 10-5 mm Hg and temperatures of 200-2200?C (in steps
of 100?C) for 1 h (isochronous annealing), and at temperatures of 1000 and 1200?C for periods between 5
min and 380 h (isothermal annealing).
The resistivity p was measured at 298 and 77?K by a potentiometric method [9], the error for 30
measurements being under 1% at room temperature and 3.5% at the temperature of liquid nitrogen. For the
measurements at 4.2?K we used a noncontact induction method [15] with a total p error of 5.5%.
The increase in the resistivity p of the tungsten samples due to irradiation was three orders of mag-
nitude at 4.2?K, 139% at 77?K, and 18% at 298?K (Table 2).
Figure 1 shows the change in the electrical resistance of the irradiated and nonirradiated tungsten
samples on continuous heating up to 1000?C. In the temperature range studied, the resistivity of the irra-
diated and nonirradiated samples increases linearly with rising temperature. The irradiation-induced re-
sistivity increment (Op = 1.15 ?S2 ? cm) hardly changes at all on heating to 1000?C; this indicates a high
thermal stability of the radiation defects in tungsten.
An analysis of the isochronous-annealing curve of the irradiated samples (Fig. 2) showed that anneal-
ing took place in three stages in the temperature ranges 500-800, 950-1200, and 1200-1900?C. The relative
fall in Ap at each stage was 20.2, 16.5, and 43.3% respectively. Starting from 1900?C the Ap curve emerged
on to a plateau.
The annealing spectrum shown in Fig. 3 indicates that the maximum annealing rates correspond to
temperatures of 0.24, 0.35, and 0.45 Tm.
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10 I0,211
200 400 600 800 T C mo 'tUU ouu OW iuua /LUU Nut/ iouu i?av LOVU i, ?
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 1. Change in the electrical resistivity of irradiated and nonirradiated samples
of single-crystal tungsten on heating at 2 deg/min: ?) irradiated tungsten; ^) non-
irradiated tungsten.
Fig. 2. Change in the resistivity increment (77?K) of irradiated single-crystal tung-
sten samples on isochronous annealing: Ap = Pirr (annealing 1 h) - Pnonirr (anneal-
ing 1 h).
d(dp) rel. units
0,4
200
0,14 0,24 0,35 0,45 0,56 0,67T ,?K
M.
Fig. 3
QAx109650-CM
0,55
470
0,65
0,60
0,45
0,40
HPo--B
102 103
Fig. 4
Fig. 3. Annealing spectrum of the resistivity of irradiated single-crystal tung-
sten: Op = Pirr (annealing 1 h) - Pnonirr (annealing 1 h).
Fig. 4. Change in the resistivity increment (77?K) of irradiated single-crystal
tungsten samples on isothermal annealing: Op = Pirr (T = const) - Pnonirr (T
= const); 0) T = 1000?C;O) T = 1200?C.
Figure 4 represents the isothermal annealing curves of the irradiated samples. The curve corre-
sponding to annealing at 1000?C shows two stages in the restoration of p. On raising the annealing tempera-
ture to 1200?C a third stage appears.
The activation energy Q of the annealing of radiation defects was determined by the method of com-.
bined isochronous and isothermal annealings [16]. The calculations were based on the equation
kTjT21n (t,/t2)
Q= Tl_T2
where Ti and t1 are the temperature (?K) and time of isothermal annealing, T2 and t2 are the temperature
(?K) and time of isochronous annealing, and k is Boltzmann's constant. In order to determine the activation
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TABLE 3. Annealing of Defects in Single-Crystal Tungsten Irradiated with a Dose of 1.4
? 1022 neutrons/cm2 (4 . 1021 neutrons/cm2 with an energy of E > 1 MeV) at 0.20-0.21 Tm
Temperature range of
Maximum of
Activation
defect annealing,?K
annealing
energy, eV
Form of defect
AP, %
ate, T/Tm
773-1073
0,24
0,70?0,03
Slight accumulations of hydrogen atoms
20,2
1223-1473
0,35
3,2?0,3
ISingle vacancies, slight accumulations of vacan-
16,5
cies
1473-2173
0,45
6,4?0,5
(Complexes of defects (dislocation loops, pores) 43,3
energies we used the results of the isochronous (Fig. 2) and isothermal (Fig. 4) annealings of Op. The re-
sultant activation energies are shown in Table 3. The activation energy of the annealing stage with a maxi-
mum at 0.35 Tm was also calculated from the annealing spectrum (Fig. 3) by using the following equation
[4]:
a
Q=2.4kATa,
where Ta is the temperature corresponding to the maximum annealing rate, OTa is the half width of the
peak at half height. The calculated value of Q = 3.26 eV agrees with the value of Q = 3.2 f 0.3 eV obtained
by the first method.
Thus, as a result of irradiation at 450-500?C with an integrated flux of 1.4 ? 1022 neutrons/cm2 (4 1021
neutrons/cm2 with an energy of E > 1 MeV) , three types of radiation defects accumulate in single-crystal
tungsten; these have activation energies of 0.70 f 0.03, 3.2 f 0.3, and 6.4 ? 0.5 eV, the maximum anneal-
ing rates lying at 0.24 Tm, 0.35 Tm, and 0.45 Tm respectively. According to the general classification of
types of radiation defects the stage at 0.24 Tm corresponds to the fourth stage, that at 0.35 Tm to the fifth,
and that at 0.45 Tm to the sixth.
The fifth stage in the annealing of tungsten defects has been studied most of all. According to the re-
sults of [4, 5, 12, 17] the fifth stage of annealing in tungsten has a maximum at (0.31-0.35) Tmand the ac-
tivation energy is 3.1-3.3 eV, in good agreement with the activation energy obtained in the present investiga-
tion, 3.2 ? 0.3 eV. The activation energy at this stage corresponds to the energy of vacancy migration in
tungsten [12]. On this basis we may conclude that the fifth stage in tungsten single crystals is due to the
annealing of vacancies; this agrees with the conclusions of research on polycrystalline samples [4, 5, 9,
18, 19].
The fourth stage in the annealing of radiation defects was observed in several earlier investigations
[4, 5, 9]; however, the activation energy for the annealing of the defects at this stage was not determined,
and the processes taking place were interpreted as the annealing of bi- and trivacancies. However, the
energies of migration of single and multiple vacancies in bcc metals are similar to one another [16], and
considerably greater than the activation energy determined in the present investigation (0.70 ? 0.03 eV).
All the interstitial impurities, apart from hydrogen, have migration activation energies greater than 1 eV
[20]. One mechanism possibly explaining this stage of annealing is the migration of hydrogen atoms, not
only those present before irradiation but also those formed as a result of (n, p) reactions. The migration
energy of hydrogen in tungsten is 1 eV [21], close to the activation energy obtained in the fourth stage.
Hydrogen has a very low solubility in tungsten [22]; it evidently occupies small pores, and is not annealed
in the reactor, despite its low activation energy. On raising the temperature from 450 to 600?C in the an-
nealing process, the solubility of hydrogen in tungsten increases by a factor of several times [22]; the
hydrogen migrates to sinks and free surfaces.
The activation energy of the annealing stage with a maximum at 0.45 Tm is 6.4 f 0.3 eV, which is
close to the activation energy of self-diffusion in tungsten: 6.6 eV [4]. At this stage some 50% of the total
increment in resistivity Op is annealed. After the completion of defect annealing at the fifth stage, Keys
et at. [19] observed the annealing of Op at temperatures up to 1500?C [4], and the annealing spectrum ex-
hibited a peak with a maximum at 0.45 Tm [6]. When studying molybdenum irradiated with a dose of
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
3.5-10 19 neutrons/cm2 (E > 1 MeV) at 600?C [7] under the electron microscope, complex defects such as in-
terstitial and vacancy loops (to use the terminology of Brimhall et at. [7]) 70-1000 A in size were observed
to vanish in the range (0.40-0.45) Tm, with an activation energy close to the activation energy of self-dif-
fusion. All this leads to the conclusion that the annealing stage with a maximum at 0.45 Tm observed in the
present investigation may be classified as the sixth stage, and may be associated with the annealing of com-
plex defects.
An interpretation of the results of the annealing of radiation defects in single-crystal tungsten irradi-
ated at (0.20-0.21) Tm with a dose of 1.4. 1022 neutrons/cm2 is presented in Table 3.
After the complete annealing of the radiation defects there is still an appreciable difference between
the resistivity of the irradiated and nonirradiated tungsten samples (Fig. 2, Table 2). Analogous data re-
garding the incomplete annealing of the resistivity increment of irradiated polycrystalline tungsten samples
were obtained in [4, 5, 8, 9], and were explained as being due to the formation of rhenium as a result of
(n, y) reactions. Using the relationship between p and rhenium content [4, 5] (Table 2) in conjunction with
x-ray spectral microanalysis, calculations of nuclear reactions, and measurements of magnetic suscep-
tibility, the proportion of rhenium accumulating as a result of irradiation in the present experiments was
estimated as ^-0.2%. The amount of rhenium so formed (-0.2%) differed from that indicated in [4, 5] (3%
Re), apparently because of the great difference between the neutron spectra of the reactors employed in
the several cases.
1. The irradiation of single-crystal tungsten of the electron-beam zone-melted type with an inte-
grated neutron flux of 1.4. 1022 neutrons/cm2 (4. 1021 neutrons/cm2 with an energy of E > 1 MeV) at 450-
500?C raises the electrical resistivity by 18% at 298?K, 140% at 77?K, and almost 1000 times at 4.2?K, and
also causes rhenium to accumulate to the extent of 0.2 at. %.
2. We observed three annealing stages of the radiation defects, identified as follows: at 500-800?C
("stage IV"), small hydrogen aggregates'; at 950-1200?C ("stage V"), single vacancies and small vacancy
aggregates; at 1200-1900?C ("stage VI"), dislocation loops and pores. The activation energies for these
three stages are 0.70 ? 0.03, 3.2 ? 0.3, and 6.4 ? 0.5 eV respectively, and the annealing-rate maxima oc-
cur at 0.24, 0.35, and 0.45 Tm.
3. The change in the resistivity of single-crystal tungsten on irradiation is associated with the for-
mation of small aggregates of hydrogen atoms (20.2%), single vacancies (16.5%), complex defects (43.30/,),
and rhenium (20%).
4. A high integrated neutron flux, a high irradiation temperature, e. g. , (0.20-0.21) Tm, and the ab-
sence of grain boundaries as sinks for defects lead to the predominant accumulation of complex defects in
single-crystal tungsten; these are stable up to 1900?C and their chief effect is that of a change in electrical
resistance.
The authors are grateful to Yu. V. Konobeev for discussing the results of this work and also to G. I.
Zhuravlev, B. N. Zolutukhin, and A. A. Korolev for great help in the experiments.
1. Y. Nihoul, Radiation Damage of Reactor Materials, Proc. of Symposium, IAEA, Vienna (1969), p. 3.
2. H. van Bueren, Z. Metallkunde, 46, 272 (1955).
3. M. Thompson, Phil. Mag., 5, 27_8(1960).
4. L. Keys and Y. Moteff, J. Nucl. Materials, 34, 260 (1970).
5. L. Keys et al. , Phys. Rev. , 176, 851 (1968).
6. L. Keys et al. , J. Nucl. Materials, 33, 337 (1969).
7. J. Brimhall, B. Mastel, and T. Birlein, Acta Metallurgica, 16, 781 (1968).
8. A. I. Ivanov, L. A. Elesin, and N. F. Pravdyuk, Radiation Damage of Reactor Materials, Proc.
Symposium, IAEA,-Vienna (1969), p. 289.
9. L. Keys and Y. Moteff, J. Appl. Phys., 40, 3866 (1969).
10. M. Kissinger and B. Mastel, Intern. Conf. on Vacancies and Interstitial Atoms (Julich), Vol. 2 (1967),
p. 693.
11. H. Kulmann and H. Schultz, Acta Metal., 14, 798 (1966).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
12. D. Jeanotte and J. Galligan, Phys. Rev. Letters, 19, 232 (1967).
13. Sh. Sh. Peizulaev et at. , in: Physicochemical Fundamentals of Crystallization Processes in the Inten-
sive Refinement. of Metals [in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1970), p. 128.
14. B. G. Livshits, Physical Properties of Metals and Alloys [in Russian], Mashgiz, Moscow (1956),
p. 164.
15. V. B. Zernov and Yu. V. Shavrin, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz., 36, 138 (1959).
16. A. Damask and J. Deans, Point Defects in Metals [Russian Translation], Mir, Moscow (1966), p. 153.
17. H. Schultz, Acta Metallurgica, 12, 649 (1964).
18. J. Galligan and T. Oku, Phys. Stat. Sol. , 36, K79 (1969).
19. L. Keys et al. , Phys. Rev. Letters, 2, No. 2, 57 (1969).
20. R. Gibala and K. E. Wert, in: Diffusion in bcc Metals [Russian translation], Metallurgiya, Moscow
(1969), p. 139.
21. A. P. Zakharov, Author's Abstract, Candidate's Dissertation [in Russian], Inst. Fiz. Khim. , Akad.
Nauk SSSR (1970).
22. A. A. Mazaev, R. G. Avarbe, and Yu. N. Vil'k, Zh. Fiz. Khim., 42, 641 (1968).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
V. V.A. Davidenko, Yu. S. Zamyatnin,
V. V. Tsykanov, V. Ya. Gabeskiriya,
V. V. Gryzina, Yu. I. Gryzin,
V. V. Ivanenko, A. I. Kashtanov,
A. V. Klinov, Yu. P. Kormushkin,
B. I. Levakov, V. I. Mishunin,
Yu. G. Nikolaev, V. G. Polyukhov,
G. A. Strel'nikov, V. V. Frunze,
A. P. Chetverikov, Yu. V. Chushkin,
V. D. Gavrilov, V. I. Zinkovskii,
Yu. N. Luzin, and N. L., Fatieva
One ton of burnt-out nuclear fuel yields tens of grams of curium, hundreds of grams of neptunium and
americium, and kilograms of plutonium. These elements are directly used in technology; they may also
serve as initial or "starting" raw material for the production of heavier isotopes of transuranic elements,
many of which possess useful properties.
The natural means of producing substantial quantities of heavy isotopes of curium and transcuric ele-
ments for research purposes at the present time is that of irradiating the initial materials in high-flux re-
actors. Owing to the great variety of properties characterizing the isotopes taking part in the chain of ac-
cumulation, different conditions of irradiation have to be used and different methods of processing the ir-
radiated targets have to be adopted for each.
Under the conditions existing in the Scientific-Research Institute of Atomic Reactors, it proved con-
venient, for the accumulation of Pu242, Am243, and Cm244, to make use of the MIR loop reactor, which has
comparatively low flux densities of thermal and resonance neutrons but a large useful volume of the irra-
diation facilities. For accumulating heavy isotopes of curium and transcuric elements the multipurpose
high-flux SM-2 reactor is employed (here the target may be irradiated in the neutron trap, the peripheral
channels, and the fuel assemblies of the active zone). The combined use of these reactors gives a wide
choice of irradiation conditions in respect of both flux density and neutron spectrum.
The principal characteristics of the SM-2 reactor were given in [1-3]. Since 1965 the reactor has
operated at a nominal power of 75 MW. In addition to the production of transuranic elements, an extensive
research program is being conducted in this reactor in relation to the behavior of irradiated materials and
solid-state physics, as well as developing new fuel compositions and fuel elements for future power reac-
tors; nuclear-physics work is being carried out with extracted beams (in particular, certain nuclear char-
acteristics of the transuranic elements are being measured).
In the central channel of the SM-2, seventeen targets up to 10 mm in diameter and with active parts
up to 350 mm long may be irradiated at the same time. The construction of the channel is designed for the
loading and unloading of each target separately, which provides for the desired flexibility in carrying out
irradiation. The total power of the targets may reach 1000 kW. The construction of the active zone of the
reactor, consisting of individual fuel assemblies, allows for the loading of four special fuel assemblies, in
each of which eight targets replace missing fuel elements. This enables us to irradiate the initial materials
with neutrons of a harder spectrum.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 815-819, October, 1972. Original article
submitted January 17, 1972; revision submitted April 24, 1972.
