HISTORICAL SUMMARY OF THE (Sanitized) IMAGE CHANGE DETECTOR T & E REPORT NO. 68-12

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: NGA Records (Formerly NIMA)
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78B04747A002500020014-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 24
• Document Creation Date: December 28, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 15, 2002
• Sequence Number: 14
• Publication Date: June 1, 1968
• Content Type: SUMMARY

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T & E REPORT NO. 68-12
JTNE196::
TPD/TSSG/NPIC
Declass Review by NIMA/DOD
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Contractual and other documents were reviewed and knowledgeable persons
interviewed to compile a Test and Evaluation (T&E) history of the
Image Change Detector (ICD) prototype. The ICD pro-
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totype does not operate satisfactorily, should or should, not be use-tested
depending on who one believes, and may be made obsolete by the Image Comparison
Microstereoscope in any event.
No T&E in the "modern" sense was conducted. The contract did not have
rigid specifications to which acceptance testing could be keyed. No 'before
and after' operational suitability tests.were documented which would constitute a
proper evaluation.
The problem of interest varied with the agency concerned. NPIC's
original problem of a future need for an automatic correlator does not appear
to be solved by the autocorrelator developed for the ICD prototype. This
correlator frequently introduced more error than had been set manually before-
hand. No established reason for this was found in the documents that were
reviewed.
The ICD project showed which modes of operation are beneficial and which
are not. The Image Comparison Microstereoscope benefited greatly from
this project.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Objectives
1.2. Description of Reference Sources
1.3. Description of The
2. SUMMARY
0
ZCD Prototype
2.1. Summary of Test Results
2.2. Summary of Operational Suitability
Results
2.3. Summary of Original Problems
2.4. Summary of ICD Project Results
3.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1.
ICD Project Results
3.2.
Management Considerations
4.
DETAILS
4.1.
Original Objectives or Problems
4.2.
Procurement History
4.3.
T & E History
4;4.
ICD Project Results
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l.l. Objectives
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1. The primary objective of this report was to compile a history
of the Test and Evaluation (T&E) that has been performed on the
Image Change Detector (ICD) so that manage-
ment can decide on the proper disposition of the machine.
1.1.2. An additional objective was to report what the original pro-
blem was that was to be solved by the ICD project.
1.1.3. The last objective was to record the results of the ICD pro-
ject.
1.1.3.1. What kept the project from being successful?
1.1.3.2. What has been gained that should be applied to future
problems?
1.2. Description of Reference Sources
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1.2.1. An unofficial contract jacket kept byl Iwas 25X1A
an important source of documents.
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1.2.2. The official brown and green contract folders kept by Mr.
1.2.3. The T&E Branch project folder contained the most recent
1.2.4. Three F-Ireports were obtained from
were:
1.2.4.1.
They
"Change Detector Operation Manual" 2 Aug 1965
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1.2.4.2.
1.2.4.3.
"Fin
al Report, Change Detector" 1 Nov 1965
"Change Detector Maintenance Ingtructions"
1 May 19E6 (Also obtained from
1.2.5. The official contract jacket kept by the Ames Building group
her contract jacket. The Ames Building contract jacket was sent t
archival storage and would not be worth the effort required to retrieve
1.3. Description of the hICD Prototype
103.1. Figure 1 is a photograph of the ICD. It is also shown and
briefly described on page 100 of NPIC/R-9167 "The NPIC Equipment
summary 1967" dated June 1967.
1.3.2. The instrument is 80" high, 45" deep, and 105" long. It
features two 14" television monitor screens.
1.3.3. The ICD is a device that will manually or automatically
register 2 photographic images and display any differences or changes
between the 2 photographs. The photographic images must be on separate
70mm rolls. The maximum roll length is 250 feet.
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2. SUMMARY
2.1. Summary of Test Results
2.1.1. Pre_Shipment Inspection
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2.1.1.1. The autocorrelator correlated during the second inspection
with a small residual error in the 'X' direction. This was due to misalignment
of a mirror and apparently was never corrected prior to shipment.
2.1.1.2. Since most of the numerical data were design objectives
rather than specifications, the inspection was made on the basis of
success in approaching the objectives. On this basis the ICD was judged an
acceptable product.
