SOVIET GEODETIC AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC INSTRUMENTATION

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-00202A000100080001-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 110
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 27, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: September 25, 1953
• Content Type: REPORT

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SOTIIT GEODETIC ARD PHOTOGRtMUTRIC IRSTHUIENTATION
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SOVIET GEODETIC Ai PHOTOGRJ11EII'RIC INaTRUIM:fTATION
TABLE OF COYMENTS
I. INTRODUCTION 1
A. Soviet Claims 1
(1) Training Centers in Optics 4
(2) Centers of Research 7
(3) Production of Optical Glass 8
(4) Factories of Geodetic and Photogrammetric Instruments 10
B. Limitations of Present Study 17
11. GE1 EBAL CONCLUSIONS 4 4
A.
Sources Examined
30
APPENDIX
I.
Photograrnmetric Instruments
35
II.
Geodetic Instruments
L4
III.
Graviiretric Apparatus
53
IV.
Photographic Lenses and Cameras
59
V.
Radio Instruments
78
VI.
Soviet Astronomical Instrumentation
87
VII.
Photographic Supplement
95
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This report is an attempt, almost wholly on the basis of open ..ounce
material and without adequate opportunity to laboratory-test equipm>nt, to
arrive at a reasonable conclusion as to Soviet capabilities in this very re-
stricted. subject. Open-source Soviet literature reveals that the S-).viets
have at their disposal, not only a large number of well-trained personnel
working in the field of applied optics, but also a corps of outstanding theo-
retical scientists and the laboratory and, industrial facilities neo?.ssary to
develop an efficient and successful optical industry.
The Soviet claim that they are completely independent of the W.:.st with
respect to optical apparatus should be accepted with sole reservati >ns.
Nothing very original in the field of optical apparatus has been fo-nid in
Soviet technical literature, although some Soviet photogrannetrical lenses
appear to be excellent, perhaps even superior in some ways to the W+.-stern
lenses now in use.
?
Surveying instruments such as theodolites, chronometers, etc., appear
to be adequate but no great originality is evidenced by the Soviets in this
field. Some Soviet gravimeters, however, deserve careful attention.
The Soviet technical literature contains relatively little infc-rmation
dealing with their equivalents of Shoran. Loran, Radar, and other e:_.ectronf.c
instruments of Soviet manufacture. Of possible significance, however, is
the fact that the Soviets began to pay attention to the use of radic instru-
ments for surveying purposes earlier than did the Western nations.
The general conclusion is that the Soviet optical industry, in so far as
geodesy and photogrammetry are concerned, is in a state of development com-
parable to that of the United States, with a difference in emphasis necessi-
tated by different geographical and economic conditions and surveyir..g goals.
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. I TBOO'CTIQR
Analysis of construction of geodetic and surveying instruments in the
U.S.S.R. involves study of much of the industry and technological development
of that country and cannot be made intelligible without some attention to the
general problem. This situation becomes clear if we consider the necessary
prerequisites for the construction of any particular instrument, such as a
camera for aerial photographic work. In order to construct such a camera,
we must have:
,a. A designer who is expert in problems of geometrical optics.
This involves considerable training at some scientific center.
b. Availability of glass with very exact physical properties
which can be produced only by a highly developed glass industry.
c. Availability of metals, alloys and pl#stics required to give
the camera the necessary rigidity and ease of operation. 2his
involves consideration of much of the metallurgical and pl.stics
industry.
d. The availability of factories where all the necessary part-. of
the camera can be machined with the highest degree of precision
and in standardizea mass production. This involves considera-
tion of Soviet light industry.
Therefore, some attention must be given to these general problems of
Russian industry and technology even in discussing such a narrow su2ject as
the production of geodetic instruments.
