METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: PROBLEM SOLVING

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78-03362A001800080001-1
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 34
• Document Creation Date: December 12, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 6, 2001
• Sequence Number: 1
• Content Type: REGULATION

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--ant~N
OFFICE OF TRAINING
DIRECTIVE
COURSE: Instructor Training
SUBJECT: thods of Instruction: Problem Solving
HOURS: 2-i- 25X1
METHOD OF PRESENTATION: Lecture & panel discussionINSTRUCTOR:
=2:Leff
OBJECTIVES OF INSTRUCTION: To establish the value of the problem solving
method; to explain t e steps in the preparation and use of "liven and field
problems; to discuss the practical aspects of preparing and conducting problem.
SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION:
nocurnnt
thange in Class.
Ti Elseazefied
Te: TS
f-51!
5 OCT 1978
SUBJECTS WITH WHICH COORDINATION IS REQUIRED:
REFERENCES: 7-40.10/5c: Methods of Instruction: Problem Solving.
REMARKS: Training Aids: Vu?graph slide: Instructor's Role in Problem Solving.
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I TAB I
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: Methods of Inn ruct iontob1em Solving
Otiec,IiyAn : To est.ib lah'the value of the problem
,
method
To explain the jt?p. in the preparation end use
of "live* and field problem*
To discuss the practical **poets of preparing
and conducting probleme.,, '
Reference
Training Akidi:
7.40.10/5c, "Methods of instruction: Problem
Solving"
Tu..graph slide, *Iaatructorts Role in Problem
Solving
, fralaratt3n2.11
A. introduction
1. Give purpose of lesson
2. Explain conduct of :on
a. 13 minute review of main points in study referee
b. 120 minute discussion of problems of preparing and
conducting problems by a panel based as a topical
outline and questions from class
10 minute summary of discussion
3. '7P1onatica
I. Review of reading material baled On this outline
a. Principle of the problem-solving.metbodu. re-
ference to lesson on, "Leernine
b. Major responsibilitieg of the, instructor
c. Considerations required In the preparation of a
problem
(1) Establishing the objoetives or goals
(2) Analysing the field situation
(3) Determining the training situation
(4) Constructing and conducting the problem
d. Kinds of problems used - comperisen of the field
and "live" problems
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2. Panel discun'sion mf the practical aspects of preparinr 120 minutes
and conducting f1S141 and "live problems based on this
topical mitline and "questions from the class.
C. Sunruary 3)
Total
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150 minutes
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METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving is a teaching method
a reasoning process necessary to the
The training problems so used are of
"real" or "live" problems similar to
student.
7-40,10/5c
which guides the student through
solution of a training problem.
the most value when they create
those likely to confront the
Although this method of instruction is outlined here for use as a
separate technique for one unit of instruction, it may be used with
other methods. Menever this technique is to be used effectively,
the requisites of preparation, conduct and critique apply.
It has been discussed previously that the development of attitudes
and habits are as much proper objectives of a training program as
the teaching of knowledge. This organization has a requirement of
unusual importance in preparing individuals to accomplish missions
where poor judgment or lack of careful observation of existing con-
ditions often load to disaster. Problem solving is a method of
instruction which by example and its requirements, emphasizes the
use of the reasoning process. To the degree that it teaches proper
habits of analysis and thinking, it surpasses other methods of in-
struction.
Its disadvantages are found in the difficulty of its preparation,
the requirements for equipment, instructors and space, and the lack
of adequate, positive operational histories.
The general outlines of the method are the same as the five steps
described in the "reasoning" or "thinking" process discussed in
another reference. The instructor must realize his responsibility
to the student in each of these steps in order to gain the greatest
value from this instructional method.
1. Stating the problem.
The instructor's responsibility is to create problems built
on anticipated "felt needs" or real difficulties of the students.
The problem must be defined clearly for the student or he must
be assisted in localizing it so that he will acquire the technique
of analyzing situations which confront him.
2. Suggestions for possible solution.
In this step the student or student groups, independently or
under the direction of the instructor, construct hypotheses. If
the training problem is conitructed properly these proposed solu-
tions will arise from the subject matter, Skills, and techniques
which were taught previously. Here the instructor guides the
student's thinking and activity principally by suggestion.
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3. Testing the hypothesis.
In this phase the activity of the student is observed by the
instructor for evidence that the student is finding and examining
all of the factors and their relationships which influence the
hypothesis and that he is planning to apply the principles which
have been taught. The instructor must keep the student from
getting too far afield in order that the desired learning will
take place.
4. Evaluating the conclusion.
The completion of the problem affords the instructor the
opportunity to review with his students both the success of their
solution, the reasons for their actions, and the effectiveness of
the problem solving technique which they applied.
Considerations Required in the Preparation of a Problem.