2.1.2. Final Acceptance Test
2.1.2.1. Only draft copies were found whic'a indicated that the ICD
prototype was unsatisfactory.in 5 respects. The correlation-unit was
one of the unsatisfactory units.
2..1..2.2.
"Final Report, Change Detector" indicated that the
autocorrelation repeatability was within 0.110.
2.2. Summary of Operational Suitability Results
2.2.1. The confusing situation regarding operational suitability
is summarized below using direct quotations where possible and para-
phrasing otherwise.
2.2.1.1. On 4 September 1964
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wrote, ". . . Appears to have 25X1A
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some potential' use for PAG ..."
2.2.1.2. On 7 December 1965
drafted a memorandum 25X1 A
that the same job can be done faster and better without it.
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2.2.1.3. On 4 May 1966 ote that after the deficiencies
are corrected it should be thoroughly use-tested. Since the deficiencies
have not been corrected he should be counted as against it.
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2.2.1.4. On 1 August 19671 wrote, "... has a useful appli-
cation..." He recommended use in the present PI cycle.
2.2.1.5. On 25 August 1967
wrote, "... the automatic
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registration system seemed to be of little or no improvement over the
manual registration system ..." It is suggested that a competent photo
interpreter make a comparison of the two..."
2.2.1.6. On 21 May 1968
wrote, "... appears to have no 25X1 A
utility in imagery exploitation."
2.3. Summary of Original Problems
There were several Government agencies or departments interested in
this cooperative effort. Their objectives are listed here.
2.3.1. For NPIC it was the future need for automatic correlation.
2.3.2. For GIMRADA it was continued funding of the 10D program.
2.3.3. For the USAERDL Mine Detection Branch it was detection
of Minefields from low level drone photography.
2.3.4. For the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Army Scientific
Liaison Advisory Group it was detection of changes in the geologic
environment due to nuclear tests. etc.
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2.4. Summary of ICD Project Results
2.4.1. The preponderance of evidence suggests that the automatic
correlator in the ICD does not operate satisfactorily. No established
reason for its unsatisfactory operation was found.
IEG, expects the Image Comparison Microstereoscope to be far more use-
ful for change detection than the ICD.
2.4.2. The ICD program was funded by NPIC and the eports were
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delivered to GIMRADA. No documented feedback was found.
2.4.3. No documentation was found that any personnel of the USAERDL
Mine Detection Branch, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. Army Scientific
Liaison and Advisory Group ever operated the ICD prototype.
2.4.4. The Image. Comparison Microstereoscope project benefitted
greatly from the ICD.
2.4.5. The "flicker" and "change enhance" modes of operation are useful
for change detection. (See subparagraph 3.1.2.)
2.4.6. Cloud and shadow reject modes are not useful for change detection.
2.4.7. When video presentation of imagery is the correct approach the
animosity towards this approach will have to be overcome. A zoom capability
must be available.
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3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1. ICD Project Results
3.1.1. The flicker technique is useful for image change detection.
3.1.2. The change enhance mode of change detection is useful.
(This mode presents all changes as light areas on a dark background.)
3.1.3. Funds should not be allocated for shadow and/or cloud reject
techniques in change detection devices.
3.1.4. Anamorphic optics are needed in the Image Comparison
Microstereoscope.
3.2. NPIC management should consider the following statements when
formulating their decision as to the proper disposition oft,the ICD pro-
totype ?
3.2.1. The documentation reviewed indicates that a thorough test
and evaluation was notformulated and executed.
3.2.2. Much of the test and evaluation that was conducted was done
with the ICD prototype partially inoperative and incompletely debugged.
Some electronics not working and one mirror not aligned are cited as
examples of this.
3.2.3. It is very possible that the several persons who performed the
test and evaluation c:,f this instrument did not have all the appropy,.ate
documents. If so., they may have been unaware of the needs and intr-.?ests
of the various interested Government Agencies as well as of NPIC. The
operation manual is dated 2 August 1965 and may not have been available to
those who diu the T&E.
=".2.4. The evidence seems to be sufficient to properly conclude that
our operational personnel do not need o want this machine.