A. S,OTIFT CLAIMS
In the field of optical instruments, the more recent Soviet publications
contain certain claims which may be summarized as follows:
(1) The Soviets, starting from a state of complete dependence,
have developed a tremendous optical industry
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The products of this industry are just as good, and in some,
cases superior, to those manufactured abroad
(3) The Soviets are now independent of foreign countries in
optical instrumentation
(4) There are many original inventions'in Soviet Optics
As an illustration of this attitude, the following statements a.e quoted
here in free translation:
V. Ta. Mikhaylov in his textbook, "Photography and Aerial Photo:;raphy",
1952,(1) says:
In Tsarist Russia optical glass was not manufactured, and therefore
optical systems were not designed or manufactured...... The first objective,
'Takhar', was designed by G. G. Slyusarev in 1924. At first the wor`c of de-
(2)
signers was limited to imitation of already-known designs, but in a short
time original Soviet objectives began to be constructed......
In the last fifteen years considerably more new and original work has
been done in the Soviet Union than abroad. Among the better-known original
Soviet objectives are a series of wide-angle objectives called 'Russr', of
which Russar-29 is especially interesting. This lens has considerably less
difference in the degree of illumination between the center and the edges
than is common in other wide-angle objectives, (designed by M. M. Rusinov);
an even wider-angle objective called the 'Rodin! , (designed by V. S. Rodin);
objectives of the 'Iran' type (designed by D. S. Volosov) and the meniscus
mirror objectives of D. D. Maksutov......
At the present time in the U.S.S.R. there are many dozens of photographic
objectives of original construction. There are several plants manufacturing
different sorts of optical glass'!..
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I. V. Drobyshev, in his textbook, "Photogrammetric Instruments :,ind
Instrumentation", 1951,(2) has this to say:
"At the present time all kinds of photogrammetric instruments are manu-
factured in the Soviet Union......without the slightest dependence os foreign
countries......
"An important role in the development of Soviet aerial surveyin.- has been
played by M. N. Rusinov, who designed a series of excellei&, wide-angle lenses
with focal lengths of 100mm. and 70mm. The 100mm. objective was made in the
U.S.S.R. three years before a similar objective was manufactured abr>ad. The
70-millimeter focal length objective, using 18 x 18 cm. film and prints,
exists only in the Soviet Union"....
T. P. Kravets, in his review entitled, "Thirty Years of Soviet )pticss,
"In thirty years the aspect of the Soviet optical industry has -:hanged
beyond recognition. Before 1920, not one kilogram of optical glass was pro-
duced in our country. Now all demands of industry for this basic material
are satisfied by domestic production. Importation of optical glass .eased in
1925. All needs of our artillery, aviation and navy for optical instrument~,
such as binoculars, range-finders, periscopes, aerial photographic c,_imeras,
and aerial photo objectives are satisfied by our own plants. They a-e made
by Soviet engineers and workers, designed by Soviet scientists, put into pro-
duction by Soviet technicians and made from Soviet materials at Soviet plants"...
We should note here that all three Soviet authors quoted above are
well-known in optical research and are not irresponsible politicians. Even
allowing for the fact that some glorification of Soviet achievements is ex-
pected of every Soviet author, the contrast between conditions of Tsarist
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times and those of the present, is still notable enouw to ;ern{.t ex-old man
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like Professor Rravets to make such a positive statement.
In order to verify these Soviet claims we must next investigate the fol-
lowing components of the Soviet optical industry:
(1) Training of personnel
(2) Centers of re eareh
(3) Production of optical glass
(4) Factories of geodetic and photogrammetric instruments
1. TRAINING_ CEINTERS IA OPTICS
a. Universities
Of the 32 universities in the U.S.S.R. in
thirteen had specializations In optics:
Azerbaydzhanskiy (in Baku)
'ail' nyusskiy
Dnepropetrovskiy
Yerevanskiy
Irkutskiy
Kazanskiy
Kazakhskiy
Kiyevskiy
Latviyskiy (in Riga)
Ode s skiy
Saratovskiy
Tomskiy
Uzbekskiy (in Samarkand)
1950,(4) the following
In addition to these, Leningrad University specialized in the Theory
of Astronomical Instruments.