C 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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TABLE 1. Neutron Fluxes in the Irradia- The MIR reactor was broadly described in [4]; it
tion Positions of the SM-2 and MIR Reactors is intended for testing fuel assemblies. In order to use
Irradiation position
e trons/cm2
ln a Irons/cmZ
Center of neutron trap inthe
SM-2
3,9.1015
1,2.1014
Active zone of the SM-2
8,6.1013
6,7.1013
Central channel of the MIR
5,7.1014
2,7.1013
Fu el-assembly space of the
4,6.1014
3,9.1013
channel
nabl
y
t
ge
t t
e
es an
ar
o
b
e
l
oa
d
e
d
an
d
un
l
oa
d
e
d
.
MIR
The total power of the targets in this channel may reach
2600 kW. In addition to this, irradiation may be effected
in the fuel assemblies of the reactor. The annular con-
struction of the fuel elements makes it possible to place a target up to 16 mm in diameter and up to 1000
mm long in the central space of the assembly. The power of a target such as this may be 140 kW for a fuel-
assembly power of 4 MW.
The neutron fluxes and spectra for all the points of irradiation indicated were determined by calcula-
tion, with experimental normalization and verification. The calculations were carried out using a special
set of computer programs [5] and a 26-group system of constants [6]. Preliminary calculations of the mean
macroscopic cross sections in the thermal group were carried out by the method of [7]. The validity of the
calculations was verified for the SM-2 reactor by comparing the experimental and calculated neutron fluxes.
The thermal neutron fluxes were measured by the activation of gold foils, using the cadium-difference
method, the epithermal neutron fluxes by the activation of resonance indicators. For the central, median,
and peripheral cells of the central channel, the following thermal-neutron flux densities were obtained:
3.3 ? 1015, 3.1 . 1015, and 2.7 ? 1015 neutrons/em Z . sec respectively (the cadmium cutoff boundary was 0.68
eV). The measuring errors were no greater than 7%. The correctness of the flux calculations in the ir-
radiation positions of the MIR reactor was confirmed by comparing the experimental and calculated distri-
butions of energy evolution in the fuel assembly of the reactor. The distributions were measured by using
thin metallic uranium foils. The absolute values of the neutron fluxes were obtained for a fuel-assembly
power of 4 MW.
The results of these calculations are presented in Table 1. The thermal-neutron flux 4PT is indicated
for the energy range 0-0.215 eV. The epithermal flux ('E) is given per unit interval of lethargy in the
energy range 0.215-104 eV in all cases except for the active zone of the SM-2. Since the spectrum of the
epithermal neutrons in the active zone of the SM-2 differs considerably from the Fermi distribution (Fig. 1),
Table 1 gives the epithermal-neutron flux for the active zone per unit interval of lethargy in the energy
range 0.465-10 eV. The data presented in Table 1 were obtained without any absorbing samples being in
the irradiation positions. The depression of the flux arising from the insertionof samples was determined
by using physical models of the reactors for specific targets.
In order to obtain the isotopes of transuranic elements, targets of the dispersion type were employed.
For the first cycle of irradiation, when the heavy isotopes of plutonium served as initial material,
the targets were made by the simultaneous hot extrusion of an aluminum shell with a dispersion core made
from a pressed mixture of aluminum powder and plutonium oxide. The high thermal conductivity of the
construction materials used and the absence of thermal resistance between the core and the shell enabled
high thermal loadings to be achieved in these targets for a comparatively low temperature of the core and
low temperature gradients. For the next cycle of irradiation, in which the initial materials were isotopes
of americium and curium, more simply prepared targets of the container type were employed. The cores
of these targets consisted of aluminum capsules filled with a pressed mixture of aluminum powder and the
oxide of the initial material. The capsules were enclosed in an aluminum tube, which was then sealed.
The airtightness of the targets was monitored during irradiation by reference to the radioactivity in
the coolant.
In view of the satisfactory efficiency displayed by all these types of targets, there was no need to
monitor their material characteristics systematically, except in the case of samples cut from targets which
lost their airtightness during irradiation. In one case of the rupture of a hot-extruded dispersion target
irradiated with an integrated flux of 6. 1022 neutrons/cmZ, the damaged section constituted a burn in the
shape of a cavern. The reason for the burnt-out region was evidently a random nonuniformity in the
this reactor to accumulate transuranic elements at the
same time, extra irradiation facilities were required.
This requirement was satisfied by means of a specialty
constructed channel, lying in the center of the active
zone. Eighty targets 10 mm in diameter and 480 mm long
are placed in this on two levels. The construction of the
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4 r.r?1'l, I
Fig. 1. Group neutron fluxes in the irra-
diation positions: 1) center of the neutron
trap of the SM-2; 2) active zone of the SM-
2; 3) central channel of the MIR; 4) water
space of the fuel assembly of the MIR.
I :,.y4?~ .s?r? ti
r,,
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 io7ev
TABLE 2. Neutron Cross Sections (2200 m distribution of the initial material. As a result of pro-
/sec) and Resonance Integrals (from 0.5 eV) longed corrosion the external diameter of these targets
Used for Calculating the Accumulation of diminished by an average of 17%. It was therefore es-
the Transuranic Elements (b) sential to make a careful choice of the thickness of the
target shell in relation to the period and conditions of ir-
isotope I Qy I 1y a1 I 11 radiation.
pu248
280
500
740
330
pu240
280
8500
0
0
pu241
370
170
1000
550
Au242
18
1100
3
0
Am241
750/75
2000/300
3
10
Am243
90
2000
0
0
Cm244
10
650
2
70
Cm245
350
100
2000
700
248
C m24'+
70
200
270
1000
Cm248
1,5
250
0
0
Bk249
1700
2000
0
0
Cf250
1800
5000
0
0
Cf251
2000
300
4600
700
Cf252
20
40
0
0
In order to select the optimum conditions for ob-
taining isotopes of transuranic elements, we studied the
accumulation of the isotopes in different irradiation posi-
tions of the SM-2 and MIR reactors. To this end we pro-
ceeded as follows: 1) we calculated the rates of isotope
accumulation on the basis of published cross sections of
the interactions between neutrons and the nuclei incor-
porated in the chains of accumulation; 2) we measured
the effective interaction cross sections of these nuclei
with the reactor neutrons by irradiating thin samples,
and at the same time measuring the integrated neutron
fluxes; 3) we determined the quantities of accumulated
isotopes from the results of the radiochemical reprocessing of the real irradiated targets, and chose a
matched system of constants to describe the accumulation processes.
The reaction velocities in the isotope-accumulation chains were calculated by means of the following
equation, using the resonance integrals given in Table 2, together with the cross sections for a neutron
velocity of 2200 m/sec:
B, = oTQT IiPE = v,nv0,
where Bi is the velocity of the nuclear reaction in the i-th isotope; &i is the effective Westcott cross sec-
tion; nvo is the nominal Westcott flux; UT is the partial reaction cross section averaged over the Maxwell
spectrum; and Ii is the resonance integral of the isotope.
In order to average the cross sections in the thermal group of neutrons, it was assumed that, in the
energy range 0-0.215 eV, the cross sections of all the isotopes except Pu239, Pu241, and Am243 obeyed the
1/v law. For the three isotopes indicated, allowance was made for the contribution of resonances lying
below the cadmium limit. The value of the neutron flux used for calculating the effective cross sections
was found from the velocity of the reaction in the 1/v absorber and the known neutron spectrum. The re-
sultant effective cross sections &i were compared with their values found experimentally. The extension
of this simplified approach to the case of the hard spectrum of the active zone of the SM-2 leads to consid-
erable errors.
For the experimental determination of the cross sections, thin samples of various isotopes of the
transuranic elements were irradiated. The test isotopes were taken in quantities of 100-200 pg and de-
posited on an aluminum foil (area ^-0.3 cm2), and then loaded into individual aluminum capsules together
with a uranium monitor containing -50 ?g of U235. A set of capsules with different isotopes was loaded into
an aluminum ampoule.
In analyzing the composition of the samples before and after irradiation a mass-spectrometer method
was employed. The absolute quantity of the isotopes under examination was determined radiometrically and
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TABLE 3. Experimental and Calculated ' mass-spectrometric ally using the isotope-dilution tech-
Values of the Effective Cross Sections of Iso- nique. The completeness of separation of the isotopes
topes of Transuranic Elements in the Irra- was checked by reference to the material balance, the
diating Positions of the SM-2 Reactor (b) quantity of fission products being determined by reference
0
t-entrai cnannei
Active
zone
?
w
Isoto
experi-
ment
calcula-
tion
experi-
ment
6a
Pn239
1477?22
1130
1590?120
6a
Pu240
871?12
800
2880?80
6a
Pu241
1450
1430
1530?80
6a
Pn242
86
86
690?30
6a
Am241
960?120
940
1800?100
,, })) 242AM
890?150
845
-
Am241p241(n 1,) 242 42mAM
90?15
91
-
6a
Am243
215
210
1300?60
6a
CM245
2970
2310
2900?120
6
Cm245
350
340
-
6a
Cm245
13
15
-
6a
Cm247
380
400
-
6y
Cm247
90
80
-
6a
Cm248
14
20
-
6a
BOO
(3800)
1760
-
6a
Cf250
2000
2040
-
6a
Cf251
6300
6410
-
Cf251
2100
1940
_
6a
C?252
30
22
-
to the y radiation of Cs137.
The integrated neutron flux was determined from
the change in the isotope composition of the uranium
monitors, which enabled the integrated fluxes to be de-
termined in the range (1.5-9) ? 1021 neutrons/cm2 to an ac-
curacy of f2%.
The results of our measurements of & in the central
channel and the active zone of the SM-2 reactor are re-
sented in Table 3. A comparison of the resultant cross
sections shows that an increase in the hardness of the
neutron spectrum leads to a sharp rise in the & of the
isotopes Pu24o, Pu242, Am243, and Cm244, which have high
values of the resonance integrals. In this way, samples
of plutonium, americium, and curium containing up to
65% Pu241, up to 3% Am242m, and up to 15% Cm245 were
successfully obtained in the active zone of the SM-2 re-
actor, this being several times greater than the amounts
of the isotopes in question in samples irradiated in or-
dinary thermal reactors.
The results obtained in experiments with thin sam-
ples cannot be entirely transferred to the case of real
targets containing several grams of the initial material,
owing to the self-screening effect. An exact calculation
Note: The cross sections with the errors indicated in of self-screening is not always possible; the rate of ac-
the table were measured with the aid of thin samples. cumulation of the isotopes in the real targets was there-
The accuracy of the cross sections of Pu4, Am24, fore determined from the actual yield of these isotopes.
Cm244 was 110%, that of the other isotopes 115%. The
cross section of Bk249 is approximate. The burn-up of In some cases analysis was accordingly conducted by
CO" was not taken into account. cutting columns 1-2 mm high from the targets. The
methods of analysis were the same as in the case of the
thin samples.
After feeding the measured yield into an electron computer, the effective cross sections best fitting
the experimental results were selected. As reference cross section we used the effective absorption cross
section of Pu241 (1450 b), which depends very little on the neutron spectrum. The data so derived are also
presented in Table 3. These quantities are to a considerable degree provisional, since they depend on the
type of targets and the manner of loading these with the initial material. The agreement between the major-
ity of the experimental cross sections (obtained from an analysis of real targets) and the calculated values
may be attributed to the fact that the concentration of the isotopes has not yet reached a level at which self-
screening would play an appreciable part.
On the basis of the measured cross sections we calculated the accumulation of the isotopes of curium,
berkelium, and californium on irradiating Pu242 in the central channel of the SM-2 reactor. The results of
the calculation are presented in Fig. 2.
The experimental data relating to the accumulation of californium in irradiated targets obtained by
periodically measuring the neutron activity of the targets during the shut-down periods of the reactor are
presented in Fig. 3. For recording the neutrons we used activation and track-type detectors. Curve 1
shows the growth in the total neutron activity as the transplutonic elements accumulate; curve 2, charac-
terizing the accumulation of Cf252, was obtained by subtracting the contribution of other spontaneously fissile
isotopes and (cx, n) reactions to the neutron activity from curve 1. The difference between curve 2 and the
calculated curve 3 may be partly ascribed to the nonuniformity of the neutron flux with respect to the height
of the targets and to the complexity involved in calculating the yield of californium under such conditions.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
101
102
0)
.x,105
ru
-
243
;
Cm
2~
C
245
Cm2~
Cm
24
0252
25~
Cf
K 49..
`, 251
ES253
2 3 4 5
nutxl0 22 Neutrons/cm2
Fig. 2
106
2 3 4 5 6
nYa t x 10 22Neutrons/cm2
Fig. 3
Fig. 2. Accumulation of isotopes of the transplutonic elements by the irradiation of Pu242
in the central channel of the SM-2 reactor.
Fig. 3. Neutron activity of the target (per gram of 242): 1) total neutron activity of the
target; 2, 3) neutron activity of Cf252, experimental and calculated respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
The relative rates of accumulation of the individual isotopes of the transuranic elements (and hence
also the isotopic compositions of these elements) may vary over a wide range in accordance with the condi-
tions of irradiation of the initial materials. The effective cross sections for the capture of the neutrons
by even-even and odd-even nuclei increase substantially as the proportion of resonance neutrons in the
reactor spectrum increases. Hence the irradiation of the original materials in the hard spectrum of the
active zone of the SM-2 leads to the formation of elements with a high concentration of isotopes having an
odd number of neutrons. This enables us to produce elements with sharply differing isotopic compositions,
which in turn eases the study of the nuclear properties of individual isotopes.
The successful combination of the high thermal-neutron flux in the trap of the SM-2 reactor, the hard
neutron spectrum in the active zone of this reactor, and the large spaces available for irradiation in the
MIR enables us to accumulate the desired isotopes under almost optimum conditions in every case.
1. S. M. Feinberg et al., Third Geneva Conference (1964), Soviet Contribution No. 320.
2. V. A. Tsykanov et al., Kernenergie, 9, No. 10 (1966).
3. A. V. Klinov et al., At. Energ. , 28, No. 6 (1970).
4. A. P. Bovin et al., Third Geneva Conference (1964), Soviet Contribution No. 231.
5. M. N. Zizin and L. N. Yaroslavtseva, Transactions of the Soviet-Dutch-Belgian Symposium of
Problems on Fast-Reactor Physics [in Russian], Melekess (1970), Contribution No. D-17.
6. L. P. Abagyan et al. , Group Constants for the Calculation of Nuclear Reactors [in Russian], Atomiz-
dat, Moscow (1964).
7. G. I. Marchuk, Methods of Calculating Nuclear Reactors [in Russian], Gosatomizdat, Moscow (1961).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
FRAGMENTS
B. M. Aleksandrov, I. A. Baranov, UDC 546.799
A. S. Krivokhatskii, and G. A. Tutin
References [1-3] deal with studies of self-sputtering of fissionable isotopes by fission fragments.
However, there is still insufficient experimental data to explain the mechanism of this phenomenon. In
the literature there are few reports on sputtering of a substance by fission fragments from an external
source [4, 5]. The purpose of the present work is to study sputtering of a substance by fission fragments
originating inside the substance (Cf252 layers) and by fission fragments from an external source, and also
to investigate the effect of the average fragment energy on the sputtering coefficients.
Self-Sputtering of Cf252
We prepared by electrolysis four californium sources on platinum discs with the diameter of the ac-
tive spot 8 mm and Cf density 8, 1.5, 0.8, and 0.2 pg/cm2. To calculate the number of fragments arising
in the layer during spontaneous fission of californium and passing through the layer surface, we took the
half-life to be 85 yr. Collection of the sputtered Cf atoms was done on metallic discs which were placed
above the sources at a distance of 0.9 mm. The number of transferred Cf atoms was determined by the a
activity of the collector; the measurement accuracy was no worse than 7%. The number of Cf atoms sput-
tered by one fragment was calculated by dividing the total number of Cf atoms collected on the collector by
the total number of fragments which pass through the surface of the layer (equal to the number of fission
events). The exposure time was 1 h. Each point was measured during two or three exposures; the dis-
persion of the results was no more than f15%c.
We studied the dependence of the number of collected Cf atoms on the variation in polarity and field
strength between the collectors and sources at atmospheric pressure (Fig. 1), on the air pressure (Fig. 2),
and on the variation of distance between the collector and the source (Fig. 3). The number of Cf atoms
sputtered on the average by one fragment in a vacuum (10-2 torr) and collected on the collector in the ab-
sence of an electric field is 3800, 150, 75, and 50 for sources with Cf density 8, 1.5, 0.8, and 0.2 Itg/cm2,
_I I i I I 1 1
6000 4000 2000 0 -2000 -4000 -6000 -8000
Field strength, V/cm
Fig. 1. Dependence of the number of collected,Cf atoms on the
variation of polarity and field strength between collectors and
sources; density: 1.5 ?g/cm2 (open circles) and 0.2 ?g/cm2
(dark circles).