1. Establishing the ob,lectives or oals
Problem solving is an excellent tool of teaching for integrating
techniques and other instruction which have been presented in an
unrelated fashion. This applies especially to instruction involving
coordinated individual or group actions such as tactical exercises
and plans, and wi-lero evaluation of individual capacities for judg?
ment and leadership is required. In initiating the planning of
such problems the instructor must be very precise in establishing
the objectives of the problem and in defining them clearly. For
example, an objective might be to teach a small unit how to plan
and ambush a motor commy or to show the student the importance
of establishing emergency communications. All objectives must
be stated with relation to the general aims of the course. If
the number of principles to be applied by the student is limited
he is less likely to be distracted by tangential aspects of more
complicated problems and the importance of the objectives taught
will become more clearly fixed in his mind. It should follow
that the problem presented is real, that is, it is likely to be
encountered by the student in his future assignment. The entire
framework and detail of the problem must relate only to those
objectives and not involve extraneous techniques, knowledge, or
skills unknown to the students,
2. Analyzing the field situation.
Having established the objectives of the problem to be presented
to the students, the instructor must list in detail all the factors
and requirements of that problem which would likely be present in
a real situation. This is the research step. What do the case
histories show to be the usual elements of the operational situation
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which is to be duplicated under training conditions? Of these
basic factors, which ones are variables due to local (i.e.
specific area) differences? Once these factors have been de-
termined and examined they 'should be arranged in the order and
relationship they are most likely to have with each other. A
simple listing of the major points will suffice for the instructor
to re-determine whether or not the general framework of the
operational-training situation will require the application of
the basic principles, skills and techniques which he wants to
teach through the problem.
3. Determining the training situation.
The next step in the problem preparation is to balance the
capabilities of the training conditions with the requirements
which the use of the problem will demand. Essentially this
comparison will be made on three basic points:
a, Extent of realism required.
The greater the degree of realism achieved by the
instructional situation, the more effective teaching is
done by the problem. Even the more sophisticated student
is affected by attempts at realism. However, training con-
ditions in a problem situation cannot always duplicate those
to be expected in a real situation. At this point the major
facets of the situation and the degree to which they must be
realistic to achieve the objectives of the problem must be
determined.
b. Physical ca abilities and time limitations.
In the ambush problem mentioned previously, certain
details could not be nreal" but must be duplicated to an
extent determined by the capabilities of the training area
as to equipment, terrain, personnel, and time. In part,
they are:
1.' Site, armament, personnel) route and tine of travel.
of enemy convoy.
2. Personnel available for the ambush force.
3. Weapons and demolitions available.
4. Tactical situation.
The method of handling each of these factors in the
training situation will vary from all factors being assumed
in a safehouse problem to complete duplication of them on a
field training site. Given as assumptions in the problem,
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all the equipment, time and terrain necessary, plus designating
certain map areas for the location of the ambush, would con-
fine the student to selecting the site, planning and executing
the physical details of the ambush and with drawing from the
area. These constitute the major objectives of the problem.
c. State of training of students.
The operational situation chosen by the instructor may
require the student to accomplish tasks not yet mastered or
not relating directly to the principal skills or techniques
to be taught by the problem. Obviously, if it is clear at
this point that the students do not have sufficient training
or mastery of the principal concepts and skills, the problem
cannot be utilized. All incidentals which encumber the student
or lend little to achieving the teaching objectives should be
set aside and the student relieved of the responsibilities
for them. This is done by providing them to the students as
facts in the situation or by assuming the studentts capa-
bility to do them. For example, for a given locale, the
student of the ambush problem may not know what specific
kinds of weapons would be available for his ambush plan.
The instructor gives him a warehouse list from which he may
select the appropriate weapons - the selection of proper
weapons being one of the problemts objectives.
In any event, complete analysis of the training situation
as it provides the capability of establishing the problem
framework and the degree of realism which can be attained
must be made in some systematic fashion. It is suggested
that a simple columnar arrangement of requirements, capa-
bilities and plans can be used as shown as Attachment A.
The size of the sheet, extent of detail given and order of
points listed will vary with instructors. A systematic
approach to problem preparation will insure a complete,
logically developed, closely controlled problem.
4. Problem.
The problem itself and the conduct of the problem may be
considered from these four sub-topics:
a. Initial situation.
b. Controlling progress.
c. Testing and evaluating students.
d. Problem critique.
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The initial situation establishes the setting within which
or from which the problem will proceed in its development. The
student or students must understand clearly what the situation
is and where he, his group or team is to start. This explanation
which establishes the characterizations and attitudes of the
students and instructors is built by the use of briefing sheets,
motion pictures, still pictures, and verbal presentations which
describe the general and specific situations which will confront
the student. The scope and depth of these materials vary
according to the needs of the training problem and to the extent
that realism of situation and characterization is desired.
These materials are cel.eloped by the instructor with the greatest
attention to what is to be read, seen, or heard by the students
and the effect each fact or circumstance will have on the progress
of the problem or the Jtudent's conduct. The specific situation
confronting the student in the problem should leave no doubt as
to the requirements for action that are placed on him.