It is difficult to ascertain just what is meant by "speciali-Fation" In
U.S.S.R. universities. The term means more than one or two courses 'n the
subject and some kind of specialists are supposed to be the final prf research
unit attached to them. Soviet sources have stated that since the wa.- the
number of research organizations has increased by 50 percent, and the number
of scientists engaged by them by 100 percent.
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To keep trace: of all th.-4- clu:r. ;;:s requires so much lime and labor that
any particular research group in this country is always in danger of using
obsolete information.
(2) Extreme secrecy of operation. In reading Russian literature since
1950 one is impressed with the obscure language used, language that probably
can be understood by a few Initiated people and which is becoming th3 most
striking characteristic of Russian periodicals. If we take, for instance,
such t seeminCly innocuous subject ass fuel, we find in recent numbers of the
periodical, ?Za Ekonomiyu Topliv&," (Fuel Economy) factories named caly by
abbreviations (such as GAZ, ZIS, etc.), by numbers, by letters of the alphabet
(like factory Ii), or finf work of
industrial establishments ua atisfactory production is often mentioiLed and
counted as loss.
On the other hand, tests of Soviet-made instruments, when no comparison
with foreign-made instruments is involved, are usually quite frank in pointing
out the bad as well as good features of the instrument. As an example of this
attitude we may consider the tests of the Astronomic Universal Instrument, marl-
AU, the first five of which were manufactured by the plan,, "Aerogeopr.ibor",
in 1935. They were tested by :.'~. Zverev{ ~'~, one of the foremost positional
astronomers in the U.S.S.R., in his determination of astronomic co-c-rdinates
at Laplace points in a geodetic network in the Caucasus Mountains. Points were
selected near sea-level as well a I at high altitudes (up to 3,100 meters). It
was found that the instrument was of good stability, rotation about the vertical
axis was smooth and regular, the system of illumination ws excellent, and the
instrument withstood the rough treatment of mountain conditions. On the other
hand, this instrument which performed satisfactorily at a temperature of 15oC
could not be rotated at all ?zt a temperature of 30C, and the micrometer showed
undue sensitivity to chanes in temperature. These defects were discussed with
'IT
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the manufacturing plant's management which promised to correct these deficiencies
in later models. The Zeneral conclusion offered here is that with necessary
improvements the instrument will be quite satisfactory for astonomic determin Apparatus. This apparatus requires cbservations of the
vibrations of a rod which is fixed 4t one end and supplied with a weight at
the other. Its use was introduced into gravimetric practice by Father Lejay
who made observations of this sort in China, the Phillipine Islands and France.
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The principles of this instrument were further developed by G.J. Rudakovskiy,
so that the Soviets now refer to this instrument as the Rudakovskiy Pendulum.
The Soviets say that they do not consider this instrument as very prac-
tical since it requires very careful handling and all sorts of preca-ttions
must be taken to insure dependable results. Very few such instrumen+.s are made
in the U.S.S.R. and they are used in the general gravimetric; survey. The
theory and experimental results cf observation with this gravimeter ire de-
scribed by M.N. Kheyfets(4g). Mean errors of determination are of tie order
of 2 mlg.
Static Gravimeters. The Soviets evidently have experimented with gravi-
meters which depend on a principle different from that of a pendulum. As of
1939 they started using gravimeters of the Ising and Boliden types; after the
war, Mott-Smith, Heiland and Norgaard gravimeters. All of these were found
to be unsatisfactory for one reason or another, and at the present time.
Soviet gravimeters, GKAH, GKA and VIAG are said to be in almost exclusive use.
_U: This is the l'olodenskiy gravimeter, apparently an indeper=dent
Soviet development. The essential part of this apparatus is a flat ring,
situated in the vertical plane. One point of this ring is attached to the
stand of the apparatus, the other is connected with an elaborate lever with
a weight. The difference in the force of gravity is measured by th- pressure
of this weight on the ring. The precision of the gravimeter is stated to be
from 0.4 to 0.8 mlg. The weight of the entire apparatus totals aboit 25 klg.
