BI-WEEKLY PROPAGANDA GUIDANCE NUMBER 80

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78-03061A000100050002-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 35
• Document Creation Date: November 17, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 11, 1998
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: December 4, 1961
• Content Type: PERRPT

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FINLAND
Republic of Finland
Suamen Tasavalta
CAPiTAI: Ielsinki. FLAG: The national tlag contains an ultramarine cross with an extended right hori-
zontal on a white background. The Aland Islands (Ahvenanmaa) have, in addition, a provincial flag.
ANTHEM: hfaana~iaelaulzc (in Swedish, Vdrt 1?ud) (Our Motherland). MONETARY uN~T: The markka of
zoo pennia is a nonconvertible paper currency Fvith several official exchange rates. Par value is set at
z?777 S7z8? of fine gold. One markka equal $o.o3zz5 (or $r equals 3zo markkaa). There are coins of z,
5, ra, zo, 50, zoo, zoo, and 50o markkaa, and notes of roo, 500, z,0oo, 5,000, and zo,ooo markkaa.
WEIGHTS AND MEASt~RES: The metric system is the legal standard. HOLIDAYS: hTew Year's Day, r January;
Epiphany, 6 January; Labor Day, z May; St. John's Day, zo June; All Saints' Day,. z November;
Independence Day, 6 December; Christmas, z5 December; Boxing Day, z6 December. Movable reli-
gious holidays include Annunciation, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Ascension, and White Monday.
TIME: z p.m.=noon GMT.
zLOCATIC>l~t, SIZE, AND EXTENT
Finland, part of Fenno-Scandia (Scandinavian Peninsula, Fin-
land, Carelia, and hula Peninsula), lies between S9? 48' and
70? 5' N. (about 7zg miles) and zo? 3J' and ;;r? 35' E, (about
337 miles). About one third of its total length lies above
the Arctic Circle. It has land border on the tv~st with Sweden
(536 km.), on the north and west with Norn?ay (7zg km.),
and on the north and east ~~?ith the USSR (z,z6g km.). The
sea boundary, Gulf of Finland on the south and Gulf of Both-
nia on the west, i r,roo km. The total area is 337,oog km.
(z3o,zzo sq. mi.), of which 305,396 sq. km. is land, 3z,Gz3
sq. km. water, excluding seas. Despite territorial losses to the
USSR after World ~Var II amounting to 44,zo4 sq. km. or about
zz~O of the country's total prewar area, Finland remains one
of the largest European states. There arc ten provinces: Lappi,
Oulu, Vaasa, Iiuopio, Turku-Pori, Hame, Mikkeii, Iiymi,
Uusimaa, and Ahvenanmaa (Aland Islands).
South and west Finland consists of a coastal plain with a
severely indented coastline and thousands of small islands
steel+:i:~ out to the Aland Islands. Central Finland is an ex-
tensive ]aloe plateau with a majority of the country's 55,000
Iakes; 40% of the area of Mikkeli Province is water. North
Finland is densely forested upland, and in the Norwegian border
area are the highest elevations (Haltiatunturi near Enontekio
,
957,
y
e
rises r,3z4 meters or 4,344 feet above sea level). Extensive, .Russians, Swedes, and Germans), there were only two numeri-
i
t
d
n
erconnecte
Iake and river systems provide important natural
waterways. The navigable length of internal }akes and canals
totals z,7oo miles, the floatable length zG,Soa miles.
aCLIMATE
The climate is unusually mild for the high latitude. During
winter Finland's temperature averages from r8? to zz.G? F.
warmer than in similarly situated regions, zo.8? F. warmer in
its average annual temperature, which is 33.8? F. Helsinki's
temperature during z957 ranged from a tow of zz.z? F. in
March to a high of 64.4? F. in July. Snow cover lasts from
about go days in Aland to z5o days in Enontekio. It is gen-
erally deepest in March, averaging a5,6 inches. Average annual
rainfall over the years 2886-2935 has ranged Fmm a loGV of
zo.4 inches in north Finland to a high of z7.5 inches in south
4FLORA AND FAUNA
Forests, chiefly pine, spruce, and birch, are economically the
most significant flora. There are over z,zoo native species of
higher plants plus several thousand other forms. Of z3,5oo
species of fauna, only 45a are vertebrates. Fur-bearing animals
(otter, marten, emline) are declining in number, while elk, fox,
and beaver have increased. Of some 30o species of birds, half
of which nest in Finland, perhaps the best known is the cuckoo,
the harbinger of spring. Thirty-three of some 68 species of fish
have econoznic importance; in fresh waters the perch, walleyed
pike, great northern pike, and others are plentiful. Salmon
remains the favorite of flyrod enthusiasts. More than z r,goo
species of insects have been found in the country.
r'POPULATION
On 3z December z959 the total population was 4,433,700;
63.4% Iived in rural districts, 36.6 Jo in towns. Population
density averaged r4.3 per sq. km., from a high of 79.9 in
Uusimaa Province to a low of z.r in Lappi Province. The five
largest towns at the end of rg5g were: Helsinki, 453,800; Tam-
pere, rz3,Gao; Turku, rz3,ooo; Lahti, G3,8oo; and Oulu, 54>700.
At the end of z957 the sex ratio was r,o8z females per z,ooo
males. Some 4zo,ooo evacuees were resettled in Finland fol-
lowing the loss of the CareIian Isthmus and other territories.
?ETHNIC GROUPS
Excluding resident aliens 0
405 at the end of r
chi
fl
Gaily insignificant non-Finnish ethnic groups: Lapps and Gypsies.
There were z,52g Lapps in r949, living chiefly in Inari, Utsjoki,
Enontekio, and Sodankyli. Several societies have been estab-
lished to foster the preservation of Lappish language and cul-
ture. There were an estimated 3,56g Gypsies in x954, half chil-
dren, found chiefly in Vaasa Province and adjoining regions.
Studies indicated that r8% were completely nomadic in rg54~
37% partially. About z5% were regularly employed as wage-
earners; 40?,% of the adults over z6 years were unable to read.
'LANGUAGE
Division into two language groups, Finnish and Swedish, has
had considerable cultural and political significance in the past.
In i95o Finnish-speaking were gz.z%, Swedish-speaking 8.640
of the population. (comparable percentages in z8go
86.o7?fo
,
and r3.56%). Decline in the Swedish-s caking element has
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bec:u due to LL higher rate of .emigration and a lower birth rate.
Largest awarabers of Swedish-speaking Finns are found in the
.;land Islands {g6.3% of their population in 1950), Uusimaa
I'.ovince (z5.z~~c}, and Vaasa Province (28.6%). Swedish, the
Second legal language, is given constitutional safeguards. Use of
other languages is numerically unimportant: in IgSo only a.IZ%
spoke Russian, 0.06% Lappish, and o.o$%p other languages. Fir.-?
Wish belongs to the Finno-Ugric language group, and is closely
related to Estonian, remotely to Hungarian.
gREtIG10N
Religious freedom is guaranteed in the constitution, but 9.3.3/0
of the populace belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Nataonal
Church, which enjoys state support. Its supreme body is the
Church Assembly, with jurisdiction over internal affairs; it also
initiates church law, which requires the approval of parliament
and the president of the republic. Also state-supported is the
Greek Orthodox Church in Fint:uid, which had 74;3oy com-
municants on 2 January 1953. Other religious bodies number
14, of which .the largest are the Free Church, Adventists, Je-
hovah's Witnesses, Swedish Lutherans, Methodists, Baptists,
Roman Catholics, and Jews. The Civil Register comprises those
individuals who prefer not to affiliate with any church. Their
number was zo2,538 at the end of Iy~7.
eTRANSPORTATION
At the end of Ig56 there were 35,o3z km. (21,763 miles) of
main roads, largely gravel, under the Administration of Public
Roads and Waterways, At the. end of 1957 there were 184,836
motor vehicles including Iz6,864 passenger cars and 55,820
commercial vehicles. In addition, there Isere SG,zSz motorcycles.
Of the 5,256 km. (3,266 miles) of railroads in operation in Ig57,
5,200 km. (3,169 miles) were state-owned. The merchant marine
totaled 777,068 gross tons at the end of 1957 (compared to
the 257,000 tons remaining after World War Ilj; 274 were
steamers and 186 motor ships. More than half of the ships are
more than z5 years old. The maximum annual capacity of
Finnish shipyards is -about 150,000 gross tons. The most im-
portant harbors are Helsinki, Kotka, and Turku. In recent years
about 45%a of the foreign trade is carried in Finnish bottoms.
Owing partly to the loss of the Saima Canal after the war,
canal traffic is about half of the prewar tonnage.
Two companies, Aero (or Finnair) and liar-Air, are engaged
in civil air transport over domestic routes. In 1957 they had
95 planes, of which zo were in scheduled service. The most
important airport is Seutula (Helsinki). Twice weekly service
between Helsinki and Moscow was inaugurated by Aero in
February Ig56. After the UK, Finland uses more domestic air
routes in ratio to population than any other European country.
10COMMUNICATIONS
Postal and telegraph service are state operated. Telephone lines
are bath skate and privately owned. There were 88,153 tele-
phones connected with the state system, and 436,477 telephones
connected with privately owned lines in 1957?
Radio receivers are. licensed, the number in 1457 being
I,rII,8g7. Of the licensees, 51.8% lived in rural regions. Broad-
casting on both AM and FM frequencies is centralized in a
joint-stock company Yleisradio, go% of its shares owned by the
state. Experimental television broadcasting began late in 1956,
regular programming on 1 January 2958. Suomen Televisio, an
affiliate of Yleisradio, has transmitters at Helsinki, Lahti, Turku,
aiau Tampere,
III~ISroRv
Fia~land, formerly a province of the Swedish kingdom (I150'S-
18oq) and an autonomous grand duchy of Russia (1809-2gr7),
has been an ~~de~ea~ljt; ~?~ease-2~~~38~~7
present-day Finns, hunters, trappers, agriculturists, came to
Finland by way of the Baltic regions during the first centuries
A.D., spreading slowly from south and west to east and north.
Swedish control was established gradually following several re-
ligious crusades, the first around 1 154. By 1 z93 Swedish rule
had extended eastward as far as Karelia, with colonization by
Swedes in the southwest and along the Gulf of Bothnia. As a
result of over six centuries, of attachment to the Swedish realm,
h'innish political institutions and processes (marked by growing
constitutionalism and self-government), economic life, and so-
cial order developed largely along Swedish lines,
After Sweden's military defeat in r8o8-og, Finland was trans-
ferred to Russia. Alexander I granted Finland a privileged au-
tonomous status, continuing the grand duchy's constitutional
heritage. He, like his succe3sors, took a solemn oath to "confirm
and ratify the Lutheran. religion and fundamental laws of the
land as well as the griviiE.ges and rights- which each class and
all the inhabitants have hitherto enjoyed according to the con-
stitution." During the quies-cent years of the conservative reac-
tion {28o9-6z), a nationalist movement found support. Toward
the end of the Igth century a Russian drive to destroy Finland's
autonomy ushered in sever~~~rge:~g~~igq~ ~~'~~~f all males
Study Group, o t rg ern en a organizations, r4 years of age or a er an 8a.4 v o em es gainfully
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c:tt:l~los?cd, a total of r,984,z8a. The average age of retirement
is high; in 1950 nearly 59% of the men and zo% of the
~~,~omer, aged 65 and above were still gainfully employed. The
percentage of the labor force in the various sectors , of the
economy as of IgSo was: agriculture 39.3;'0, forestry S.9ojo,
mining o.3%, manufacturing and handicrafts z1.zGjo, construc-
tion 6.z%, commerce 8.I%, transport and communication
5.4%, services 11.4 per and others a.a%. Owing to a large
number of births inullediately after the last war, a Io%
increase in the labor farce was expected between IySo and 1960,
and a 14% increase between r96o and 1990, or approximately
500,000 new workers: The problem of expanding employment
opportunities in order to avoid both large-scale emigration and
unemployment is being studied.
The two major trade union federations are the Confederation
of Finnish Trade Unions (Suomen Ammattiyhdistysten Kes-
kusliitto or SAIL) having 37 affiliated trade unions with a
combined membership of a38,680, and the Confederation of
Salaried Employees (Toimihenl;ilo ja Virkamiesjarjestojen Kes-
kusliitto or TVK, fornierly the HTK), having z6 affiliated
unions representing Io6,93o members early in Ig58. In addition
there is the STTK (Suomen Teknillisten Toimihenkilojarjesto-
jen Keskusliitto), representing five groups of managerial and
supervisory employees. Since 1957 the SAK has been a member
of the ICFTU.
The Finnish .Employers' Confederation (Suomen Tyonan-
tajain Keskusliitto or STK) consists of z8 affiliated trade as-
sociations representing a,1oo employer groups. Working closely
with the STK are the Confederation of Commercial Employers
and the Confederation of Agricultural Employers. The STK
is a member of the CFIE.
Labor relations are generally regulated by collective -agree-
ments, usually of a year's duration. Disputes over their terms
are heard by a labor court. While mediation of labor disputes
is provided for by law, work stoppages have occurred. A serious
general strike took place during I-r9 March 1956, idling
500,000 workers. Workers' protective. legislation is extensive,
the first laws stemming back to the last century. There are
both public and private labor exchanges. The unemployment
situation was worse in 1955 than in any previous postwar year;
in March; there were 98,IO0 registered unemployed or z.6%
of the total population, a majority of whom were, however,
placed in various work projects sponsored by central anil local
authorities.
zYAGRICULTURE
Finnish farming is characterized by the relatively small propor-
tion of arable land under cultivation (only about 8% is agri-
cultural land} and by the large proportion in forest land;
farming is everywhere set within the frame of the forest. In
IgSo, 15.5 million hectares were used as follows: garden plots
0.1%, cultivated land 15.6%, meadows I?.4%, cleared pasture.
0.4%, forest land 69.6%, roads I.o%, and fallow land II.g%.
Small-sized fauns were created by a series of land reforms
beginning with the Lex Kallio of 1922 and continuing through
-the Land Expropriation Act of 1945. In 1950 out of a total of
465,655 holdings, 203;905 were under z hectares; 187,834 were
between z and Io hectares; 62,498 were between Io and z5
hectares; II,z15 were between z5 and loo hectares; and zz3
were more than loo hectares.
Finnish agriculture also is marked by the predominance of
fodder production (hay, oats, and other crops whose ensilage
value has been greatly improved by the AIV method--after
A.I. Virtanen), the excess of milk production over domestic
needs (res,.~p~itsoda~?~f~~~s?u}d0~0~0d~~d~,: C
and the deficiency in cereals (a prewar-self-sufficiency of 90% increment has exceeded the annual removal.
has dropped to about 40%). The principal agricultural products
in 1957 (in million kg.) :
CEREALS
MII.R
HACOIS
ECCS
Production
?gLg
3,153
64.3
35.0
Lnports
4o9.g
-
0.1
-
Exports ~
-
63r
0.6
4.6
Consumption
6gg.4
2,5x2
63.8
30.4
The significant increase in rnitk production has been largely
due to government price supports and export subsidies {-amount-
ing to Iz,Soo million markkaa in 1959), increased use of ferti-
lizers, and progressive rationalization of the dairy industry.
During, the crop year 195556 milk made up 60% of the
total value of all agricultural production. Because of growing
consumer preference for margarine (in Finland the consumption
of butter fell from 16.1 kg. per capita in Ig55 to Iz.6 kg.
in 1957, while in the same period the per capita consumption of
margarine rose from 5.8 kg. to 8.I kg.) and of foreign market
(chiefly the UK) uncertainties, there has -been extensive dis-
cussion of the readjustment of agricultural production. Among.
measures advocated have been the increase of cereal production,
a decrease in .the production of fodder and in the imports of
foreign concentrated fodder, and a strengthening of butter's
competitive position.
Use of agricultural machinery increases. The number of
tractors increased from 14,452 in 1950 to about 55,000 at the
end of 1958. By 1958 approximately 80% of the farms had
electricity.
zsANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Considerable progress has been made in cattle breeding, chiefly
Ayrshires. The number of cows has remained fairly constant
during the last decade, I,138,z6o in 1957. About go% of the
country's more than 400 dairy plants are cooperatively organized,
with an average of 532.7 suppliers per plant.