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4. DETAILS
4.1 Original Objectives or Problems
4.1.1 As noted in the documents cited in subparagraphs 4.2.2
and 4.3.13 below, NPIC's original problem was the future need for
automatic correlation of 2 or more scenes. NPIC did not want the
ICD prototype itself but the basis of a fully automatic servo-
controlled correlator.- A secondary objective was to serve the
intelligence community per NSCID #8 as noted in Mr. Lundahl's
memorandum cited in subparagraph 4.2.3 below.
4.1.2 GIMRADA was financially unable to underwrite the second
phase of the
~CD prototype effort. Their original problem was
procurement of a working prototype change detector for various
applications. Those mentioned in thel (proposal of 20 January 1962 25X1A
were;. u
4.1.2.1 Military activity by (potential)enemies
4.1.2.2 Bomb damage assessment
4.1.2.3 Minefield detection
4.1.3 ERD-EM dated 19 March 1962 was signed by 25X1A
I f the, Mine Detection Branch, USAERDL. He wrote, "Prelim-
inary feasibi:ii-ty of a change detection system for Mine Detection (sic)
has been demonstrated by using a set of photographs taken before and
after mine burial in a desert environment." This letter also explains
what they would do with the ICD prototype if it were made available
to them.
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4.1..4 In a letter dated 12 March 1962 the Director of the
U.S. Geological Survey stated, "In addition, we are investigating
on behalf of the AEC and ARPA, the geologic environment of nuclear
test sites and problems related to thel rogram." He 25X1A
further stated that he would greatly appreciate having an oppor-
tunity to use the ICD prototype when it becomes available.
4.1.5 The U.S.'Army Intelligence Board in ACSIH-BD dated
6 March 1962 stated]
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GIMRADA to obtain one ICD for Army use.
4.1.6 The U.S. Army Scientific Liaison and Advisory Group letter
dated 6 March 1962 stated, "Specifically, our tests will be con-
ducted to determine whether or not the Change Detector is applicable
to the Inspection Program of Project d to arms con- 25X1A
trol techniques for disarmament."
4.2 Procurement History
4.2.1
"Final Report, Change Detector Studies" dated
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31 October 1961 resulted from a 4-month contract that GIMRADA had
The report stated, "The feasibility of the change detector
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concept has been determined by the fabrication and evaluation of a
demonstration model." "This model is capable of automatic registra-
tion in two directions (X and Y) and is a video-difference readout
device." It further stated, "The demonstrator model does not auto-
matically register in scale factor and azimuth; however, the feasibil-
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ity of implementing these two loops has been proved on the correl-
ation equipment at
4.2.2 In memoranda dated 2 April 1962 and 21 March 1962
of NPIC emphasized that NPIC primarily wanted the automatic
correlator and not the ICD prototype itself. (See also subpara-
graph 4.3.13 below)
4.2.3 In memorandum NPIC/D-88-62 dated 5 June 1962 Mr. Arthur C.
Lundahl cited NSCID #8 and the potential technical advances in the
art of photographic image correlation as reasons for NPIC's decision
to fund the IECD development.
4.2.4
kas signed 15 June 1962 under project
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4.2.5 The ICD prototype was delivered to NPIC on 2 October 1964
per memorandum NPIC/P&DS/D/6-1347 dated 4 May 1966 and signed by
4.2.6 The ICD prototype is
in Room lN423B, as of
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the date of this report, waiting for disposition.
4.3 T&E History
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requires rigid specifications in the contract and an operational
evaluation should have 'before and after' studies. Nothing approxi-
mating 'before and after' studies has., been documented in the ICD
files. Most of the numerical data in the contract were design objec-
tives instead of` specifications. Therefore, with the warning that no
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T&E in the 'modern' sense has been conducted, we continue.
4 .3.1 A document titled "BRIEF AND EVALUATION" dated 12 March 1962
was written by of GIMRADA. This document really
only evaluates las a better contractor than the other. companies
for change detector development.
4.3.2 A document titled "INSTALLATION ENGINEERING" dated 1 July
',1964 is unsigned. It states that the ICD prototype has no known
'electromagnetic interference problems. (See subparagraph 4.3.11
below)
4.3.3 A memorandum dated 4 September 1964 was written by
D
of PAG. He performed,
"...a preliminary evaluation of
the instrument for PAG operations..." "The Change Detector appears
to have some potential use for PAG in detecting changes within limited
areas."