The ring of the gravimeter is made of elinvar (L-invar, a steel-nickel
alloy with a very low coefticient of expansion). The ring and the lever are
in a special chamber, the temperature of which is controlled by a t'iermostat
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accurate to within several, hundredths of a degree. There is also provision
for barometric compensation.
Readings by this gravimeter may be taken at any distance from the instri-
ments by means of a special device.
This gravimeter is extensively used for the determination of gravity on
sea bottoms, the observer being situated aboard ship. No statement is made
concerning depth of such observations.
The Filolodenskiy Gravimeter is advertised(20) as being made by the Zavcd
Minieterstva Vooruzhennykh Sil (Plant of Ministry of Armed Forces), a rather
interesting connection. The model described there is (4-NIIPG-5, the weight
48 klg. The initials GSM mean: Gravimetr Kol'tsevoy Molodenskiy (Ring
Gravimeter of Molodenskiy); NIIPG: Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut
Prikiadnoy Geofiziki (Scientific Research Institute of Applied Geophysics).
Testing of the i'olodenEkiy gravimeters was carried out in 1949 by N.P.
Grushinskiy(5). There are evidently two types of these gravimeter:,; large
models, PG-0 and PG-1, and small models, GKM-5 (No. 17 and 37 were used).
They were compared with the gravimeters of Norgaard (Nos. 268, 270, 271 and
327). The results of the test are not given separately for the -Soviet and
for the Norgaard instruments, since one gravimeter in each group waL found to
be defective. Excluding these, we get
Norgaard mean error 0.12 m1g.
Molodenskiy 0.67 mlg.
The co:-.parison is thus in favor of Norgaard. This is admitted by the
Soviets. However, the Soviet instrument is undoubtedly very fine even with
the mean error given above.
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: This is simply a further development of the gravimeter GACI':, made
by A.M. Lozinskaya. The improvements are in the astatization, lever, thermo,.
stat, etc. The weight of the gravimeter is 13 kig., and the precision of
determination, 0.3 m1g. It is stated that the adjustment of the ap aratus
and the readings of gravity at a selected point, can be made within 3 minute;;.
Metes Spring Gravimeter s. These gravimeters feature a spring, the ten-
sion of which is modified br the change of gravity. The Soviets us!d such
gravimeters as those of Heyland and of Lindblad-Malmquist, but appa--ently
found them unsatisfactory. There is no record of Soviet developmen--, of this
principle.
Wirtz Gravimeters. Pxsed }uartz can be used in gravimeters thstead of
metallic rings and springs but it has disadvantages in being very brittle and
being subject to large variation in the coefficient of elasticity depending
on temperature. This means,a very careful protection of the quartz spring
which is taken care of by a,sensitive thermostat and immersion of the spring
in special oil. The Soviet quartz gravimeter. VIRG, developed by PcAdybnyy,
Samsonov and Serov at the Vsesoyuznyy Institut Ruzvedochnoy Geofizi}i (All-
Union Institute of Prospecting Geophysics, abbreviation VIRG, hence the name
of the instrument) appears to be a very carefully made instrument capable of
a precision of 0.3 mtg. The weight of the entire instrument is 22 klg.
The Russians admit that the principle of this gravim-ter is very much
like that of the quartz gravimeter of Norgaard, but apparently their inven-
tion was made quite independently.
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n?+.riometers, used for the determination of the second derivative, of the
gravitational potential are used exclusively in geophysical prospecting but
are not of great importance from the point of view of geodesy. The 3cviets
manufacture two types of these instruments, the so called Z. and C- variometers,
which appear to be more or less copies of the well known instruments first
designed b:' Schweidar. The Soviets do not claim any originality in this
respect.
Variometers of type S-20 are made at the plant of the Ministry of
Geology, SSSR.