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 821-824, October, 1972. Original article
submitted July 19, 1971; revision submitted March 13, 1972.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
0,5
0 10 20
Pressure, torr
Fig. 2
0 10 20
Distance, mm
Fig. 3
Fig. 2. Dependence of the number of collected Cf atoms on the variation of air pressure
with no electric field.
Fig. 3. Dependence of the number of collected Cf atoms on the variation of the distance
between the Cf collector and source at pressure 10-2 torr with no electric field. ?) ex-
perimental; Q calculated according to the data of [6] on the assumption that the sputtered
atoms are emitted from the layer with equal probability in all directions.
respectively. Using the techniques of vitreous track detectors of fission fragments, we observed groups of
Cf atoms on the collectors, the largest of which consisted of 2. 104 Cf atoms.
Sputtering of Transuranium Elements by Fission Fragments from an
External Source
The apparatus which we used in these experiments is shown in Fig. 4. We used Cf252 as the source
of fission fragments and layers of Pu238, Pu239and Am241 on thick metal backings as sputtering substances.
The number of atoms of these isotopes in the sputtered layers and on the collectors was determined by their
a activity. When the collimator was used, the fragments entered the sputtering substance almost perpen-
dicularly; the light fragments at an average energy of 65 MeV and the heavy fragments, 47 MeV. Without
the collimator, these values were 85 and 60 MeV, respectively. The energy of the fragments was mea-
sured by a surface-barrier silicon counter which was put in place of the sputtered layer. The exposure
time in sputtering the layers was 12-24 h, depending on the half-life of the isotope being sputtered. The
experiments were conducted at atmospheric pressure in order to minimize the transfer of Cf atoms to the
shielding nickel film due to the self-sputtering of the fission-fragment source, which we expect from the
previous section. The characteristics of the sputtered layers and the experimental results are shown in
Table 1. Control measurements with these layers, both at atmospheric pressure with field strength 3500
V/cm (negative on the collector), and in a vacuum with no electric field without fission fragments from an
external source showed that 0.2-2 atoms of Pu or Am collect at the collectors for each a decay in the layer.
In order to elucidate the role of a particles and recoil nuclei which are formed in the a decay process in
the self-sputtering of the material, a layer of Pu238 was irradiated as in Fig. 4 without the collimator by a
stream of particles (also from Pu238) 20 times more intense than the natural number of a particles arising
in the sputtered layer and passing through its surface. It is clear that-the recoil nuclei of the external
(more intense) a source were trapped by the Ni films and could not reach the sputtered layer. It turned
out that an increase in the irradiation of the sputtered layer only by a particles from the external source
did not noticeably change the number of Pu atoms collecting at the collector per unit time. From this it
follows that in all cases of self-sputtering of thin a sources the fundamental role in sputtering of the mate-
rial is played, evidently, not by a particles, but by recoil nuclei from a decay, which have kinetic energy
-90 keV. Table 1 takes account of the results of the control measurements, i. e. , the effect of a decay.
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I I/
60
K 50
0
's 40
0
.o 30
0
a
Z
20
20 30 40 50 60 70
Energy of the fragments, MeV
Fig. 5
Fig. 4. Diagram of the experiments on sputtering of a substance by fission frag-
ments from an external source and on collection of atoms on a thin collector back-
ing: 1) source of Cf252 fission fragments; 2) copper collimator 1.3 mm thick with
collimation angle f8?; 3) thin shielding nickel film approx. 100 ?g/cm2; 4) thin
nickel collector film; 5) plastic diaphragm 0.9 mm thick; 6) sputtered layer of
plutonium or americium. Negative potential is applied to 1, 2, 3, and 4; posi-
tive potential (320 V) is applied to 6.
Fig. 5. Dependence of the number of sputtered atoms on the energy of the frag-
ments.
We studied the dependence of the sputtering coefficient of the atoms on the energy of the fission frag-
ments. We irradiated a layer of americium whose density was 2 ?g/cm2. We made measurements using
a collimator as in Fig. 4. The energy of the fragments was varied by moderating them in films of various
thicknesses. It turned out that, when the energy of the fragments is increased on the average for a heavy
group from 21 to 47 MeV, and for a light group from 34 to 65 MeV, the number of atoms sputtered by one
fragment increases from 32 to 60 (Fig. 5). The accuracy of reproducing the results was the same as in
the first section (?15%).
The self-sputtering coefficients of thin Cf252 sources, found in the present work, are 102_103 atoms
per fragment, depending on the density of the layer, and they approximately coincide with the data of [2],
but they are approximately two orders of magnitude lower than the self-sputtering coefficients of thin Cm244
layers [3]. However, the self-sputtering of thin Cm244 layers should be linked, apparently, fundamentally
with the recoil nuclei which appear during a decay of Cm244, and not with the fragments of spontaneous
Cm fission. In fact, the period of spontaneous Cm244 fission is -106 times greater than the period of its
a decay, and the self-sputtering coefficients of the substance by recoil nuclei from a decay are significant,
as was shown by the control measurements of the present work (0.2-2 atoms/nucleus recoil) and the data of
[7] (0.1-10 atoms/ion with energy up to 100 keV).
Examining the data on self-sputtering of Cf layers given in Figs. 1-3, one can see that the collection
of atoms with a positive potential on the collector is 2-4 times smaller than the collection of atoms with
negative potential, which in turn is 55-75% of the collection of atoms in a vacuum without an electric field.
When the air pressure is 4-5 torr in the absence of a field, a small portion of the sputtered atoms collects
on the collector, i. e. , the mean free path of the majority of atoms at atmospheric pressure is less than
4-6 M. The collection of atoms in a vacuum decreases noticeably more slowly with increasing distance
than should follow from the assumption of equally probable emission of the sputtered atoms in all directions.
Thus, the angular distribution of the material sputtered by the fragments is characterized by preferential
emission in the direction perpendicular to the surface of the sputtered layer. Inasmuch as the fragments
escape from the Cf layers in various directions with equal probability, the dependence obtained can be ex-
plained by sputtering of the material from craters of a definite depth, and not from the surface of the layers.
The data obtained for the self-sputtering of Cf layers allow one to choose the optimal conditions of prepara-
tion of thin spectrometric Cf252 sources by the method of self-sputtering, and also to choose the conditions
of their storage and use.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
TABLE 1. Sputtering of Plutonium and Americium by Fission
Fragments from an External Source
Thickness
Number of collected
atoms of Pu or Am in the
of the
calculation per fission i
Sputtered
active
fragment from the exter-
Method of preparing layers and
isotope
l
na source
type of compound
ayer,
lli-
i
h
?g~cm2
ithout(
w
t
co
w
collimator
mator
Pu238
0,4
-
50
Thermal sputtering in vacuum;
plutonium dioxide
Am241
2
130
70
Thermal sputtering in vacuum;
americium dioxide
Pu238
60
100
60
Electrolysis and annealing of
the layer; plutonium dioxide
Pu239
70
900
-
Electrolysis without annealing
of the layer; plutonium hy-
droxide, desiccatedin air
The results of the studies of the sputtering of thin layers of Pu and Am by fission fragments from an
external source show that, in this case, on the average, 102_103 atoms are sputtered by one fragment. It
should be noted that two layers of plutonium which are approximately identical in their density have ex-
tremely different sputtering coefficients: 100 and 900 atoms/fragment. Apparently, the quality of the sur-
face and the type of compound of the sputtered element are significant and special investigations are needed
in this area. The number of atoms sputtered by one fragment when a collimator is used is approximately
1.5 times smaller than without a collimator. This can be linked to the fact that in the latter case a certain
number of fragments arrived at the layer at large angles to its surface.
The dependence of the number of sputtered atoms on the energy of the fragments indicates that the
mechanism of sputtering (and, consequently, the mechanism of radiation damage in a substance) is linked
to the unit ionization losses of the fragments, and not to the energy losses of the fragments to elastic col-
lisions along the track. It follows from our results that, the greater the kinetic energy of the fragments,
the greater the number of atoms which are sputtered from a thin layer of a material. It is known that ion-
ization losses of fragments are greater at the start of the track and less at the end, while energy losses
of the fragments to elastic collisions increase towards the end of the path. Possible energy-transfer mech-
anisms which could explain the results are an ion burst [8] or a thermal electron peak [9].
The authors express their thanks to A. N. Protopopov for his interest in the work and also to L. M.
Belov, N. V. Skovorodkin, V. A. Nikolaev, E. M. Kozulin, and A. V. Ershakov-Al'mari for their help.
LITERATURE CITED
1.
F.
S. Lapteva and B. V. Ershler, At. Energ., No. 4,63
(1956).
2.
R.
Datti et al. , UCRI-9566, 184 (1960).
3.
V.
K. Gorshkov and L. N. Lvov, At. Energ., 20, No. 4,
327 (1966).
4.
W.
Riehl, Kerntechnik, 3, No. 12, 518 (1961).
5.
R.
Garber et al. , At. Energ. , 28, No. 5, 406 (1970).
6.
K.
Petrzhak and M. Bak, Zh. Tekh. Fiz., 25, 636 (1955).
7.
N.
Pleshivtsev, Cathode Sputtering [in ]Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1968).
8.
R.
Fleisher, P. Prise, and R. Walker, J. Appl. Phys., 36, No. 11, 3645 (1965).
9.
D.
Morgan and van Vliet, Contemp. Phys., 11, 173 (1970).
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
The neutron radiative capture cross section in U238 is needed for fast-reactor calculations. In addi-
tion, a knowledge of the neutron radiative capture cross section is of interest in the refinement of models
of the nucleus and of nuclear reactions. This paper is a continuation of previously published work on neu-
tron radiative capture in U238 over a broad range of neutron energies [1-3].
The neutron radiative capture cross section in U238 was measured over the neutron energy range 5-20
MeV. The measurements were made at electrostatic accelerators with maximum energies of 2.5 and 5
MeV using the activation method. The reaction D(d, n)He3 was used as a neutron source in the energy range
5-7 MeV. A fission chamber with a layer of U235 was used as a neutron flux monitor. Samples were placed
directly on the wall of the fission chamber. Induced activity was measured with a Ge-Li.detector using the
74 keV y line. After subtraction of the background from the backing, the integral under the 74 keV peak
corresponds to the induced activity of U238. Before measurement of induced activity, U238 fission products
were removed from the samples by chemical means.
The background from neutrons scattered in the target chamber of the accelerator was measured as the
deviation from the inverse square law when the sample and chamber were placed at various distances from
the target; it amounted to 1-2% of the quantity measured in the direct beam.
Inelastic scattering by structural materials in the target leads to the appearance of low-energy neu-
trons, which have a much greater capture probability than that of neutrons from the D(d, n)He3 reaction.
Because of the lack of data on inelastic scattering of neutrons at energies above 4 MeV, measurements of
neutrons inelastically scattered at the face of the target were made by means of an equivalent target face
"addition" placed on the face of the target. In this situation, the contribution from neutrons scattered at
the face of the target is determined from the difference of two experimentally measured values: 1) sample
activation or fission chamber count when working with the target; 2) sample activation or fission chamber
count when working with the target plus the "addition."
'p,llo = (1410 - 1) eanv
where I0 = I + Ipl; IA = I0 + Ip2; I0 is the fission chamber count and sample activation when working with
the target; I is the fission chamber count and sample activation from "direct" neutrons from the target;
Ipl is the fission chamber count and sample activation from neutrons scattered by the target structure; IA
is the fission chamber count and sample activation for operation of target plus "addition"; 1P2 is the fission
chamber count and sample activation resulting from neutron scattering in the "addition"; a is a constant
which depends on the irradiation geometry; no is the microscopic absorption cross section for neutrons in
materials of the "addition" along the path of the scattered neutron, from the point of origin to the point of
irradiation. For a U238 sample, this contribution was approximately 10-12% depending upon the neutron
energy and '2% for the fission chamber.
In bombardment of a target by a beam of accelerated deuterons, injection of deuterons into the target
backing occurs. As a result, the D(d, n)He3 reaction takes place at lower deuteron energies than at the
surface of the target. The background contribution of such neutrons was measured by replacement of the
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 825-827, October, 1972. Original article
submitted April 20, 1972. .
0 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
f03
10
f,94 En' keV
Fig. 1. Radiative capture cross section of U238: ?) present work; ^) [1]; A) [2]; ^) [3];
^) [4];0) [6]; V) [7]; V) [8]; C) [9]; 0) [10]; X) [11]; +) [121; +) [13]; -?-) [14]; A)
[15]; O) [16]; O) [18].
TABLE 1. Measured Radiative Capture Cross deuterium target with a molybdenum backing. For a U238
Sections sample, this contribution was 10-80% of the value mea-
E MeV N238/N235
0235/QAl
0236
n'
b/mb
mb
0?0,115
5
0,066?0,008
1,09
8,3?1
,
0?0,136
6
0,053j 0,007
1,11
6,8?0,9
,
160
7
0?0
0,0324-0,006
1,59
5,8?1,1
,
,
0?0, 260
17
0,157?0,045
50?10
3,7?1,3
,
0?0,235
18
0,174j-0,055
40?8
3,3?1,2
,
0?0,250
19
0,152?0,066
40?8
2,9?1,4
,
20,0?0,285
0,284:?_0,150
25?5
3,36?1,9
Note: Matching of the cross section for neutron flux mon-
itoring with aluminum was done at 5 MeV,
chamber count for neutrons of energy k; N5 is the fraction of U235 nuclei in the fission chamber layer; Q5
is the fission cross section of U235 for neutrons of energy k; Ni is the fraction of fissile nuclei of.the i-th
kind in the fission chamber layer; aik is the fission cross section of the i-th component of the fission cham-
ber layer for neutrons of energy k. The correction was approximately 4%.
The T(d, n)He4 reaction was the source of 17 to 20 MeV neutrons. The reaction A127(n, p)Mg27 was
used as the neutron flux monitor. The sample was placed together with the neutron flux monitor - an alu-
minum foil. The induced activity of sample and flux monitor was measured with a Ge- Li detector in the
appropriate range of y-ray energies. Before measurement of induced activity in the sample, fission prod-
ucts of U238 were removed from the sample by chemical means.
The background from neutrons scattered in the target chamber of the accelerator and inelastic scat-
tering by structural materials in the target were measured as described above and amounted to -2% and
-10% respectively.
As in the previous case, injection of deuterons into the target occurs during irradiation of the target
by a flux of accelerated deuterons leading to the creation of an additional neutron groupfromthe D(d, n)He3
having a much greater capture probability than that for neutrons from the T(d, n)He4 reaction. The back-
ground contribution from such neutrons was measured by replacement of the tritium target by a backing
having a titanium layer not saturated with tritium. For U238, this contribution was 10-80% of the value
measured in the direct neutron beam depending on the energy of the incident deuterons and the time of the
next irradiation; it was of the order of 2-20% for the aluminum foil.
sured in the direct beam depending on the energy of the
incident deuterons and was of the order of 2-25% for the
fission chamber.
The layer of U235 in the fission chamber contains
other fissile nuclei as impurities which contribute to the
fission chamber count. The correction for this effect
can be determined from the expression
k k
Nk = N51 N5a5 ,
5
I Nio1k
ik
where N5 is the "true" fission chamber count for neutrons
of energy k; N5k is the experimentally measured fission
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
The results are given in Table 1 and Fig. 1. The figure also shows data obtained earlier by the
authors [1-3] and other results [7-17].
In the neutron energy range 4-7 MeV, the error in resultant radiative capture cross section for U238
is the root-mean-square error of the experiment including errors in the introduced corrections but not in-
cluding errors in the fission cross section of U235 and in the reference capture cross section of U238. The
radiative capture cross section at 24.4 keV, which is 516 mb [4], was used as the reference cross section
for neutron radiative capture in U238. The fission cross section for U235 was taken from [5]. It should be
pointed out that the data from [11] given in Fig.lwere normalized at 30 keV to the value of the averaged
radiative capture cross section given in [17]. The figure clearly shows that our results are 20-30% lower
than those of [6] in this energy range.