4.3.4 A memorandum dated 22 September 1964 was written by Major
assigned to NPIC from the Army. He wrote, "The pur-
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pose of this trip was to make an in-plant, pre-shipment, inspection
of the Change Detector built for NPIC." "...the non- 25X1A
operation of the autocorrelator lessened the value of the trip."
"Because some of the cloud-and-shadow-reject electronic circuitry is
on the same circuit board as the autocorrelation circuitry, the re-
jection.features were also non-operable."
4.3.5 Areport titled "RESULTS OF PRELIMINARY TESTS OF THE CHANGE
DETECTOR" dated September 1964
as authored by
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of GIMRADA. In the cover letter dated 30 November 1964 he wrote,
"There was insufficient time before delivery to run the tests as
originally planned..." "Some of the components were not operating
at that time either." The report itself, was the first relatively
thorough documented T&E of the ICD prototype.
4.3.5.1 Of the 17 items that were to be tested the 4 not meeting
the design goals were;
4.3.5.1.1 Resolution: 22.6 lines/mm near maximum magnification
(Design Goal: 50 lines/mm at maximum magnification)
4.3.5.1.2 Measurement: Up to 0.7 mm error (Design Goal: mm)
4.3.5.1.3 Shadow and Cloud Rejection: The components were not
wired in.
4.3.5.1.4 Magnification: 187.1X maximum (Design Goal: 200X)
4.3.5.2 Evaluation type comments were;
4.3.5.2.1 "The image on the monitor screen was not in'focus at
maximum magnification."
4.3.5.2.2 "After the automatic correlation process, the images
were sometimes displaced from the proper positions for registration."
"After the automatic correlation sequence was completed, one gear did
not always return to its proper position for proper correlation."
"With a nudge from a finger, it would go into position, however."
4.3.5.2.3 "Tip and tilt corrections are not part of the automatic
correlation process." "Any tip or tilt corrections must,be made
manually." "It is very difficult for the observer to be sure he is
using the best settings for tip and tilt."
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4.3.5.2.4 "Manual operation of the scale adjustment was satis-
factory." "Although the automatic correlation did not always result
in proper positioning for registration, it did not appear to be off
in scale factor."
4.3.5.2.5 (Flicker is the mode where the 2 images are alternated
on one monitor screen in rapid succession.) "Flicker appears to be
very useful." "It seems to make changes more obvious than the video
difference presentation does." ""Continued use of it may strain the
eyes some, but using it for a little while seems to be all right (sic)."
4.3.6 The ICD prototype was delivered to NPIC on 2 October 1964.
(See subparagraph 4.2.5 above)
4.3.7 A memorandum dated 9 October 1964 was written cy Major
most of the numerical data in the contract are design objectives
instead of specifications, it was Lot possible to make the inspection
on the basis of meeting certain fixed numerical requirements." "The
assigned to NPIC from the Army. He wrote, "Because
success ii: approaching the desired objectives." "In this respect
pre-shipment inspection was therefore made to establish
II
has produced an acceptable product." He further stated,
"When placed in the 'Automatic Correlation' mode the Detector cor-
related the images." "There was a small residual error in tile 'XI
direction which was due to misalignment of the correlation mirror."
"This can be corrected, but it is a time-consuming task."
would rather do the final 'tuning' after the Detector arrives at the
Center..."
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4.3.8 A document titled "CHANGE DETECTOR CORRECTIONS NEEDED"
dated 5 November 1964 is unsigned. It lists 24 needed corrections.
Items 6 and 7 were; "6. Autocorrelation is very poor - changes
attitude and X Z Y." "7. Cloud and Shadow reject not working."
4.3.9 Draft copies "Final Acceptance Tests on Change Detector"
had the date 3 December 1965 lined out. The authors,
that the tests were performed over a period of several months. Their
results differ significantly from these reported in the report cited
in subparagraph 4.3.5 above.
4.3.9.1 The test differences were;
4.3.9.1.1 Sensitivity: Densities of 0.67 and 0.54 was easily
noted as a change between films. Densities of 0.65 and 0.6 was
barely noticeable. (Preliminary Test: A one-level difference on a
12-level gray scale could be noted.)