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APE IX IV
}',AOTOCfR PHIS STS,. J1ID CAM&S
Many types of rhotograa:hic cameras are manufactured ?tt several Soviet
plants. Especially important is the optical-mechanical factory in Leningrad,
Optiko-Mekhanicheskiy Z.avod imeni OGPU, usually referred to in Sovif t litera-
ture as GOMZ (Optical-Mechanical Plant). This plant has attached to it a
large research laboratory in which problems of optics are intensively studied
from the constructional point of view. The factory itself manufactl+res opti-
cal instruments such as binoculars on a wholesale scale and also inc.ivid.ual
instruments for research woad:. Industar Cameras Nos. 7, 13 and 17 ranufactured
here, are used for meteor study (for astronomical purposes as well a.s in con-
nection with studies of upper atmosphere) and are claimed to be of r:.igh quality.
Much investigation and design of photographic camera; for photcjgrammjetric
purposes was done at the Leningral Institute of Aerial Surveys before its
merger with the Central Institute of Geodesy, Cartography and Aerial .survey
in Moscow (TsNIIGAiy ). The best knniwn de_ igner there is M.M. Rusincv. Prac-
tically all outstanding lenses for photograetry are of his design.
1. Photographic Lens
Soviet development in photographic lenes, according to Soviet
writers, followed approximately the same course as the development of other
apparatus. At first, there was absolute dependence on foreign-made lenses,
then came a more or leos slavish im'tation of Western production, and finally
complete independence of the We;;t waL attained.
On3 way to increase the field of view of cameras for aerial photography
is to combine several cameras into one unit. This introduces mechanical
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difficulties as well as difficulties in the laboratory treatment of ',he pho-
tographs obtained. The Soviet-. considered the 4-lens apparatus by Zoiss and
the nine-lens camera by Ashenbrenner and by Fairchild and, in fact, k.onstructHd
their own 9-lens equipment. However, later development of Russian ctneras
has been concentrated on the use of singl-3 objectives.
Because of the difficulty ei.countered in systematizing heterogeceous
Soviet material in which all lenze3, both Soviet and foreign made, are groupel
indiscriminately and the use of lenses not always indicated, it was lecided
to list all of the lenses which can be identified as of Soviet make. In the
following tables, I to V, the notation s as follows:
f mm: focal length of the lens in millimeters
fj focal ratio
20 angle of the field of view
Res. Power: resolving mower in the center and on edges whenev'r ascertained
Size of photo: in centimeters
Camera: this is known in comparatively few cases.
In combining the data for tables I to V, many minor discrepancies were
encountered. Results given In these tables represent our best efforts to
reconcile these discrepancies, using all information available here at the
present time.
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Table I
SERIES "RJSSAR*
Designer: M. M. Rusinov
Application: Photograimnetry; sc?-.1e 1:100,000 and smaller.
Claims: much larger usable field of view than in any other lenses.
Number of components:
6
Re-s?lv:Pow~r
Size of
Lark
ft~m
fi
23
ter
^dre
Photo -(cm
Car` r
Russar la
100
5.3
140?
12
18 x 18
Rus3ar-5
120
4.5
104?
15
23 x 23
Russar-16
60
12
126?
-
-
Russar-19
100
6.3
`103?
20
10
18 x 18
Russar-22
70
8.0
122?
26
4
18 x 18
Russar-25
98
6.8
110 0
2.3
4
18 x 18
A Shch ,:YA-2
Russar-25a
70
6.8
122?
x
10
18 x 18
Russar-26
Russar-29
70
6.8
122?
26
12
18 x 18
RAlK C-1;
Russar-30
120
6.3
120 0
30
17
30 x 30
33/ 20--'i'YA 33/12
Russar-31
Russar-33
100
6.8
122
-
-
30 x 30
Russar-Plasmat
210
3.5
70?
A Shch t.FA-2
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SERIES *INDtJS TAR*
Designer: unknown
Application: aerial surveying ca.-neras, copy cameras
Cie.i*ns: high resolving power, good illumination, small distortion
Number of components: 4
Ras,, Power Size of
fmm ff 2 Center ~'d a Photo (cm) Can,-r;%
Industar-2 135 4.5
Industar-4 210 4.5 460 30 13 x 18 AFANM
Industar-7 105 3.5
Industar-10 50 3.5
Industar-11 210-1200 4.5-9.0 Reprodui ion
Camerr-. for
Cart oj,raphy
Industar-13 300 4.5 560 23 18 x 24 1AFA-13; AFA-13
13-ZZ AFA-1
Industar-17 500 5.0
Industar-22 511 3.5 460
32 18 x 24 NAPA-3a
20 FED; 20 :TIT
Reprod. App.