The control of the problem as it progresses is maintained
by the carefully designed initial staging and by the framework
of the problem as it develops. Tho instructor must anticipate
all the situations to be met by the students - the m-terials,
activities, skills, and understandings demanded, and all the
possible alternatives that might be chosen. Here again the
instructor must review all possible influences and actions with
relation to the teaching objectives of the lesson.
New elements may be introduced into the initial specific
situation as the student progresses, or fails to progress, or
as might logically be expected to develop in a field situation.
As these situations unfold, some clearly mark themselves as the
instructor's checkpoints on the student. These control points
may be used to guide or re-direct the student if he is proceeding
incorrectly or to stimulate a greater application of knowledge
and skill by the more exceptional student. The instructor may
find it necessary to provide the student or group with an accept-
able solution of the problem through that phase so that the
trainee may analyze his errors or poor judgments. In this manner
the trainee will get the value of the instruction he did not
complete successfully and will also be prepared to meet later
phases of the problem. The instructor's best criterion at this
point is: "By which course will the student learn more?" Often
a thorough critique in early phases of the problem or after each
problem stage, will achieve a great deal in keeping the objectives
of the problem in front of the students.
Tasting and evaluating the student and his performance demands
that the instructor establish clearly for each phase of the problem
and the problem as a whole, what he expects of the student in
terms of the application of the principles being taught and the
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personal qualities to be displayed. Problem solving is, perhaps,
the best instructional method for evaluating students and their
performance, as it requires more from the student than pro-
ficiencies in specific subject-matter and skills. It demands
the integration of all special abilities, the exercise of reasoning
and judgment by the trainee, and the display by the student of
some intangible personal factors, such as initiative, leadership
and imagination.
Students may be required to solve the problems, either orally,
in writing, or by performance in several ways. This will depend
upon the objectives of the problem, the type of problem (classroom
vs. field types), training facilities and other factors. In
general, these methods of organization can be used:
1. Individual solution
2. Group or team solution, which may be
a. committees committees in which the entire group, working
on the same requirements, arrive at a group solution, or
b. hm teams. Each student works or performs that
requirement, or part of a requirement, or team-member
duty assigned him by the group leader.
Individual solutions are appropriate where it is imperative
to evaluate each individual's performance and judgment on all
aspects of the problem. Group or team solutions are appropriate
where the individual is expected to master any of the tasks that
may be assigned him or where qualities of leadership or "follower-
ship" are to be observed.
To accurately score what is observed, the instructor must
establish standards of performance and must devise rapid means
of recording what the student does. Check lists, written notes,
sound recordings, still and motion pictures should be used to
secure accurate observations which can later be discussed with
the student. The general and specific frameork of the problem,
the statements and directions of the instructor and previous
instruction should be presented so that the students have a clear
understanding as to what is to be done by them and how well it
is to be done.
The critique of the problem is a valuable instructional tool.
It is the instructor's final opportunity to insure that the
principles to be taught in the problem are understood by all
students. Whatever method is used to conduct the final critique,
it should recall the original framework and situation in the
problem, analyze the "whys" and "hows" of student performance
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in terms of the principles which were to be applied and explain
them in detail against the possible solutions to the problem and
the level of achievement that was required by the instructor.
All possible solutions of the problem, or any of its phases,
should be covered and evaluated.
The final critique may be conducted in several ways. If
only one student or a very few are concerned, each solution should
be compared mith the other selections and examined critically.
If a group is being instructed, whether its members executed the
problem requirements individually or as a group, several methods
of handling the critique are available to the instructor. As a
general principle as many solutions as possible should be pre-
sented and reviewed. Since it is frgquently impossible for each
student or group to present a complete solution, maximum participa-
tion by the class can be achieved by any one or combination of
these methods:
1. Have one solution presented, complete, and mithout
commenting on it; have another presented which is also complete.
Instructor then requires these two to indicate the reasons
for points of difference.
2. Same as 1, but other groups or individuals are
requested to comment on points of difference.
3. Same as 1, but one other group or individual is
required to analyze the two solutions in terms of group's
or individual's own solution.
4. Only one solution is presented, complete, and other
groups or individuals indicate only those points in which
their solutions differ from the one presented.
5. When the solution or action conveniently breaks into
component steps or parts, it can be discussed step-by-step.
A different individual or group is called upon to present
each part. The instructor moderates each part in accordance
with any of the previously stated methods. Care must be
taken to establish correctly and clearly the analysis of
each part before proceeding to the next.
The realism of the present tense (which should be used in
writing the problem situation and maintained during its conduct)
is carried over into all oral discussion. The instructor directs
all discussions in a positive, realistic manner, speaking as
though the situation were actual and at hand. Most discussion
will follow automatically and in the same vein if the instructor
creates a positive spirit and pace.
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Kinds of Problems Used.
The kinds of problems (or problem?situations) used in the problem
solving method of instruction are varied. Although the term "problem
solving" may be applied to the performance of a single technique or
single skill (these are more frequently called "exercises"), usually
it pertains to those problem situations which require the students to
integrate knowledge, skills and techniques into an action which will
bring a solution to the problem. Several of these problem solving
methods have proved of particular value for the kinds of training
situations which confront instructors of this organization. They are
the field problem, the "live" problem, the case study, and the "paper"
problem. This discussion is concerned only with the first two kinds.