In recent years the numbers of horses and sheep h~yve
declined while chickens have increased significantly. In 157
there were 275346 horses, 1,844>744 cattle, 534,249 pigs, 457,460
sheep, 6,308,444 poultry, and 18,448 beehives.
z3FISHING
Fishing is an important source of -food. In 1953 a total of
219,900 persons took part in fishing, but only 3,goo as full-time
professional fisherman. The total catch was 6o,17a: tons; 42,532
tans from the sea, x7,639 tans from inland waters. The most
important species, in tonnage, were: Baltic herring 30,885 tons;
perch, 4,882 tons; northern pike, 4347 tolls; coregonus aIbula,
4,049 tons; bream, 3,534 tons; whitefish, 2,813 tons; sprat,
1,784 tons; pike-perch, 1,590 tons. Eleven vessels engaged in
Icelandic herring fishing during 1951, bringing in a catch of L5
million kg. The monetary value of fish caught in the sea in
1957 was 2,956 million markkaa, inland lakes 2,460 million
markkaa.
=FORESTRY
In 1951-53 Finland had zI.8 million hectares of forest land
(91.9% of total land area), of which 19.3 million hectares were
productive woodland. The most important varieties were: pine
43.7%, spruce 35.7%, and birch 18.3%. As of 1 January 1957
62.3% of the productive woodland was privately owned, 28.3%
owned by the state, 7.4% by companies, the rest by communes
and religious bodies. The growing stock (including bark)
amounted to 1,491 million cubic meters. The annual growth
(excluding bark) was 46 million cubic meters. The total timber
felled for sale in the 1957 cutting season (chiefly spruce pulp-
woo~ softwood logs, pine ul wood, fuel wood, and pitprops)
~'7o8~A~308t1a~10,~50t~~~5y the annual
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'i'hcrc ha; tacen ever-widening acceptance of modern forestry important industrial regions center around Helsinki, Tampere;
practices.:1 significant role is played Uy both public and private Turku, Lappeenranta, Lahti, Jyviiskyla, and the valleys of the
foresters as well as by national forestry legislation. Kymi and Iiukemiiki rivers. In Ig56 privately owned joint stock
z1i f1"i I N 1 N ~ companies accounted for 78So of the gross value of production
In Iy53 there were Aga firms engaged in mininc and quarrying, and employed nearly 75% of the industrial labor force. The ten
employing 8,4u workers.:Vlining has shown significant advances. largest industries were:
during recent decades owing to increased operations at the
state-owned Outokumpu copper mine and the opening of new
mines elsewhere.. Outokumpu, with reserves put at zo million
tons of 4io ore, increased its production from 399,x00 tans of
raw oee in 1934 to x,387,668 tons in 1957 and its production
of copper from 13,455 tons to z5,8z7 kons in the same period.
Copper production in Finland is double the domestic consump-
tion. Most important new mines are the zinc mine at Vihanti
(4oz,S7o tons of raw ore in t9J7), the state-owned titanium
iron ore mine at Otanmaki 009,783 metric tons of iron
concentrate in 1937), and a nickel mine at Leppavirta expected
to .compensate partially for the loss of the Petsarno mines, Total
ore mined in Finland rose from 450,000 tons in 1939 to z
million tons in 1456. The production of ore concentrates and
metals in 195y included: capper .concentrates Izz,zoo tons;
pyrites zgz,3oo tons; zinc concentrates 80,800 tons; lead con-
centrates 4,500 tons; iron concentrates x09,800 tons; itmenite
concentrates Io5,7oo tons; electro-copper a5,8oo tons; gold
494 kg., silver r1,6zo kg.
Finland is self-sufficient in cement, lime, and various crushed
and ground limestone products. Limestone production in 1457
~cas approximately z.3 million tons.
=7ENEROY AND POWER
The total energy requirements of Finland in 1957 were the
equivalent of 13.7 million tons of coal, of which zz7~~ was
produced by water power, 39.8~~ by domestic fuels, 18.7~,~ by
imported solid fuels (coal and coke imports in 1457 were 3,059
million kg.), and 18.8% by imported liquid fuels (petroleum
imports in 1957 were g6.z million kg.). The total consumption
of energy during the period IgzB-55 increased approximately
x.75 times; it is estimated that energy requirements by 1970
will be double the 1955 figure. The increase in the demand for
electrical energy has averaged about 13% per year; it will
probably continue to grow at the rate of 8% after 1960. The
1957 consumption of electrical energy was 7,090 million kwh.
The demand for electricity continues to exceed output despite
continuous construction since the ~var (especially in northern
Finland) of hydropower and thermal power plants. During.
the last five years new construction has made available an
average annual increase of 440 million kwh, compared to the
average annual growth in demand of 590 million kwh. The
estimated energy potential of Finland's water resources has
been placed at 18,000 million kwh per year, of which 7,030 mil-
lion kwh per year was being utilized in 1957. Studies of the
country's future power requirements indicate the need not
only for fuller utilization of these hydroelectric resources but
even greater use of thermal generation in normal water situations
and larger, ilnports of fossil fuel than in the past. The pos-
sibilities of atomic power are being explored.
28INDUSYRY
Since the end of ~8orld War II industrial progress has been
noteworthy. Contributing factors include: forced stimulus of
reparations payments, larger quantities of power, increased. min-
ing operations, growing mechanization of agriculture and forestry,
development of transportation and communication. In 1956
there were a total of 7,x65 industrial (including mining) estab-
lishments, which employed 318,.569 wage earners and 55,498 vertising Managers Association (Mainoshoitajain Yhdistys).
salaried staf~rO>a~a~E#I~~I~Rel~~e ~aAlt~l~0~ll~~n: CfS~FRR~7C$+`0$?~1~A~c000100050002-5
Iti DUSTRY
FIRMS WO
RKERS
CROSS VALVE OF OVTPV7
(MILLION biARKKM}
Foodstuffs
1,542
30,133
193~~5.8
Paper
zoz
2$,215
130,884.5
Electricity and gas
46z
9,891
6x,838.9
Wood products
754
30,177
51,034.9
Textiles
340
36,73=
50,804.1
Footwear and clothing
573
3o,z51
4,017.8
Transport equipment
48z
z7s419
41,477.6
Machine
3z8
z4~9o6
39,371?z
Chemical
Ig8
8,851
37,188.0
Metals basic
66
6,z4z
35,783.6
Industrial (handicraft) establishments, each employing less
than five workers, numbered Ig,o79 in r95z with a total labor
force of approximately 30,000.
The most important industrial exports include wood products,
pulp and paper, ships, paper-making and other kinds of ma-
chinery, electrical apparatus, and cables. The index of industrial
production for 1457 stood at 115 (1954=100); in Ig58 it fell
about g%. Productivity per working hour rose from 84 in 1945
(1938=100) to 170 in 1958. The rise in industrial productivity
is one of the most inr,portant explanations for the fact .that
Finland managed to pay of? war reparations and pass through
a period of enormous reconstruction without inflation or other
unbalancing factors.
="DOME571C TR~~DE
Domestic trade is carried on through the customary wholesale
and retail channels; in Ig53~ 3045 establishments engaged in
wholesale trade, employing 33.479 Persons. Their 1952 sales
were 478,148 million markkaa. They may be divided into organi-
zations affiliated with the Finnish Wholesalers Association; the
Kesko wholesale company controlled by. rural retailers; the
cooperative wholesales SOK and OTK; producer cooperative
wholesales such as Valio and Hankkija; and specialized whole-
sales such as the Teknillisen Tuonnin Keskusliitto, an associa-
tion of importers. '
Of 33,35z retail establishments in 1953, iS~5a5 were privately
owned, 4,6zz by joint stock companies, and 8,755 by cooper-
atives. Sales at retail were 391,696 million markkaa in 195x.
Cooperatives play a prominent role in the distributive field.
Office hours are gener~clly from g a.m. to 4 p.m.; government
offices are open from 8:30 a.m. to 4 p.m. {3 p.m. in summer).
Stores and shops are open from 8:30 or g a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday
through Saturday, but some stores close at 1 p.m. on Saturday,
Most of the trade fairs in Helsinki are arranged by
Suomen Messut, an organization especially established fqr that
purpose. The zz general and z1 specialized fairs held under its
auspices from Igzo to 1957 drew about 3.6 million spectators.
Since 1952 Suomen Mes:sut has been responsible for the official
Finnish trade displays abroad.
There is steady acceptance of modern advertising techniques,
including three-color advertising in newspapers. &rva-Latvala
is one of the most important advertising agencies. Advertising
associations include the :Finnish Sales and Advertising Associa-
tion (Suomen Myynti- ja Mainosyhdistys), the Council of
Advertising Agencies (Mainostoimistojen Liitto), and the Ad-
output with a r ss value of 834,760 million markkaa. The It~ost Finnish foreign trade is characterized by the following: (z}-the ~
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dominant. role of forest products in the export trade; 77.6%
of the total value of exports in Ig58 was derived from round
and hc~vn timber, wood industry products, and paper industry
products; (z) an increase in the export of metal industry goods,
wl;ich in 1958 n7ade up 13.7?,p of the value of exports; (3) a
considerab',e export of butter and cheese (about 4% of the total
value of exports in Ig58), made possible by large-scale state
subsidies; (4) extensive imports of raw materials (5L3/o of the
total value of imparts in Ig58), fuels and lubricants (14.0%),
and finished consumption and investment goods (34.7%); (5} a
changed geographical distribution of foreign trade compared to
the prewar pattern, marked by increased trade with the USSR
and declining trade with Germany and the UK.
During 1958 the value of imports amounted to 233,132 million
markkaa, exports 247,866 million markkaa. Despite the devalua-
tion of the markkaa in September Ig57, the volume of exports
in Ig58 fell 3oJo from the 1959 level, imports by II%. The
conditions of foreign trade have been greatly liberalized in
recent years, and at present trade and payments restrictions in
Finland are at approximately the same level as in the Scandi-
navian countries.
Principal exports in Ig58 (by value, in millions of markkaa)
were:
Paper industry products
I15.z
Woad industry products
57.8
Metal and engineering industry praducks
34.0
Raund and hewn timber
19.3
agricultural products
Ia.ry
Other items
Io.g
Principal imports in Ig58 (by value, in millions of markkaa.)
were
Raw. materials and accessories
119.5
Finished producer goods
48.6
Fuels and lubricants
3z.ry
Finished consumer goods
323
Principal trade partners in 2958 (by value, in millions of
markkaa) were
1953
-f- 9,695
1954
-}- 4,481
1955
-~- 4,299
1956
-25,571
1957
-=5,542
1958
-i-14,734
The balance of payments during the period Ig53-57 in billion
markkaa was:
YEAR
RECEIPTS
PAYMENTS
BALANCE
1953
1573
145?I
-{-rY.z
1954
184.8
17z.o
-1-x2.8
1955
zrry.I
2oz.5
-1-x4.6
=956
2x8.9
z31.g
-r3.o
1957
z6o.4
262.2
- I.8
A surplus ?on transportation has generally contributed to a
favorable balance of payments. On 3r January IgSg the total
foreign exchange reserve stood at 60.3 billion markkaa, a figure
higher than at any corresponding period since the end of the
war, yet modest in comparison to other countries. It was held
in the following categories (in billion markkaa) : gold- q.8;
convertible currencies and transferable OEEC 36.0; nontrans-
ferable OEEC 5.q; Eastern bloc currencies so.3; other cur-
rencies o.5.
az63ANKING
The central or government bank is the Bank of Finland (Suomen
Pankki), established in 1811, with headquarters in Helsinki and
Iz branch offices. Possessing extensive autonomy though subject
to parliamentary supervision, and endowed with extensive mone-
tary and fiscal powers, the hank's affairs are administered by a
five-man board of management appointed by the president of
the republic. It has an exclusive monopoly over the issuance of
notes and has negotia#ed virtually all foreign credits reloanecl
to Finnish borrowers (since 195b through an affiliate, the Mort-
gage Bank of Finland). The bank's total assets as of 31 January
1959 were Is7,6gg million markkaa, of which q,85o million were
in gold and 54,4x4 million in foreign exchange.
Other banking and credit institutions at the end of 1957
included: six commercial banks with 553 branch offices (reduced
by merger to five banks and 937 offices on I October 1958),
and assets of zlz,IZ3 million markkaa; 4i1 savings banks with
2.6 million deposit accounts totaling 118,650 million markkaa,
and assets of 134,709 million markkaa; 9 mortgage banks with
assets of 16,834 markkaa; 563 cooperative credit societies with
assets of 90,085 million markkaa; a central bank for cooperative
credit societies with assets of zb,448 million markkaa; a post
office savings bank with z,o93 branches and assets of 65,571
million markkaa.
In 1955 the total amount of credit made available was 46o,glg
million markkaa, of which the Bank of Finland provided 3.6%,
the Institute of National Pensions II.8%, commercial banks
34.6%, mortgage banks I.6%, post office savings bank 5.z%,
savings banks zo.ry%, cooperative credit societies 13.4?fo, and
insurance companies g.1%.
The Bank of Finland discount rate has ranged from b.5%
to 8%, and in October 1958 was reduced to ry.z5%. The average
interest. rates of lending institutions on 3r December s957 were
as follows:
EXPORTS
IMPORTS
BALANCE
tJK
54,8rI
4o,r z4
14,687
USSR
42,780
41,937
843
West Germany
26,946
38,6ory
-II,66x
Sweden
8,925
19,285
-so,36o
France
15,328
=a,885
4,443
TJS
1x,471
Iz,478
-1,007
Netherlands
Io,gz4
9,973
951.
Belgium-Luxembourg
g,ool
6,561
z,44.o
13razil
5,9aa
8,586
2,664
Poland
6,563
7,276
-713
Denmark
ry,4zo
5,501
1,919
Other countries
47,775
31,919
15,856.
surplus of exports -{-, a surplus of imports -): n aEPOStrs toANa
Commercial banks 4.51i?Io 7.95%
IgSo - ry,66g million markkaa- Savings banks 5.32 7.96
~95~ App 3~ For Release 2000/08/27 : CIA~~.~~~010010002-;
a18ALANCl2 ?~ PAYMENTS
Finland?s terms of trade since 1950 have been as follows (a
 ice; ~,
Approved For Release 2000/08/27 :CIA-RDP78-03061-A000100050002-5
? ? Finland [33-371
During rJSS and early r9J9 interest rates fell. At the end of
xgSS approximately zo jo of all deposits were tied to the index,
at the rate of So%,
Currency in circulation rose from 27,9 million markkaa at
the eud of r94S to 69?r trillion markkaa at the end of r95S.
~'~INSURANCE
Insurance is highly developed and diversified. In r9JG there
were ten companies engaged in life insurance (the uldest ttetiun
in 1374). with total assets of 34,$92 million markkaa. Uver
two million policies were in force; premiwns amounted to 6,699
million markkaa and claims paid 6,836 million markkaa. I'ifty-
five firnts were engaged in other than life insurance, with assets
of 39,4rz million markkaa; premiums paid during r955 were
Ig,ig7 million markkaa, claims paid r4,94z million markkaa.
There were. 252 sickness benefit societies with 133,213 mctnbers;
48 funeral aid societies with 86,695 members; 39 pensions
societies with 44,624 members.
In 1956, z6g local fire insurance associations were in opera-
tion with premium collections of 557 million markkaa and
claims paid, 3.37 million markkaa; g4 local livestock insurance
associations with premium collections of z5 million markkaa
and claims paid 16.8 million markkaa. 1'~'orkmen's compensation
and automobile third party insurance are compulsory. Other
forms of insurance include forest fire, glass, burglary, rain,
water damage, maritime, fidelity guarantee and credit, fishing
tackle.
a~SECUp.ITIES
There is an eschangc at Felsinki (established in 19rz) author-
ized to deal in stocks. Ie has a board of governors: six chosen
by the Helsinki chamber of trade, three by the banking as-
sociation, and .three by members of the exchange. Five of the
45 firms represented in the exchange in Ig57 were banks. In
1957 the total sales in the exchange amounted to 2,332 million
markkaa, of which 1,777.5 million represented industrial shares
(chiefly of such companies as the Kymmene, Finska Gummi,
Pargas, -and ~Vartsila), 370.4 million markkaa bank shares, and
42.1 million markkaa insurance shares. The general share
index in 1957 stood at 430 (Ig48=t;oo).
35PUBLlC FINANCE
Budget estimates are prepared by the Ministry of Finance and
submitted to parliament. They are referred to the finance com-
mittee and subsequently reported back to the legislature. Sup-
plementary budgets are usual.