PIT-2
Industar-23 110 4.5 52 6 x 9 MOSFVA- I
Industar-51 210 4.5 560 16 13 x 18 AFA-IM; NAFA-19
Industar-.A 500 5.0 460 30 30 x 30 APA-3
AFAs33/500
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SERIES ''M117"
Designer: D. S. Volosov
Application: Aerial survey possibly infra-red work
Clamps: great speed
Number of components:
7
fmm
f
2
1e -Power Size of
e -~ E Photo cm Catner
Uran-4
250
2,5
540
Uran-9
250
2.5
54?
Uran-10
100
2.5
600
Ulan-11
250
2.5
40
TABLL IV
SERIES "YU ITBR' (Jupiter)
Designer:
unknown
Application: general photography, connection with aerial photoLrap y not cloaLr
Claims: nothing specific -- just a good lens
Number of components:
5
$ea_ Power__
Size of
ME rk
f mm
fl
a
~' S Center Edg
ot2 (cm)
Phi ,_
Camera
Yupiter-3
52
1.5
450
24x36
KIE
Yupiter-8
52
2.0
450
KIY Y
Yupiter-9
85
2.0'
28?
KIYNeY
Yupiter-11
135
4.0
180
KIYEV
Yupiter-12
35
2.8
63?
KIYEV
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k
f
f
Aodina-2
46
8.2
Orion-IA
200
6.3
Orion-1
Ortagoz
135
4.5
Equitar
250
2.5
Quarz
120
4.5
Liar-6
100
5.4
Telemar-2
750
6.3
Telemar-7
1000
7.0
Telefoto-F3
400
4.5
Ortodinar
210
2.0
Arktur
180
4.5
Iniar
360
3.0
Arkt ik
518
Gelios
1.35
Luah
180
Tafar
100
4.5
Table V
4TH.ER OBJECTIVES
Re; . -Bower,- Size of
Qo ter a Pot cm Camera
140? 18 x 18 Photogm.rmetryt
94? 42 4 30 x 30 AFA-33/ ~O
48?
100?
32?
30
30 x 30
AFA-33/;`5
24?
28
30 x 30
AFA-33/100
24
13 x 18
0
56
33 18 x 18
Infra-red
O 'j 60 40 18 x 18 Photogrt.mnetry
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OL
There is very little material available for comparison of Soviet lenses
with those made in the West. Veselovskiy(30), 1945, gives the following com-
parison of Russar and Tafar with the Zeiss Topogon:
Table VI
SOVIET OBJECTIVE'S FOR PHOTOGRA1 EThy
Obiective _ fan
f/a
20
Negative cm.
Res. Power
Distortion in 0,01 mm.
Russar la
100
5.3
1400
18 x 18
12
5-7
Russar 5
120
4.5
1040
23 x 23
15
5-7
Ru.ssar-19
100
5.3
104?
18 x 18
15-20
5-7
Russar-22
70
8
122?
18 x 18
15-20
1-2
War
200
4.5
70
18 x 18
40-60
> 1
Topogon
100
6.3
93
18 x 18
20-25
25-30
Off-hand, this table shows the, great superiority of Russian leases over
the Zeiss lens and in fact the Russians are emphatic in stating this superiority.
$owever, some modification must be introduced into this cLiim in orier to
arrive at a reasonable conglusion. This is done here by each lens separately.
Jadg1y : this objective can be used for almost any kind of photographic
work. It is made in different models, but there is little detailed descrip-
tion of any of them. It is stated(J0) that this objective is part of the
aerial camera, AFA-13, and has tie focal length 300 mm,, with the rttio f/-+. ~.
Apparently it has proved unsatisfactory for precise photogrammetry ~:nd is
seldom mentioned in the more recent literature on this subject. It appears
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to be a copy of the Zeiss, TTe_;sar, and is admitted to be such by the Soviets` h1).