The basic concepts of use and ?the method of preparation. are '
similar for the field and the "iive" problem. For our consideration,
field problem and "live" problem may be defined as follows:
FielLproblem.
This is a training situation in which the activities of the
student or student group take place over terrain or at one site
under simulated conditions closely comparable to those in the
anticipated real situation. Although it may be used for individual
training, usually the field problem emphasizes tactical, logistical
and advanced technical training where teamwork among the individuals
of a group is required.
2. "Live" problem
This is so constructed as to confront the student with a
simulated operational situation involving a complex of missions
which require the student to apply operational concepts and
techniques primarily through the principal personalities of the
simulated operational situation as portrayed by the instructor(s)
or other students. Although it is feasible to organize such a
problem situation for group action, the "live" problem can be
used more effectively if its requirements are for individual
solution. Therefore it is particularly valuable for evaluating
the personal characteristics of the student under simulated
operational conditions.
A comparison of other factors concerning the preparation and use
of these two kinds of problems serves to point out other considerations
which the instructor must examine and plan before a problem can be used.
Latitude for Student Action.
Inasmuch as the terrain and tactical_Situatien in the field
problem will usually dictate the general outline of the student's
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course of action, it may be said that field problems lend themselves
more to the observation of the student's ability to apply special
skills and techniques rather than to making some evaluation of his
personal attributes. Operational judgments, leadership abilities and
physical capabilities can be judged to a degree, However, the "live"
problem provides opportunities for observing those capacities and
additionally establishes a situation in which the student by the very
nature of the simulated situation is given a greater choice of action
and must evolve an acceptable relationship with the individuals whose
characterizations confront him. Both of these elements are critical
points of evaluation in our training program.
Briefing iLterials.
The terrain over which the field problem is to proceed obviates to a
great extent, the necessity for the development of much background
information for both the student and the instructor. Obviously this
is not true of the "live" problem situation where extensive explanatory
materials are necessary in order to establish in detail realistic,
simulated conditions, create the desired attitudes in the less imagina-
tive students and provide the instructor with the greater breadth and
depth of knowledge necessary to cope with all possibility of student
action and unanticipated teaching opportunities, The student's briefing
must contain a clear, concise statement of the situation - in terms of
the number of written pages, it may be lengthy - all material or facts
presented must be pertinent and not contain vague, uncertain or ambiguous
situations or information which will confuse the student. The briefing
must establish a definite assignment for the student - whatever the
latitude of action or number of starting points may be. No student will
be able to proceed successfully until he understands the background
data and the assignment. The instructor's briefing sheet must contain
all possibilities of action in the problem as well as the complete
information used by the atudent. Particularly in the "live" problem,
instructions must be clear to the instructors as to the reactions to
be presented the student in response to various approaches.
Student Assignments.
Several general plans for assigning student responsibilities were
described in another part of this paper. Regardless of the general
method followed, a certain amount of written work should be required
of the student. This achieves the following purposes:
1. Provides instructional checkpoints on the student's progress
which can be used for scoring purposes; predicting the success
or failure of future moves in the problem for instructional
purposes, and of informing the student of his accomplishments to
that point.
2. Ensures that the student becomes thoroughly familiar with the
briefing material.
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3. Provides a definite means of tabulating the student's
application of previously taught concepts and specific skills.
Requirement for written work has equal application to field and "liveu
problems, if the paper work required is normally that which the indivi-
dual would prepare in a field situation. This would be prepared in
the form of plans to be submitted for review, coordination or approval,
operational reports and pertinent support arrangements.
Scoring Student Performance.
In the "live" problem the instructor's opportunity for evaluation of
the student's performance is limited by the concentration on his role
to retain spontaneity in his performance. The instructor's lack of
concentration on the student means he must devise other means of scoring
the student accurately. Sound recordings, photographs and other graphic
means have been suggested. Uaobtrusive observation by another instructor
is perhaps the ultimate. As in the field problem, performance check
lists, carefully prepared in advanced as to what is to be observed and
the standards of performance expected, can be used successfully if
completed immediately after the action has been observed.
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Title
gibterence
Training mist
Probleallatag
1. To acquaint the
a method ?o
2. To present
740?10/50
blem solving as
4 an instructor mast
consider in preparing and presenting a problem
3.. To show the student how to construct a problem
to t 4fit he o.an apply the techniques of problem
Bolting Lu his instruction in the field
/-40.10/50. "Problem Solving"
176.195
Blackboard, VU-graph, with transparenci
c.3pies, Problem Evaluation Sheet
pages 1.247-1:7,
ar:14uate
I. lresentattqa
A.