In the neutron energy range 17-20 MeV, the error in the resultant radiative capture cross section for
U238 is the root-mean-square error of the experiment including the errors in the corrections used and in the
cross section for the A127(m, p)Mg27 reaction [19, 20]; however, the error in the reference cross section
of U238 taken from [4] was not taken into account. Unfortunately, there are no sufficiently reliable data which
can be used for comparison in this range of neutron energies. It should be noted that the radiative capture
cross section falls insignificantly for neutron energies above 14 MeV.
The authors thank B. F. Samylin and M. G. Makhmutov for direct assistance in performing the ex-
periment.
1. Yu. G. Panitkin, Yu. Ya. Stavisskii, and V. A. Tolstikov, Report at the Second International Con-,
ference on Nuclear Data for Reactors (Helsinki, 1970), IAEA-CN-26/77.
2. Yu. G. Panitkin, Yu. Ya. Stavisskii, and V. A. Tolstikov, Proceedings of the Conference on Neutron
Physics (Kiev, 1971), Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1972).
3. Yu. G. Panitkin and V. A. Tolstikov, At. Lnerg. , 33, 782 (1972).
4. H. Menlove and W. Poenitz, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 33, 24 (1968).
5. W. Hart, Evaluated Fission Cross Sections in the Energy Range 1 keV to 15 MeV, Paper UK-10,
UK-USSR Seminar (June, 1968).
6. J. Barry et al., J. Nucl. Energy, P. A /B, 18, 481 (1964).
7. E. Broda and D. Wilkinson, Report BR-57; also English and Gueron, Report MC-69 (Montreal). Re-
ported by B. Rose, AERE-NP/R-1743, Harwell (1955).
8. A. Leipunskii et al., Proc. of the Second Intern. Conf. on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva,
Vol. 15, Unit. Nat. (1958), p. 50.
9. C. Linenberger et al., Report LA-179 (December, 1944).
10. W. Poenitz, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 40, 383 (1970).
11. M. Fricke et al., IAEA Conf. on Nucl. Data, Helsinki, Vol. 2 (1970), p. 265; also Report NASA-CR-
12745, DA-10194 (1970).
12. R. Hanna and B. Rose, J. Nucl. Energy, 8, 197 (1959).
13. E. Bilpuch et al., Ann. Phys., 10, 455 (1960).
14. M. Moxon, Report AERE-R6074 (1969).
15. Yu. Stavisskii et al., J. Nucl. Energy, A/13, 18, 559 (1964).
16. Los Alamos (1958), unpublished results quoted in Hughes and Schwartz (1958).
17. T. Byer and V. Konshin, A Simultaneous Evaluation of the Pu-239 Fission Cross Section, the Pu-
239/U-235 Fission Cross Section Ratio, the U-238 Capture Cross Section and the U-238 Capture/U-
235 Fission Cross Section Ratio in the Fast Neutron Energy Region, IAEA (July, 1971).
18.
J.
Perkins et al., Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., 2, 505 (1958).
19.
G.
Calvi et al. , Nucl. Phys., 39,
621
(1962).
20.
G.
Mani et al., Nucl. Phys., 19,
535
(1960).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
PRODUCTION OF SPONTANEOUSLY FISSIONING ISOMERS
WITH NANOSECOND LIFETIMES IN a-PARTICLE REACTIONS
Yu. P. Gangrskii, Nguen Kong Khan, UDC 539.172.16:539.173.7
and D. D. Pulatov
In some nuclei of the actinide series, isomeric states are observed with half-lives of 10-9-10-2 sec
which mainly decay by spontaneous fission [1-4]. The unusual properties of these states (small spin and
high excitation energy, marked increase in the probability for spontaneous fission, correlation of isomer
formation and induced fission) indicate their connection with a complex structure for the fission barrier.
Recent calculations [5, 6] indicate the dependence of nuclear potential energy on deformation is not de-
scribed by a simple parabola and the actual fission barrier has a minimum in the region of the saddle point.
Sometimes this minimum is sufficiently deep so that there is a level system within it with the lowest level
being isomeric (the barrier separating the first and second potential wells being the reason for suppression
of y radiation from the isomeric level). A study of spontaneously fissioning isomers makes it possible to
obtain information about the shape of the fission barrier and about nuclear properties for anomalously large
deformations.
The purpose of this paper is the determination of the extent of spontaneously fissioning isomers and
the measurement of the production cross section for these states in a-particle reactions over a broad
range of A and Z.
The experiments were performed at the U-200 isochronous cyclotron of the Laboratory of Nuclear
Reactions, JINR. The energy of the a particles accelerated in the cyclotron was 36 MeV. Energy reduction
was achieved by means of aluminum filters.
Measurement of the time of flight of recoil nuclei [7] was used to determine the half-life of spontane-
ously fissioning isomers. The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. A collimated beam of a par-
ticles is incident on the target; ejected recoil nuclei, travelling a certain distance depending on the life-
time of the isomeric state, decay into two fragments, one of which is recorded by a dielectric detector.
The relative location of target and detector was such that incidence on the detector of fragments from in-
duced fission in the target was eliminated. Muscovite mica was used as the dielectric detector. After
irradiation, the mica was etched in concentrated hydrofluoric acid for 2-3 h at 18?C and examined under a
microscope.
The half-life of a spontaneously fissioning isomer formed in the reaction was determined from the
radial distribution of tracks in the mica. Figure 2 shows radial distributions of tracks computed for vari-
ous half-lives. and measured experimentally for isomers of Pu240 and Cm243. It is clear the accuracy of the
measurements is low, particularly for half-lives greater than 50 nsec. For greater accuracy in the half-
life measurement, therefore, the angle of incidence of the fragments at the mica was also measured (this
was usually done in the case of previously unknown isomers). From the value of the angle and the coordi-
nate of the track, one can determine the distance covered by the recoil nucleus before decay and, conse-
quently, also the times involved.
Fission fragments leave tracks in the mica if the recoil nucleus fissions at a distance greater than
1 mm from the target. This makes it possible to measure half-lives down to 0.5 nsec with high efficiency
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 829-833, October, 1972. Original ar-
ticle submitted February 28, 1972.
o 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
N
f5 20
Fig. 2
Fig. 1. Experimental arrangement: 1) collimator for a-particle beam; 2) tar-
get holder; 3) detector of delayed fission fragments; 4) detector of prompt fis-
sion fragments; 5) Faraday cup; 6) target.
Fig. 2. Radial distribution of tracks in mica: A) Pu242 (a, 3n)Cm243 reaction; ?)
U238 (a, 2n)Pu240 reaction; solid curves were computed from experimental geomet-
ry for various half-lives, 1) 100 nsec; 2) 40 nsec; 3) 5 nsec.
(more than 5%). This technique is especially suitable for the observation of short-lived spontaneously fis-
sioning isomers because a background from long-lived emitters of fission fragments is practically non-
existent (decay of the recoil nuclei occurs sufficiently far from the detectors).
The main source of background was fission of uranium contained in the mica through the action of
neutrons created in interactions of a particles with collimator, absorbers, and target. By selecting mica
with a low uranium content (
It
2
v
N
00
o
a
o
N
c's
1
a
,)
7
n
o
"
a.
o
U
0o
C1
0
2-
W /m
R/min
y
U
211
0
.~ .
(L)
co
E~
Qy?
r.
? 8
0)
C
u
w? 00
3
2
x
I's M
LUE; 15-1.5
EIEI
15/13
800/1500
110000/20000
300
2,5
7
100/285
5-15
2,5/4
5500
4500x
500/535
[2]
USSR
X1500X
x 2000
LUt-10-1[2]
The same
8-10
120-130
1800-2000
200
-
-
0-70
3-10
1,5-2
2000
2750X
400
X1000X
x 800
SL-69#
Mullard,
4,3
30
600
300
1
2
170
-
2
2000
2700x
300
England
x 1500 X
X 1500
X-Band
"Vickers"
6
12
200
320
1
1
33
-
-
-
-
-
6 MeV t
England
Linac-8
HVECo-
8
360
6000
500
1,5
1-5
375
-
5
-
-
400
[3-5]
RC0,
A
Linac-25
HVECo-
25
550
6000
260
-
-
15
-
1
-
-
500
[3,5]
ARCO,
USA
Mevaray-
The same
7,5
90
1500
-
-
-
95
-
-
2000
1200X
350
15001
X1500X
x 1200
V-7706
"Variant as-
9-10
35-50
500-700
280
1,6
1,9
20
-
1
-
-
-
[3, 5, 6]
sociation,
USA
V-7709
The same
25
2200/450
25000/6000
105
1,3x2
7,8X2
60/15
-
2/1
-
-
550
[3, 5, 6]
Linatron-
4
25
400
390
0,3
2
140
-
2
550
1500X
-
400 [7]
X760X
X760
Linatron-
" "
7,5
90
1500
250
1,2
2
100
-
-
-
-
1500 [7]
Argus-
CSF, France
10
170
2400
-
2,4
4
100
6-10
2
5000
2900X
-
300
X1500X
X1800
ML-15R [8]
Mitsubishi,
12
330
4400
250
1,8
4
96
8-13
-
-
-
400 at
Japan
2000 R/mir
* Bremsstrahlung intensity in W/m2 calculated from intensity in R/min [9]. The cited values are rounded off figures.
tExposure time taken as 10 min. Target film distance 2 m. X-ray films of various sensitivities were used.
*According to company literature and data published in Mater. Evaluation Journal
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 842-844, October, 1972. Original ar-
ticle submitted July 21, 1971; abstract submitted March 31, 1972.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
many times higher than the intensity of industrial betatrons [1]. As a result, the exposure time in radio-
graphy of thick articles is considerably shorter and the screen image considerably brighter.
Table 1 lists the principal performance characteristics of some linear electron accelerators manu-
factured expressly for radiation flaw detection and operation in industrial conditions. Two models of such
accelerators were designed at the D. V. Efremov Institute of Electrophysical Instrumentation; their desig-
nation is LUE-15-1.5 and LUE-10-1. The bremsstrahlung intensity provided by these accelerators at a
distance 1 m from the target exceeds 10,000 and 1800 R/min. The accelerators allow radiographs to be
taken of steel samples 600 mm thick or more (radiographs of steel 500 mm thick obtained in 10 min).
It is noted that the design of such accelerators requires solution of certain specific problems associ-
ated with the preparation of reliable targets for operation at high current densities (the electron beam di-
ameter on the target is 1.5-2 mm), with increasing the effective bremsstrahlung field, with improving the
three-dimensional maneuverability of the radiator unit, and with optimization of the accelerator operation.
It is suggested that for selecting the accelerator operating conditions (the electron current and energy
for, a given microwave generator power and given product characteristics) the minimum inspection time is
a more suitable optimality criterion than maximum bremsstrahlung intensity. In general, the current cor-
responding to minimum inspection time is not the same as the current corresponding to maximum brem-
sstrahlung intensity.
Our accelerators allow selection of optimum energy and current of accelerated electrons depending
on the thickness, chemical composition, and density of the inspected product.'
The construction of the LUE-10-1 x-ray head is described.
LITERATURE CITED
1. E. G. Komar, At. Energ., 31, 426 (1971).
2. V. N. Davydov et at. , "Linear electron accelerators for flaw detection" [in Russian], Report at the
All-Union Scientific Conference on the Use of Accelerators in National Economy and Medicine, Lenin-
grad (1971).
3. J. Bly, Mater. 'Evaluation, 22, No. 11, 519(1964).
4. The Engineer, 213, No. 5537, 467 (1962).
5. H. Heffan, Mater. Evaluation, 25, No. 4, 83 (1967).
6. J. Haimson, Nondestructive Testing, 21, No. 2, 102 (1963).
7. K. Whitham and B. Meyer, Mater. Evaluation, 27, No. 11, 232 (1969).
8. S. Minamoto et al., Mitsubishi Denki Giho, 43, No. 3, 465 (1969).
9. Radiation Dosimetry [Russian translation], J. Hain and G. Brownell (editors), IL, Moscow (1958).
USE OF NONLINEAR RESONANCES OF BETATRON
OSCILLATIONS FOR SLOW EXTRACTION OF
PARTICLES
Nonlinear resonances of betatron oscillations are widely used in systems for slow extraction of par-
ticles from accelerators. In some accelerators, such systems have been in operation for several years
[1-5], and they have been designed or are being installed in others [6, 7].
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, p. 844, October, 1972. Original article
submitted October 27, 1971; abstract submitted February 9, 1972; revision submitted April 29, 1972.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
The article provides the results obtained in investigating the dynamics of series of nonlinear reson-
ances to be used for slow extraction. Expressions suitable for calculating the basic parameters of the sys-
tem are given.
If there are nonlinear terms up to the third power inclusive, the averaged equations for the k-th
order resonance can be written in Hamiltonian form [8] for the canonic variables 1a12 and 0, using the
Hamiltonian
4L
o70 = Ak laIhcos(k~l+am)+ fjIBnI IaJk+2COS(k1P +Pn)+2nSIaI2-I 4,KcubIa14.
k=1 k=i
Hamiltonian (1) is more complete in comparison with the expression given in [8]. The second term in
(1) describes the (k - 2)-th order resonance besides the k-th order resonance excited by a nonlinearity of
the k - 1 power. By taking into account this term and using the general method, we can also investigate the
first-order resonance with a quadratic nonlinearity for an integer Q [1-3] and the second-order resonance
with a cubic nonlinearity for a half-integer Q.
The resonances are analyzed as in [7], where the phase trajectories - separatrices - passing through
the fixed singular points of the Hamiltonian system dlal2/dN = d?V/dN = 0 are investigated.
1. H. Hereward, AR/Int, GS/61-5 (1961).
2. C. Bover, MRS/DL, Int/65-6 (1965).
3. P. Strolin, ISR-TH/66-41 (1966).
4. G. V. Badalyan et at. , Transactions of the All-Union Conference on Charged Particle Accelerators
(Moscow, 1968) [in Russian], Vol. 1, VINITI, Moscow (1970), p. 564.
5. M. Barton et al. , Transactions of the Seventh International Conference on Accelerators of High-
Energy Charged Particles (Erevan, 1970) [in Russian], Vol. 1, Izd. AN ArmSSR, Erevan (1970),
p. 542.
6. K. P. Myznikov, V. M. Tatarenko, and Yu. S. Fedotov, IFVE preprint 70-51, Serpukhov (1970).
7. A. Maschke and C. Simon, Transactions of the All-Union Conference on Charged Particle Accelera-
tors (Moscow, 1968) [in Russian], Vol. 1, VINITI, Moscow (1970), p. 516.
8. A. Schoch, CERN Report, 57-21 (1958).
OCCUPIED HYDROGEN LEVELS IN A HOT PLASMA
AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RADIATION
AND IONIZATION RATE
V. A. Abramov, E. I. Kuznetsov, UDC 533.9.082.74:621.039.667.4
and V. I. Kogan
When investigating plasmas in Tokamak systems, it is important to know the average lifetime for
charged particles in the plasma. This time is related to the ionization rate which, in its turn, is related
to the intensity of the radiation for the quanta of a given hydrogen spectrum line. In addition, knowledge
of the absolute occupied, excited hydrogen levels is found to be extremely helpful in spectroscopic studies.
The quantity t, the average number of ionizing events per quantum of the Balmer series, was first
introduced and calculated (disregarding stepwise processes; i. e. , in the coronal limit ne - 0) in [1]. Cal-
culation of the occupied hydrogen levels, taking into consideration stepwise processes, and the value of t
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, p. 845, October, 1972. Original article
submitted February. 1, 1972.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
Fig. 1. Dependence of the average number
of ionization events per quantum of the Ha
line on the temperature. Results of the
present work: 1) ne = 108 cm-3; 2) 1011 cm-3;
3) 1012 cm-3; 4) 1013 cm-3; 5) 1014 cm-3.
Results in [3]: 6) 1010 cm-3; 7) 1012 cm-3;
8) 1013 cm-3; 9) 1014 cm-3. 10) Results in
[1]
per quantum of the H. line was carried out,in [2]. The results of the calculation of t for the H. line (the
method of calculation is not mentioned) were given in [3], which, for small ne (1010-1012 cm 3), exceed by
two to six times the results obtained in [2], but are close to the data obtained in [1].* According to Dimock
et at. [3], these discrepancies result from the fact that inaccurate values for the radiative transition prob-
abilities A(p, q) are used in [2].