It is a very useful lens for various purposes and there is evidence of eaten--
save experimentation with its design by the Soviets. Available data on the
Industars are given in Table II.
f,: the situation is approximately the same. This lens was used in
cameras of the TAFA type but in more recent literature it is rarely mentioned
and one gets the impression that it is of small importance. This mty be in-
correct, since the lens is undoubtedly a good one.
Liar: Liar-6 was the first significant original contribution me-ode by the
Soviets. It was designed by Rusinov and l:ozyrev in 1931 with a fiend of view
100?, f/5.4 and f = 100 mm. It is stated that Zeiss succeeded in pr_,ducin;
its Topogon with the game field of view only in 1936. The Liar len3 was de-
l i
signed for use in aerial surveying (scale 1:10C,000)(51) but later it was
almost wholly supplanted by 11bissa3.r objectives.
Rusinov is not the only designer of lenses for aerial photography at the
TsNIIGAiK. Several other lenses for aerial photography are referred to in
Russian literature but apparently they were proved unsatisfactory for mass
production. Such are, for instance, the lenses designed by Yezhova U118,
angle 110?) and Mindlina (4114, angle 90?).
8Ixssax. This is a really fine series of lenses and if the iov.et de-
scriptions are to be trusted, they are among the finest wide-angle lenses in
the world.
The claim of excellent performance for the Russar lenses is co.,fined to
their use in obtaining small scale aerial photography and can be surimarized
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by stating that the whole field (or very nearly so) of view is usable because
of the following factors:
(a) The resolving power, while not as great in the center as :_n some
Western lenses, remains practically the same almost to the edge of he plate.
Curves of resolving power for To:)ogon, Orthometar, Russar-19 and Ru :sar-15
are given in source (1).
(b) The falling off of the degree of illumination is not as rapid as
in. other lenses, being proportional to Cos3p rather than to Cos;S. This
subject is discussed at some length by 7olosov(5).
(c) Distortion is much smaller than in other lenses.
It is impossible to come to any definite conclusions in regard to these
claims without much greater effort that seems advisable in connectic:n With
this project.
It is advisable that attention be paid to one fact thrt seems to indi-
cate that the O oviets themselves do not quite believe what they say themselves.
'This statement relates to experimentation with the Russar lenses, (the latest
known is, Mark 33) all of which have approximately the same characteristics.
If the original Russar 1 was as ,-ood as it is described by the Soviets to be,
continuous small chwes in desi, would seem to have been unneces:,c.
The Industar, Tafar, Liar and Russar lenses are the only ones rentioned
in sources (30) and (32) which refer to problems of photoCrarnmetry .nd aerial
surveying. No other lenses developed in the U.S.S.R. are mentioned in the
professional journals. "Geodezist" and "Sbornik IMPS". One is left with the
impression that the Soviets have succeeded in developing a very fine lens
like Russar, but have little else at all comparable to the great variety of
photographic lenses in the Western world. This impresicn is altogether
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erroneous, because a number of sources (52), (53), (54), dealing with. militar;
applications of photography, definitely indicate to the contrary. he Soviets
have designed many other lenses which appear to be of high quality a.nd are,
in fact, stated to be superior to similar lenses made in other countries.
Some of these lenses can be used for precise photograrnetric work and in all
probability are so used.
This curious discrepancy in the description of the situation between the
two kinds of sources nay be ascribed to the strict censor .hip of ev, rything
that is in any way connected with military activity. It is quite inpossibie
to believe that the Russian ;?hot%grammetrists did not know of such enses.
In the Russian encyclopedia, oGeodeziya", page after page is filled with
analysis of foreign lenses while the Russian lenses, _Arktik, Uran and Orion
are not even mentioned. In the sources published by the military these sane
lenses are praised as the finest product of the Soviet optical industry.
.Ah attempt has been made to correlate Soviet lenses with similar lenses
made in the West.
