SCIENTIFIC MANPOWER RESOURCES OF THE USSR

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP75-00001R000200430064-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 13
• Document Creation Date: December 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 17, 1999
• Sequence Number: 64
• Publication Date: October 3, 1956
• Content Type: REPORT

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SCIENTIFIC MANPOWER RESOURCES OF THE USSR
25X1A9a
Address presented by at the National
Electronics Conference, Chicago, Illinois, on 3 October 1956.
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Scientific Manpower Resources of the USSR
As you all know, the scientific-technical manpower shortage is
a matter of real concern in this country. I am sure that at this
National Electronics Conference, one would find that there are many
more people recruiting scientists than there are people looking for
jobs. The electronics industry is probably one of the most critical
from the point of view of shortage of technical manpower. Since there
are not enough electrical engineers to go around, United States
industries are directing their competitive skill toward luring engineers
and scientists to their companies.
This competition for scientific manpower is not limited to industries
within the United States, but also exists between nations such as the
United States and the Soviet Union. In this technological age, that
nation with the greatest supply of high quality scientific manpower will
be the one to lead the world. It is for that reason I believe it is use-
ful to spend some time studying the scientific manpower resources in the
USSR.
The analysis of manpower resources can be divided into two main parts.
First, there is the quantitative aspect, i.e., the number of trained
people in various fields and the rate at which this manpower pool is being
increased. However, second and probably most important, is the quality of
the scientific manpower which is available to the Soviet Union. It is the
qualitative aspects which are of course most difficult to evaluate, but I
shall attempt to analyze this part of the problem as best one can, first,
by looking at the educational system and, second, at the quality of the
output of the Soviet scientists.
Today, the United States and the Soviet Union each has a scientific
technical manpower force of about 1.2 million. In research and teaching,
the Soviet Union has a force only about 2/3ds that of the United States
(175,000 vs 265,000). In research alone, they have only about half the
number we have (120,000 vs about 210,000). On the average each year,
though we turn out 10% more college graduates than they, they graduate
many more in science and engineering than we do. For example, in 1955,
6o% of Soviet full-time students graduated in scientific-technical
fields as compared to only about 25% in the United States. In engineering
alone, the Soviet Union graduated twice as many as did the United States.
Chart 1, Graduates per Year in All Scientific Fields, shows the
steady increase in both countries in numbers of graduates in all science
fields from 1930 to 1960. In 1930, both countries were almost equal., each
graduating about 36,000 science students. The 1933 drop to 19,000 in the
Soviet curve resulted from a lengthening of courses. The rise in 1935
(in the Soviet curve) reflects the expanded enrollments in 1930/32. Both
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the United States and Soviet curves show wartime losses from about
194243 to 1945. Soviet losses were greater than ours. They dropped to
about 22,000 in 19+5 compared to about 39,000 in the United States.
Rapid post-war increases are shown for both countries. We climbed
faster and farther and reached a peak of about 13+,000 science
graduates in 1950, largely under the "GI Bill",, and then started de-
clining. They climbed less spectacularly, but note that the Soviet curve
did not go into a decline. That curve is still rising. In June 1954,
Soviet science graduates outnumbered ours by about 36,000. It is esti-
mated that in 1960 the Soviet Union will graduate about 155,000 science
students compared to about 126,000 in the United States.
Chart 2, Graduates per Year in Physical Sciences and Engineering,
shows a comparison of Americal and Soviet graduates in the physical
sciences and engineering only for the period 1930 to 1960. It will be
seen that the general shape of these curves is similar to that for
graduates in all scientific fields. Again, one sees that if the estimated
trends continue, the Soviet manpower pool in the important physical and
engineering sciences fields will soon surpass that in this country. There
is nothing that we can do about the slope of the Soviet curve. Our efforts
must be placed at changing the slope of the curves for the United States
and thereby change the relative position of the two curves. Every effort
must be made to build up a larger pool of trained scientists in this
country.
Since the Soviet educational system is not only a key factor in the
numbers that are produced, but also will determine the quality of the
people available for Soviet research and industry, it is important to
devote some attention to studying its major features. First, I believe
it is very important to look at school-level education in the Soviet
Union and here one is immediately struck by the fact that even the
elementary schools put a major stress on science. Every student has to
have taken five years of physics, five years of biology, four years of
chemistry and 10 years of mathematics by the time he finishes high
school. The important factor here is not the number of years on each
one of these subjects, but that every single student is exposed to a
broad scientific background which will permit him, if qualified, to
proceed to more advanced scientific studies. By comparison, less than
10% of American high school graduates have taken as much as a year of
physics and chemistry and even fewer any advanced mathematics. As a
consequence, only a small number of those who might be qualified and
eventually might become interested are ever capable of carrying on in
scientific fields. Since,in general, scientific courses are more
difficult than those in home economics and the like, and since there is
tremendous outside pressure for students to get high marks, there is a
very bad tendency to discourage students from getting the broad scientific
background that is required in order to develop a career in science or
engineering.