State revenues and expenditures for Igg7 in thousands of
markkaa were as follows:
REVEN VES
Taxation 219,951,1 16
Public services 3,ry1g,616
Interest and dividends 17,573,294
Miscellaneous 31,351>530
State enterprises 2,112,832
Revenue proper 274,708,388
Capital revenue zo,18o,ry8ry
ESYENDITVRES
President of the republic 38,334
Parliament 5X4,041
Government and chancellor of justice 133,329
Government chancellery 37,415
Ministry for foreign affairs 840,654
Ministry of interior Iry,8go,g6g
Ministry of ;usti~~ ?1'~d Foa~~ease 2000/08/27
Ministry of Einar e~ 3,649,893
~sinistry of defense 11,80x,875
Minislry of education
x7,587,071
Ministry of agriculture
Ministry of communications
and public works
.15,795,968
Io,ryo6,471
Ministry of trade and industry
4,956,040
Ministry for social affairs
45,764,Ix8
Miscellaneous
4o,ry63,12I
Pensions and relief payments.
6,807,633
interest on public debt ~
7,ozo,43z
State enterprises and forests
I,86o,400
Expenditures proper
z98,66ry,o16
Capital expenditures-
aor,936,346
Finland's public debt (itt billions of markkaa) is summarized
below
D
EC. 1955
DEC. 1956
DEC. 1957
nEC.Igg8
Internal debt
55.7
66.6
6g.g
68.3
Ordinary Loans
43.0
50.7
52.9
6L5
indemnity bonds, etc.
6.8
~ 7.1
7.4
7.3
Short-term credit
-?
--
-
Lz
Cash debt (net)
S,g
8.8
g.6
1.7
External debt
61.3
61.5
81.8
79.0
TOTAL DEBT
IIry.a
Z28.I
151,7
147.3
(in millions of dollars) Sob.3, 554.5
472.7
459.8
By September 1958 the total debt had risen to 163.1 billion
markkaa ($So6.z million).
~;~TAXATCON
During x957 the state rt;venue from taxation amounted to
218,951 million markkaa, of which
.Direct taxes
(I,ODO MAR%%AA)
ry2,58o,601
Customs duties ~
41,6310735
Excise duties
19,46o,rya8
Stamp duties
ro,43z,6g5
Purchase tax
68,723,983
Automobile and motorcycle tax
Bryl,go4
Export levies
6,250,000
Of the direct tax revenue, q8% came from income and
property taxes. Taxpayers in 1455 in the various taxed income
groups were as follows:
TAXED INCOb1E
NVMHER OE TAXPAYERS
Izo,ooo- 299,999 markkaa
394,986
300,000- 499,999
331,4$9
500,000= 799,999
Io6,849
8oo,aoo-I,499,ggg
330305
I,Soo,oo0-3,999,999
8,828
4,000,000 and more
815
In the communes during 1957 the tax per loo markkaa of
income vas as follows: all communes r1.z4 markkaa; towns
11.98; .market towns 11.45; rural districts Io.3o, The taxed
income was (in Iaa,ooo markkaa): all communes 5,762,392;
towns 2,801,335; market towns 540,659; rural districts
2,420,348?
a7CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
In r957 the customs department reported a total revenue of
43,i2z million markkaa, of which 42,418 million markkaa were
derived from impart duties, 4 million markkaa from export
duties, the rest from miscellaneous fees and lines, The,pcrcentage
of state revenue obtained from customs was 19.8%; in 1938 it
had been 48.1 %? Duties, .bath specific and ~ ad valorem, have
.u~fiq?-'F~D~~~4~0~~41~(~4~~0~~ific rates
'in Ig55 were 15 times the prewar levels. Beginning in 1956
there bas taken place a progressive liberalization of trade condi-
 Approved For Rel~erse 2000/08/27 :,CIA-RDP78-03U6"fA000100050002-5
tines, including; duties. In the fall of r9yS the free list rc-
i~,rc~eutr..d about Sz;'~, of the total imports on private account
f.~;nx the principal ti'est European countries. There is as yet
no free port but there are free warehouse facilities in Iielsinki,
'Turku, and Hanko.
:i"Ft3REIGN INVESTMENTS
l~or a ~xumber of years only the state and the Bank aI Finland
wc;re able to negotiate long-term loans abroad, although in some
cases individual firms obtained credits an a state guarantee.
Private loans without such guarantee were few, alnxast ex-
clusively -for lxurchase of ships. Since 1958 these loans have
become mare frequent and medium-term import credits were
made available by different countries. The most important post-
svar public credits include an UIrTI~'RA loan of $3 million., an
h:xpart-Inxport Plank lawn of 4,Soo ntillion markkaa, and seven
loans from the IBRD totaling $roz million. Private import
credits were negotiated in West Germany 'chiefly, also in the
Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, UI~, and US. During r953
private credits. obtained from different countries totaled 4,400
million markkaa. The interest payments on all foreign loans
in rg~8 amounted to 3,goo million markkaa. I'reland's long-
term liabilities (in millions of markkaa) on 3r December 1958,
were:
UFti 5oa
Other EPU countries 43,$oa
USSR 6,400
US 34~3~
south America r,ryoo
IBRD r3,goo
roo,roo
3~ECONOAAIC PolICY
Problems arising from the war-reparations, loss of resources
in the ceded territories, compensation to the evacuated and
displaced population, and reconstruction-have dictated the
main lines of Finnish economic policy.
Reparations were originally fixed at $30o million (r938 price
level), payable in six years. They were subsequently scaled down
to $226.5 million payable in night years. The value of goods
delivered was very much higher in current prices; one carefully
`worked-out estimate put the total indemnity bill at $949 million
at 1944 prices (reparations plus impositions laid down in the
Paris Peace Treaty and Potsdam Conference). The reparations
pa}::::ats amounted to 6.4% of the total net product in r945>
declining to about z.1% in i95r: During the first year 78%
of all exports were reparations goods; the reparations payments
of the first six years were the .equivalent of 340,000 freight
carloads of goads. Finland's success in meeting these heavy
obligations was due mainly to four factors: (r) the rapid
development of industry and of productivity per worker; (z) a
favorable export situation for forest products; (3) foreign
capital investments and loans; (4) remission of most. of the
penalty payments on reparations.
Extensive governmental control of the economy was inevi-
table, over supplies, prices; wages, rents, foreign trade, and
foreign exchange. A crucial role was played by the Bank of
Finland, which was charged with maintaining the value of the
markka against serious inflationary pressures, safeguarding for-
eign exchanfie, creating employment, and stimulating industrial
expansion. Many of the controls have now been abandoned,
although not completely in reference to trade with the dollar
area and the Eastern bloc. Some growth in government-owned
assets amounted to 1 ~ y,965 million markkaa, and their earnings
in r957 reached Ig,zr4 million markkaa.
hinland has participated in the work of the :'~ordic Economic
Collaboration Committee, and views the proposed Nordic Com-
mon Market with cautious optimism.
4UHEALTH
Public health and medical personnel in r959 included 2,558
physicians (one -per r,7ra population), r,56z public. health
nurses, r,664 midwives, 7,03o nurses, 2,567 nurses' aides, z,75t
mental hospital nurses, r,657 dentists, 3rG dental technicians,
and Szo dispensing chemists.
In 1956 there were 360 civilian hospitals (zz5 general, 37
mental, z7 maternity, z8 tuberculosis, 43 epidemic diseases),
with a total of 34,886 beds (or eight per r,ooo inhabitants).
An overwhelming majority (324) were publicly owned.
In r958 the death rate was 8.9, the infant mortality rate 23.7
per thousand. Respiratory illnesses are common, but otherwise
the health standard is high. Public health laws, notably the
uniform Public Health Act passed during the war, establish
standards followed by the provincial and lacat autlxorities.
"5oCIA! WELFARE
In recent decades the social services have been greatly expanded
and diversified. Total social service expenditures during r956
were 91,r8r million markkaa, of which approximately 48%
was met by the central government, z3% by local governments,
z4% by employers, and 5?Jo by the beneficiaries. Total social
welfare expenditures in r955 amounted to ro.8% of the net
national income. The major social service areas are: (r) care
of the aged, disabled, and needy, (z) care of war victims:
~5'1daWS, orphans, invalids, displaced persons; (3) maternal and
child care: allowances for mothers, children, and families, loans
for establishing homes, vacations for .mothers, housekeeping
assistance, free school lunches; and (4) care of alcoholics and
vagrants.
Each local governmental unit is required to establish and
maintain a social welfare board under the supervision of the'
national Ministry far Social Affairs. There are also private
welfare organizations, some of which (like the Mannerheim
Child Welfare League) have won widespread recognition.
The Ministry for Social Affairs is also responsible for such
matters as health insurance, workers' protective legislation,
unemployment insurance, labor exchanges, and pensions. A new
national pensions law enacted on z3 May i95b widened the
coverage and increased the benefits. Expenditures under the
new law, which went into effect in 1957, are approximately three
times those under the 1937_ law.
4zHOUSING
The end of World War II found Finland facing a critical
housing shortage. Some 1 r z,ooa dwellings were lost in the ceded
territories, and homes had to be found for the displaced persons;
r4,ooo dwellings were severely damaged during the war; and
only a modest amount of new housing was built from 1939 to
r944? To deal with this situation, it was necessary to divert
large investments into construction. During postwar years as
much as r3% of the gross national product was devoted. to
building, compared to a prersar rate of around 9%. As high as
65% of the total investments was in this field. Government
participation, chiefly in making large-scale credit available on
reasonable terms, vas inevitable. Among other laws, the Land
Acquisition Act and the Arava Law stimulated building. During
1949-55 a total of 68,000 dwellings were built under the provi-
sions of the first law. During r94g-56, 48,800 million markkaa
in Arava funds were loaned; and about half of the building in
enterpriAp~"(~Jtedl~Qr Re~~IS~~O~~/2~ere6~lA-R~P7~Sa6v9iyll~:p~i ~Oq~fp~erj3a,7og dwellings
establishments owned entirely or largely by the state. Their built in 1957 {with a total of ro5,8zq rooms), nearly 54%
 :. ~
Approved For Release 200008/27:CIA-RDP78-03061A000100050002-5
Finland L43-467
tiverc built by private .individuals, 34?/o by housing or real
estate companies, 6 /o by communes. Overcrowded conditions
persist, especially in larger towns.
9:;~I?U-CATION -
Illitcracy is virtually nonexistent (o.z%). As long ago as the
17th century, church law required everyone to be able to read.
Compulsory school attendance dates from 19z1, at present be-
tween the ages of seven and r6. A new public school lacy came
info force an I August 19SS, replacing earlier statutes of z9z1,
1923, IgzG. The law provides for a regular primary schools of
six years, followed by.a so-called citizen's school of two years,
whose curriculum includes vocational and technical subjects.
The administration of the elementary schools is vested in local
school boards, subject to national supervision, Tuition is free,
as are books and school supplies, one hat meal a day, medical
and dental cluck.-ups. In 1959 there were 6,608 elementary
schools, with zS,zlz teachers and 6zz,331 pupils. The schools
receive .financial grants from the central government, which
in 1957 amounted to 18,761.7 million markkaa.
Postelementary students may continue their education either
at secondary vocational schools (5zo in 1957, with 4,689 teachers
and 45,3zz pupils) or at secondary schools (4zz, with .8,168
teachers and z61,S8z students) and subsequently at institutions
of higher lcai?ning. Onc third of the schools are state owned,
two thirds either by municipalities or privately. All receive
grants from the central government (amounting to 5,g~8.9 mil-
lion markkaa in Ig57), tuition costs are modest, and considerable
scholarship aid is available.
Higher education falls into three categories: (1) universities
and institutions of university status; (~) people's high schools
or colleges; (3) workers' academies. Entrance to the universities
is through annual matriculation examinations. There were 14
universities and institutions of university rank in 1957 (includ-
ing tour teachers' colleges), with a total of x,881 teachers and
1$,086 students. Among the best known are the University of
Helsinki (founded 1640), with 9,877 students in 1957; the
Finnish University at Turku (founded Igzz), with 1,801 stu-
dents; the Institute of Technology, with z,z58 students; the
Helsinki School of Economics, with I,zrz students. In addition,
there are Iz training schools for primary teachers and two for
kindergarten teachers.
People's high schools (which numbered 83 in x957, with 3zo
full-time -and part-time teachers and 6,344 students) and
workers' academies (9r with 149 full-time teachers and 53,380
participants) are evidence of the widespread interest in popular
or adult education. These ventures also receive state subsidies
wider certain conditions.
There are other educational institutions such as the Sibelius
Academy and the Drama School of the National Theater.
'~LiBRARIES AND MU5EUMS
Finns are a book-reading people (over z,ooo titles published
annually), and libraries play a significant role. In 1957 there
were 553 central public libraries and 3,z7z branch and institu-
tional libraries. Their total holdings reached nearly five million
volumes; approximately II million books were borrowed during
1956. State subsidies cover about half of the actual operating
costs of libraries, and in 1956 they amounted to 77 million
markkaa.
There are 17 scientific and university libraries, the most
important being the Library of Parliament, the University of
Helsinki Library (its Slavic division is world famed), the Library
of the Finnish Litxerary Society (unriva]ed folklore collections),
is~magnifi elnt)~N~fr~~%'~~~'I~'~`I~'c~$'~s~0~~~'~~'7
The museum movement has grown rapidly since the war, and
there are more than 300, representing a wide range of interests.
Among the better known are: the outdoor museums at Seura-
saari (Helsinki) and Turku; the Mannerheim, National, and
municipal museums and the Athenaeum art gallery in Helsinki;
the Turku castle and cathedral; the Runeberg museum at
Porvoo.
9?'ORGANIZATIONS
The right to organize is guaranteed by the constitution, and
organizations have come to play a central role in alI areal of
Finnish life. As is well known, the cooperative movement is
highly developed. In 195(1 there were approximately 5,700 local
cooperative associations in diverse fields (food stores, creameries,
credit societies, meat packing, egg sales, forest products, machin-
ery, peat moss, sawmill, electricity, telephone, housing, bull
breeding), with a combined membership of nearly two million
persons and annual sales of 313 billion markkaa.- The major
cooperative wholesales or central organizations in 1957 were:
CENTRAL ORGANIZATION NUMBER OF SALES CAPITAL
AFFILIATED (in million markkaa)
COOPERATIVES
SOK (wholesale)
OTK (wholesale)
Elankkija (wholesale agriculture)
Valio (year IgSG/57}
(butter exports)
Tuottajain Lihakcskuskunta
(meat producers)
Ikarjakunta (meat producers)
Muna (egg export)
blctsaliitio (1956/57)
(private forest owners)
370
55,47z.a
3,z5o.7
zz4
49,z7o?7
4,z72,6
563
z9,317?z
777.6
3z7
36,454.5
r,o57.5
z3
3,398.9
z37.6
z6g
5,7zo.z
z53.5
zz6
gzz.z
20.4
-
4,I18.0
SIO.G
Osuuskasso~en Keskus 563 zz,77a.3 (loans) z,zoo.o
(a credit society)
Labor (agriculture) 8g z,Gz2.o z77?z
Emigheten (butter and cheese
The cooperatives, found both in rural and urban areas, have
developed extensive educational and informational programs;
there is a lively cooperative press and many training schools.
In this field of activity such organizations as the Pellervo
Society for the rural cooperative movement and the KK
(F:ulutusosuuskuntien Keskusliitto) play important initiating
and coordinating roles.
Occupational and trade associations are numerous. In agri-
culture the most influential ,include the Federation of Agricultural
Producers (Maataloustuottajiiin Keskusliitto}, the Federation
of Small Farmers (Pienviljelijain Keskusliitto) and. the Federa-
tion of Agricultural Societies (Maatalousseurojen Keskusliitto).
In industry and commerce ;Ire' the Finnish Industrial- Federation
(Suomen Teollisuusliitto), :Federation of I-iandicrafts and Small
Industry (Kasi ja Pienteollisuus Keskusliitto), Federation of
Private Enterprisers (Yksityisyrittajain Liitto), and the Finnish
Foreign Trade Association (Suomen Ulkomaankaupp3liitto).
There is a Helsinki chanrber of commerce and a Central
Chamber .of Commerce of Finland (Suomen Keskusauppaka-
marl).
Most influential cultural and philanthropic organizations in-
clude the Finnish Academy, the Finnish Cultural Fund (Suomen
Iiulttuurirahasto), and the Wihuri Foundation, At the level of
international cooperation are such organizations as the Norden
societies and the League for the United Nations (Kansalaisjar-
jestojen YK-liitto).