/mtrod,tction (Mbtivation)
1. Use
of problem solving
a. Develops thinking within student
b. Situations can be developed so that studemt can use .he
reasoning
reasoning process in order to arrive at a solution
0. Problems are used only when basic teobniques and skills
have been taught so that they may be employed in the
solution of the problem
2. Since a great percentage of learning is by doinp? problem
solving allows the student to work on his own
. This period will be an introduction to problem solving,
The followLng hour will be an examination of a sample
problem from an instructor's point of view. The remainder
of the day will be in student preparation of a sample
problem
B. Explanation
1. How we think (Reasoning Process)
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. b. Define problem
Pose a solution (hypothesis)
d. Examine the solution
e. Take action on solution
man
. How the instructor makes use of the reasoning process 5
a. States problem -
b. Suvests possible soluti,*(OV-
c. Tests student's hypothests
d. Evaluates student's solution
NOTE: The material under 0 to be handed out to tho students.
Directed discussion to follow.
C. Directed Discassi2n
I. Consideration required in preparation
a. Establish objectives
(1) Will the objectives provide the student an
opportunity to use previously taughy knowledge
skills and tochniques in the pattern likely to
be required by an operational situation
(?) Are the objectives cleerly def-1ned so that the
student realizes what is necessary for him to
do or accomplish?
(3) Are the objectives suoh which sabstantiate the
use of the problem
b. Analyze the actual operational situation (rEalis)
(1) Factors present in the situation
(2) Capabilities required to meet these fadors
c. Plan initial instructional situatio and requirements
(1) Revert to real elements determifie importance
against the stated objectives
NOTE: Show problem evaluation sheA and explain
(2) Status of trainee skills relative to ac-
complishing elements and importance of eaaph
(3) Duplicate real elements either actually or by
simulation
d. Conduct of problem
(1) Control and cheek points
(2) Testing student
(3) Additional situations and requirements
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ir
Cr Ttique
Administrative diti ls
(1) Mechanical and physical aspects of the prem
should be well preptried:
(e) Time ankplace to report
(b) Uniform end equipment
(c) Transportation and MOSS arrangements
(2) Terrain and area preparation
(a) Safety devices
(b) Cc:02mM cations
(c) Targets
(d) Obstacles
(e) Effects necessary to simulate actual
conditions
g. Rehearsal
Total Time
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? 7-40,10/5e
METE= OF INSTRUCTION: FROMM SOLVING
GenerelL The most important goal of any instruction is to pre:sere the stu-
dent to neet and solve the problems which confront him, Thie :L3 seferred
to froqueutly as "teaching how to think" or "how to reason." Lo-,o7er it
may be definede, preparing the individual to organize and utilize all of his
capacities in any situation is the final objective of instruction,
If the solution of problems constitutes one of the important aspects of
human existence then it may be profitable to review at psychologists
believe is the "reasoning" or "thinking" process applied to these problems.
This examination will show why it is necessary to give a large place in any
instructional program to a method of teaching that will enable the individual
to increase his ability to solve his problems.
Thai r.*.a..Sgt1?"111=W MOM*
a. Psychologists agree that thinking starts with a problem or "felt dif-
ficulty," Uhatever it is. it is a "problems" because the habitual easys
of reacting to that situation have been unsatisfactory,.
b. The next requirement is that the existence of the problem he recogeized,
its nature defined clearly and concisely, Many people are only vaeuely
aware that a perplexity exists, They bring no frontal attack upon It
because they fail to see and define it clearly.
e. Once the problem is defined a possible
formulated. This hypothesie is usually
(experience and training) and those new
ation0
solution or hypothesis must be
a mixture of what is hnoun
meanings suggested by the imagin-
d. Once a hypothesis is proposed? all of its factors are examined critically
to appraise or assess their significance to that hypothesis, All pos-
sible consequences of the hypothesis are "thought over," A proposed
solution found venting must be cast aside and new ones foreulated:and
esxamined until one is found that offers reasonable promise of 312COCSS.
e. Finally, ue act on the proposed solution and the reasoned-out relation,
ships. The results of the first experience in applying the solution
may develop new problems or phases of this problem., heretofore uhknoune
which.agaime eill reqpire the application of the reasoning process,
_LT:a Drak.,%siarasaToemEttX0 Problem solving is a teachirg method which gu!,4es
the trainee tiveugh the reasoriTT process necessary to the solution of a
training problem? The trsiUng problems so used are of the most value when .
they create "real" or "live" problems similar to those likely to confront tar,
trainee?.
The general outlines of the method are the same as the five steps described
in the "reasoning" or "thiWting? process. The instructor, from the teaching
standpoint p must realise, his responsibility to the student in each of these
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steps to to gain the greatest value from this instructional method,
a. 4aIing um, =gum, The instructorts responsibility here in. to create
problems built on anticipated "felt needs" or real difficulties of the
students. The problem must be defined clearly for the students or he
must be assisted in locelising it so that he will acquire the technique
of arealyzing problems which confront him0
au22402ZQgoalla2 eeIet3en In this steps the student or stue
dent groups; independentlys or under the direction of the instructors
construct hypotheses. If the problem is constructed properly s these
proposed solutions will arise from the subject matter, skills and tech-
niques which were taught previously. Here the instructor guides the
student's thinking and activity principally by suggestions
e. 2:22Ilag Iltbnat4221A0 In this phase the activity of the student is
observed by the instructor for evidence that the student is finding and
examining all of the factors and their relationships which influence
the hypothesis. Here, too* the instructor must keep the student from
getting too far afield in order that the desired learning will take
placer,
d. goemealesetele? The completion of the problem affords the
instructor the opportunity to review with his students both the success
of their solutions and the effectiveness of the problem-solving tech. .
nicipe they applied.
b.