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After completing high school, the better Soviet students enter
higher educational institutions. Honor students are admitted with-
out taking entrance examinations, but all others must pass stiff,
competitive exams in Russian language and literature, mathematics,
physics, chemistry and one foreign language. Most examinations are
oral and it may be of some interest to describe their nature. Several
days in advance of the date of the test, a student is given a
compilation of more than 50 sets of questions, any one of which he
may get on his exam. Then on the day of the test, he selects by
chance one set of questions on which he must report. He is given
about 20 minutes to collect his thoughts and then must stand up in
front of the Board of Examiners and give an oral presentation of the
answers. This type of exam would, I am sure, be extremely difficult
for students of high school age in this country. It teaches students
to think on their feet and be able to present their ideas in an
understandable form. Providing the questions to the students several
days in advance of the test does have, in my opinion, the drawback of
Putting a premium on the ability to cram for an exam. A student with
a good memory might, by very vigorously studying in the few days prior
to these tests, get passable marks and yet not have a true appreciation
of the subject.
Future Soviet engineers and scientists are trained at one of three
types of higher educational institutions:
(1) Engineering and technical colleges offer 4-5 year
courses in specialized fields such as machine building,
construction, and agricultural mechanization. These colleges
prepare engineers and specialists for particular industries.
Eight of these colleges are devoted entirely to training in
electronics and radio technology. Many others have extensive
courses in these fields.
(2) Polytechnic institutes offer 4-6 year courses in
broader engineering fields such as civil, electrical, and
metallurgical engineering. Students graduate as production
engineers and enter the economy. Out of the 25 such institutes
in the Soviet Union, 20 have energetics or electrotechnical
faculties and 13 have faculties of radio technology or
electrophysics.
(3) Universities offer 5-52 year courses in fundamental
sciences. Graduates enter research or teaching--the better
graduates are directed to research. All 34 universities in the
Soviet Union provide good basic training in physics, mathematics,
and electronics.
Almost half a million students enter these Soviet colleges each year.
They spend, as indicated, 4-6 years in a rigorous course of study.
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Discipline is strict. Attendance at lecture and laboratory sessions
is compulsory. As many as 10 comprehensive examinations are given
each year. Those who fail are weeded out. Those who dolwell are
rewarded by increased stipends.
While in college, students spend as much as 90% oftheir time
on technical subjects. At the Bauman Higher Technical School in
Moscow, probably the best of the engineering institutes in the
Soviet Union, about 4300 out of a total of 4800 hours, Le., about
89% are spent on scientific subjects. At Massachusetts nstitute
of Technology by comparison, only 2300 out of a total of 2900 hours,
i.e., about 78%, are spent on science.
Quality of scientific and technical training in th' Soviet
Union is generally comparable with that in the United States. As
competition for entrance to universities and colleges is{very keen,
standards are kept high. University faculties are organ
that each department is quite small and teaching often c
through informal contact between students and staff. Re
very much impressed by the degree of student participati~
were very prone to enter into discussions and ask quests
lecturer.
be done
ent visitors
s have been
n. Students
as of the
Some United States educators have indicated that the
specialization in science which I referred to earlier may be a
possible weakness in the Soviet educational system. Thee is also
a tendency in the engineering and technical colleges to concentrate
in narrow fields and this specialization may well create a narrowness
of outlook and make it difficult for people to adapt th selves to
new problems. The textbooks tend to be encyclopedic in nature and
lead the student toward learning facts.
As the scientific profession in the Soviet Union i a highly
honored and well paid one, the majority of Soviet students wish to
prepare themselves for a scientific career. What institute .a student
attends and what course of study he pursues is largely amatter of
State selection. Instead of depending upon individual prfeference or
public appeal to influence the high school graduate's ch ice of a
"major", the Soviets use several effective methods to funnel students
into disciplines in accordance with the needs of the State
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(1) They use, of course, propaganda appeals, much
as we do, stressing monetary and prestige factors, and in
addition point out that it is the Soviet student's duty to
prepare himself for usefulness in achieving socialist
supremacy.
(2) Another very potent method of channeling students
into desired fields is the threat of military draft.
Students who enroll at particular specialized schools or in
certain courses are given total draft exemptions or
continuing deferments. For example, during the war a law
was passed listing some 85 technical colleges whose students
would be totally exempt from military draft as long as they
successfully continued their studies in engineering and
technical fields--fields in which there were definite needs.
The law still remains in force today.