:'011~~P~?P78-03061 A000100050002-5
Freedom of press is guaranteed by the constitution, and there
is no peacetime censorship. In Ig57 there were z94 newspapers
 FApproved For ReFeese 2000/08/27 :, CIA-RDP78-03b'~1A000100050002-5 sss
' errio:~~ l47--Sol
in 't~:,a?auuring 195q, 291,724 foreign passengers arrived in the
country, of whom 70,16$ came by sea, 44,392 by air, and
237,264 by land. The largest numbers of tourists came from
Sweden (169,678), Germany (15,530), Norway (Ig,zz7), US
(9,IG5), the UK (8,IO5), USSR (7>431), and Denmark (6,189).
48FAM?US ~IId1~1$ ,
Great Finnish literary figures include Elias Lonnrot (ISoz-84),
compiler of the national epic, the Kalevala; Johan Ludwig
Runeberg (1804-77), the mast important of the Igth century
Finnish-Swedish writers, known for his -Elk Hunters and Songs
of Ensign Stdl; Aleksis Kiwi (1834-72), the founder of modern
Finnish-language literature, author of The Seven Brothers;
Juhani Aho (1361-Ig2r), master of Finnish prose; Eino Leino
(iS78-Igz6), perhaps the greatest lyrical poet to write in Fin-
nish; and Frans Eemil Sillanpaa (b. 1888), a Nobel prize winner
(1939),. known to English-language audiences through his Meek
Heritage and The Maid Silja. Popular with US fiction readers
is Mika Toimi Waltari (b.Igo8). Edward Alexander Wester-
marck (1862-IgS9) was a noted anthropologist.
Major political figures of the Igth century were Johan
Vilhelm Sncllrnan (Iu~o6-HI) and Georg Zachris Yrjo-Koskinen
.(1830-Igo3). Inseparably linked with the history of independent
(b.z3gg~>. A leading sculptor is t~'aino ~'l'oldemar Aaltonen (b.
1;941. Finnish music has been dominated by the name of
Johan (Jean) Julius Christian Sibelius (18G5-Ig57). Three
representative painters are Albert Edelfelt (1854-1905), Axel
Gallen-$alicla (ISGS-1931), and Pekka Iialonen (1865-1933)?
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (b.1895) won a Nobel prize in chemistry
in 194J. An outstanding athlete was Paavo Johannes Nurmi
(b.1897)?
4"DEPSNDE9VCIE5
Finland has no territories or colonies.
~6BfBLIbGRAPHY
Aaltoncn, Esko. Consatnter
KK, Igg4.
Cooperation in Finland. Helsinki:
Brotherus, Karl Robert. Katsarts Sttoane~z valtiollisen jarjestys-
vurodon lcistorialliseeu kekitykseen. Helsinki: Soderstrom,
2948.
Cederberg, Arno Rafael. Suomcn Itusinta laistoriaa 1898-r94z.
Helsinki: Soderstrom, Ig43?
Fiula~zd Year Book r94q. Helsinki: Mercator, Ig47?
Grano, Johannes Gabriel, and others. Suomi: A Gee:eral Hand-
book on the Geography of Finla~td. Helsinki: Geographical.
'Society of Finland, z95z. (Fennia, Vol, 7z.)
Halila, Aimo Oskari. Sztonzerz kansakoululaitoksen
Helsinki: Soderstrom, 2949-50. 4 vols.
Jackson, John Hampden. Finland. London: Allen
z94o.
Jutikkala, Eino Kaarlo Ilmari. Suo~~ien talonpojan I2istoria.
Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2953.
Juva, Einar Wilhelm, ed. Srronzcn kausan aikakirjat. Helsinki:
Otava, 193y-38. Io vols.
Korhonen, Arvi, ed. Suonzen
derstrom, 2949. z vols.
historian kdsikirja. Helsinki: So-
Laine, Yrjo Kullervo. Sstonterz poliittise~z tyoviienliikkeezz histo-;
ria. Helsinki: Tammi, 1946. 3 vols.
Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil von. The Memoirs of Marshal
Mannerheim. New York: Dutton, x954?
Mead, William R. Farming i~t Finland. London, Athlone, r953?
Oittinen, Reino Henrik. Tyovae~tkysymys ja tyifvderlliike Suo-
mesa. Helsinki: Tammi, 2948.
Onza Maa. Helsinki: Soderstrom, zz vols. (6 already published),
' 1959?
Paasivirta, Juhani, ed. Suonzen poliittinen tyovaenliike, 1899-
? rggq. Helsinki: Kansanvalta, x949?
Platt, Raye Roberts. Finland and ,its Geography. New York:
American Geographical Society, 2955?
Shearrnan, Hugo. Finland: The Adventures of a Small Power.
London: Institute of World Affairs, z95o.
Strode, Hudson, Finland Forever. New York: Harcourt Brace, .
r95z?
Suolahti, Gunnar, and others. Sztoauen kulttzrurishistoria. Jyvas-
kyla: Gummerus, x933-36. 4 vols.
Srto~nen tilastollinen vuosikiria. Helsinki: Central Statistical
Office, new series Igo4-date.
Tanner, Vaino Alfred. The Witter War. Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1957?
Unitas. Helsinki: Pohjoismaiden Yhdyspankki, 2929-date.
Vallinkoski, Jorma Vaino, and Henrik Schauman. Sztomen
historiallinen bibliografia rq~6-rgjo. Helsinki: Finnish His-
torical Society., 1955-56. 2 vols.
Wuorinen, John Henry, ed. Finland and ?ll'orld War II. New
York: Ronald, 1948.
Finland is Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil von Mannerheim (2867- Wuorinen, John Henry. Nationalism in Modern Finland. New
1951). T~of Ainl~~an 9~ arct~ec s are w 11 nown abroad: t
Eliel sa l~r ~ ~ ~r ~~~~(21~aLtc>~IA-R7~~'~i~'~~~~0~~~3f~~~-5
 Approved For Release
AS A LEADIlVG LIGHT
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STATECRAFT AiVD FOREIGN`"' FFAIRS:
In HisCory Of Moscow Khr, ushchev is pictured as the man who produced the
general plan far the reconstruction of Moscow, and as the man who guided and .
directed the axchitects in rebuilding and modernizing the city.
In the voluminous Universal His orY, published by the USSR Academy of
Science, we read quotations from Khrushchev speeches which indicate his
ability to prognosticate future developments of the world.
In 1961 publications of the CPSU under the title International Relations And
Foreign Polite Of The USSR, Khrushchev is quoted and described as the angel
of peace, leader of nations, and outstanding pacifist, :.:On:the>..;.subject of Khrush~
chevs visit to the 15th session of UN we read as follows: "Despite the fact
that Khrushchev's presence isi: New York coincided with the presidential campaig:c+
his presence in the USA became "the center of political life in America, relegat~:Y~.s
the election campaign to the second place." (Page 5?5,)
Similar quotations and expressions can be found in a special edition of 2
volumes, devoted to the Khrushchev trips to India, Burma:, Indonesia. and
Afganistan, launched as party academic publications in 1961 under the title
The Awakening East.
AS A UNIVERSAL GENIUS- WITH UNDERSTANDING AND INITIATIVE IN
CULTURE, LITERATURE, S'CICIOLOGY AND SCIENCE:
In the CPSU's publication "Communist", (No, ]2 fox 195?) there was an
article by Khrushchev under the title "For the Closer Union of literature and?
Art WithLife of the Dilation". -This article has been reprinted and quoted in
many other Soviet publications, -- in magazines, newspapers and iui separate
pamphlets. Hie pronouncements on the subject became the bible and the guide
for all those who tried to carry out and enforce the "party line", In the third
volume of The His~or~r Of Soviet Literature (1961 publication of the USSR Academy
of Science) there is a statement which says: "N. S. Khrushchev demonstrated
to all of us the real meaning of and the implications of what constitutes 'the
genuine and the ct~nscious creative freedom' '!, In the magazine "New World"
for September 1961, in an editorial entitled "The Greatest Document of oux
epoch", Khrushchev's pronouncements are identified a.s~"the guiding rule for
all Soviet people in their daily life and actions".
AS A FATHER OF HiS PEOPLE AND A BENEFACTOR OF HUMANITY
STRIVIlVG FOR THE PEACE OF THE WORLD,
In a populax book by P. Lopatin, Khrushchev is described as a man who
has opened wide horizons for the family of the Soviet peoples, aid as the man
who , in promoting technical accomplishments, has contributed enormously
to the material as well as the spiritual-treasures of Soviet people. In
Literaturnaya Gazeta of September 16, 1961, in the article under the title
"Son of the People" we read: "Every word pronounced by Nikita Sergeevich
is imbued with the deepest respect for the- work of those who create everything
valuable on this earth. The people are reciprocating to him with their deepest
love and affection. You can depend on our Nikita". And so on and so forth in
same vein. Stories about the Khrushchev's fathexly benevolence to the masses
are producing hundreds if not thousands ofarticles; quotations and references
appear in all publications, and all official speeches refer to him or to his
pronouncements- in this vein.
The personality cult of Stalin i~ dead. But the personality cult of Khrushchev
is second to none and all indications are that it will reach, if not surpass, that
created around Stalin.
The cult of personality remains, -- it is a built-in, inevitable a:nd essential
part of the communist authoritarian system -- only the main character changes.
(End)
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The Creation of An Image
Authoritarian communism. is dependent upon the existence of an idealized
leader to justify its authority. If there is no uniquely endowed individual, .the
Party creates one.' The -p~iblic 'image of Stalin was $he result of a well developed
campaign?in which all of the cha.xactexistics of a charismaitic leader were ~ .
attributed to him. That image has now been destroyed al.xriost single hancledly
day the man who is replaci~ig him as the infallible, wise and good leader of the
roople, All protests of the Soviets 'and their puppet leaders to the coiitrary,
their explanations that "individuals represent collective leadership and the ?
ssence Qf communist society" and that there is no 'cult of personality" around
any communist leader, do not coincide with the facts. Sorne techni+~ues used
by the corrtm.unists tc- create.a cult ,of persoi~.ality, ixi this :instance around the
figure cif Nikita Khrushchev, are noted bxie#ly in'the~ pass~.ges below. ?
A5 A LEADER OF THE .PARTY AND THE GOVERNMEI'JT:AND.?A .HER.C)
GAF THE CIVIL WAR
The Histor Uf Moscow, publication "of the USSR Academy of Science.
Khrushchev is not mentioned in the first five volumes, bui: the sixth volume,
omits the name of Stalin entirely while rne?ntioning Khrushchev nine times.
The Histor ~C)f The C'.ivil War In The USSR, publication of CPSU, Moscov~r.
The' first three-volumes, published under ? Stalin, contain only one casual
mention c-f K:hrushchev. The fifth volume, published in 19'59 azzd 1964, however?,
is Yieavily interspersed with quotations from Khrushchev'~~ speeches, arranged
to impress the reader with .his importance as a national hero of the civil war -~
despi?~e. the well known fact that the highest position occupi~ecl by Khrushchev
duxin:g this period was as a student at the Party school of the Ninth Soviet Arm.y~
This fact does not prevent the official Soviet historians from including N. S,
Khrushchev i.xx the categaxy of the "party leaders,. collaborators and, disciples
of V, I, Lenin who organized the victory of the Great Revolution"., (Page 314
History Of The. Communist P~ Of The USSR 1959). ~ .
AS A PARTY PHILC~SC3PHER AND THEORETICIAN:
Up to 1957 nothing was recorded on the subject. In 1958, however, in an
article. iii the USSR A.cadeYx.y of Scienc:e's periodical ''Questcins of Philosophy"
{ ~ p g g? ?v ?and.A. D. Shershuxiov quote Khrushchev
No. ll a es 3.5-39) `? A V. Shche to .:. ?
a s though lie ? were ari outstanding the oretic fan ~ and s oc ioloj;is~.
, ? .
In 1959 the praise of Khrushchev as a theoretician becomes more pxonoui~cea
and we read.'-~~"The principl:~ cif Marxism-Leniiisni reee;ivod thQoretical
developxnerit and elaboration iri the .report by N. 5 Khrushchev to the 21st Party
Coiigres3..'. The problems of the building ,~f the new stages ;in the developxnerrt
of commu~isrn in USSR received creative andiimaginative treatmeiYt in the
report of the N. S..Khrushchev to'the 21st Party Congress". (Histor 'C7f The
Cornmuiiist Pam Uf The USSR, 1959, page ?72~,) '
Tn 1961 the stature of Khrushchev as a theoreticiar~.:and philosopher Iooms
still larger and acadernicion. M. Minn in his article "Comrnunisxn and State",
published in Pravda., 23 September 1961, omits any passage from Marx or Lenin
while quoting Khrushchev as an authority on the subject, In tribute to Khrushchev
the philosopher and thinker, his speeches are being published in millions of `
copies and, at the present time, complete works by Khrushchev are appear-
ing ixi Moscow on expensive `{per and with expensive bindings. The circulation
is I44,`040 sets. Besides this, the following publications are already in
circulation;. Peace Without The Armaments- Peace Without .The Wars (2 volumes,
Moscow 1964, 952-pages); For Peace, Disarmament And Freedom Of Now
(Moscow 1964, 336 pages); The Forei n Polic Cif The USSR (2 volumes, Moscow
1961, .12.87 pages); .The C;ontxoll~ Fi~ures__Tn The Develo?~ment In The National
Econ_^om~r (Moscow 195, I4~ pages, 2 million copies.
(continued)
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 (Cont.) ~ ~ ~ _ 4 December 1961
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"Its tied up with so many they factors ~~- th.is developme of the Eastern
European cauritries. Its development partly resulted from the last war, and
partly conditioned by feax of future waxs. See what happened in Hungary --
terrible thing that .happened,.iri.Hungary. Arid?yet I'thixtk that probably the .
,.
reason fox that was the fear that it was going to lead to a World War. Just
at that tame a different invasion by the g'rench and the British was taking
place... Ancl it lookeri a:Imost.as though it was going to burst into a World Wax. ;.
If so, the Russians ~-'the Soviets were going to take nog chances in Hungary . ?
joining the enemy. You saes. it's their instinct of self-preservation--: They
bohaved in a brutal rnar 'in Hungary.
STEYENSONi t1Non-alignment, Mr. Prime Minstet', ~ is -- serves a
useful,puspUSe.:~in-the U~iited Nations: It ~apears negotiations between the align;d.
countries. It ha,s the ef~ct of sustaining pressure tin 'them in.peaeeful
directions. It serves many --;it's been a guide to public opinion around the
world .-- serves very many useful purposes: But when norS.~alignrnent leans.
one way or the ~ other -= one way more than the other - - it .-does have the effect
of provoking extremism. And it also has the effect of encauragixsg the Soviet
Union to mare extreme adventure s, and this ~ ?~ turn would lead to the Barrie in
this country, and also to loss of confidence in the United Nations.
"I think this problem is something that you have to deal with all the time.
We have felt, with respect to grour delegation; that frequently we don't share
the common views orx political issues in`the United Nations, but we do respect
your non-alignment. And ~ otYier issue's,' in the field of colonialism, in the
field of executive action by the United Nations; `in?the Congo, in .the Middle
East, and so on that you've just mentioned, here we' find common ground, and
I should like very much to take this occasion while you are here with me this-
marning to ,express the gratitude of my government for the service that India
has rende.xed in the effort to unify the Congo, and in many othcix cases, to ?
establish a United Nations prasence, to use this instrumentality more effec-
tively.t'c? preserve peace,ir~. the~tzrorld:' I think it's been a vexy useful service
and I'm, very grateful to you,' ~s'i.r.'! .
NEHRUs "Non-alignment is a b~xsic policy, but in its application to
particular circumstances or resolutions, that is a muter of judgment. Non-
alignment... the background that governs our thinking, but then (in regard ?~
to resolutions, `it's not as if because we are non-aligned we must agree or
not agrea to soxxethg:`; ~;:a:that requras a?n independent judgment as to which
is likely to lead (to the object we've aimed at ?), ~ We do avoid, generally
speaking,i we .may not succeed always -- we try to avoid mere condemnations
which often.rn.ake at ci3fficult to bring the differing gspcrups.together.
"But in regard to particular things, we should expr+sss our> opinion clearly
-
-
in regard to achieviii:g''results.: It is -not a result in our opiszion. merely to .