The discrepancy shown in the values of the quantity t (taking account of the present limitations. to its
precision) is fairly large; consequently, we decided to recalculate the occupations in accordance with the
method used in [2]. In this paper, the results of the calculation are shown for the case where the occupied
hydrogen levels have p equal to 2-5 and intensity ratios for the Balmer lines, Ha/Hp, in the 3-1500 eV
temperature range. Results of the calculation of the coefficient t are compared with the data in [1-3] (at
the same time, the values of t, presented in [1], corresponding to the number of ionization events per
"average" quantum, are scaled to the Ha quantum by multiplying by 5/3 [1]). Comparison of the calcula-
tions of the occupations with [2] shows that in the latter paper it is assumed that there was an appreciable
(by a considerable factor) excess in the occupation of the p = 3 level for small ne, which also caused, in
particular, a corresponding underestimation of t. As is seen in Fig. 1, the values obtained fort agree
quite satisfactorily with those calculated in [3].
It is obviously impossible to explain the assumed error in [2] by the uncertainties in the radiative
transition probabilities; however, this is in disagreement with Dimock et al. [3] (possibly motivated by
our unsubstantiated remarks in [2] in connection with some disagreement with the results in [4]). In fact,
provided ne -- 0 t NA31/A32, the value of t is insensitive to the primary possible source of error in A(p, q),
which is the use of asymptotic (p >> 1, q >> 1) values for the A(p, q); this error in the A(p, q) does not ex-
ceed 20-30%. (Nevertheless, in the present work, precise values of the A(p, q) [5] were used.)
Apparently, the source of error in [2] is traceable to some kind of error in numerical calculation on
the computer. In any case, one should recognize that in [2] the authors underestimated the importance of
the discrepancy in the results of the calculation of the occupations with the data in [4] and the values of t
in comparison with those in [1] (one should take into account that, for small values of nei the conditions
approach the coronal limit, considered in [1]).
LITERATURE CITED
1.
V.
I. Kogan, At. Energ. , 4, 178 (1958).
2.
V.
A. Abramov, E. I. Kuznetsov, and V. I. Kogan, At. Energ., 26, 516 (1969).
3.
D.
Dimock et al., Proc. IV Intern. Conf. on the Plasma Phys. and Conf. Nucl. Fusion Res., Madi-
son (1971), Vol. 1, p. 451.
4.
D. Bates and A Kingston, Planet. Space Sci. , 11 (1963).
5.
L. Green et al., Astrophys. I. Suppl. Ser. , 3, 37 (1957).
*Recently, G." V. Sholinym and A. E. Kitainer have obtained results (with a simplified model for the occu-
pation of the levels) which are also similar to those in [1, 3].
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
CONCERNING AUTOMATIC PROCESSING OF
INFORMATION AT ATOMIC POWER PLANTS
V. S. Ermakov, V. S. Kakhanovich,
R. A. Kal'ko, and E. K. Zalivako
Fast processing of information concerning such generalized parameters as block efficiency, reactor
power, etc., is particularly important in atomic power plants.
Information about reactor heat output can be used to calculate technical and economic indicators,
automatic reactor unloading, etc. The heat produced by a reactor during the time T = T2 - Ti is given by
T2 T2
Q= gs dT- gwdt aJ
Tt Tt
where qs and qw are thermal capacities of the superheated steam entering the turbine and of the feed water
after the last high-pressure heater respectively, J/sec.
Because of the small volumes of the evaporator and separator, a water and steam balance is estab-
lished after a considerable time. Then
12
Q= gW(ts iW) dt aJ (2)
Tt
where gw is the water flow, kg/h; is and iw are the steam and water enthalpies, J/kg. Equation (2) is
suitable for simulation by a calorimeter circuit in measuring the rate of feed water flow by electromag-
netic or inductance flowmeters involving square root extraction (GSP transmitters).
If the flowmeter transmitter is a differential manometer, expression (2) changes to
T2 '12
Q = J kjaktd2 ~/hp (is - iw) di= k2 f vki (t _ 2 hp dt ) J . (3)
Tt Tt
where h is the pressure differential across the constriction nozzle, N/m2; p is the water density, kg/m3;
kl and k2 are constant factors; d is the nozzle diameter; and a and kt are coefficients of discharge and
heat expansion of the nozzle, respectively.
Atomic plant calorimeters based on Eqs. (2) and (3) as well as those used to measure the heat of
water and steam are similar to calorimeters employed for these purposes in conventional boilers [1].
Measurements of heat output of the steam generator of the Novo Voronezh Atomic Power Plant proved
that the heat error due to neglecting water pressure in the range 28-38 bar and steam pressure (tempera-
ture) does not exceed 0.1% and 0.15% respectively. Allowing for the random nature of variation of the water
and steam parameters, the resultant error amounts to 0.2%.
For a water-cooled water-moderated power reactor expression (3) becomes (neglecting losses in the
primary loop)
n T2
Q=~kn Y h(~-ks) k5~-twdtdJ.
I Ti
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 847-849, October, 1972. Original article
submitted September 6, 1971.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
Fig. 1. Circuit diagram of TEV-6 calorimeter: 1) differential manometer; 2) feed-
back converter of electrical signal repeater; 3) compensation converter; 4) electronic
amplifier; 5) reversible motor; 6) reference template; 7) output template; 8) frequen-
cy converter for SCh integrator; 9) *electrical signal repeater; RI-R4) measuring cir-
cuit resistors; 10) steam moisture controller; R1) lead resistance; p ? q = Ice is the
pointer (recorder) displacement.
where x is the degree of steam dryness; k3-k5 are constant factors; and kn is the calibration factor of
the n-th calorimeter.
For normal operating conditions of the Novo Voronezh Atomic Power Plant (ps = 2-32 bar, x = 1.0-
0.98, tw, = 130-190?C, pw = 36 bar), expression (4) becomes
n T2
Q=j k? 1 ~h (x-0.399) 480.86~-Rt dsdJ, (4a)
Ti
where Rt is the instantaneous resistance of the 21st calibration thermometer. The error in (4a) does not
exceed ?0.06% and practically does not increase the resultant error due to the accepted assumptions.
Equation (4a) has been used as a basis for a TEV-6 calorimeter whose experimental model has been
tested in the Novo Voronezh Atomic Plant steam generator (Fig. 1). According to bench tests, the prin-
cipal error of the calorimeter does not exceed ?1.0%. The circuit section shown in dashed lines takes into
account steam moisture provided a moisture meter with controller 10 is included. As shown by calcula-
tions, neglecting moisture variations gives rise to an additional error of up to 1.0% for each 1.0% change
in moisture.
For safety purposes, reactor power limitation, and for calculation of the block performance para-
meters we have designed a TEVS calorimeter with improved reliability and dynamic properties (Fig. 2).
To power limitation
system
-- SCh
Register zero reset
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Fig. 2. Block diagram of TEVS calorimeter: 1) flowmeter with standard dc current output Ii = 0-5 mA or
0-20 mA; 2) resistance thermometer: 3) noncontacting measuring circuit; 4) live-steam moisture controller.
Fig. 3. Block diagram of reactor efficiency measuring circuit: 1) calorimeter totalizer Q = If qdT; 2) di-
visor register ~ gpdT = const; 3) dividend register NdT ; 4) efficiency register k f NdT; 5) generator el-
2
T! Tf T1
ectricity meter f NdT ,
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
The measuring channel of the calorimeter including the power control output contains no electromechanical
elements. Feed water flow can be measured by an electromagnetic (fast-response) flowmeter, a differential
manometer, or GSP transmitters. With a commercial TSP-5071B resistance thermometer having a time
constant of not more than 9 sec, the dynamic properties of the circuit meet the demands required of a re-
actor power limitation system. The voltage to current converter VCC (I2 = 0-5 or 0-20 mA) and the cur-
rent to frequency converter CFC (4-8 kHz) used for connections to an SCh integrator and VP auxiliary re-
corder are units of the KTS LIDS electronic system. For a recorder, which does not belong to the power
limitation circuit, one can use a VSCh type recorder or any potentiometric recorder connected into the I2
current circuit. A multipoint recorder can be used to record the heat production of all system generators
simultaneously..
The circuit shown in Fig. 2 is also suitable for use in the primary loop of the reactor.
The reactor efficiency is measured in accordance with the equation
T2
(
S N dT T2
11 T2 Ti - k6 N dT,
~ TS
dT
9i )
const
Ti
where N is the electrical power of the generator, J/sec; qr is the reactor heat capacity, J/sec; and k6 is
a constant factor.
The operation of the circuit shown in Fig. 3 is based on measuring the electric energy produced by
the generator during the consumption of a constant amount of heat generated in the reactor for a variable
operation cycle T = T2 - T1. The variable-cycle method of measuring reactor efficiency has some advan-
tages over the constant-cycle method presently in use. The calorimeters described above serve as the
reactor heat power integrators, a type SAZU-670D electrical power meter measures the generator power.
The operation of the efficiency meter can be understood with the aid of expression (5) and Fig. 3 which il-
lustrates the implementation of the method.
The methods and instrumentation described above make it possible to automate the most difficult cal-
culations, to improve the accuracy of measurement, to reduce the number of groups, and to improve the
economical efficiency of reactor operation by using on-line information provided by computing devices.
The proposed algorithms can also be used in monitoring and control devices for calculation of the gener-
alized parameters.
LITERATURE CITED
1. V. S. Kakhanovich, Measurement of Material and Heat Consumption in Case of Variable Parameters
[in Russian], Energiya, Moscow (1970).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
A. Tsykanov UDC 621.039.572
Criteria which may be used to compare high-flux reactors of various types are given in [1]. One of
these maybe termed the "ideal efficiency" of a reactor and represents the usefully employed fraction of
the neutrons generated within the reactor:
n
Ve3Eai~i
i=1
where Vei, Tai, and 4)i are the experimental volume, permissible macroscopic neutron absorption cross
section by the samples, and the averaged neutron flux for the i-th experimental arrangement of the reactor,
respectively; Q is the reactor power, MW; and n is the number of experimental arrangements.
Since the cost of irradiating a sample depends on the nuclear fuel burnup and the reactor utilization
factor with time, we must multiply the quantity 770 by the permissible relative fuel burnup ce and the reac-
tor utilization factor Ku (Ku = tp/tc, where tp is operating time of the reactor within the calendar time
tc). The higher the product i7ootKu, the better is the. reactor.
The inadequacy of such a comparison is that these three quantities are mutually dependent and varia-
tion in one will cause variation in the others. As a result, it is difficult to determine the way in which
these quantities must vary to improve reactor properties and consequently, this method can only be used
to evaluate reactors with fixed ?70, a, and Ku.
The present paper discusses a general method of comparing high-flux reactors, permitting the de-
termination of the individual variations of the reactor parameters entering into the criteria for reactor
comparison. It is not possible to recommend a single criterion for reactor comparison since it is always
necessary to consider two questions: the speed of.obtaining the information on the irradiated samples,
and the economics of this process. The first problem is, as before, determined by the output of the re-
search reactor, which may be presented in the form
n
II= Y ZiEaiVeineutrons/sec.
The second question, earlier characterized by the product i oKua can be determined as resulting
from the cost of the usefully employed neutrons in the reactors. In actuality, the more economical is that
reactor in which the usefully employed neutrons are less expensive.
In agreement with the work of [2], the cost of one hours operation of a research reactor with a utiliza-
tion factor Ku is determined by the expression
C=K-+Q Cg , (3)
KU
where T is the total operating cost of the reactor exclusive of the nuclear fuel cost relative to one h of
calendar time; Cg is the price of one kg of manufactured fuel, g is the consumption of nuclear fuel per
MWh of thermal power, given in kg/ Mwh, and Q is expressed in megawatts. For one h of operation
the useful output is the following number of neutrons:
n
N = 3600H = 3600 E ~ii Ea i Vei
i=1
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 849-850, October, 1972. Original article
submitted December 27, 1971; revision submitted February 24, 1972.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
Consequently, the price of one usefully employed neutron is equal to
S= T + gQCg
n n
360OKU 4>?EatVei 3600a 0.01%not greater than 10%
relative; neutron yield 6 - 108 neutrons/sec;
floor area 25 m2.
Specimens accepted if shaped cylindrically,
pneumatic ducts of round and rectangular cross
section; analysis sensitivity (at 1010 neutrons/sec)
200 pulses per mg oxygen; 400 pulses per mg
nitrogen; instrumental error < 1%; floor area -50
m
Range of measured concentrations: 2 to 30 mg
/liter for indium; 5 to 20 g/liter for cadmium;
yield of Pu-Be source 5 ? 106 neutrons/sec
Fluorine detection threshold 5 g/liter; selenium
detection threshold 0.2 g/liter; range of concen-
trations 10 to 400 g/liter for fluorine, 0.5 to 35
g/liter for selenium; error t10%for both fluorine
and selenium; Pu- Be source 5 ? 106 neutrons/sec
Limiting load for scintillation spectrometer 105
pulses/sec; for semiconductor counter 3. 108
pulses/sec; control device allows five exposures
lasting from 1 sec to 1 h; transport device
allows displacement of specimens weighing 50 g
at speed of 10 m/sec
Composition IN-3M pulsed reactor; control room'
with pneumatic shuttle system; set of measuring
equipment
Neutron source: PS-1; transport system consists of
five pneumatic shuttles 12 mm, 28 mm, and
50 mm in diameter; floor space required 60 to
70 m2
Radiation source: betatron (or microtron); speci-
mens weighing 50 to 300 g; transport speed
5 m/sec; peak load on equipment 105 pulses/sec
Activation analysis (systems oflShuttle trunk line 12 mm and 28 mm in diameter;
different grades of com- I single-conduit and twin-conduit systems.
plexity can be custom-
engineered)
beryllum, zirconium, hard alloys, refractory metals, etc.) under the conditions prevailing in scientific
research laboratories and in-plant laboratories, and also directly in production departments of factories
and other enterprises. The NGI-5 portable neutron generator with its sealed-in tube operates reliably and
is easy to maintain. The facility is fully automated, and can be used to complete an analysis of metal
specimens for oxygen, with a sensitivity to 3 -10-4%, within a space of 1 to 5 min, The K-1 facility with its
single-channel y-ray spectrometer can be used in all cases where analysis based on a single individual line
in the y-ray spectrum will not be interfered with by isotopes of closely similar energy or emitting harder
y-radiation.
The K-2 facility (a modification of the K-1 model) can be used to measure activity on the basis of
y-y-coincidences. The facility is provided with BS-1 and BS-6 coincidence circuits (BK2-10 in the LPRA
system) for that purpose. The use of the coincidence spectrometer broadens the range of applications of
the facility, so that analysis based on annihilation radiation or on y-photons emitted in cascade transitions
can be carried out under favorable conditions.
The KOA-1-O1 Set of Instruments for Single-Element Activation Analysis. This is based around the
NG-150-I generator with its continuous evacuation features. The measuring part of the facility includes
high-speed electronic logic circuitry for work with samples of relatively high activity level. In contrast
to the K-1 facility, the automatic data processor in the KOA-1-01 system is capable of making oxygen de-
terminations against a varying background level. That special feature of the facility can be exploited to
advantage, in particular, for analyzing materials for oxygen where activation of the matrix would mask the
emission of oxygen when a single-channel pulse-height analyzer is employed.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
The KAMA-1-O1 set of equipment is designed for multicomponent activation analysis of specimens in-
vestigated under laboratory conditions. The measuring equipment can be used in precision measurements
of y-ray and /3-ray emissions from activated specimens, through the use of single-detector and multidetec-
tor scintillation spectrometers and PPD [semiconductor detector] spectrometers. The electronic circuitry
of the recording equipment in this set incorporates stabilized electronic circuitry for the scintillation spec-
trometers, high-precision circuitry for the PPD-spectrometer, time gates and amplitude gates, data stor-
age modules, a digital printout module, and a data readout for display of data on punched tape, as part of
the interfacing equipment with a digital computer.
The Luch set of equipment is designed for semiautomatic multicomponent analysis of specimens of
various substances by y-activation and other photonuclear methods, when the specimens to be analyzed are
.irradiated by radiation from betatrons, microtrons, and linear accelerators. The recording equipment
can be used to perform pulse-height analyses, group amplitude-time analyses and group time analyses,
and to set un operating conditions with broad windows. The set also features stabilization and monitoring
systems. A?alysis is handled by a program that can be modified or substituted.
The following techniques of activation analysis of the ultimate composition (by elements) of the test
material without taking unit samples are available: 1) continuous methods of analysis or of monitoring the
flow of products on a production line or. production stream (or with some of the material to be analyzed
shunted off to a bypass line); 2) discrete methods of analysis or of monitoring of the low of products in
boxes or on pallets, or in their naturally occurring sites (in the case of minerals) without taking samples.