(3) Also, each college and university has a quota
system. There are always more applicants than vacancies in
scientific and technical fields. When shortages of specialists
are anticipated, quotas are raised thereby admitting larger
numbers of people. '
(4+) Scholarships and stipends serve to channel students
into desired study areas. Scientific or engineering students
receive more rubles per month than do their fellows who study,
say, history. As State needs change, of course, so also does
the amount of stipend in a given subject field.
(5) Finally, the larger number of people who have a
basic technical training at least at the high school level
permits a high degree of selectivity in the use of the
scientific manpower resources. The inferior students can be
weeded out or placed in positions requiring less ability.
Too often in this country, it has been necessary to place
people in positions for which they were not adequately
qualified, because the supply of trained people which are
being fed into the scientific manpower hopper is too small
to satisfy even the major demands.
A quarter of a million students each year successfully complete
their studies and graduate from college in the Soviet Union. Here
again, the State steps in--graduates are assigned to jobs in the
economy. Though some graduates may occasionally use outside influence
or political "pull" to get desired assignments, most students consider
it just that they work wherever the State assigns them. After all,
they reason, the State paid for their education and training and,
therefore, they are obligated to repay the State by their work. The
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best students usually want to go into research and do s
a graduate has little opportunity for transfer. The en
scientist must remain in his assigned place for at leas
Hence, it is that 80% of Soviet science graduates are a
in scientific fields while only 60% of our science grad
their fields.
. Once assigned,
;ineer or
three years.
tually employed
ates work in
Graduates and researchers who show exceptional pro se are
selected for advanced training. After studying for thr a years and
.preparing a dissertation, they are awarded a "Candidate" degree,
roughly comparable to our Ph.D. The Soviets already he more science
"Candidates" than we have Ph.D.'s in science. Chart 3, Higher Degrees
in Science Awarded Annually, shows the numbers of Sovie "Candidate"
and United States Ph.D. degrees awarded in science each year from 1935
to mid-195. As early as 1935, they awarded 18,000 "Candidate" degrees
while we granted only about 15,000 Ph.D. degrees that y
see, they have continuously awarded more higher degrees
except during the war years. In June of 1954, they gr
"Candidate" degrees compared to only 5,000 Ph.D.'s gran
country. All in all, by mid-1955 there was a total of
in science in this country. 70,000 Soviets held "Candi
gar. As you can
than we have,
,ted 8,100
ed in this
5,000 Ph.D.'s
ate" degrees
The ultimate test of the quality of the Soviet scientific manpower
is, of course, the results of the research and development which is
being carried out in the Soviet Union. In areas relating directly to
the build-up of national power and military strength, the Soviets have
made remarkable progress and excel in some specialized fields. In
areas relating to consumer goods and comforts, the progress has been
slower and at best well behind the West. In the field o nuclear
research, they have achieved significant advances which fight best be
demonstrated by their work in developing particle accele ators. The
Soviets will have very shortly in operation a 10 BEV proton synchro-
tron which will be the largest in the world. This accelerator was
visited by a number of foreign scientists this summer an all were much
impressed by the quality of the work involved. The sup ementary
instrumentation was also of high quality. United States and Western
European laboratories are designing and constructing accelerators in
the 30 BEV range, due for completion in 1960-61, but thelSoviets are
already planning a still larger accelerator up to 50 BEV Despite the
high quality of these devices, I believe it was the feel ng of United
States scientists that the research programs using this quipment were
more limited than would have been the case in the West.
In the field of atomic weapons, the Soviet progress has also been
rapid. Evidence of this is demonstrated by the fact that within the
past month, it has been announced that the Soviets have conducted four
nuclear tests. The Soviets also have an extensive nuclear reactor
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program, but the reactors which have been shown to the West
have not demonstrated any outstanding new developments. They
do, however, have an extensive program for developing nuclear
power since their Sixth Five-Year Plan calls for the completion
by 1961 of plants with a capacity of 2 to 2- million kilowatts.
If successful in achieving this goal, this would be a major
advance, but it must be remembered that such a program might
also produce substantial quantities of fissionable materials
for military purposes.
They have also demonstrated ability in the field of
aeronautics. The development of the TU 104, a Jet Transport
plane, places the Soviet Union in a strong competitive position
in the design of modern long range transports. Three of these
aircraft were recently used to bring the Russian Ballet to London
and they will shortly be placed into regular use between Prague,
Moscow and points East.
The Soviets have recently announced the existence of a
number of high-speed electronic digital computers. The largest
of these, the BESM, is comparable to some of the better high
speed computers in the United States and United Kingdom, although
not quite as good as a recently developed United States computer.