~
~~
y
=-11
rnay be ~neces,sa:ry sorriatime"s
'T'ha.t
damn somebodx.
? S'I'EV''ETVS~N ?,"We.don''t -- you see?, we`find it d:iffcult?to~nnder?~stand
how India can take`s. pcis?itioin of ixnp~.~tialaty between nuclear tests'by>the
United States and th?e Soviet Union. This form of non-alignment, of trying...
to find a.positiarr of non-identification between right and wrong, or good and
evil, can,. I'm .sure you'll -appreciate, cause some confusion in this country.'.'
NEHRU'. ? "fihere is no difficulty in choosing betweenn right and wrong;' i?
the question appears rin that sense; 'It doesri't? always`appear clearly in -that
way, between wii:ite s.xicl? black.' ' fibers ? are zriany sha'de~s 'of gray. Brut"aga?iu,
the question,, is ;what you ~.re aiming at, I do not quite know what-you have in
;the fact that the Sotriet ?Urxion?'re e~xrneid nuclear tests `.was : a
"Obviously,
,
vexy bad thing; bad ?fi~orn everypoint of vieui; its resrzlts~ and in its` bxeach. .
of a covenant -'- voluntary?covenaxit,` no`doubt!- still`it:.ws.s bads=- ?bad'i.n.~itself
-- it was a bad example if followed by others, and 3t vitiated-the ?atrnasplze.re
of earning togetk~er.. All that wa.s vexy bad.
(c antinued)
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 4 December 1961
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Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Ambassador Adlai Stevenson Tallc 'on TV
Excerpts from a TV exchange, recorded at the US UN Headquarters at New
York on 12 November 1961 and broadcast by WABC -TV the; following day.
Participants;. Adlai Stevenson and Jawaharlal Nehru of India.
NEHRU: "Broadly, non-alignment- means not tying yourself up with blocs
of nations - - .nations or relations - - that is, trying . to view things a s far as
possible not from the military point of view, though that has to come in
sometimes, and tryixxg to view matters independently, and trying to maintain
friendly relations with all cowries, " .
5TEVEN5t7N: "That's one thing I haven't been. able to understand lately.
Here we've seen refugees shot in cold blood under the barbed wire in Berlin,
we've seen the double-dealing of the Soviet Union in respect to nuclear tesfix?g,
and now the detonation of an enormous bomb with the- consequence, and many
others, dire consequences for the human race, and yet I don't see that thin
stirs up the kind of indignation among the non-aligned pec-ple that one would
suspect, that one would anticipate."
NEHRU: "You're right, Governor, to some extent. I think that you'll
find almost everyone deploring this, but you're right that the degree of
indignation may be lesser elsewhere than in the United States. -That depends
cn how it affects them personally. Now suppose there is a nuclear test in
~3frica. The African nations would be wild. Nat that the thing is the same
whether it's in Africa or Europe or somewhere else, but it's near their door
they personally are affected by it, and they'll shout.
"You can .only exp7.ain that by past conditioning of all these countries. At
the Belgrade Conference, we had a majority o? African countries, newly
independent, who ~.re .full of their awn problems, and the rest of the world
doesn't seem to exist for them except vaguely as an imperialist-colonialist
world, against~hich they are fighting to free themsQlves. Yau-see, on that
background, -which they've grown into, they react accordingly. 4f course if
you put it to them that this is very bad -- they did say so at Belgrade -- is
very bad and should not:have been done and so on, but, having said, so, they
reverted to their own problems."
STEVENSON: "Haven't we in the United States shareid the attitude of
?aadia -- your attitude about calox~ialism and about what you mentioned was
such a concern at Belgrade -- and also about self-deterr~Yination, and I
believe we share your views that this should be the objective of -- for all
peoples everywhere -- but we think it should. be for peoples everywhere, and
not just North and South but also East and West. And that this great wave of
independence that has swept the world and freed a billion people and created
42 new nations, I think, since the war, hasn't reached same of the other
regions of the world -- I speak specifically of Eastern Europe, where govern-
ments have been imposed on the people. by force of arms and are maintained
in that manner.
"Isn't it -- wouldn't it be true that if colonialism ancL non-colonialism and
self-determination applies to Africa, that it should also apply to Eastern Europe,
and give those people an equal opportunity for self-determination ?"
NEHRU: "Yes,. that would be an ideal thing, but there is a difference in
the type obviously. There is the old-style colonial type ?in Africa or Asia,
and this is not that type at all. It is ;not colonialism; it is a domination of a
certain group or party, aided by outside (interference ?j from another country.
Now I dislike the, second thing also but it is different. It?s --,those elements
that run to farm of other colonialisms do not apply here, and -- but it may be,
of course, and sometimes is, that the second type is even worse-from the
human point of view than the other,
(continued
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"There~s no question of putting it in the same category as any other ~-
the U, S, government staxted its tests underground -- (WORDS UNCLEAR) --
but then the thing is about the future -- for us to say, well,.. the Russians have
had a go, therefore it's only right that the Americans should have time to ga
ahead doing the same thing to equalize -- that creates difficulties.
"The Russians are completely wrong, no doubt, but when we think a
thing is evil -- that is, nuclear tests -- we have to say at every stage T+ao more:
It isn't a question of equalizing, although Russia may have possibly, i don't
know, gained an advantage by some tests -- I can't / saw/.
"That bec ame s a political, technical que scion, a military qua scion, call
it xvhat you Like, in which we are not ixi a position to judge. But in this
particular matter, obviously, it was Russia that took the steps that we consider
very wrong; "
STEVENS4N: "Well, I+m very glad to hear you say the other day that you
were -- that you believed the solution of this matter was in the exec~.tian of a
treaty p~ovidin.g for control and 'inspection of nuclear weapons, and the sooner
the better, "
NEHRU: "You see, the alternatives are so terrible to contemplate: The
reality facing the world today, ~ thexets a nuclear war, is so {amazing ?)
in its consequences that you can acarcely (write ?) it, and I'm quite aura nabcle
wants it in the woxld. $ut certain basic, we 11, urges of an out-of-date men-
tality govern nations, and so they take step by step until it becomes a matter
of national honor not to retire, not to submit to something, and then you have
wars; "
O {End)
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 {Cant.) 'December 1961
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"It's tied up with so many other factors ~+~-this development of the Eastern
European countries. Its development partly resulted fxom the last war, and
partly conditioned by fear of future wars. See what happened in Hungary --
texrible .thing that happened in Hungary. And yet I think that probably the
reason for that was the fear ths.t'i~ was going to lead to a World War. Just
at that time a different invasion by the French and the British was taking
place. And it looked almost as though it we.s going to burst into a World War.
If so, the. Russians -- the Soviets were going to take. no chances in Hungary
joining the enemy. You see, 'it's their instinct of self-preservation-~. They
behaved in a brutal manner in Hungary,
STEVENSON: "Non-alignment, I~Jtr. Prime Minister, is -- serves a
useful puxpase ixi the United Nations. It .ape~.rs negotiations between the aligned
countries. It has the effect of sustaining pressure an them in peaceful
directions. It serves many -- it's been a guide to public opinion around the
tivorld -- serves very many"useful purposes. But "when non-alignment Leans
~*~ way or the other -- one way : e than the other -- it does have the effect
:~f provoking extremism. And~?=~~]s`o has the effect of encouraging the Soviet
Union to more extreme adventure s, and. this i.;~ turn would lead to the same in
this country, and also to loss of confidence in the United Nations.
"I think this probleix~. is something that you have to deal with all the time.
tNe have-felt, with respect to ~rour delegation, that frequently we don't share
the common views an political issues in .the United Nations, but we do respect
your noxi.?ali:gnment. And in other issues, in the field of colonialism,. in the
field of executive action by the United.Nations, in the Congo, in the Middle
East, and so on that you've just. mentioned, here we find common ground, and
I should like very much to take this occasion wiaile you are here with me this
morning to express the gratitude::af my government for the service that ?audio
has- rendered in the effort to unifgthe Congo, and in many othtrr cases, to
establish a United Nations presence, to use this instrumexrtality more effec-
tively to pxe serve peace in the world. I -think it's been a very useful service
and I'm-very grateful to you, sir."
NEHRU: 'Non-aligrrnent is a basic policy, but isY its application to
particular circumstances or resolutions, that is a m~.tter of judgment. Non-
alignment.... the background that governs our thinking, but then: {in regard ?~
to resolutions, it's not as if because we are non-aligned we must agree or
not agree to something. that requires an independent judgment as to which
is likely to lead {to the object. we've aimed at 7), We do avoid, generally
speaking, we may not.. succeed~y"s -- we try to avoid mere condemnations
which often make it difficult to~.ixua?g the differing gs~oups together.
-... >.
"But in regard to particular things, we should express our opinion clearly
in regard. to achieving results. It is not a result in our opinion merely to
damn somebody. That may be necessary- sometimes --"
STEVENSON: "We don't -- you see, we find it difficult to undertstand
how India can take a position of impartiality between nuclear tests by the
United States and the Sovi#~t Union. This form of non-alignment, of trying
to find a position of non-identification between right and wrong, ar good and
evil, ran, I'm sure you'll appreciate, cause some confusion iri this country."
NEHRU: "There is no df~cuTty in choosing between right and wrong, if
the question appears, in that sense. It doesn't always appear clearly in that
way, between white and black. There are many shades of gray, But again
the question is what you are aiming at. I do not quite- know what you have in
mind, Governor, about nuclear tests.
"Obviously, the fact that the Soviet Union resumed nuclear tests was a
very bad thing, bad from every point of view, its results, and in its breach
of a covenant -- voluntary covenant, no doubt -- still it was bad --bad in itself
-- it was a bad example i# followed by atriera, a.nd. it vatiated the atmosphere
of coming together. Ali. that was very bad.
(continued)
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 ? 4 December: 1961
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Prime Minister 3awaharlal ~te~ru and Ambassador Adla;i Stevenson Talk an TV
- r.r I r r ^n rW.1.~.rilR~q~I~~R~ nom.
E~ccexpts"from a TV exchange, recorded at the US UN H~eadquartexs at New
Yoxk on l2 November 1;961 and broadcast by wA~C -TV' the following day.
Participants: Adlai Stevenson and 3awaha"rl,al Nehru of 3:ndia.
NEHRUi "$roaclly, non-alignment means. not tying yourself up with blocs
of "nations '-- nations or xelations -- that "is", trying to view things as far as
passible not from the military point of view;, though that- has to come in
sometimes, and trying to view matters independently, `and trying to xna~intain
friendly xelations with all countries."
STEVENSQN: "That's one thing I Haven't.been able'to understand lately.
I-iexe we've seon refugees shot. in cold blood under tl7e bax~beci wire in Berlin,
we've seen the double-dealuxg of the Soviet Union in respect to nuclear test~~:~~
and now the detonation of an' enormous bomb with the consequence, and many
ethers, ,dire consequences for the human race, anal yet ;[ don.'t see that thi,
stirs up the kind of indignation among the xion-aligned people that one would
suspect, that one would anticipate."
r
NEH.RU: "You'_re right, Governor, to some extent, I think that you'll
find almost everyone deploring this,- but you're right th
rlanned economies do not lend themselves to the type of analysis attempted
zn this Survey', This second ci~nsideration also prevents the inclusion of
'Yu,goslavia. The territory covered by the present Survey thus includes the
-a~ncommunist Western-oriented countries of Europe, the economies of which
a.re largely responsive to the. free play of market forces rather than government
fiat.
1 CE OF EUROPE
This small area is thus one of the most prosperous and productive regi~aY
f th 1
PYRGHT ~~~ western art of the eo ra her's Euro e
p g g p p possesses an. economic az~c`.
cultural importance out. of all proportion to its size. With. only 3 percent of the
~~~orld's land surface and 10 per cent of its population and no longer. possessed
..;?~ natural resources of great variety and abundance, the people, of Western
.i?:urope create case to 25 percent of the world's national income, produce
nearly 2~J percent of the world's food supply, 30 percent of the steel and nearly
F~.s large a propt~r#ion of the coal' and account for 40 percent of the foreign trade
of the world.
of war-damaged plants was followed by steady e~tpan-
~ion and rriocier~nizatian ?pf ,productive facilities, which Y.~a.ye resulted in much more
~:~tensive and persistent gains..in E~uropean? productivity during the past decade
+.han have been ~ac.hieved. in.; other parts cif` the -free worldl. .Ai.s ;a result,
Western Europe's.more than 30U million peciple, today e:n~oy a s#andard of living
far higher than ever before .and at ~:ee~st a third above tb~at of the smaller
'nu'mber who;were;~living, in-thee same'ter.ritory before 'World-War II.
SOCIAL PROGRESS
This remarkable productive achievement has been accompanied by social
and political developments of: equally great-significance;,, Although fears of wide-
spread nationalization have pro,vecl to be without fpundatian, national govern-
rnents have come to accept .responsibility; far m`bre than ever before, for the
?~se of monetary and~;fiscal powers to promote full employment and economic
growth and t o protect the individual against economic ,lu~;zards. Though its roots
extend far into the past, the .welfare'.-state has came intc~ full flower in Western
Europe only in the postwar years:.rFull er~ploytnent, higher -real wages and- such
social provisions as farriily allowances and subsidized.,housing have greatly
_;a~nproved the economic position. of those at the base of the ancome pyramid.
ti~teeply progressive income;taxea~;~and.? sharp increases in the caste of domeartic
and other personal services.have brought a~radical alteration in the living
standards of those at the upper i.ncorne levels.
These changes,. whichl~.ave? gone furthest in the xiorthern industrial
countries and are hardly yet. substantial' it'the' poorer .countries of the soutli, are
bringing profound changes ~n the .s:ocial` hierarchy and, a tranaformatian iri the
character of t he market for cor~sume'r gciads in Europe. The traditional class
saci.ety and the class markets organized to supply necessities to the poor and
luxury goods to the rich have not yet~'disag~'eared, but na vbserwer can fail to
note.the emergence of a new attitu.cle ~on tho;part c#'cansum.ers and suppliers
alike. What was formerly a class society"characteirized bsr wide differences in
income and manner of living has. become a i'~iuch more democratic comrriunity
wit~e a.rnuch narrower range of spendable income. The trend towards income
eyqu alization means that far the first time. the average family ca,ncontemplate
the purchase of types. 'of goods, such as washing machine; s, ,refrigerators,
television sets and automobiles, that were previously out of reach. Manufacturers
are' responding to this new. mass demand by developing ~;nase..productivn of
standardized articles, as their American counterparts have been d~aing since the
1920s~~: , . ,
Political,ly~as. ~wel1 a.s .eectxaomieally Western Eurc-.pe has emerged- stronger
than before World Wa'r II.-.,The threat of eamxnunism fras~;a within-and without;
which seemed'so~ menacing immediately after the war, ~~ receded promptly as a
. 2 (C rrntinue d)
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caY~i~t~1o o pu c and p vote enterprise proved equal tc~ the tasks of restor-
ing full employment and expanding production, Government wartime controls were
were soon disca.rded~; though in some, countries at the price of considerable
inflation. F~,n,c~tiariizlg democratic. gover~;ment has beerirestored in most of the
countries wliere''it ?was abandoned during, the interwar period or' under enemy
..... ~s~ ~_ - - - ~..
ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
FQrernost...amang postwar political developments are the attempts at
closer econoxxiic - sand in same.ca.se.s political -integration. Hitherto for
?ecades, and' in many cases for centuries., :the countri es'of Europe held tena-
ciously to their individual separate existences, thei r separate sovereign gov-
'.rntnents, their- separate defense establishments and economic policies.
?.=a.t since-the 'e`nd of World War Il,.the N1~.~':Q member nations have surrendered
..ach of t ki~;i:r military autan.amy,to en.su.re a stronger common defense. In the
":-:EC (arid its successor organization, .the OECD) the nations of Western
!~ u.r~pe hz~ve movedtowards the voluntary coord~.nation of economic ?policies.