4.3.9.1.2 Shadow and Cloud Rejection: Did not operate :satisfac-
torily. (Preliminary Test: The components were not wired in).
4.3.9.1.3 Correlation: Res-dlts of t;-e automatic correlation
process were not consistently good and the errors were often greater
than those that had been set manually initially. (Both this test and
the preliminary test reported that the time for automatic correlation
was well within the design goal of 2 minutes.)
4.3.9.1.4 Durability: The only major weakness has been the re-
duction gears of the film drive motors which resulted in frozen bearings
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several times. The design was changed since the time of the pre-
liminary test. (Preliminary Test: No measurements were made.)
4.3.9.1.5 Tip and Tilt Adjustments: Backward tilt of 3 degrees
did not meet the design goal of 5 degrees. (The preliminary test
did not report this.)
4.3.9.1.6 Film Transport: A design change, after the time of the
preliminary test,to obtain continuous variation of speed caused the
design goals for maximum speed to be missed.
4.3.9.1.7 Magnification: 156X maximum (Preliminary Test: 187.1X
maximum) The design goal was 200X maximum.
4.3.9.2 Additional significant evaluation type comments beyond
those in the preliminary test report were:
4.3.9.2.1 "The cross-hairs sometimes creep off the points where
they are positioned." "Because of the coarseness of the control, it
is difficult to get the cross-hairs positioned over the desired point."
4.3.9.02.2 "After automatic correlation red lights indicate if
correction has been made in scale and/or rotating." "If the manual
button is pushed while the red light is on, the scenes move back, to
the original setting." "To retain the new setting tae knob must be
turned until the red lights are out..."
4.3.1:.; NPIC/P&DS-11-65 dated 15 January 1965 was signed by
This memorandum stated, "...to allow the
to complete modification and
trouble-shooting of deficiencies found during test and evaluation of
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' The 5 work items listed to correct
the deficiencies do not seem to correspond with the 24 needed correc-
tions in the document cited in subparagraph 4.3.8 above. This may
indicate a case of undocumented T&E.
4.3.11 A memorandum dated 29 January 1965 was written by
He wrote, "...conducted on-site broadband and
narrowband electric field radiation tests in accordance with Federal
in NPIC testing room on the first floor
Change Detector System located
mended, "...the ..harge detector should be placed in such a manner that
the minimum distance from any outside building wall or any unprotected
area within the building to the equipment is not less than fifty (50)
feet." (Federal Standard 222 is titled "Radiation Standard for. Com-
munications and Other Information Process.a:.; Equipment" and is classi-
fied "Confidential.")
4.3.12
"Final Report, Change Detector" dated 1 November
1965 was prepared under
4.3.12.1 They reported, "Limited tests using nearly identical
aerial imagery have determined that the autocorrelation repeatability
is within .1 percent in X, Y, azimuth and scale factor." "Although the
repeatability of autocorrelation of the two films provided a good indi-
cation of the registration accuracy, the absolute accuracy was difficult
to determine because the available imagery contained small but signifi-
cant, amounts of relative distortion and defocusing." "Successful
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correlation of typical aerial imagery containing relative azimuth
errors of up to 5 degrees and scale errors between 3 and 5 percent
have been achieved,..."
4.3.12.2 A predictive comment was, "...a power supply has been
purchased which will generate voltage up to 25 kilovolts." "An
improvement in both read-out resolution and light output is antici-
,pated when this supply is installed." (See subparagraph 4.3.16 below)
4.3.13 A draft memorandum dated 7 December 1965 was written by
lof P&DS. He recommended "...that the device
officially be turned, over to GIMRADA." This was after he quoted
0
21 March 1962 memorandum (see subparagraph 4.2.2 above),
"Whilst the Change Detector as such will not primarily be a tool for
our use, etc., etc."
made the closest thing to a comparative
evaluation (still not a 'before and after' study) when he wrote, "In
spite of all sorts of variations in target and camera orientation,
aspect angle, aun angle (and, therefore, shadow pattern), snow cover,
image density, etc. the experienced PI can make visual comparisons
between twc pho-Gos taken at different times and he can then go on and
detect si iilicant changes, usually with a minimum loss of time,"
"Whereas -he 'pre-normalization' of the imagery requirea by she proto-
type dev',?-3, before it can do a very good job, requires an Expenditure
of a great deal of time and, in the case of oblique coverage, it is
often impossible to get two images to the point where they can be com-
pared in a manner which will permit the detection of change." No tests
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or data were cited for the preceding.
further stated, "At
NPIC ... virtually all interest in the device as a piece of operational
equipment has been killed both because of its extremely limited
resolution capabilities as well as because very few operationally
oriented PI's can `see even a potential need for such a device." "At
least in theory, a 'change detecting' device seems as if it might be
useful..."