Nesmeyanov, President of the USSR Academy of Sciences, has announced
that high speed computer research is one of a number of areas of
fundamental importance in which the Soviets will concentrate their
efforts. As he stated, research in this field is likely to lead to
a scientific breakthrough.
And this brings us to the field which is of some interest to
you people, electronics. In virtually all branches of electronics,
with the possible exception of high-power radio technique, the
Soviets were far behind the West at the end of World War II.
Perhaps in no other field of science and technology, with exception
of the nuclear energy field and guided missiles, has the Soviet
progress of the last 10 years been so intense and productive. Today,
the USSR is a major factor in electronics and a potent challenger of
the electronics leadership of the United States. The Soviets are the
world leaders in the relatively new branch of electronics of radio
astronomy. They have maintained high competence in communication
theory. They have reached high native competence in the field of
electronics equipment and instrumentation directly relevant to their
military requirements. In the field of "consumers" or civil
electronics (such as television, civil telephone and telegraph), they
are well behind the West, even by their own standard. They propose,
however, to improve this field under their Sixth, Five-Year Plan.
Recent visitors to Russia were impressed by the increased number of
TV sets available this year in the stores.
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A few examples of their current program in electronics and
telecommunications, as reflected in their own unclassifigd
releases in the Soviet newspapers, radio, technical publications,,
and papers and discussions at the recent international conferences:
(1) Early in 1955 (IRSKOY PLOT, #3, March 195), the
Soviets published technical characteristics of STVO4r - a
modern precision 3 cm radar of native design used f r "close
quarters" navigation in small ships. This radar has
0.1 microsecond pulse, 80 kw peak power, and a range of
100 feet to some 25 miles. It is a miniaturized version
(about 500 lbs.) of an older 3 cm navigational radar, NEPTUN
(about 1600 lbs., 30-50 kw peak power), used in lamer marine
vessels for several years. The radar is coupled toi,the ship's
gyroscope and is provided with the facilities for the reception
of radio beacons. Under the latest Five-Year Plan,lthe Soviets
propose to equip all maritime, technical and port f]4eets and
the service auxiliary ships with radars, including a' new radar
of higher range and smaller minimum range for largeri, ships, and
to provide television receivers on their ships for all-weather
electronic pilot service from ground radars located at the most
important ports and sections of maritime routes.
(2) A new and original Soviet development in travelling
wave tubes, SPIROTRON, was announced by the Soviets at the
International. Conference on High-Frequency Tubes in Faris,
May-June 1956. (TCHERNOV Tube.) I understand that the basic
novel idea of the tube is a new type of electronic gun injection
system, and that the work indicates a very creditable level of
competence in travelling-wave tubes.
(3) At the same conference, Professor Naumenkojpresented a
paper on wide tuning-range, millimeter-wave klystronl,oscillator,
operating in 7 to 19 mm bandwidth, having a power oflsome
5-10 milliwatts. During the discussion of these klystron,
Professor Naumenko referred to Soviet work on a very', high-power
klystron operating at LC frequencies. I understand that this
work of the Soviets is on a par with the West.
(4) The Soviets are doing a creditable job in the field
of modern telecommunications. At the Scientific Congress for
Nuclear Energy and Electronics in Rome earlier this year,
Professor Vladimir SIFOROV presented a good theoretical paper
on forward-scatter and mentioned tests on a "beyond-horizon,
forward-scatter, multichannel Soviet system comprising many
relay sectors." Two native Soviet microwave radio-relay systems
are being placed in operation between Moscow and Ryazan:
STRELA M providing 24 telephone channels and designed for
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multichannel service in a system up to 2500 km long, and
STRELA T for transmitting several television channels.
A true wide-frequency multichannel radio-relay system
has been produced in a prototype form, capable of
handling up to 12 television channels or up to 3,000
telephone channels. The system is to operate at wave-
lengths not to exceed 7 to 9 cm and in lengths up to
several thousands of kilometers (Moscow, TASS, July 1956).
The Soviet Sixth Five-Year Plan calls for some 10,000 km
of new radio-relay lines and an increase of their 1950
radio-relay facilities some 60 times. A new Soviet high
speed facsimile equipment has been announced recently
(Promyshlenno-Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, July 1956) and a
fully electronic high-speed teleprinter is reported under
development, the first model to use vacuum tubes and the
later miniaturized version to use transistors. (Evening
Moscow, May 1956.)
In summary, (1) the Soviets are not at present ahead of the
United States in total scientific and technical manpower, but they
are advancing rapidly and, if present trends continue, will surpass
the United States; (2) the Soviet educational system is designed
.at all levels to turn out scientists and engineers; and, (3) the
quality of Soviet developments is good in almost all its fields
which have been emphasized, and electronics is certainly one of
those in which they have demonstrated a high position of native
competence.
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