3elgiurri Lugcex?nbourg and..the 11TetherlancJ,s. established Belelux, a customs union
~;~rhich has been functioning fox.severa2.years: 'Tbe.'European Coal anc~ steel
--?~rr~xnunit+cj was forrri`ed %n 1952 by the three Beaelux countries a...n.d ~Tc'rrany,
~:~ice ar;d z+_aty. The most ~mpre.ssive:step towards econor.r,ir., e.,.;-1:ISprhap.s
,rc'.a'stiial Palitlcs.l, i~rtegration came with the e~~ta.blishment izi 1' `:~;3 of t:ie
.cropean E~anc~.~nic Community (ar}d 'at .the same time the I.:u.ropean ~.toxnic
"' ~~ ray Cci~rim.~x?ity) by the .same six countries. ~ The' trQns~kin;~ pe:~aod, which Kill
-..~.~d to elsminat~:~on of~tariffs and trade restr~ctiori s,between the a~ix rnEinber
`countries and establishment df ~a common tariff an goods from the outside world,
is already well .under way and. should, be virtually complete before 1970c In 1959
the Euro
n F
e
pea
r
e Trade Association,- which contemplates removal ?of trade
rLstrictions an i~zdu.$tr.al g~c,ds between its members -the 'U'nited Kingdom,
'~~enrnark, ~?ar;vay, :Sweden, Austria, Switzerland and Portugal,- and with
'~a'~.nland as a probable associate member -was established with a:view towards
eventually servizag as a:means of~prornoting a wider base for'Eurapean ir9ra-
:;~. an:
The,:~e are ?thP first steps.. in the direction o?l "the unity of V~este:rn
-.:urape; " w?xich ~::ir C~~iver Franks has described as. "the one great `creative
3~:,.ztical a.c?ea. tk:s.t.has emerged since the- Second World War. " He s.dds, "If the
~'E`; ?f'one community, one .society in Europe, is to have any validity, it must
~~xs.dually clothe .itself with economic meaning. " (Satu.rday review, January 16,
~;~s~.) These initial efforts to integrate the national economies of Western Europe
c.a s beginning to give economic meaning to the idea of eventual European unity.
? 5GOPE OF-THIS VOLUME
` This then, :is the- new Europe with which this Survey is concerned, a
'`"~~?oPe:~tre.ns~arrning itself: in.respect to social. structure, economic achievement
;ncl?political;;institutions. The present volume :follows in general the pattern
the earlier survey of America's Neede and Resources, -but the approach has
Dependent countries and a dozen ar mre ?different lan
ua
e
A
g
g
s.
fter a brief
cv?iew of the ;factors responsible for Europe's postwar recovery (in Chapter 1),
,.s Survev attemr~tc t~ ??,e~ ..,,.... __ ~ _ .._ __
__
._ _...,,, ~,,,,, .. .+J4Vila ,,.aurvyes ~?neeas" and
''resources" in their strictly economic ~ccinnotat~,ons. Consumers' needs are
c~.efined not as what.peQple ought to consume, n'terms of their physiological,
rz~ental ar spiritual requirements (if rodeed these. could ever be determined), but
? t?ather as what they ch~sose to con:surne, as reflected?in actual purchases of
v~.ri.ous #~inds of goods and service~s_ and spending patterns `at various income
levels.. The. same approach has been ~fallowe,d in cansiclering expenditures U:
gove?rnmr.nts and investment spending by individuals, governments and business
enterprises.
The. basic approach in measuring needs has been the gross national pro-
?c111ct; or gross national expenclitu.re, and. the components thereof (Chapter 4). This
:measures, the ms.rket ~'al:ue of,, or the amount paid for, the finished goods and
services: de livered annually to final users within the national economy. The needs
o? consumers have always been the largest component ?f gross product and the
? 3. (Continued)
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major categories are considered in the present volume.(in Chapters 5 through
12}: food and drink,. housing, household operations, tra.n.sportation, education,
health and racial security. The last three are to a large extent services
supplied to corisum ers through government. channels .and ar,e thus paid for
indirectly by consumers in the form of taxes and contxibutioris. Government
operations and services are analyzed in Chapter 13 ands capital investment
by government and by public and private enterprises and individuals in
Chapter 14.
Resources have been considered first in terms of the human resaurces -
population, manpower and education (Chapters 2, 3 and 14} -and then in termr~ cif
the physical or natural resources -land and agriculture, forest and ocean
Resources, energy and power sources and other minerals (Chapters 15 throug;li
?)). Inasmuch as Europe is becoming increasingly dependent on overseas
sources far a large proportion of its industrial raw. materials, resources
are discussed in terms of foreign as well as domestic supplies. The discussion
of .foreign trade (Chapter 20) is obviously also relevant: in this connection.
In several of the' later chapters of the volume consideration is given
~o some of the important problex~ns and opportunities that are influencing the
development of the European economies.. One of these (analyzed in. Chapter 21)
~s the persistent inflation, which has affected in varying degrees .the, countries
d~f Western Europe during the postwar period, .and. foreign exchange problems
x~vlated to it. These issues will become of more critical importance as trade
7:?~~rriers are removed within the European regional groupings. Other probler?~s
~~.iscussed in Chapter 2Z} arise from the disparity in economic development any
'+.ving standards between the agrarian south and the more prosperous industrial
Gauntries- of the center and north and the efforts to narrow this gap. Another oro??
blern, which has been receiving a great deal of attention in Europe since World
W.ar II, is the' nature of European capitalism. and how i:t can be made more
ec~mpetitive and effective. -This is considered in Chapter 23, while Chapter 24
discusses recent-gains in European labor productivity ~~.nd the possibilities of
~~~x.rther advances. An evaluation of present and forthcoming technological
developments and their probable effects on the European economy is presented
zn Chapter 25. In Chapter 2~ -the movement towards European economic integra-
tion is analyzed, w~h special consideration given to the European Economic
Community -anew power complex .capable of .dominating the- European
heartland.- Finally, an attempt is made (in Chapters 27 and 28) to summarize
:yriefly the entire volume and to present concluding observations.
METHOD _ OF APPROACH
It is apparent- from the foregoing that this volume involves a topical
treatment of economic developments and problems and .a "European approach'u
~?~.ther than acountry-by-country analysis. Many mono?;raphs and a nurr, bar of
Lxcellent economic geographies have been published which follow the latter
approach in describing the economic situation of the various individual
countries. In the present volume the attempt has been made to discuss the needs
s.nd resources of the European. people and fhe problems facing them, first, in
terms of Western Europe as a whole and then in terms ~~f the special character-
.stics and divergences of particular regions and of the individual county?ies.
This approach, it is believed, will be followed more anci more as European inte-
gration advances, since it has the advantage of revealing the el~:ments common
to the European scene, as well as the intercountry~ differences some of which
may need to be resolved.
The. descriptive and analytical parts. of this. Survey are focussed on
measurement of past trends, especially developments s'.ince the end of World
War II and in the 195~s, and interpretation of these changes in relation to the
prospects of future growth of the European economy. In most countries war
damage had been made good by 1950, and the ensuing decade has been one of
unprecedented economic .growth. The middle year of that decade, 1955, was a
fairly representative year of full employment and peacetime expansion; it was
moreover the latest year for which full in~orr~at3.on;w?a,si.a,.vai,.la~~-the time
work on the Survey began. For these reasons data ht~.ve been presented far that
year in considerably greater detail than for other postwar years, and 1955 has
thus served as a "base year" from which future projections have been made.
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Statistics for later years of the 1950 decade have of course been incor-
porated in the text to the extent that t hey were- available at the time the
manuscript was deli~?ered to the printer. Full-scale research operations began
with establishment of a Geneva office in the spring of 1957 and ended with the
closing of that office in September 1959. This means that the manuscript, which
began going to the printer before the end of that year, included annual data
for the years 1955 and 195? and in most cases also for 1958. During most of
19C~~', while the flow of manuscript and receipt and revision of galley proof was
continuing, every effort was made to incorporate the latest annual statistical
data then available and to take account of significant new developments in the
wegion. This means that, where practicable, data for 1959 have been included,
e~ut even this has not been possible in all chapters, particularly some of those
prepared by contributors who were not members of the staff.
In addition to describing past trends and current conditions, an impor-
tant part of the task of this Survey has been to project the changes in population,
4rnployment, working hours, productivity, gross national product and its compcxc
t:7~ts and the increase in the output of the requirements for essential raw
~~i~.teriala from the base year 1955 to the year 1970. This future year was selected
as One sufficiently far ahead to bring significant developments into prominence
yet not so fax distant as to involve too many unknowns. In attempting to forecast
vhe Europe of 1970 from the Europe of 1955, it has been assumed that 1970 would.
~.,a a year of high-level activity and that the intervening period would be free
xrorn war (althou.gh the cold war would continue) and from major economic
depressions or periods of violent inflation. Even under these "normal" conditiont.~~
v,~e future is always surrounded with uncertainty and no "projection" can prete~~e
"~o be more than a fallible human judgment ?based on the best available evidence.
It is with the full understanding of this truth that projections of future develop-
ments are presented in the present volume.
The Europe surveyed in this volume is revealed as a region undergoing
remarkable -and unexpected -renaissance. Whereas the shock of World War
I ushered in two decades of economic stagnation and political defeatism, the
shock of World War II became the inspiration for a resurgence of activity -
political, econarnic and social - far a new leap forward such as twenty years
ago few observers would have believed possible. In this dynamic situation the
people of Western Europe have registered achievements but they have also
~3a.countered problems. Although they have recorded impressive economic gains,
~~~ey have perceived the possibility of setting goals more ambitious than ever
'before in their history, and to attain these will require sustained effort not mere ?;,
over a decade bu.t for at least a generation.
Yet no one who has watched the course of events in Europe since 1945
and. who has studied the manifold changes in the pattern of its society can doubt
~`h~.t its peoples have demonstrated a capacity to adapt themselves to the changing
:~:Zd.itions of the contemporary scene, to seize the opportunities presented by
modern technology and, once again, with new confidence to take their rightful
~,~lace among the leading nations of the free world.
5 (End)
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TFi-e` on rasa o e ocia ~.s n erna Iona on rl~n n m
The Congress of the Socialist International (R ome -- 2 3 -2 7 ?ctober 1961) -
~+ Condemns as an act of savage brutality the erection of the Berlin wall
which has sealed off 1? million German people and deprives them not only of
their own freedom but also of their contact with the free part of Germany and
with the rest of the non-Communist world. This action, which violates human
rights, gives expression to the expansionist poli~cia:s of the Soviet Government.
~~ The parties of the Socialist International declare their solidarity with
the people of Berlin and their steadfast determination to ensure that this
freedom is preserved. The division of Germany does not help the cause of
ace: in fact, its continuation presents a constant source of danger in the
heart of Europe. -The rights of the German people to their national unity
cannot be denied -yet this cannot and must not be achieved by vtAoletie~e.
~~ To stand firm against Communist pressures and provocations is not
enough. A peaceful solution must be found by negotiation. A Western diplomatic
i-~itiative is required. A settlement must provide for free access to West
F?erlin by land and air, guaranteed and controlled by the ~~'our Powers. The
United Nations could be given responsibilities as an added guarantee of this
freedom and the presence of agencies of the United Nations in Berlin might bri.z~
n.ew life and hope to the city.
"A settlement requires that the facts be faced that the frontiers of
Germany cannot be changed by force, and that the unity of Germany depends
upon a relaxation of international tension. In the meantime, arrangements far
technical cooperation between and with the administration of a divided Germany
must be improved in the interests of the welfare of the people. The tension
could be eased and the prospects of German unity improved by an agreement
~n controlled disarmament in Central Europe, including the prohibition of
nuclear weapons under conditions which will not modify the military balance.
"The Socialist International reaffirms its firm belief in the inalienable
right of every people to self-determination. It urges the powers responsible for
the solution of the German problem, and all who are deeply concerned with it,
Lo recognize as a basis of their practical policy this principle which is recog-
nized in the Charter of the United Nations. The human rights which have
+-p~.en violated in Berlin can be reaffirmed, ana the tensions in Europe relaxed and
the danger of war removed only if the dignity and freedom of man are recognize=1
as a basic law of international policy. "
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CPYRG
The conflict of HUM~.NISMS (6 )~
The st'~ niggle for happiness. By Adam Schaff
Przeglad Kulturalny NoT, October 19, 1961 CPYRGHT Vexbatim
What is happinessg~ s is a pro em w
point of view of the individual concerned, but it is very difficult to analyze
it when one passes to the field of inter-subjective. communication and general
philosophical reflection. This is also a problem on which, to write from the
scientific point of view, it is not-only difficult but also dangerous. This
problem, .which is eery.interesting because of its' central, character fob man,
can easily lead a scientist astray due to a,ts amb3.guity and complexity. This is
precisely why. the definition.of the point from which we intend to begin the
analysis, and of the aspect which we shall be .most concerned. with, in this
analysis, 3.s particularly important.
One af. the.p.assible divisions of the points of view on the problem of
happiness is the following; the positive approach, i.e. the. definition of the
components of the subjective state of a happy individual, or the definition of
t~,~e subjective state of p?ssession is identified with happiness.' and the
ne~;;ative appraa,ch, i.e. the consideration of the factors which disturb the
peppiness at the individual, and of the .methods of overcoming them. -These
are interca'snected approaches,-but still very different., For to analyze the
necessary conditions of .a phenomenon is one thing, and to analyse its
sufficient conditions is another .thing. The removal of obstacles which make
impossible far. an individual.to.reach the state of happiness is a necessary
condition, but it is insufficient for the individual. to be really happy. For
this depends on a number of other conditions connected-with the individuality .
of the given .person; with this physical and psychological state, with histor y
and. social conditions, etc,. Far. the state of happiness is connected with the
given individual living in given conditions. This is why that. which constitutes
the basis and cause of happiness of one person can be a source of just the
opposite state. for another person.. $ow far, will this.be true when we take into
consideration the time factor and the .changeability of human requirements and
attitudes accompanyin~;.the changes in.social conditions?
T When approaching tYie problem from its positive aspect, as an attempt at
enumerating the factors which ensure a.man concrete happiness, we are asking a
question to which there is no .answer... For whether we .speak about the state of a
happy individual, i.e. about his or hex feelings ,.,ar whether we give a pseudo-
abjective farm to this question and ..speak about the goods whose possession
means happiness - we are dealing with afield which is so much saturated with
t'rae subjective, element that any.atteinpt at obtaining a generally valid answer
is bound to fail.. 'For it is not a.paraaox that certain people must be unhappy
to feel happy: The roads of individual psychology are to.o complicated to be
contained in a formula or a scheme, That is precisely why the consideration of
the problem. of the conditions which are necessary for a human individual to be
happy does not exhaust the problem, and daes.not provide.an answer either to
~"lze question: "what is happiness?" or to its transposition "when is a man
happy,?". Nevertheless, an analysis of the necessary conditions of human
happiness is, in my opinion, more interesting and more productive (particularly
ryn the-aspect of social activity), than the_ apparently wider problem of sufficient
conditions.
I do not want to-say by this that the problem is not worth considering. If
we are clearly aware of the amount. of subjectivism. in this problem, and thus
avoid mystification resulting frotri badly constructed questions, an analysis of
the problem of the necessary conditions for happiness might contribute to the
knowledge of human personality and of the futility of the quest for "perfect
happiness" for everyone. A negative answer is nevertheless an answer and the
xevelatian of the futility of the quest is the result of research. Whexeas this
broader cancept.of happiness~mostly.giveS negative results, the narrower one from
the point of view of the necessary conditions mostly gives positive results.
Primarily in the realm of human activities, in the realm of struggle for the
happiness of people. It is for this reason that I consider this, sphere of
investigation to be more interesting and fruitful.
This sphere. is one of investigation. into social conditions for human
happiness.. Social in the two-fold sense of the word; first in the sense that
happiness should not be considered in its aspect concerning a, given individual,
but ~,n that concerning th.e .m~-asses of people; and second, in respect to the
possibility :of and necessity for social work aimed at assuring the chance, if
not the certainty, of a happy life to the masses.
CPYRGHT
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We shall now concentrate upon the problems of social conditions for
human happiness. For the reason i.e. that - although theoretical - it is not
abstract and reaches deeply into the. practice of social life, into the
sphere of action. The problem of happiness is exactly a typical problem, where
the cool reserve of a theoretician is out of place and an. attitude of active
engagement should, be taken. This is prompted by the character and the_impartance
of the problem in 1 if e .
Reflections upon conditions for,samething usually begin with a definition
of this something.. Otherwise there is the danger of eom~~lications and mis-
understandings emerging from the multitude of meanings of the terms used. This
~~lsa concerns such a diversity. of meaning as that implied by the idea of ''happinc.~~
s'et, I propose to sin against the prevailing custom for the following reasons:.