4.3.14 NPIC/P&DS/D/6-1347 dated 4 May 1966 was written by
Attached to this memorandum were an outline
of the Test Plan, a copy of the preliminary test report (see subpara-
graph 4.3.5 above), and a draft copy of the final acceptance test
report (see subparagraph 4.3.9 above).
4.3.15 Form 1897 dated 26 May 1966 was signed by
0
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He wrote, "The delay in final acceptance and failure to meet
some of the design objectives are attributed to official technical
changes made in the contract and to the decision to deliver without a
complete electronic checkout at the factory."
4.3.16 NPIC/P&DS/D/6-1415 dated 10 June 1966 was written by
He wrote, "The optimistic note in the .;acceptance
Inspection Report (Memorandum for the Record, 4 May 1966), ;1r_at the
new power supply to be installed would greatly improve the cloud and
shadow/reject ,Liudes,.has not been born (sic) out following the subject
installation." (The optimistic note not only appears in the document
cited in subparagraph 4.3.14 but also in the
Final Report ci L _d in
25X1A
25X1A
25X1A
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subparagraph 4.3.12)
further stated, "To date, higher
priority work has delayed further TO on this instrument."
4.3.17 NPIC/TDS/D-952-67 dated 1 August 1967 was written by 25X1A
He evaluated the lkCD prototype to determine 25X1A
its usefulness as a photographic interpretation tool. He concluded,
"...the Change Detector has a useful application in the initial
review of numerous photographic frames occurring in sequence on the
rolls of film being compared." He recommended, "That this prototype
25X1A
25X1A
Change Detector be used in the present photographic 25X1A
interpretation cycle to isolate areas of interest for further intense
optical study by an experienced interpreter utilizing a light table."
4.3.18 NPIC/TDS/EP/536-67 dated 25 August 1967 was written by
He wrote, "It
might be added here that in the investigation of the Change Detector
the automatic registration system seemed to be of little or no improve-
ment over the manual registration system." "It is suggested that a
competent photo interpreter make a comparison of the two to determine
the merit of the automatic system."
4.3.19 IEG-131-68 dated 2_1 May 1968 was written by
He wrote that the ICD prototy-,F; appears to have no utility !.n imagery
.exploitation. He further wrote, "The Image Comparison Microstereo-
scope now under development is expected to be a far more useful instru-
ment for use in change detection procedures."
25X1A
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4.4. ICD Project Results
4.4.1. In an interview on 30 July 1968
25X1A
ICD project proved the validity of the flicker technique (see subparagraph
4.3.5.2.5.), established that there are changes a PI will not want to look
at, and was considered when the Image Comparison Microstereoscope project
was initiated. Shadows and the X displacement due to vertical relief are
examples of changes that do not interest PI's. The requirement for anamorphic
optics in the Image Comparison Microstereoscope was derived from the ICD
project.
4.4.2. In an interview on 31 July 1968 said that he 25X1A
learned from the ICD project that P.I's have a certain animosity toward
video presentation of imagery and that they want a zoom capability. He also
said that the trend is toward larger scale photography and that higher
resolution CRT's are possible which might make video imagery with zoom
acceptable.
4.4.3. In NPIC/TDS/D-952-67 :xa-cec 1 Aug-L : ~9b7
25X1A
concluded, "Change information, bott obvious L hidden, is readily made
apparent by use of 'flicker - and 'change enhancw~,m:ces of operation." He
further concluded, "The 'shadow reject' and 'cloud reject' modes of operation
were found to be of little or no value and should be removed fro.; subsequent
versions of the machine.'! In an interview on 31 July 1968 stated 25X1A
that he learned from the ICD project that cloud reject and snaccow r:ject
techniques will not help in change detection devices.
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9r 71-5-73
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