210Pigdmadallitilatata, la Vat LTIESE0122 9.t /A 21:21a2A.
a, ZEULLItgaz 142 9121251faugg: =glad Problem solving is an excellent
tool of teaching for integrating techniques and other instraction which
has been presented in an unrelated faehion.. This applies especially to
instruction involving coordinated individual Or group actions p such as
tactical exercises and plans. In initiating the planning of such prob-
lems, the instructor must be very precise in establishing the objectives
of the problem and in defining them clearly. For exameles such an ob.
Jective might be tea lassizg, mall in ha la lam el-M1 sitav4 sat=
220.ta seNsItatibQ.imigadeingst at aa.U11/114,11.1m: 'Ewa=
ssmamtuatkam, (All objectives must be stated with relatinn to the
general aims of the course.) It should follow that the problem pre-
sented is eeels that is, it is likely to be encountered by the student
in his future assignment. The entire framework and detail of the prob-
lem must relate only to these objectives and not involve extraneous tech-
niceness knowledge,, or skills unknown to the student,
b. &luting leasesaeldea elf the emeelea. Having established the objectives
of the problem to be presented to the studentso the instructor nad pet
down in detail ell the factors and requirements of that problem teach
would likely be present in a nal situation. Once these factors have
been examined they should be arranged in the order and relationship they
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are meet likely to have with each other, The instructor Erue;.; re-detor-
mine that the problem leads to a solution or solutions consietent with
the objective of the problem. All elements of the problem a:Mention
should produce actions on the part of the student or student e which are
directed toward that objective,
c, kikeita_Unalkt publaz Trainieg conditione in a problem
situation cannot always duplicate those to be expected in a mal situa-
tion, In fact it may be desirable not to attempt to duplicate all of
the elements of the real situatiore, Some of them will require the
student to accomeliet tasks not yet mastered or net relating directly
to the principle chills or techniques to be taught by the problem. The
iristry.tor must study the problem carefully and extract theee Items no
that he may conserve the student's time by relieving the stndent of
responsibility for them or for using them as additional eentrol factors?
In most ieotancess, this can be done in estahliehing the klq24e,,g or
aPinale,inn ::\l'or the student or the gm-91i, The studeet must uneeretaed
clearly eleae the situation is and whera-Ze his group; oe tem, Is to
start e Then eeeditioes must be the same for all individuals oe groepo.
At thio noint ohoes real factors which cannot bo duplicated ie. the
teeelee: e:!i.neation meet be isolated from the problemeesiteatioT,
LLro
seel eneicieneels as will eneumber the student;, or lend little the
toieeeen of reel, teehniqueo required by the objeetivez should le set
ae.-3ae, These aspects of the problem situation are prepared fee tLe eta
-
dent. by the ;_letracYter, These factors D in general are the aleemeteons
ie tee: plannieg of the peoblem uhich start the student or grove teleed
a sellItion, FOT exauple, in the "how to plan and ambush a motoe roeve
theee are The elements of that problem uhioh tee. ee geven
the, geeene 1.1-1 order to 'reet the stage"; they ere real deeeils eelieh
celee''; 'ee denelee'eed or ,hich are not the basic skills eeqa17,e-1 E6r the
(7) I1 nfe::eation ar eo size armemento personnel:, roetee t Lq elee
e? teteee of the ocevey?
de. of his fere.%
'eeeene ,t1 demeliteens available,
of ambeshce restricted to map designak;sd eeeae.
ee eafeeel siteet. en.
eeeeente energies le this instance will be confined to
pl edn& exec Ing the physicel details of thc cgob aq
eeni the eren, These constitute the objoetiee ef e seele-
ene
d, '2,4Z ar2,,PAT =Masa,The clorttroll of the T7 e ei.se: as
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it peogresses is maintained by the 'carefully designed initial geagleg
and by the framework of the problem as it develops, The luatructor
uust anticipate all the situations to be met by the student, the meter-
iai activities* skills* and understandIngs demandedi, and all the pose
;Able alternatives that might be chosen, by the student, Here again the
inetructer must review possible infavences and actions with relation
to the objective of the lesson L As these situations unfolds some
clearly mark themselves as appropriate checkpoints for the instructor
on the stadent. These control points may be used to guide or redirect
the student if he is proceeding incorrectly. New elements may be intro-
duced into the situation at the points to which the student must cone -
tie to apply the problem.-.solving technique. The inetrueter may find
it necessary to provide the student or group with an acceptable solu-
tion of the problem through that phase so that the trainee may analyze
his errors or poor judgments. In this manner the trainee will get the
value of the instruction he did not complete successfelly and mill also
be prepared to meet later phases of the problem.