1. This would inevitably lead us into a maze of complicated enquiries into the
variety of meanings of the term: 2. our investigation would necessarily take
on the character .of historical research because of the. dependence of the
t~efinition upon an accepted point of view. This is:nat my intention in this
context, and is not the objective of our research. Thus we must renounce it
(a definition), the more so since the current intuitive sense of the word
"_~~.~ppiness" in one of its meanings or .any text-book definition which speaks in
one way or another about "happiness"being a state of intensive satisfaction
*,~ith something, will meet our requirements. While taking into account the
..~ntrovers al character of every word- here, and of all the possible additions
~~o them {this corresponds closely to the. statements formu:Lated at the beginning
of our study, that everyone knows. when he is happy although it is very hard to
se,;~7 what this means), we may safely embark upon .investigating the social
conditions for hurrian happiness and the activities connected with it, even
r^].yirlg upon such general and vague intuitive feeling as that inherent in the
w~~rd "happiness".
Everybody,.is happy ox unhappy.in his awn way. And yet despite subjec-
tivism in the feeling of happiness and. unhappiness, d~espit;e .the variety of
individual human pastures, there is here too something in corrunan with all people.
For nobody is happy when he is deprived of something which; he desires strongly in
some walk of life, There are things which all people covet in common and which.
play .an important role to all. .Being deprived of them makes every normal
individual (except pathological cases) unhappy, This sphere of negative
denominations unites in the problem of happiness the views and feelings of all
the people, a fact which does not belie the individual and subjective character
c:~f this problem. Tn this way we .get hold of something stable and concrete in
this nebulous affair, something which, thanks to its universal character, is more
1:1wb1e to evaluations and can mare easily beams the subject of the conscious
e~.c~rivity of the people. And on this the significance and the importance of this
sphere mainly rests.
A man suffering hunger. and misery a man who can not satisfy his material
needs on a minimal level set by the historic stage of development of the given
~~:~mmunity, is not, and can not be han
- ~ py .Thera is a fascinating Chinese fairy -
t.?:,,1e about the crapc~ror who- was looking for the shirt of the happy man, and
~Ti7~n finally he had found it, it appeared that he did not even have a shirt. This
~~'able, although fascinating, is in its direct sense profoundly false and was
c-.~mposed by people who have a shirt on their backs for the consolation of those
?~~:ro are deprived of one. Hunger and misery certainly do oat make one happy. On
the contrary,-being the cause of the profound and real unhappiness they drive
people to revolt and struggle. This is a struggle far the-right to happiness,
_i or the removal of all obstacles an the road leading to happiness, even though
the liquidation of hunger and misery itself does not of itself make people happy.
Hun er and misery are not tYze only sociai.3,y widespread cause of the un-
harr~inpss a~' pea le. There is still lack of freedom, national oppression economic
ex loitation racial o ression and all other instances" of inequality in social
relations. Tn all these and other similar instances the point is to deprive the
p~:ople of some objects ar relations-desirable by them. And although deprivation
.~f freedom: or of social equality is something- different to the deprivation of the
.,raterial goods necessary for living; nevertheless-man feels this lack no less
sharply and painfully. The struggle for the right of freed am is just as strong
~n incentive for rebellion as hunger and misery. This is also a struggle for the
?ight to personal happiness, for here the indispensable condition of this state
~f the individual is involved, the.conditian which actually does not suffice to
.rake the individual happy, but. whose absence suffices to make him unhappy.
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It is clear that the absence of other objects ar relations too, may bring
about a situation in which the individual feels unhappy. Unrequited love, for
example, unsatisfied thirst for fame, for respect, etc. These phenomena are so
Gammon that we may .treat them as a social phenomenon. There is however a
definite difference between the phenomena of tl~e first and second category. The
difference is that in the first category obstacles to individual happiness are
imposed by the existing sacial relations, whereas in, the second category the
obstacles are -the ?outebme of the psychalagica,l pr~oper.ties Qf the' 3.ndividual in
question, or the intimate relations with another rind iv idu~,l (lave for example). '
Hence in the first category social interf.erence,.is,possible;,'sinee the
change in the erroneous sacial relationship ~ and it may b~ changed by social
~~.rganised people -eliminates the source of suffering of they individual, while
in the events of .the second categGry_societ.y:is unable., to interfere. At any
rate it cannot interfere..directly (indirect interference is.pbssible through the
^~~..teration in the::soc.ial rel,atir~ns;.moulding; the mentality- of tYie individual, but
~~~.~is ihterference 'is :usually unintentional. and sporitaneouS) .` From the point of
view of-'the' conscious and collective: act~nn of. people the first category is
r~~~~rticularly ~,nteresting. And it s.ths,whch., under the various definitions
^.nd titl.es~., in various shspes and formulations, has constituted for centuries
4w!e~ component part of progressive social movements, of which the quintessense
is the struggle for.` the establishment.. of the .best. possible conditions `f?r people's
hcppiness. ' It ma,y also be; put differently:. the. struggle far the establishment
of the conditions which.cantribute most to the development:. of .human mentality.
Tn this very sense,- those .:who- see. the. ~.im of thier sacialactivity in forging
cut the conditions ct'f individual happiness, are .humanists in the best meaning
of the word.. We:aquire.in this way an additional critera.an far assessing the
value of social movements and their programmes, the. assessment of. the various-
f~~rms of humanism: ~ ,
*~ . _
All social movements speak about human happiness and include the struggle
for it in :their .pro~;ramrnes . .How -cou];d it be otherwise? How could, they count
on support from any. quarter unless they did.? It is alao~necessary to bear in mind
that even typical anti-humanism, typical .ideologies of genocide and hatred,
like Hitler ism and.all variations of c,olQnialism and racial~.sm, operate with
cliches of the struggle for man's happiness. .The $itlerite "Ubermensch" and
every racialist struggle for somebody's interests and some-body's right to
happine:ss,too,:obviously, but the difference is. whether everybody is considered
to be human ar not. Far the sake of justice it should be added that modern anti-
humanists have predecessors of long standing, from certain humanists of
ancient times, who considered slaves as talking tools. This constitutes an
element of the thesis about the historic, and in this sense, xelative character
of the assessment of the various fortr~ of humanism.
This problem is all the more important.and.deserves all the more attention
because the real moral conflict occurs in case of a clash of different concepts
of hun~nism and the incidental concepts of an individual's happiness with the
methods of struggle far winning them. In this field the main conflict of the
contemporary era is connected with the clash of socialist humanism with the
competitive varieties of humanism, which Pram the point of their phil~sophieal
context can be called idealistic and fram:the point of their .social bearers -
baur~;eois .
Tt is a well known fact that ~ at least two factors distinguidl socialist
humanism from the remaining varieties of_humanism - which still e~cist or ,.already
belong to history.
as
In the first place its concept of the individual, ~ product of society
and established social relations, above all class relations. As distinct from
the trends, in which.. the pattern of an individual;is either :the free will or
the heterogenaus will of a higher being in the: relations towards the eargmunity,
social re~.atians created by man:,. which at the .time create a mp~n in the sense of
a social unit, are the pattern of socialist humanism. In this field, the latter.
represents the main contxadictic~n between m~.teriali5m and idealism. Again the
starting point of any kind ~of humanism, as well as any further considerations
of hums,n affairs, depends.on the p}~ilosophic.character of ,the, concept of a unit.
The latter. includes also the consideration of an,individual's happiness largely
because.hurnanism is as much a theory of the human individual as well a.s the
theory of his happiness. Both the manner of unrlers.tanding this happiness and the
manner of its realization ar.e accordingly closely connected with the method of
understanding a human individual..
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 -~ ~ t im artant
I~4-c~~@~'f~cie~a~~s2b'~ l~~ecu`~~'a~~'~~~~~,1 ~9ee~5
~
n
.
p
socialis human~.~m w c
militant humanism which sexes its task and goal above all in the struggle for
ideal and their realization. The latter.alsa fully applies to the p~ablem of
an individual's happiness.
Humanism is the essence of scientific socialism, while the essence of this
humanism is its concept of an individual's happiness..- In Marxism everything is
subprdinated W p}xilc'>spphy, political economy, .the sc;cial and political concept .
After all, these are .theoretical inwtruments which sexve one practical purpose:
the struggle for a better and happier life of the people. -Such was the under-
standing of young Marx who argued that revolutionary philosophy represents an
idealcagical weapon of the proletariat. Such also is the sense of the Marxist
thesis on the tics of theory with practice. For this reason the theory of
happiness appears in Marxism in a particular form: not as `an abstract
reflection of the concept of happiness or its components, but as a revolutionary
idea of sue}1 a transformation of social relations which will make possible the
c~^eation of the best conditions for a happy life, and which will remove obstacle?
l:t:in~dering the est~+.blishrnent of. such a life -for the people . Marxist socialism
presents the prablem~of an individual's happiness-from the negative side, which
:im;~lies that itsinvestigates the obstacles standing in the path of a happier
life for the people, as well as the means to remove these obstacles. It is
precis%1y this kind of concept which yields tYie mast positive and real results:
Tn many countries of the world people starve and live in misery. As is
known, two thirds of mankind suffer hunger permanently. Marxist socialism
shr?ws a concrete path of sacirzl changes irhich may remove this state of affairs
-end create conditions for a better life of men. There is na preaching or insipid
moralising of satiated persons. The hungry and the miserable hear in these words
an announcement of happiness and sense fully the profound humanism of the idea
so beautifully expressed by Marx's friend, Heinrich Heine, in his Winter Tale:
But a new song, a more worthy .song,
I promise to sing, brothers.
We want to create a paradise on Earth,
The lane] of milk and honey.
We want to live happily on the Earth,
Ancl not to rot in perpetual misery.
May not the lazy stoms.ch waste
What diligent hands have created.
Here bread grows copiously,
There will be enough f'or everyone,
Enough of laughter, and beauty, myrtle and roses,
And na less sweat--peas.
Let the pods crack and there will be plenty
Of peas far those who like it.
And the heaven we will leave to -
Angels and sparrows.
Marxist socialism approaches similarly the problem of national suppression,
religious persecution, racial persecution, discrimination against women, economic
exploitation etc. Tt shows to people the path of liberation from a situation
which weighu heavily on them and makes them unhappy in one way or the other.
Marxism neat only states that it is passible to live a different, better and happier
life, but also teaches haw this should be done, mobilises and organises
;ceople for the struggle against that which obstructs their happiness. It does..
n;:~t offer illusions of another world, consolations with cheap moralising, but tells
them to struggle and gives them the certainty of victory in this struggle. It is
a political theory in which a theory of morality, humanism and happiness is
also contained. Is there therefore any wonder that it appeals to those who
suffer and long for a better, happier life? No wander that everywhere in the
warlc9,thasc to wham the words of the International: "Condemned peoples of the
Earth. rise, rise those whc suffer hunger ..." are addressecl, respond to them?
This is a specific. theory of happiness. It is in feet a theory of social
~anditions far individual happiness starting-from the preraise that no one
may guarantee full happiness far an individual, because this also depends on the
;.ndividual himself, but that it is possible and necessary to create
conditions for the happiness of all. 4n these canc7itians, the social conditions
of happiness, Marxist socialism concentrates. The.' active character of humanism
contained in it, its attractiveness t:~ those who suffer and dream r.,f personal
happiness, are connected with it. Its successes in the conflict between the
various forms of humanism, characteristic of our era, are also connected with it.
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 ' sTl4'~v F~~~sef ,~,~00/O~v2 A~~C I,A~~2~[~~78-O~f 61 AO~b(~fAO~'~
There are authors with famous names who consider that the end of the age.
of ideology has come now: It is difficult to argue with them since in view
of the enormous ambiguousness of the. woad "ideology", no one knows very well
what they are really talking about. .There are over twenty. different, someti s
very remote, meanings of "ideology". Thus, does this sense mean what Destutt
de Tracy meant who onto introduced it together with the name itself, ar the
meaning pejoratively used by ,Napoleon,. or that which Marx and Engels used and
after .them only with certain modifications Lenin and Stalin,. or MannheimTs
sense of-the word.} "ideology" referring to Mexxism; and perhaps some differen
sense, one of; many now circulating? This ambiguousness has played a trick on .
ii~.any a man. And if the abave_mentioned authors understand ,the word "ideology'
as it is used in the phrases."feudal ideology", "bourgeois ideology" or
''~aroletarian ideology" thus they understand the word "ideology" a's a' system o
~d.eas and views of the social life peculiar fox a: given social class in given
historical,conditions, their diagnosis is certainly erroneous. The end of th
af;e of ideology {in the, most popular sense of the word used) not only has not
dome but on'the contrary - we are on1.y entering-the period of its true flower ng.
.Simply. because ideology will gradually become an ever more powerful and ef-
zective weapon in the struggle of'~the two main competing political-social
systems which most generally may be called capitalism and socialism.
The peaceful co-existence of these two social-political systems is~ a rea
situation which need not. be invented, From the moment of the formation of th
first socialist States alongside the capitalist States, from the moment of th
abandonment of war as means of the settlement- of conflicts and differences of
views between them - peaceful co-existence has become a fact though some peop
do not like this word even today. The atmosphere of co-existence changes,
depending upon the situation, but as long as star does not break out - co-
existence is a fact.
It does not follow, of course, that conflicts and divergencies of intexes
between the system of capitalist states and the system of socialist states are
disappearing, that the competition between these systems and the peculiar
struggle are, vanishing. They cannot vanish so long as these states maintain
their differences in systems, for should these differences vanish it would
entail the collapse of~one of the two opposed systems in the present world.
Precisely on this account the claims of certain western politiciens, against
b~,ekgraund, are based either on verbal misunderstanding or an utopian inclina-
tions, very detrimental to political life.
CPYR HT
Ideological differences are differences of outlooks an, the ideals of
social 13.fe,,an its proper structure and mechanism. Let us, leave aside the
question of .the genesis of these differences and of their social background,
which would necessarily bring a Marxist to loggerheads with a Thomist, an
existentialist or a follower of another, non-Marxist philosophy. Both the
Thamist, the existentialist, the Marxist, and ethers have nevertheless to
agree, if in the vapors of their philosophizing they do net forsake common
sense, that the partisans of the private ownership of the means of praduction
(with all the consequences resulting from it for-the organization of social
life), and .the partisans of the social ownership of the means of praduction,
accept different systems. of values and hence different models of procedure.
These are precisely the ideological differences in the specific meaning of the
word.
`In'' inter'~ir~.t.3.ana.1: rela~iai~ ~t~od'a'3- the question is not. that the principle of
coexistence should be transformed into a utopian. program for removing ide-
alogiealr:differences which cannot be removed, but on the elimination of the
danger of the extermination of the population in .the event of an armed conflict.
The ideological differences will have to remain, and on them the main attention
will. be focused: in step with the removal of the danger of an armed conflict,
it is precisely in the sphere of ideology that a competitive struggle between
bath systems will develop more and mare. This is not only unavoidable, but also
correct. Far it should be admitted that the two competing camps, or in any case
the parties and the: groups guiding their life, are convinced about the superiority
of the system of values and of the models of procedure represented by them. If
it wi11 not be possible to compel people by force to accept one of them, and
this probably is the most advantageous situation for mankind, it will became
necessary to convince them of the superiority of this or that system. For
peaceful coexistence does net foresee the stability of the world nor a division
into spheres of influences in accordance with traditional diplomacy. Should
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the "high negotiating aides" even desire this (in which em se they would act
unreasonably), life would delete these erroneous calculations.. If armed force
does not intervene, people will wish to choose a way of life which .in their
understanding is the best and will do this regardless of anybody's desixes.
Thus peaceful coexistence does not guarantee the status quo, the stability of
the established social order, In admitting ideological differences., it also
foresees a growing competitive struggle for the minds and hearts of the people
to whom both systems will appeal. By what means? By means of facts, which on
the basis of the principle "verbs docent exempla txahunt", are the strongest
weapon in this peaceful competitive struggle of different systems and by means
ni',the ideology connected with these facts. Thus we are returning in a natural
Tay to our main problem - to the social ~ cc~ndtions of the happiness of the
individual.
In the last instance, the ideological differences which were previously
xeferred to, the differences of views and attitudes of people toward, the
~~rablems of social life, can be boiled down to differences of views on social
~anditions for the happiness of the individual and on the methods of producing.
c:.. ~:ch conditions .
This is the essence of the controversy among people concerning the
principle of private ar social ownership of the means of production,~of a
~xational or international attitude in relations between nations and states etc.
etc. Regardless of formulas and arguments, the final question is how a better
life is to be lived, and what conditions axe necessary to give people the best
chance of a happy life. The theory of happiness once again descends from the
heights of abstxactian to the hard ground of social life.