Both of these directions are being developed to some extent in the Soviet Union.
Neutron activation analysis of slurries in a process stream has been investigated most thoroughly.
That research has provided a basis for the design and fabrication of the first neutron activation analysis
facilities for carrying out analysis under industrial conditions. Those facilities are designed for contin-
uous automatic determinations of individual elements in a process stream and can be used to sense the
composition of materials in an automated process control system.
Activation analysis of slurries in a process stream is carried out in the following pattern: continuous
sampling of the slurry, irradiation of the slurry in an activation chamber, and continuous measurement of
the induced activity in the chamber with a radiation detector. The neutron sources employed are long-
lived isotope sources, in some instances neutron generators.
Because of the differences in the chemical composition and in the physicochemical properties of pro-
cess slurries, as well as special features of technological processes in each specific case, the facilities
are developed and fabricated to individual custom order as a rule. In particular, facilities meeting that
description include the NAR-2 and NAR-3 systems designed for automatic continuous determinations of the
concentration of a single element in a process slurry stream by neutron activation techniques.
As experience accumulates in this new and highly promising area of applications of the neutron activa-
tion analysis method on an industrial scale, modular general-purpose equipment suitable for composing sets
and facilities for a variety of applications and purposes will become available.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
The activation analysis division at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the
Uzbek SSR [IYaF AN UzSSR) was organized in 1960. The division was faced with the problem of developing
an activation analysis procedure to meet the needs of the national economy in the Central Asian area. The
functions of the USSR's leading institute for reactor-based activation analysis were entrusted to the IYaF
AN UzSSR in 1962. The I, II, and III All-Union coordination conferences on activation analysis were held
in Tashkent.
At the present time, the division comprises a large institution with a staff of over 100. The staff
has at its disposal a nuclear reactor whose rating was increased to 11 MW after being redesigned, two
neutron generators, a cyclotron, isotope neutron sources (Sb-Be and Po-Be), sophisticated pulse-height
analyzers, electronic equipment, several germanium-lithium detectors, etc. A computer whose function
will be to simplify the procedure followed in processing experimental results is now being adjusted.
The entire arsenal of modern activation analysis is being used generously in order to determine the
gross contents of the elements in different matrices. The procedures worked out at the Institute encompass
practically all of the elements in the periodic table. Several procedures have been worked out for analyzing
rocks, ores, and minerals.
Analysis of biological specimens is undergoing extensive development. Over 80 procedures for de-
termining 35 elements in both instrumental and radiochemical variants are counted. Work is being done
jointly with other institutes on the study of the role played by chemical elements in the problem of verticil-
liaceous wilt.
Procedures for analyzing boron and boron compounds, germanium, silicon, highly activated inter-
metallic compounds, some refractory and high-melting metals and alloys, have been developed for pure
materials. Procedures for determining nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon in tungsten, molybdenum, and silicon
were found by employing accelerated charged particles.
Methods for investigating the composition of natural waters and using stable isotopes (with subsequent
activation) and radioactive isotopes for the study of the parameters of the flow of underground waters have
been worked out. Results of that work have found applications in geochemistry, in hydrochemical prospect-
ing for minerals, and in engineering hydrogeology, specifically in studies of water seepage at one of the
major Central Asian water reservoirs.
Close attention is being given to the utilization of activation analysis under industrial production con-
ditions. Facilities for determinations of fluorite in ore concentrations, or using conventional structural
materials common in industry, have been developed. Activation analysis is used to study the composition
of technological products and in order to solve various technical problems.
Possibilities of utilizing isotope neutron sources have been under investigation in recent years. A
high-level Sb-Be source has been developed. Work is being carried out on the use of Po-Be sources in
industry and in agriculture.
Satisfaction of the needs of the gold mining industry is being given high priority. Over 18,000 analyses
have been carried out within the framework of investigations of the applicability of biogeochemical prospecting
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/27: CIA-RDP10-02196R000300110004-6
of gold ore deposits, and these analyses have provided a basis, for discernment of two anomalies indicative
of the presence of gold.
A suitable procedure has been worked out for analysis of gold ores, and a semiautomatic facility
with an anticipated capacity of over 100,000 analyses a year has been designed. A facility using an isotope
neutron source has been developed and is now being introduced into routine service, and a procedure for
preliminary concentration of gold as ore for determinations. Autoradiographic techniques and techniques
for studying tracks in dielectrics are being used to investigate the distribution and forms of occurrence of
chemical elements. Accessible forms of chemical elements in soils, protein-bound forms of elements in
biological material, the distribution of elements in peptides, in nucleic acids, and in the subcellular struc-
tures, etc. , are being studied via preprocessing of specimens.
An especially intriguing and timely area of application of preprocessing of specimens is the deter-
mination of pesticides. While pesticides containing arsenic or mercury can be determined, in principle,
and should be determined, by the increase in the gross contents of those elements; a fairly complicated
and reliable procedure for isolating the pesticide form of such elements as bromine, chlorine, sulfur, or
phosphorus is required in order to make determinations on pesticides containing the elements mentioned.
The division is working on theoretical topics in activation analysis, as well as topics related to im-
proving the reliability of the analytical information, without which correct planning, taking of samples, and
interpretation of the results, would be impossible.
The division is carrying out analyses in one form or another for more than 40 organizations in the
Tashkent area and in other cities in the Soviet Union. Several collections of articles and monographs have
been published, as well as many individual articles. The commissioning of an electronic computer, pro-
vision of new electronic equipment for physics research and particle detectors, the use of a high-capacity
radiochemical facility, an increase in the power level of the nuclear reactor, and other measures are mak-
ing it possible to further expand and deepen the work on activation analysis.
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CONFERENCES
SESSION OF THE SCIENTIFIC COUNCIL ON THE TOPIC
"PLASMA PHYSICS" OF THE USSR ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
A session of the scientific council on the topic "plasma physics" was held in Moscow in April, 1972.
Trends in the development of plasma physics, and major achievements in that field over the past five years,
were analyzed at the session.
Over 400 scientists from all the research centers of the nation were present. Detailed review re-
ports were presented as well as the scientific council's 1971 report.
The course of the recent years in this field was summarized as a continuous enhancement of the
role of plasma physics in science and in industry. It was considered typical that the process took place
not so much through direct expansion of research, but rather through the penetration of plasma physics
into other fields.
In recent years, plasma physics has found applications in quantum electronics, in space physics, in
accelerator engineering, in recording of fast particles, and new trends have appeared in electronics (plas-
ma electronics), chemistry (plasma chemistry), and in several other branches of new technology.
Research on the physics and engineering of hot plasma presently leads the field. This is due not so
much to the importance of applications of hot plasma to controlled thermonuclear fusion as to the com-
parative clarity of the physical situation, and the higher level of development of theory, in this area. Con-
sequently, one of the most significant achievements is the development of the theory of nonlinear processes
and turbulence. Even though we of course still have a long way to go in working out nonlinear theory, the
mathematical groundwork put together at the present time is capable of predicting the behavior of plasma
in a number of situations. For example, success has been registered in describing the anomalous be-
havior of plasma through which strong current has been passed. Processes involving interactions of beams
of charged particles, including ultrahigh-power relativistic beams, with plasma have been studied. Ex-
planations have been forthcoming for a number of astrophysical phenomena: the fundamentals of the control
of instabilities have been laid down. The theory is now capable of describing transport processes and os-
cillatory processes not only in such simple situations as one-dimensional models, but also in intricate
toroidal systems such as tokamak machines and stellarators; the theory is being applied effectively to ex-
planation of phenomena occurring in the atmosphere and in the ionosphere. B. B. Kadomtsev reported in
great detail on the theory of plasma physics.
In recent years, experimental research using thermonuclear machines such as tokamak machines,
in work led by L. A. Artsimovich, has attracted special attention. A stable plasma with record para-
meters (densities to 3 ? 1013 to 5. 1013 cm-3, energy lifetime of 10 to 15 msec, electron temperature to
1.5 ? 103 eV, ion temperature to 700 eV) has actually been produced in tokamak machines. There is no
question that work in that direction will hold first place for some time to come. Ion temperatures to 3 keV
with Lawson parameters n7- = 3. 1012 to 5 ? 1012 are apparently expected in tokamak machines in the immedi-
ate future. The successful completion of this research program will probably pave the way for the next
decisive step on the road to a physical thermonuclear reaction.
Work on stellarator systems is being continued: they are being studied at the Physics and Engineering
Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR and the P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute of the
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 863-865, October, 1972.
m 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Academy of Sciences of the USSR (FIAN). There exists one point of view to the effect that the relative lack
of success shown by stellarator systems is due to the small poloidal magnetic field. This problem is taken
into account in newly designed stellarator systems. For example, the plasma confinement time obtained
with the Uragan-1M machine is commensurate with the confinement time in tokamak machines of equivalent
dimensions. Results of experiments performed at FIAN and at Culham (Britain) show that the lifetime of
particles in stellarators is close to the classic lifetime.
Confinement of plasma of density 1012 to 1013 cm-3 with an ion temperature of the order of 0.5 keV
has been studied in open-ended traps. Methods for stabilizing a plasma by feedback have been developed.
But the future of open-ended systems appears to be wrapped up with the effectiveness of the energy recovery
system. In one way or another, traps are inevitable features of the thermonuclear research program. A
report by I. N. Golovin dwelt in detail on open traps.
The combination of methods developing for heating plasma with concrete existing systems is funda-
mental in nature. In other words, the period of simulation experiments in plasma heating is coming to an
end.
The most important methods for heating plasma are:
1. Injection of fast neutral particles. Injection of fast neutrals appears to offer great promise.
2. Turbulent heating. This method has undergone extensive development in the past decade, but is
obviously not being exploited to its full potentialities for heating plasma in thermonuclear ma-
chines.
3. Microwave heating techniques. These techniques appear to be basic and are being developed with
particular success at the Physics and Engineering Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the
Ukrainian SSR (FTI AN UkrSSR) and at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy (IAE).
Heating efficiency is 30 to 50% under optimum conditions.
We should also mention the linear method of transforming tranverse waves into strongly attenuating
longitudinal waves, which was developed at the A. F. loffe Physics and Engineering Institute of the Acad-
emy of Sciences of the USSR, and the method of nonlinear anomalous absorption of microwaves developed
at FIAN.
V. E. Golant reported on microwave methods of heating plasma.
Plasma accelerators are meeting with great acceptance in a variety of engineering applications, in-
cluding controlled thermonuclear fusion and astrophysical research. The discussion here centers around
accelerators in the 10 to 100 keV energy range, or somewhat higher, at currents ranging from several
amperes to several kiloamperes. The machines will have to be redesigned and have fninishing touches ap-
plied to them, and their performance properties will have to be improved, with searches made for new ac-
celerator designs and layouts, in order to expedite even wider acceptance of the machines. That will re-
quire a more detailed physical investigation of flux parameters.
Despite the colossal amount of work that has been done on coordination of research by the plasma ac-
celerators section, the outlook for utilization of high-energy plasma streams in technology is not being in-
vestigated currently in the way it should be, unfortunately, and plasma accelerators are not being developed
for a broad range of technological tasks. This is explainable to a certain extent in terms of the inadequate
liaisons between specialists in different branches of science and industry. A report by A. I. Morozov went
into some detail on plasma accelerators and related work.
Here we should mention the introduction of findings of plasma physics into accelerator engineering.
In essence, collective plasma phenomena are encountered in all high-current systems. Those phenomena
act to seriously limit current in storage systems, and in colliding-beam accelerators. One achievement is
the development of high-energy collective accelerators by V. I. Veksler. The council on plasma physics
will take part in organizing a conference on collective methods of particle acceleration to be held in Dubna
September 27-30, 1972.
Investigations of fast processes and of the theta-pinch, and plasma focus, have been carried out in the
USSR at the Sukhumi Physics and Engineering Institute and at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Ener-
gy, but not on a very broad scale to date. However, this direction of work should be intensified substan-
tially. Here a lot will depend onthe development of the theory of high-density plasma (/3 ft 1) and concomi-
tant engineering advances. E. P. Velikhov discussed fast processes in his report.
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D. D. Ryutov reported on some new proposals for confinement and generation of high-density plasma;
Ryutov reported in his own name and in the name of G. I. Budker.
The plasma electronics research program initiated by FTI AN UkrSSR has undergone considerable
development. The major advances in that direction are intimately related to the development of high-cur-
rent pulsed relativistic electron accelerators. Consequently, plasma electronics becomes relativistic.
Institutes working on this problem also include FIAN, the I. V. Kurchatov IA1, and the Institute of Nuclear
Physics of the Siberian Division of the USSR Academy of Sciences [IYaF SO AN SSSR}.
The most important applications of plasma electronics are:
1) development of methods for heating plasma, and possibly the development of a pulsed thermonuclear
reactor in the remote future;
2) development of microwave oscillators;
3) development of new collective methods of particle acceleration.
A detailed report on plasma electronics was delivered by Ya. B. Fainberg. The principal achieve-
ments on record in this direction are:
1) the development of high-current accelerators;
2) the development of a theory of collective interaction of relativistic beams and plasma, a theory of
limiting currents, gas focusing, a theory of compensation of the self-magnetic field by a beam of
electrons in a plasma;
3) development of theory and experimental work on control of beam instabilities and transformation
of waves.
.Experiments on coherent interaction between modulated electron beams and plasma are of special
interest.
R. Z. Sagdeev reported on plasma physics and cosmic phenomena.
As an example illustrating the uses of plasma physics in the study of cosmic phenomena, we might
point out that a broad range of interesting phenomena, including the power-law dependence of the energy
spectrum of fast particles, have yielded to explanation on the basis of the nonlinear theory of plasma tur-
bulence. Of course, that spectrum is also observed in cosmic rays, and in relativistic electrons as well.
Radio bursts from the sun have been calculated (FIAN), and other related advances have been reported.
Magnetohydrodynamical models designed to explain the nature of the chromosphere, of prominences,
of radio sources above sunspots, etc. , have been constructed (Shternberg State Astronomical Institute).
Ya. B. Zel'dovich's report on a model of the hot universe met with keen interest.
P. L. Kapitsa gave an account of some completely unanticipated properties exhibited by a free plas-
ma pinch in a radio-frequency field. The unusually high parameters obtained for the plasma, and the subtle
experimental research techniques put to work, give good reason for the view that we are dealing here with
new properties, still obscure in many respects, of a high-density high-temperature plasma.
The next session of the scientific council on the problem of plasma physics will be held in March, 1973.
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The first All-Union conference on the radioactivity of rocks and of the hydrosphere was held in Novo-
sibirsk, May 15-19, 1972. The conference drew up a balance sheet on the knowledge accumulated in the
field over decades, and. sketched out the cardinal directions of radiogeochemical research in the future.
Many prominent scientists in the country took part in organizing and expediting the conference.
A total of 47 reports devoted to the behavior of radioactive elements in exogenetic, magmatic, meta-
morphic, and hydrothermal processes, and also to procedures for radiogeochemical mapping of the ter-
ritory of the USSR, and to determinations of uranium, radium, and thorium in geological objects, were
heard; the reports also dealt with how to utilize data on concentrations of radioelements in the allied sci-
ences of geochemistry and geology.
A historical survey of research on the geochemistry of the radioelements (L. V. Komlev) formulated
the major problems in radiogeology which are being developed as work on the creative legacy bequeathed
by Joly, Clark, and Vernadskii. Special attention was given to the problems of geochronology and the
earth's heat budget. The use of methods of lead isotopy (S. F. Karpenko) makes it possible not only to single
out districts that are promising in ore content, but also to locate ore-productive strata adjacent to local
concentrations of radioelements. The study of geochemical lead anomalies in the study of ore sources and
the genesis of ore occurrences opens up new perspectives for investigation of lead-zinc deposits (A. A.
Tychinskii, L. D. Shipilov, etc.), and also for investigations of the dynamics of the formation of crusts of
weathering (V. I. Balabanov). The use of data on the radiogeochemistry of rocks, particularly data re-
ferable to deeply metamorphized sediments and mantle products, is helpful in analyzing thermal fluxes
within the earth's crust (E. A. Lyubimova). The study of the evolution of a seat of local heating shows
that redistribution of naturally occurring radioelements is a real factor in the generation of a thermal
front. The dynamical model of the zone melting mechanism is entirely applicable to the explanation of
natural processes in this context.