e. 19.931Ag And, maluatimlk Atudamtgand, 2.42EI2EMEMe Problem solving
is perhaps., the best instructional method for evaluating students and
their performance* as it requires more from the student than.peofic- .
iencies in specific subject-.matter and ekills. It demands the integra-
tion of all special abilities* the exercise of reasoning and judgment
by the trainee and the display by the student of some intangible /nee,.
sonal factors* such as leadership* initiative* and imagenation. The
instructional problem oust indicate clearly what is to be evaluated dure
ing and at the conclusion of the problem. The instrueeor must sot up
evaluative criteria for each phase of the problem as well as for the
whole problem, These should be stated clearly to ?the trainees in terms
of what is to be done and how well it is to be donee
Ihtmrsham. The critique of a problem is a valuable in- -
structional tool.. Here the original framework and atege. Lett= must
be recalled and the Rim and hem of student performance analyzed and
explained against the possible solutions of the problems and the level
of achievement required by the instructor. Ail possible solutions of
the problem, or any of its phases* should be covered and evaluated.
The problem must always be subject to nodification after valid criti-
cism, The instructor must be a gialga of his problem.-shouing a readi-
ness to learn the deficiencies in his instruction and to adopt suggested
techniques to insure a higher degree of instruction and realitY.
aasag", DI=Isla =Ada a jaw= SA& =Wm. Ill-planned -
problems of courses will result from a lack of thorough study and realizae
tion of the potentialities of available time* equipment and terrain. These
are eiweys considered in planning instruction.
Pariglal, 2a lattra2t9Z Makillf22 =NM Ealaag 'Alia=12.4
zeageee Although, the instructor may not appear to occupy the canter of at-
tention, in some aspects of the problem method* he is an important, cog in
the machinery of this method. The tendency is to individualism in problem
solution. Whatever the direct approach o the degree to which the instructor
himself ieut master otArtittrol, il1 e ...3.157216
effectivefitigrelardiV8eff '`
-or 0 u ?
1111 to the
: ?
who
ee 41.
e!ie process.
,
, ? -
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has the ability to see problems elearly& the power to analyze with discern
ment, ana the faculty to syntheeise and draw conclusions with accuraey
will be a rare help to the etudents in their mastery of the difficult tech-
niqee of problem attack, Guidance in problem solving is in reality& train-
ing in buIrtitudee ant% it might be added in bee/ la Ibla.
The foneving is a suggested list of rules which every instructor should
study carefully as a guide in this task. It is well for the instructor to
re7mber, howeveat? that the order of rules will vary with the procedure
need.
ae Get the students to Again the problem at issue and keep it eleeely in
miud?
b. Get the students to algal as many related ideas aspossible by encour-
agtng them:
(1) To anelyze the situation.
(2) To or late definite hypotheses and to recall general rules or
principles that may apply.
Q. Get the students to waggle carefully each suggestion by encouraging
than to maintain an attitude of unbiased& suspended judgment or conclue
sions,
d? Get the students to =mum their material so as to aid in the process
of thinking by encouraging them:
(1) To Igke elegle from time to time.
(2) To use methods of tabulation and graphic expressim
(3) To express concisely tentative conclusions reached from time to
time during the inquiry.
Kind .7 =Um pemiL The kinds of problems (or problem-situations) used
in the problem-solving method of instruction are as varied as there are
training situetions. Although the term IMW.C./I1 may be applied to
a single one-technique or single skill usually it pertains to those prob-
lems which require the students to integrate knowledge & skills and tech-
niques into action which will bring a solution to tho problem, Several of
these problem-solving methods have proven of particular value for the kinds
of training situations which win likely confront instructors of this or-
ganization. They are the ease study& the live problem, the field problem
and the planning or "paper" problem.
a. The 2A22 Atzlee? The case study problem is based on the studen-Cs
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ans,lysis of an operational history especially prepared for Instructional
pueeeees, The ease study must contain the essential facto .n agree-
ment with the objectives of the instructor. It nay be treat od in a
positive or negative mays that is, in a way as to emphasize the ma--
ossaDal operational procedure or to show operational errors and incon-
sistencies. The techniques of using the case study problem are many.
It is essential that the student receive same guidance in his study
and that what he does be carefully evaluated and critiqued by the fele
structorG Both may be done through written or verbal reviews and dis-
cussions,
(1)
(2)
Value gaa gaNtiorio The case study is valuables for it presents
a whole body of information.-all the elements and theie dynamic
relationships. It must be chosen to fit the course and must have
a specific place in the course, The general principles of selec-
tion for any problem must be considered. Theleteral or by-pro-
ducts of the study must be determined so that they may be controle
led.
geeeer=212? As with all problems, the various uses of the case
study must be planned before the details of the study can be or-
ganized. Portions mast be emphasized, and others subordinated
consistent with the needs and the objective of the lesson ? The
particular organization selected for the material must support
these selections.