The competitive struggle. under conditions cif peaceful coexistence will
therefore proceed mostly in the ream of ideology, appealing to the convictions
and views of people on the matter of .happiness in life, or, at least, an con-
ditions favouring such a life, Thus, this struggle is bound to acquire the
character of a collision of various kinds of humanism with increasing intensity,
It has alxeady been said that even barbaric anti-humanism, tries to speak
to people in our-era in the language_of the theory of happiness. This is un-
daubtedly a sign of the times ("Signum temporis"). However, the collision of
various kinds of authentic humanism is really an interesting phenomenon..
As is known, contemporary humanistic tendencies have a different origin
and different character in respect to their substance and social background.
Apart from the general watchword of a full flowering of human personality,
which is common to all vaxieties~of humanism, the differences here are enormous.
Let us only compare the materialistic and activist attitude of socialism
humanism, with the creational and contemplative humanism of Christianity, or
with the subjective and at the same time activist humanism of the existentialists.
A different starting point, socially and philosophically, of particular con-
cepts of humanism plays a decisive rate in the manner of salving the problem of
conditions for human happiness, in their attitude of optimism or pessimisttt (as
in the case of social~.st and existentialist humanism respectively), in the
struggling or contemplative-preaching attitude (as in the case of socialist and
Christian humanism}.
Since, however, in our era, as stated previously, these problems descend
from the clouds of philosophical abstractionism to the hard ground of social
life and social struggle of men, the practical concept (of happiness) from the
point of view of the requirements and choices of people who desire a better,
happier life, and are ready to struggle for it, is more important than the study
of philosophical reasons and differences in world-outlook of particular kinds of
humanism, and .of their concepts of personal happiness. The philosophical
reasons and subtle considerations in the controversies over the autonomy of
individual character, or social conditions on which it depends, are of no, or
hardly any, importance, to these people.
From this point. of view two problems are of paramount importance.: 1) does
theory ~arovide a realistic proposal for tk~e libexation from social evil, and 2)
are there given practical examples of the realization of such proposals which
can convince interested people. In the. case of socialist humanism, both
realistic theoretical proposals, as well as .practical proofs, exist, and this
is the basis of its power, the secret of-its success. People who do not under-
stand and prefer to enjoy the climate of "wishful thinking" and dopy reality,
will certainly be surprised with its actual development and will lose in the
competitive struggle. 2
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Of course, an overall criticism of socialism can be cultivated, and its
humanism can be obstinately denied, but soanex or later the hungry and extorted (~SIt
will come to the conclusion that hunger in a wand of plenty will be wiped out
only when the system of extortion is abolished. No hope of a reward in the
other world, or the solace of absolute morality, will be able to stand up to
the simple fact that social life, can be so arranged that people will not be
obliged to go hunga",y while working for others. In this field socialist
humanism has important assets on record which guarantee its superiority over
its competitoxs.
A similar situation obtains in nationals racial etc. oppression. Phis,
which inspires people fighting against slavery and for a better life, is again
the real prospect of freedom and its attractive examples. To the Asian and
African people, and also increasingly to the people of Latin America, the Soviet
Union or People`s China will be the hexo and example, and certainly not Portugal,
Belgium ar any other great Western power which cultivate some form of colonialism
ar patronizes it. Words will not suffice when practice and facts are involved.
socialist humanism also en,~oys in this field a tremendous superiority ovex its
competitors.
Finally, the problem of peace represents a key point in the "plebiscite"
on the different concepts of humanism. Amore important problem to people
Fighting far their personal happiness does not exist today. Also in this case
not the wards, but above all the deeds, are involved. For or against universal
~~is~;rmarnent - is the only reasonable prospect for the solution of a difficult
situation into which mankind has stumbled today. There is no doubt that both
deeds and decision taken in this matter will exert their influence on the choice
between attitudes, as well as between the different varieties of humanism.
We live in a beautiful epoch in which the problem of an individual's
happiness, the problem of its realization, has emerged from the sphere of words
and philosophical deliberations into the sphere of a practical struggle and
practical realization. It is a fact which brings boy to a real humanist and a
real warrior for the happiness of all mankind, It is increasingly difficult to
~,~lay a wolf' in sheep's clothing. It is increasingly difficult to act as a
platonic adherent and to avoid engagement in the struggle for or against. Life
calls far a definite choice and decision. Hence it is necessary to decide
Tl~,is will also leave its mark on the struggle of different concepts of humanism,
an the chances fox a victory of their appeal to the masses. Independent of
~L-heir awareness under the spontaneous pressure of the needs of life and the
craving for happiness, they repeat after the poet in different languages and ways:
"We want to live happy on earth,
and not decay in perpetual misery ..."
Trzis is precisely what humanism teaches them. On it xests above all its
i'orce and historic importance.
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 4 December 19b1
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O ut o e ther a.de of t eir auths; Sober Estimates of Soviet Economic Prowess
On 11 C)ctober 1961, one of the Soviet delegates at the UN's Second
Committee (Lavrichenko) stated (following the line of his Forty Chief):
"Mr. President, in the current development of world economy there
appear quite definitely two trends, to lines of development. While the
economy of world capitalism is developing at a slow rate, is experienc-
ing crises and shocks, the economy of the world socialist system is
characterized by rapid and stable rates of growth, by overall
continuous rise in the economy of all socialist countries.. , .If the
socialist countries' share ~n world industrial output? was about 1~3
in 1958, in 1960 it rose to 3b%, with the USSR accounting for nearly
20 percent....Already in the current decade (1961-1970) the Sa~riet Union,
wh~.le creating the material and technical basis of commurisrn, will
surpass in per capita production the United States. "
With this claim that t he USSR was responsible for nearly 20% of word
industrial output it cid not seem exhorbitant that, when assessmErlts for UN
contributions vaere being considered, the Soviet Union's share should be 14. 97%.
but in the UN r'ifth Committee, another Soviet delegate (Roshchin) protested
',:hat this was too high, and. expounded why the Soviet Union should not have to
~~e.ke such a large contribution. According to the UN record, Roshchin stated
in substance:
"One of the main factors cited in the Committee's _~. e. on Contri'oci-
tions7 of reference was the temporary dislocation of national economies
arising out of the Second World War. In that connection, the Committee
had merely repeated what it had said in its previous reports, namely,
teat the consequences of war dislocations were largely refiected in the
ne,tiona~. income figures and therefore the countries concerned were
receiving appropriate consideration for war damage under the existing
system of ai:owances. It had thus failed to recognize the cont;.nuing
ir:~porta:-ice of that factor for many countries and, in particailar, for the
Soviet t,rion whose economy had been dislocated by the war. In the
Soviet U~iion, the war had destroyed over 7 m:iltion buildings, leaving
25 rrili.icn people homeless. Industry, transport and agricuitL;rc had
suffered tremendous damage. Damage to personal property of Soviet
cit:itiens was e;;timated at b79, 000 million roubles in terms of p~?e-war
St~.~te prYces. The material and human devastation caused by the war
were still felt at the present time: there was still a housing shortage
anti tha last census had shown that there were 20 million more women
than men in the Soviet Union, Those data illustrated the importance of
the factor which the Committee underestimated. "'
A, third Soviet delegate, Chernyashev, thought that the Soviet contribution should
'be 1~, 5%, and that the U. S, contribution should rise from 32, 02% to 38.5%.
Tf the figures proposed by Chernyashev were taken as a measure of relative
r,4tional income, then Soviet national income would be 37. 7% of U. S, income.
I~oshchin's ratio is actually a pretty fair one, about 3% low. An authoritative
Western estimate is 41%. With such a ratio, it seems improbable that Soviet
production, especially per capita, will surpass the U, S. by 1970. Actually,
supposing continued development on both sides according to existing patterns,
Soviet industrial production should be about b0% of that of the U. S. in 1970. Per
capita industrial production would be somewhat less, as would overall national
production. Soviet bloc industrial production in 1970 will probably be about 53%
of NATO production; if other countries such as Japan and India were added to
NATO figures, the Soviet bloc's proportion would be still lower. (It might be
added that Chernyashev was only speaking of the "regular" UN budget, which
does not include such UN activities as operations in the Near East and the Congo,
UNICEF, and for the Palestine ~e?ugees, to ail of which the Soviet Union
contributes little ar nothing. Taking into account these activities, Soviet con-
tributions in 1960 amount to 7. 5% of U. S. contributions.
(End)
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The Creation of An Image
Authoritarian communism is dependent upon the existence of an idealized
leader to justify its authority... If there is no uniquely endowed ixvdi+vidual,-the
Party creates ane. The public image of Stalin was the result of a well developed
campaign ixi which all of the cha.xactexistic s of a charismatic leader were
attributed to hixn. .That image has now been destroyed almost single handedly
by the man who is replacing him as the infallible, wise and good leader of the
people. Ail protests of the Soviets and their puppet leaders tc~ the contrary,
their explanations that ".individuals represent collective leadership and the
e~senee of communist e~ociety" and that there is no "cult of personality" around
any communist leader, do not coincide with the facts. Some techniques used
~:~v the communists to create. a cult of personality, in this instance around the "
a:igure of Nikita Khrushchev, are noted briefly in the passages below.
AS A LEAI?ER OF THE PARTY AND. THE GOVERNMENT AND A HERO
OF THE CIVIL WAR
The Histor Of Moscow, publication of the USSR Academy of Science.
Khrushchev is not mentioned isY the first five volumes, but the sixth volume
omits the name of Stalin entirely while mentioning Khrushchev nine times.
The Histor Of The Civil. War,In The USSR, publication of CPSU, Moscow.
The first three volumes,. published under ~ Stalin, contain only one casual
mention of Khrushchev. The fifth volume, published) in 1959 and 1960, howeve??
is heavily .interspersed with quotations from, I~hrushchev's speeches, arranged '
to impress the reader with his.unportance as a national. hero of the civil war -
~.espite the well known fact that. the highest position occupied by Khrushchev
during this period was as a student at the Party school. of the. Ninth Soviet Arxray~
This fact does not prevent. the official Soviet historians from including N, S,
Khrushchev ixi the category of the "party leaders, collaborators and disciples
of V, I, Lenin who organized the victory of the Great Revolution". (Page 314 -
Histor Of The Communist Party Of The U55R 1959).
AS A FARTY PHILOSOPHER AND THEORETICIAN:
Up to 1957 nothing was recorded on the subject. In 1958, however, in an
article in the USSR Academy of Science's periodical "Questions of Philosophy"
(No. 11, pages 35-39) A. V. Shcheglov and A. D. Shershunov quote Khrushchev
as though he were an outstanding theoretician and sociologist.
In 1959 the praise of Khrushchev as a theoretician becomes more pronoux~c.ec'
and we read -- "The principles of Ma.rxisrn-Leninism received theoretical
development and elaboration in the report by N. S, Khrushchev to the 21st Party
Congress, .. The p roblerns of the building of the new stages in the development
of communism in USSR received creative and imaginative treatment in the
report of the N, 5. Khrushchev to the 21st Party Congress". {Histor Of The
Communist p-a,rtY Of The USSR, 1959, page 724,}
In 1961 the stature of Khrushchev as a theoretician and philosopher looms
still ]:anger and academician M. Mi~tin ixi his article "Communism and State",
published in Pravda, 23 September x.961, omits any passage from Marx or Lenin
while quoting Khrushchev as an authority on the subject. In tribute to KhrushchEv
the philosopher and thinker, his speeches are being published in millions of
copies and, at the present time, complete works by Khrushchev are appear-
ing in Moscow on expensive ~aa.pex and with expensive bindings. 'The circulation
i,s 100, 000 sets. Seaides this, the following publications are already in
circulation: .Peace Without The Armaments- Peace Without The Wars (2 volumes,
Moscow 1960, 952-pages); For Peace, Disarmament And Fr edom C7f Nation
(Moscow 1960, 336 pages); The Forei n Polio Of The USSR (2 volumes, Moscow
1961, 1287 pages); The Controlli~ F~res_In,T~he. Develo~mexrt In T_he National
Economy (I+/lc~scvw 195, 14~ pa'ges, 2 million cnpaes, } __ ~.___ __~._
. (continued)
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A$ A I-BEADING LIGHT I1V STATECRAFT ANI7 FQREIGN AFFAIRS:
^ Tan: His~Y Of Mo~..,s. C?w IKhrushchev' is pictured~as the `man who produced the
general plan for the reconstruction of Ntrascaw,?'a,nd a's the man who guided-and
directed the architects ~ri rebuilding .and modernizing the city,
' 'Iri the `volufrii.naus Universal. `Hiss, published by -the ~ USSR Academy of
Science, we-read qu?tations frtirri Khrushchev speeches which indicate his
ability toyprogriosfiicate_ future developments of`the world.' '
In 1961 publications, of fibs CPSU fitxider'tlie title. International Relations And
.,, ~ _~
Foreign F'o~ !C~f The USSR, Khrushchev is quoted and `described as the angel
of peace, leader c-f natioxis., and autstariding pacifist. On the subject of Khrush~?
chey;s visit to the; 15th session of UN we read as follows: "Despite the fact
that Khru~hcliev's presence in ItiTew~Yoxlc~ coincided, with the presidential campaz~:~:
leis presence in the USA became the center of political life in America, rele~at:~::~
the election campaign to the second place. " (Page 575. }
Similar quotations' and expressions can b'e~found in a special edifiion of ~
volumes, devoted to the' Khrushchev trzps try India, Burrna~, ~Irsclonesia and
~'~fganistan, launched as party academic publications in 19b1 under the title
'l"he Awakenin
~ - ~ .:
Ea
g
st.
AS A~ UNIVERSAL GENIUS` Vl1'ITH i?TVDERSTANDING A1VD INITLA'TIVE IlV
C'JLTUR
~
,E
LITER~,TURE., SOCIOLOGY' AND SCIENCE:
~
~
Inthe
CPSU's pubiication'~rCornrrtia.nist",` (No. ]2 for 195?} there was an
article by K.lirushcliev: under the title''FFor the Closer Uhan Qf I.atexature and
Art WithLife of tPie'~3at9.on,"; ~ This- arfi'icle has' been reprinted and quoted in
many other Soviet pub~lications,~ --'in rna;gazines, newspapers and i,n separate
pamphlets; ` His pronouncements on the subjeot became the bible and' the guide
-for all those who tried to carry aut and enfore~-.tlie '!party line". In the. third
volume of The History Of Soviet Literature (1961 publication of the USSR Acad'er,;ay
of Science} there. itaterrie~nt t~rhiclY says: ''N, S, Khrushchev demonstrated
to all of us the real meaning of and the ixnplics.tians of what constitutes 'the
genuine and the' conscious c?reafiive fre+edomi ~",' Iri the rin:agazine "New World"
":~r September 1961, in an ed~.tQria.l'entitled''The Greatest Docurrient of our'
Epoch", Khrushchev's pron.ouncemerrts are identified as "the 'guiding rule for
all Soviet people in their daily Iife and actions".
' AS E1 7~'A TIER OF`' HIS ` PE OP.~E AN D A BENE F~,C T OR OF HUM.ANI'TY
STR IViNCr F'OR 'THE PEACE OlE' THE WOR IJD
In a popularbook by P. Lopatin, Khrushchev is described a.s.a~xnan who
has opened wide horizons for-the family of the Soviet' peoples, and as the'man
who. , in promoting technical accomplishments, has contributed enormously:
to the material as we].1 as the spiritual~treasures.of~Soviet'people. In
Lxteraturna~ra. Gazeta of September I6, 1961, in the article under -the title
"Son of the People" we read: 'iEvery word pronounced bSr `Niicita Sergeevich
is' imbued with the deepest respect fcir the work of those who create everything
valuable' on this earth. The people are reciprocating to him'witli their deepest
love and affection; You can depend'on our Nikita~'. And so on and so forth in
same vein. Stories-about the Khrushchev's fatherly benevolence to the masses
are producing hundreds if not tliousa:nds of articles; quotations and references
appear in all publications, and all official speeches refer to him or to his
pronouncements in this vein,...
The personality cult. of Stalin is dead.. But the .personality .cult `of Khrushchev
is second to none and all ira.dicatians are that it will reach, if not surpass, that
created around Stalin.
The cult of personality remains, -- it is a built-in, inevitable a.nd essential
part of the communist authoritarian system -- only the main character changes.
(End}
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