Among the other general topics in radiogeology dealt with, analysis of uranium and thorium contents
in the mineral matter comprising the earth's crust at different "levels of organization" was given special
attention (A. A. Smyslov). The study of radiogeochemical features at the lower (mineral) level revealed
a marked differentiation of the concentrations of uranium and thorium (differences as great as five orders
of magnitude in the average concentrations of the elements). As the level of organization increases (rocks
-- geological formations - distinct layers of the earth's crust), the nonuniformity in the distribution of
uranium and thorium becomes less conspicuous. The average contents of the two radioelements does not
differ by more than one order of magnitude at the higher levels. A direct correlation is established be-
tween the radioelements and certain petrogenic elements.
Differences in clarks, in the analysis of geochemical migration, interfered with comparisons of the
absolute contents of elements in different geochemical systems. It would be better advised in such cases
to compare the clarks of the concentrations (A. I. Perel'man). Comparison of the clarks of the concentra-
tions, in the context of hypergenetic geochemistry of uranium, supports the inference that uranium is an
element with conspicuous "hydrophilic" properties (the high-contrast and energetic aqueous migration is
quite typical) and modest "biophilic" properties (uranium is not concentrated by living matter).
A review report on the geochemistry of uranium in the sedimentation process (M. N. Al'tgauzen) sur-
veyed various concepts on the conditions governing migration and sedimentation of uranium in conglomer-
ates, in mottled sand-clayey sediments, in coals, in bituminous rocks, in phosphate rocks, etc. Directly
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 865-867, October, 1972.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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opposed concepts on uranium sources, and on the time and methods of accumulation of uranium sources,
were pointed out. The discrepancies are due both to problems in the study of the natural objects and to
inadequate development of experimental physicochemical research. In addition, little attention has been
given to theoretical analysis of the conditions governing the joint migration and accumulation of elements
accompanying uranium in these processes.
Carboniferous sedimentary formations as possible concentrators of uranium and other rare elements
were the subject of an extended discussion. Enhanced concentrations, including ore concentrations, of
uranium, germanium, molybdenum, beryllium, in deposits of coal-bearing formations are disparate in
nature: sedimentary-diagenetic, epigenetic, polygenic (V. I. Danchev, N. P. Strelyanov, G. Ya. Ostrov-
skaya, et at.). The criteria for syngenetic behavior on the part of uranium mineralization in coals can be
the spatial affinity with facies zones of ancient peat bogs, accumulations of vegetable remains in alluvial
flood-plain deposits, and the like. The stratified and concretionary textures of the ores, the position of
ore pebbles within intraformational nonconformities, etc., provide evidence of the formation of ore concen-
trations at the stage of diagenesis. Finally, criteria for the epigenetic genesis of uranium concentrations
are provided by the confinement of uranium concentrations to zones of tectonic dislocations, the ore re-
placement textures, the ore-controlling role played by epigenetic zonation. A detailed phase analysis of
organic matter and uranium mineralization (V. A. Uspenskii et al.) shows that heavy bitumens (asphal-
tenes, kerogens) in products of epigenesis cement the earlier secretions of uraniferous minerals per se,
i. e. , they are formations of different ages.
A pronounced dependence of the contents of uranium and thorium, and of the thorium/uranium ratio,
on the lithological composition of the rock species and on their facies adherence and affinities, was brought
to light (G. M. Shor, V. P. Vorob'ev) in an analysis of the distribution of radioactive elements in sedi-
ments of young mantles (Mesocenozoic age) on an ancient folded foundation. A lowering of the values of
the radiogeochemical characteristics was established in the series terrigenous -- terrigenous-carbonate
- carbonate rocks, and in the direction of the succession of continental sedimentation conditions by marine
sedimentation conditions. The uranium concentrations are determined to a considerable extent by the
oxidation-reduction properties of the rock species.
An investigation of modern marine sedimentation on columns of red clays, forameniferous, diato-
maceous, radiolarian, and terrigenous-authigenous sediments, iron-manganese concentrations and car-
bonate concretions (Yu. V. Kuznetsov, V. K. Legin, et al.) made it possible to discern primary and secon-
dary physicochemical processes at work, predetermining the relationship between the concentrations of
uranium, ionium, radium, and thorium in a vertical core section. Conversion of the concentration of ra-
dioelements in sediments of different composition to the level of comparison makes it possible to use the
ionium/radium ratio to successful advantage in investigating age and dynamics of sedimentation.
In a summary report on the geochemistry of the radioelements in the magmatic process (A. I. Tugari-
nov), some basic concepts regarding the role of magmas in mineralization were formulated. It was em-
phasized that the constancy of the thorium/uranium ratio in various phases of intrusive rocks proves the
strength of the bond between the radioelements and the melt, and argues against the view that the radio-
elements are washed out of the melt with the fluids. However, the process of felsitization and perlitiza-
tion of volcanic glass in liparitic formations is accompanied by liberation of a portion of the uranium pre-
sent, and this is recorded by the change in the thorium/uranium ratio. The "migrational activity" of the
radioelements in the magmatic process increases in the course of geological time, i. e. , the role played
by the mobile form of uranium and thorium is enhanced in younger intrusives. This regularity agrees, in
the case of grainitoids, with the data on lead- uranium and lead-thorium isotopy. These ratios are char-
acterized by their marked constant level in microclines whose age dates back three billion years. The
spread in the ratios of the value sets in at the age of two billion years and increases from then on. Intru-
sions enriched or depleted in Pb206 and Pb207 make their appearance. That trend corresponds to concepts
on the minimal differentiation of the earth's crust in which granitoids are brought into being, a full three
billion years ago, when there were still no local concentrations of uranium, thorium, lead in specific sedi-
ments. The differentiation process became initiated in the early Protozoic (2.6 to 2 billion years ago),
when the first carbonate-bearing strata, jaspilites, etc. , made their appearance. Granitoids shaping up
in such variegated strata inherited the radioactivity of the strata, as reflected in the deviations of the leads
from the average evolutionary curve.
The effect of subcrustal hearths begins to be felt as intrusives of basic composition appear. But the
relative import of those two sources of radioactivity in the melts (palingenetic and mantle sources) cannot
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be traced further back in a consistent manner. A variant solution to the problem has been proposed on the
basis of a comparative analysis of the behavior of uranium and thorium in volcanic and plutonic magmatism
processes (V. P. Kovalev). Intrusive and effusive derivatives belonging to two generations of magmas dif-
fer conspicuously in their radiogeochemical characteristics and have a mantle origin (in the former case)
and.a crustal origin (in the latter case).
Additonal characteristics of alkaline magmas of the sodium and potassium series can be obtained on
the basis of data referable to concentrations and ratios of uranium and thorium, and alkaline-olivine-ba-
salt melts and tholeiite-basalt melts can be successfully separated on the same basis (V. I. Gerasimov-
skii). The content of radioelements in such magmas is determined by the conditions under which the melts
are generated within the confines of the upper mantle, but not by their interaction with the materials com-
prising the earth's crust.
A survey paper on the geochemistry of the radioelements in the metamorphic process (Ya. N. Belevt-
sev) emphasized the decisive role played by the redistribution of matter in the formation of ore concentrates.
The differentiation of uranium and thorium, which predetermines the appearance both of metamorphogene-
tic deposits or of melts of enhanced radioactivity (in the case of ultrametamorphism) and the yield of ra-
dioelements in hydrothermal-metasomatic processes, takes place in the course of progressive metamor-
phism and regressive metamorphism of rock species.
The mechanisms at work in the redistribution of the radioelements in response to rises in the tem-
peratures and pressures, and the involvement of the radioelements in geochemical migration, are analyzed
on the basis of currently held concepts in the theory of chemical sedimentation and recrystallization of mat-
ter (N. P. Ermolaev). For example, blastesis occurs when temporary oversaturations relative to macro-
components occur in film solutions, and when trace impurities of uranium and thorium get into a solution
that is not saturated with respect to uranium and thorium. The process by which the carrier mineral gets
rid of trace impurities of the radioelements on its own is aided by the processes of polymorphic transfor-
mations undergone by the carrier mineral, by the variation of the impurity distribution function in the sys-
tem solution-sediment with increasing temperature, and by processes of desorption in the water-car-
bonate phase.
A survey report on the geochemistry of the radioelements in hydrothermal-metasomatic processes
(G. B. Naumov) points out the exceptionally high mobility of uranium, and of thorium to a lesser extent,
over a wide range of parameters of the medium. However, the way research is preponderantly localized
within the confines of ore-bearing areas restricts opportunities for working out complete and valid con-
cepts on the balance of the radioelements in postmagmatic processes. Reconstruction of the temperatures,
pressures, and concentrations in solutions in which migration and sedimentation of uranium took place sup-
ports the view that the deposition of pitchblendes under hydrothermal conditions took place principally with-
in the temperature range from 250-to 50?C, whereas the temperature range from 380 to 200?C is the most
favorable one for the formation of uraninites from Precambrian metasomatites. The pressure generated
in hydrothermal systems could be not only less, but also much greater, than the hydrostatic pressure and
lithostatic pressure, as evidence of the possible formation of ore-bearing solutions in deeper-lying portions
of the earth's crust below the actual ore emplacement strata. The composition of high-temperature solu-
tions has not been ascertained precisely. In the case of medium-temperature and high-temperature condi-
tions, however, the concentrations of the components of uraniferous solutions have been determined re-
liably enough. That makes it possible to analyze the equilibrium conditions of the mineral phases, and to
estimate the scale of the process under concrete sets of geological conditions. A rise in the temperature
shifts the peak solubility of pitchblende into the range of higher pH values of the solutions, which is respon-
sible for the type of high-temperature associations of pitchblendes actually observed. When temperatures
are high but alkalinity is moderate, the typical carbonate form of uranium transport encountered at low
temperatures may have less significance, yielding before other compounds possible fluorides and phos-
phates.
Hydrothermal metamorphism of rocks in uranium mineralization and thorium mineralization over
significant areas was analyzed for the first time, making it possible to discuss those processes in relation
to the geological features of an entire region (E. V. Plyushchev). Practically important zones of quartz
-hydromica associations in regions where acid components were found to be washed out are being mapped,
as well as zones featuring the development of riebeckite-albite and chlorite-albite associations.
. Reports devoted to procedures and results in radiogeochemical mapping and demarcation of concrete
geological provinces held an important place in the proceedings of the conference (V. K. Titov, A. S. Mi-
tropol'skii, D. K. Osipov, R. S. Zhuravlev, Yu. V. Il'inskii, A. D. Nozhkin, F. I. Zhukov, et al.). The
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special features of the radiogeochemistry of rock species depend onthe geological structure of the distinct
regions and on their position in the history of geological development. That dependence is reflected in the
concentrations of uranium and thorium, which vary widely in sedimentary and magmatic species of rock of
different composition and origin, and also in the distribution pattern of the radioelements in metamorphic
and ultrametamorphic rock species formed among stratified deposits.
Special attention was given to methods for analyzing radioelements present in geological objects. The
requirements imposed in geochemical studies on the metrological parameters of the analytical techniques
employed, and the potentialities of those techniques in geochemical investigations carried out on the radio-
active elements, were discussed (B. Ya. Yufa), and the outlook for the development of sophisticated tech-
niques for making determinations of trace quantities of uranium and thorium in rocks and minerals also
came under discussion (A. A. Nemodruk).
Methods of field y-ray spectrometry and laboratory y-ray spectrometry (L. V. Matveev et at. , F. P.
Krendelev et at. , 0. P. Sobornov et al.), and analysis of radioelements in mineral phases by fission-frag-
ment diffraction (I. G. Berzina et al.) have now gained wide acceptance in the solution of geochemical
problems. Problems of reliability, rapidity,and sensitivity of analysis of natural radioactivity in the litho-
sphere and in the hydrosphere, were reflected in the resolutions adopted by the conference.
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SPECTROMETRIC METHODS OF RADIOACTIVE
CONTAMINATION ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT
As a result of nuclear weapons tests using nuclear explosions for useful purposes, and of work in
atomic plants, radioactive products enter the natural environment. Falling into the atmosphere or waters,
they spread to significant distances from their place of origin. Because of this, the concentration of radio-
active products is greatly decreased, but at the same time the area of contamination is significantly in-
creased. Thus, the radioactive products penetrating to the upper troposphere are, in the course of a month,
able to mix fairly uniformly with the tropospheric atmosphere of that hemisphere in which the test was con-
ducted.
In connection with the possibility of transport of the radioactive products to great distances it is nec-
essary to systematically monitor their content in the natural environment and to develop the laws of for-
mation of these products. This can be performed with the aid of radioisotopic analysis of selected samples.
Mass analysis of radioisotopic samples of the natural environment is more easily conducted with the aid
of radiospectrometric methods of investigation, the characteristics of which include the fact that such anal-
ysis can be performed on specimens with low specific activities.. This in turn leads to specific features
not only in the conduct of the spectrometric analysis but also in the processing of the results.
At the present time the monitoring of radioactive contamination of the natural environment occupies
the attention of many specialists. In connection with the necessity for interchange of test results meetings
were held on March 27-31 at the Institute of Experimental Meteorology in Obinsk on methods of analysis of
radioactive contamination of the natural environment.
Fifty-three papers were heard. The first group of papers was devoted to the question of y-spectro-
metric analysis of the natural environment with the aid of scintillator y-spectrometers. The papers dealt
with the. most varied aspects of y-spectrometric analysis. In them were considered the use of y-spectro-
meters with solid angles approaching 4:r, low-background -y -spectrometers with anticoincidence shielding, se-
lection of optimum conditions of measurement, and operation at underground locations in order to reduce
the background level.
Several papers were presented on directmethods of spectrometric analysis of soil surface, by use of
results of which corrections can be made to the measurement program.
Also considered were methods of processing the obtained data: statistical accuracy of results, con-
ditions for the development of photopeaks in the experimental spectra, methods for estimating the values
of self-absorption in y-spectrometric analysis of soil samples. Particularly detailed was the treatment
of methods of processing the obtained data with the help of computers, not only by the method of the direct
introduction into the machine of punched tape with coded spectra, but also by the method where the ob-
tained results first undergo preliminary processing. Processing of the obtained spectrum was considered
by the method of intervals as well as by the method of least squares. Also considered in these papers were
the problems of increasing the accuracy of the analytical methods, standardization of y-spectrometric
methods, techniques of calibrating scintillator spectrometers, and automation and combination of measur-
ing apparatus into the complex.
In the second group of papers consideration was given to the use of semiconducting detectors. The
possibility was demonstrated of their use for the measurement of y-radiation of samples with specific
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 867-868, October, 1972.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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activities corresponding to that of samples of the natural environment, for the direct y-spectrometric anal-
ysis of surface soil.
Methods were considered for processing in computers of the results obtained with the aid of semi-
conductor detectors used for y-spectrometric analysis of samples of the natural environment.
The third group of papers considered the /3-spectrometric analysis of the natural environment. Meth-
ods were considered for the /3-spectrometric analysis of radioactive mixtures. The influence of thickness
of test samples and measurement geometries on the calculation results was discussed. The influence of
back-scattering of /3-radiations on obtained results was analyzed. Methods for increasing the sensitivities
of fl-spectrometric methods were considered. In several papers methods were considered for direct /3-
spectrometric analysis of soil cover.
In a series of reports there were discussions of the use of coincidence methods, which are used for
the determination of the absolute activities of specimens, analysis of complex mixtures, and the separation
out of y-radiation of separate isotopes in an intense y-background. Also heard were papers on the stabiliza-
tion of the amplifier circuit of a spectrometer and the selection of diameters for photomulitpliers and scin-
tillators.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the papers presented at the conference evoked strong interest,
and the very fact of the holding of such a conference is timely and useful.
It is proposed that the material of the conference be published in 1973.
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The first All-Europe conference on nuclear physics was held at Aix-en-Provence (France) June 26
through July 1, 1972. This was the first conference on that topic organized by the European Physics So-
ciety.
The conference agenda was restricted to three urgent topics in nuclear physics: the physics of fis-
sion, the physics of heavy ions, and nuclear physics at energies above 100 MeV. All of the topics were
discussed at the morning plenary sessions, at which 15 review papers were presented. Sessions of three
panels on the three directions of research discussed took place in parallel during the evenings. Brief re-
ports lasting 10-15 min were heard at the panel sessions: 30-odd reports on the first topic, 80 reports on
the second topic, and 55 reports on the third.
The conference attracted the attention of a large number of specialists not only from European coun-
tries, but in fact from all scientific research centers throughout the world that are engaged in nuclear
physics research. About 570 scientists took part in the conference.