(3) ItemeeplatLeu. It is proposed that an effective Beans of present-
ing the ease study, either in verbal or written forms is that of
presenting a drama. Principally, this will include 6. list and
description of the characters, or participants, an explanation of
the scene or situation, a fixing of the time, and the introduction
of the first character or personality whose activities affect the
essentials of the Study, As a rules the chronology of the study
should be progressive; however, it may be necessary to speed-up
or slow-down certain times within the action for purposes of closer
examination of detail or to eliminate unimportant periods. In
many instances, operational elements or chronological events may
be repeated or reappear for purposes of emphasis or continuity.
In generals no critical or editorial comments shonld appear in the
case study?way a recounting of the facts. When editorial or
critical comments are rewired for -clarity or for instructional
purposes they should separate from the body of the ease study.
If complexity is avoided, the elements of the problem will be
easily controlled and better aligned with the objective of the
lesson.,
b, mg limbublaa, The live problem is so constructed as to confront the
student with a situation 'which requires the exercise of the mental and
emotional processes of an actual operation. In such a problem the in-
structors and students assume the various characterizations rewired by
the situation. It is particularly valuable as it may be used to eval-
uateethe student as a person. Inasmuch as it should be an active exere
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cise of other instruction, it provides an opportunity for the student
to practice operational principles.
(1)
Iejtemmaga. The principles of problem construction must be ap-
plied carefully during the preparation of a live problem,, The
instructor must determine what is to be taught in the problem
Its elements should be those presented in the course or subject
and evaluated as to their significance. As a matter of principles
the problem is a carefully constructed experiment in which all
the factors are controlled except those to be taught and, of
courser the student. Those factors which limit the activities
of the student reduce the value of the problem. In restricting
his freedom, thesis limiting factors channel his actions and
thereby decrease the value of the assessment of the trainee.
(2) Itegenealga. The principles applying to the preparation of the
student and the instructor for the problem are of great importance.
The students briefing must. contain a clear, concise statement of
the situation with a definite assignment for the student. No
student will be able to proceed successfully until he understands
both,. The instructorgs briefing sheet must contain all possibil-
ities of action in the problem as well as the complete informa-
tion used. Instructions must be clear to the instructors as to
the reactions to be presented the student in response to various
approaches. During the progress of the problem, the instructor
must utilize the checkpoints established on the student. Realism
is instilled by .the instructor by adopting the attitudes and
levels of conversation assigned to the characterization he is
assuming.
( )
grattal. To unfold the critical steps of the problem point by
point in the critique is an effective means of initiating the
discussion of the problem. Thieeprovides an opportunity to review
the possible action at those points and to analyze the factors of
judgment supporting various actions. During the problem and at
the critique some mechanical recording of the students perform-
ance is helpful for the instructorgs evaluation of the student0
If recordings can not be made of the fell discussions the use of
a cheek list is helpfel. Again the problem critique is an oppor-
tunity to continue the Motivation of the student for his work and
to provide a source of suggestion for the improvemeet of the prob-
lem,
Cu :Leg magagio The field problem is a training situation in which
the activities of the student or student group take place over terrain
or one site closely comparable to those under a real situation.
Usually it is emphasized in tactical, logistical, and advanced techni-
cal training yhere teamwork among the individuals of a group is re-
quired., It may be used, however, for training individuals.
(1) freeneeellea. As with most problemesolving situations, the field
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problem is built on preliminary instruction and servee as a cul-
mination of that instruction. The problem must be cons'esuetead by
the instructors as previously described: arsevel these points:
(a) ateeliere IN:2131Zight211?
(b)
(c)
(d)
(la)
(2a)
(3a)
(4a)
Selecting the problem based on lesson objectives:
previous instruction:, and time availab/e.
Surveying the terrain and equipment available o
quired.
Keeping all factors realistic.
Determining the standards of stadent performances
kYSICOMIII,SLtitra1jain1tz=1MagaliVii=t1M.kwc
Ikanzublom.
(la) Setting the stage.
(2a) Guiding the trainees.
The technique of performance
Planning the critique.
(2) Emegatatiag. The emphasis in the field problem is on student
performance. The instructor should keep in the background as
much as possible. He should not stop a procedure or operation
unless an error occurs that would cause the men to learn incor-
rect habits or procedures. If it is apparent that the operation
is not going according to schedule: one of two possible errors
ocearred:
(3)
(a) The preliminary instrucUon was inadequate.
(b) The type of problem set was too advanced.
The instructor must provide opportunities within the problem for
the students to use their linagination, ingenuity: and initiative
in solving the problem. Vague: uncertaine or ambiguous situations
mast be avoided in such preelems. The training given within the
exercise should be specific e and any unusual conditions arising
that require techniques beyond the skill of the trainees will.
destroy the value of the remainder of the -problem.
gelfeteue. The instructor conducting the field problem should be
thoroughly familiar with the tactical or technical principles of
the aeplicatory exercise as well as how to conduct a critique.
A critique is a method of instruction. The instructor must plan
his critieee as carefailr e hiza_Drahlem
vEld
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