Shell effects received a good deal of attention in the discussion. A report by R. Balian (France) was
devoted to shell effects. The topic was also touched upon in a report by K. Dietrich (West Germany). No
fundamentally new findings in theory, at least as compared to the papers authored by V. M. Strutinskii et
al. (1967-1970), came to light. Some new and interesting data were obtained in an experiment in which the
properties of spontaneously fissioning isomers were investigated. Results arrived at by a team of West
German researchers (H. Specht et al.) in observations of conversion electrons resulting from the decay
of levels of the rotational band in the second potential well (transitions 8+ - 6+, 6+ - 4+, and 4+ - 2+) in
coincidence with fragments of the spontaneously fissioning isomer Pu240 are included among such data. The
value of the rotational constant h2/2J = 3.33 keV obtained from the experimental data is far below the value
obtained for the ground state (7.16 keV).
Data on correlations between the number of fission neutrons and the mass and charge of fission frag-
ments, and with the -y-photon yield and the parameters of fission resonances, were reported in some of the
papers, principally those submitted by French authors. Those results can prove useful, when filled out
in greater detail subsequently, for obtaining information on the potential energy and the viscosity of the
fissioning nucleus.
All of the topics that have now become traditional in the area were of course included under the head-
ing of the physics of heavy ions: transfer reactions, nuclear spectroscopy in direct reactions, the state of
nuclei with large angular momentum, etc. These topics were also dealt with in the overwhelming majority
of the reports presented at panel sessions, as well as in review papers presented by H. Morinagi (West
Germany), G. Morrison and M. Beranger (USA). But substantially new results in heavy-ion physics would
have to be anticipated along another path. Appreciable progress has been made in recent years in the ac-
celeration of very heavy ions (such as xenon and uranium). A beam of 900 MeV xenon ions with a beam in-
tensity of 1010 to 1011 particles has been generated at Dubna. The conference participants manifested keen
interest in a report by G. N. Flerov (USSR) on work done with this beam with the object of synthesizing
ultraheavy elements. The study of nuclear reactions on a xenon beam at Dubna is yielding valuable informa-
tion on the role played by direct processes in fusion reactions and the role played by friction in the pro-
cess of fusion of two heavy nuclei (such as xenon and tin). The findings from the Dubna experiments indi-
cate that fission fragments of a compound system obtained by irradiating uranium with xenon will form as
nuclides with a cross section greater than 100 mbarn. Searches are underway to find ultraheavy elements
among those fission fragments. Some encouraging results have been obtained.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 868-869, October, 1972.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Pessimistic conclusions on the formation of compound nuclei in reactions involving very heavy ions
were drawn in reports by a French team from Orsay (M. Lefor). The Orsay team obtained a very low
limit (below 10 mbarn) for the probability that a "classical" fissioning compound nucleus would form in
the reaction Th232 + Kr. From this, the authors inferred a lack of prospects for the fission reaction in
the synthesis of ultraheavy elements. The same conclusion was reached in a review paper presented by
W. Swiatecki (USA) and in a report by F. Plazil (USA) on the basis of a discussion of the behavior of a
compound nucleus with a large angular momentum. Apparently, however, the formation of a "classical"
compound nucleus is not obligatory if what we seek to establish is statistical equilibrium with respect to
the charge and mass of fission fragments. Data in Dubna experiments have suppofted precisely that view.
Beams of heavy ions (xenon, uranium) make it possible to broaden the range of objects studied in
nuclear physics substantially. In addition to systematic studies of the properties of compound nuclei such
that Z > 100, and in addition to work on the synthesis of ultraheavy elements, there is great interest in in-
vestigations of the atomic properties of very heavy nuclei near which exceptionally strong electric fields
are observed. Two panel reports dealt with analysis of this last topic. Some of the results on the study
of x-radiation emitted by a compound atom (more precisely a quasimolecule) I + Au at iodine ion energies
from 10 to 60 MeV were reported on by P. Armbruster (West Germany).
The study of nuclear reactions involving heavy ions such as xenon calls for a new approach in the
theoretical description of the fusion process. The basis for the elaboration of any such new theory would
seem to be concepts that have been yielding good results in recent years in the study of the physics of fis-
sion. A review report by W. Swiatecki (USA) was devoted to a discussion of the principal traits of the
future theory shaping up.
The conference offered confirmation of the fact that high-energy nuclear physics now constitutes a
fully formed area of research on its own. The use of high-energy particles in the physics of the nucleus has
already produced some important results bearing both on the characteristics of specific nuclides and on the
general properties of nuclear matter. There was great interest shown in reports on new research findings
relating to elastic, inelastic, and quasielastic scattering of hadrons on nuclei. The Thyrion group working
at Saclay on the Saturn synchrotron submitted spectra and differential scattering cross sections of 1 GeV
protons scattered on C12, Ni58, Pb208 nuclei, and measured with a custom-engineering magnetic spectro-
meter. The high resolution (?135 keV, a record at this writing) attained in their work made it possible to
reliably separate the transitions into distinct excited states of the nucleus. That possibility opened up a
whole broad new field of activity in the area of relativistic nuclear spectroscopy for the group.
It was shown that the trend toward spectroscopic precision in measurements in high-energy nuclear
physics is one of the principal trends in the present-day development of nuclear physics. Another salient
trend is related to efforts to achieve as complete a kinematic analysis as possible of the reactions accom-
panied by decay of the nucleus or by the production of new particles. The coincidence method is coming
into steadily greater use, and applications of coincidence techniques under various sets of experimental
geometry conditions were widely discussed at the conference. In particular, keen interest was shown in
a report by G. A. Leksin (ITEF (Inst. Theoret. Expt. Phys. 1, USSR) on the use of the method of quasi-
elastic kinematics proposed by V. V. Balashov by the Leksin group in studies of pion-nucleon interactions.
Research in high-energy nuclear physics, situated on the borderline between the physics of the nucleus
and the physics of elementary particles, brings those two fields closer together in practice. Science has
now gone far enough to broach the question of the role of excited (isobaric) states of the nucleon in the for-
mation of the structure of the nucleus, and in the progress of various nuclear reactions. Two review papers
dealt with that problem: M. Danos (USA) and M. Reaux (France). The topic spurred a particularly lively
discussion in connection with the inverse proton-deuteron scattering reaction.
The proceedings of the conference will be published in two volumes. The second volume, with ab-
stracts of the panel reports, was distributed to the conference participants. The first volume, which con-
tains the review reports and the ensuing discussion, will appear in September or October.
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G. Rudakov
A meeting of the First International Working Group took place in Vienna on March 17, 1972 on the
compilation, evaluation, and dissemination of nuclear data, the structure of the nucleus, and nuclear reac-
tions (for brevity we will henceforth designate these as "nonneutronic nuclear data"). The meeting was
called within the framework of the MAGATE. In attendance were more than twenty representatives from
fourteen countries.
A question has been raised by certain organizations and individuals in the past year on the effective-
ness of the utilization of nonneutronic nuclear data. These data include essentially all the information on
the structure of the nucleus, nuclear radiation, and nuclear reactions, and are widely used for scientific
and applieddpurposes. However, it is necessary for such purposes that the literature be in the form of
tables of isotopes, decay schemes, cross section atlases etc. These are published infrequently and with
no regularity. Especially inadequate is the matter of obtaining analyzed recommended data.
The purpose of the meeting was, firstly, the consideration of the current status in the area of col-
lection, compilation, and evaluation of nonneutron nuclear data, and secondly, the determination of the
principal areas of their utilization, principally for applied purposes, and thirdly, the development of re-
commendations serving to improve the efficacy of the work of the compilers and analysts of the nonneutron
nuclear data.
Brief reports heard on the work of compilation and evaluation of nuclear data indicated that suchwork
is in progress in many countries. The principal difficulty in this regard is the enormous volume of mate-
rial that it is necessary to process and the relatively small number of persons engaged in this task.
Very useful work is being performed at Oak Ridge (USA), where a full bibliography is being compiled
on work at low and medium energies, with brief annotations for each work. It is obvious that such a bib-
liography will substantially lighten the labor of compilers and analysts.
The principal areas of utilization of the nonneutron nuclear data were considered. It was noted that
the data are widely used in reactor construction, analysis of shielding, the investigation of thermonuclear
reactions, in activation analysis, and in other nuclear physics methods of determining element and isotopic
composition of materials, in preparation of artificial radioactive isotopes and their use in the most varied
areas of science and technology. Also noted was the necessity of establishing some form of communication
between the users of nonneutron nuclear data on the one hand and their complements, the analysts and pro-
ducers on the other. Such communication can even now answer many user questions and permit the estab-
lishment of lists of the most important uses of nonneutron nuclear data, which will be a guide for the ac-
tivities of compilers and analysts.
The recommendation of the meeting on the improvement of the effectiveness of the work of compila-
tion and evaluation of nonneutron nuclear data concludes essentially with the following: it is recommended
that there be much tighter international cooperation in this area. This cooperation could be expressed in
a division of labor between the various groups of compilers and analysts in the development of common
standards for recording and storage of information (especially as regards to methods of machine recording
and storage). An appeal was made to editors and publishers of scientific journals to pay more attention to
the form of the material by the authors of scientific articles. The articles must give the worked-out
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, p. 869-870, October, 1972.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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information about the material in their presentation, from which it would be easy to evaluate the reliability
of the obtained data.
The second conference of the International Working Group on nonneutron nuclear data is planned for
March, 1973.
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The UNO science committee on radiation effects completed its sixth report to the UNO General As-
sembly on March 24, 1972. The report provided an exhaustive rundown on the effects produced by all ra-
diation sources on the population of our planet.
The committee discussed and reviewed the average exposure to radiation of critical tissues of the
human body (gonads, bone marrow and cells lining the osteolar canals) due to the natural radioactivity of
our environment, on the basis of the latest available data. It is generally known that this natural radiation
is made up of secondary cosmic rays (neutrons, mesons, electrons) emitted by C14 and by tritium formed
in the upper-lying layers of the atmosphere, radiation emitted by the isotope K40 and deposited in the tis-
sues of the human organism, and emissions by uranium, radium, and thorium scattered in the earth's
crust and producing the external y-irradiation, as well as partially gaining entry to the human organism
via ingested foodstuffs, and finally the gaseous Rn222 and Rn220 and their decay products in the earth's ground
atmosphere.
Exhalations of Rn222, Rn220, and their short-lived daughters cause additional exposure to the basal cells
in the tracheobronchial tree, in the dose range from 0.055 to 0.2 rad/year, attaining a level of 0.5 rad in
areas enriched with uranium or radium.
The population is exposed to dosages of 1 to 8 rad/year in some populated regions (the state of 1Serala
in India; Guarapari, Araxa, and Tapira in Brazil) situated on monazite sands with a heightened content of
uranium and thorium.
The exposure increases depending on the altitude (contribution by cosmic radiation). Supersonic
flights during which passengers and crew were at altitudes of 20 km were discussed as a special topic. If
we proceed from the assumption that the crew will be spending 600 hours per year up in the air (as much
as is currently often the case in jet aircraft flight), they will be exposed to an additional 0.4 rad/year. The
passengers will not be exposed to more intense radiation than they are now in jet planes, since the increase
in the rate of exposure will be compensated by the speed of flight,` i. e. , by the shortening of the exposure
time.
The degree of exposure suffered by the population as a consequence of atmospheric and ground-level
nuclear explosions was estimated. It was pointed out that contamination of the atmosphere by Sr90 and Cs137
diminished sharply starting with 1963 and continuing through 1967. But the decline came to a halt in 1967,
and the 1967 level has been continued since (see Fig. 1) as a consequence of nuclear explosions set off in
continental Asia, in Africa, and in the Pacific Ocean.
Whereas it was Sr90 that made the major contribution to exposure to the human global population dur-
ing 1961-1963, at the present time the role of Sr90 in irradiation of the bone marrow and bone cells of hu-
mans has decreased appreciably because of absorption of Sr90 in the soil and the low coefficients of uptake
from the soil to plants. The relative contribution made by Cs137 as a source of internal and external radia-
tion exposure to humans resulting from nuclear weapons tests therefore increased.
The weighted-average absorbed dose calculated for the entire exposed population (dose commitments)
due to the 1955-1971 nuclear explosions runs to -0.2 rad by the year 2000, according to the committee's
calculations. It must be stressed that the figure does not take into account continuing nuclear weapons tests,
and may have to be scaled up if those tests are not discontinued altogether.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 870-872, October, 1972.
0 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
1005
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104
103
U
Year
Fig. 1. Total Sr90 activity in the atmos-
phere (arrows indicate time of experimen-
tal atmospheric explosions).
r
1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1968 1968 1970
Year
Fig. 2. Kr85 activity in air samples ta-
ken in the northern hemisphere.
Another point to stress is that the averaged dose does not reflect the true degree of exposure to which
the population is subject in some major regions of the globe, where that dose may differ substantially from
the figures cited (northern and southern hemispheres, northern areas of tundra, etc.). For example, the
Cs137 content in the human organism can vary considerably depending on the special features of the nutrition
and food chains involved. The report took note of the fact that, in view of those factors, the Cs137 content
levels in the organism of people populating the subartic zone will be one or two orders of magnitude higher
than the levels in the organism of people inhabiting the temperate latitudes.
The committee launched into a careful discussion, the first of its kind, on the effect of nuclear power
station construction programs. The basic contribution made to the global exposure of the population was
that made by gaseous wastes vented to the atmosphere, more precisely Kr85 and tritium, the concentration
of which in the atmosphere increases year by year (Fig. 2).
The committee proceeded, in its calculations, on the basis of the assumption that generation of elec-
tric power at nuclear power stations will increase from 22 million kW(e) in 1970 to 4,300 million kW(e) by
the year 2000. That will result in an increase in tritium in the atmosphere from 1 to 720 MCi, in that time,
and an increase in Kr85 from 16 to 10,5000 MCi.
Calculations of the exposure to the human organism during that period yielded a weighted-average
absorbed dose of 1.3 rad, which accounts for not more than 2% of the yearly dose due to natural radiation.
The calculations show, quite evidently, that the peaceful utilization of nuclear power will not lead to
levels of global radioactive contamination of our planet that would be dangerous to humanity. But the com-
mittee pointed out the possibility of local radioactive contamination of the environment near nuclear power
plants, a problem that calls for careful public-health controls and inspection.
Investigations have shown that the contribution to the total exposure of the population made by medical
radiation facilities is the major one at the present time, amounting to 50% of the yearly dose due to natural
sources of radiation in the advanced countries. Improvements in radiation equipment and more efficient
and carefully thought-out use of radiation equipment in diagnostic research may reduce that figure to the
level of 20%.
The report goes into detail on cases of professional irradiation of small groups of people (workers in
uranium mines, radiographists, x-ray technicians and roentgenologists, workers in the uranium industry,
etc.), as well as the effect of such radiation sources as watches with a luminous dial, color television sets,
ceramics glazed with uranium additives, building materials containing various radioactive isotopes, and so
forth.
1006
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The committee undertook, for the first time, to evaluate the effect of nuclear explosions (both under-
ground explosions and crater explosions) around the world on the exposure experienced by the global popula-
tion. Several projects involving such test explosions brought about with the object of generating gas, dig-
ging out canals, etc. , were studied. The temporary radioactive hazard in the neighborhood of the explo-
sions, and the comparatively small contribution the explosions made to the overall exposure suffered by
the population of the planet, were taken note of. For instance, an experimental underground explosion en-
gineered in geological formations of natural gas at Gasbuggy (USA) was analyzed. Analysis of the gas re-
leased showed contamination of the material by tritium, C14, and Kr85. They calculated what effect that
gas would have on the exposure of the population of Los Angeles (7 million) if the gas were used in the gas
lines for domestic use immediately after the underground explosion was touched off. The figures arrived
at were approximately 0.02 mrad/organism. The major contribution to the irradiation level would be that
made by tritium, whose content can be reduced by modifying the design of the nuclear charges in future
work involving explosive stimulation of natural gas deposits.
The effect of different sources on the exposure experienced by the population can be expressed in per-
centages of the natural average exposure, if we assign the latter a value of 100:
Natural exposure .................................. 100%
Medical irradiations............................... 20-50%
Irradiation due to nuclear explosions (during 1970).... 3-6%
Irradiation due to power plants (by the year 2000)..... 2%
Professional exposures ............................ < 10/'
Irradiation due to other miscellaneous sources .......