The Soviet lens, Industar, appears to be very nearly the same s the
Zeiss, Tessar; the Soviet lens, Orion, is practically identical to .he Zeiss
Topogon; the Soviet, Ortogoz,is very similar to the Zeiss Dogmar; a.-id the
Soviet, Uran's forward side is quite similar to the American lens, ;tax.
The question is then raised as to who first designed these len,les and
who was the imitator. There can be no question but that the Soviet.; copied
Zeiss lenses. The influence of :unerican design is less obvious, am it is
possible that both the Uran and the ktax lenses can be traced to some origi-
nal German planar. With the est,.tblished fact of the originality of the Liar
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and Russar lenses we can only state that the Soviets can do original work in
optics and are also very clever imitators.
However, we scarcely deal here with simple imitation. There is consid-
erable evidence of a Soviet attitude which is very critical of the Iroducts
of the 'test which would not permit the :. eviets to accept the Westerr. produ-
cars' claims on faith. Western lenses are very carefully d.isctassvd by
Tolosov(5) and Tudorovskiy(6). Volosov, for example, gives a detai)ed anal.y-
sis of the Eastman Kodak lens, Aeroektar. He points out that the keroektar
is based on Rudolf's planar and takes exception to Eastman's claim that the
good performance of 4eroektar depends on the introduction of the nets lanthanvrt
glass, M32 and X33 for the fifth arxi sixth positive con ponents. Volosov
finds that replacement of these glasses by Soviet glass, TK11, results in
practically the same performance of the lens. He admits that the iitroduc--
tion of the new types of ,;lances is the greatest development in the last 60
years but they should be used only when they are really needed. Investiga-
tions of these new types of glasses are being carried on in the U.S.S.R. as
well as abroad.
The whole problem of ethics of imitation has no application here. The
Soviets take from the Western world what they consider useful. There is no
particular odium attached to copying; foreign lenses and calling them something
else. The Bausch and Lomb lens, Metrogon (f/C.3, 2P = 930) looks very much
like the Zeiss Topogon which has exactly the same focal ratio and field of
view. It is, however, definitely stated that the design cf the 'et,rogon is
based on that of the Topogon, so that nobody is misled(55). The justification
for the change in the name is that, if similar but not identical gaa.zss is
used in the lenses, it is necessary to recoipute the while system. Following
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the formulae of the original manufacturer, even if they are 1nown in all de--
tail,`is not possible. In this sense there cannot be direct copying; of lenses
and considerable creative wrori is necessary.
If we turn again to the Soviet situation we find that the ovie", reader,
especially a young student, is likely to get an ex.gger,Lted idea of oviet
ability to produce good lenses. From all the mass of Soviet literature ex-
amined in preparation of this report only one statement h.--s been found, and
that in an astronomical sourcetll) in which the author mentions the Zeiss
lenses, Tessar and Dogmar, and says in .-iarentheses that these lenses are
known in the U.S.S.R. as Industar and Ortogoz. It is curious that in some
sources the Zeiss Topogon is severely criticized while in others the :soviet
Orion (which is nothing but a eo7:y of the Topogon) is praised as one of the
finest lenses manufactured in the U.;,.S.R. It is impossible to decide with-
out a much more detailed study whether such an attitude is simply a m:,nifes-
tation of nationalistic feeling cr that the Soviets have succeeded In remov-
ing the defects of the original eiss design. Information collected on other
lenses is not extensive.
Orion: as stated before, this appears to be a direct copy of the Zeiss
Topogon. The Orion-la is used. in the aerial camera, AFA-33/'0. The focal
ratio and the field of view are identical with those of the Topogon a.rd Bausch
and Lomb, Metrogon. The transmission coefficient is 0.75.
The resolving power in the center is 35, at the edge, (that is 450 from
center) 4 lines/.-m. The corresponding figures for the ???etrogon are 55 and
28; that is, in respect to resolving power, the 'etrogon is far supErior to
the Orion-la. There are no other data on the performance of the Orion lens,
but it is possible that further improvements have been made.
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Vran: (table 2) this is a very-complex lens with seven element,. and ,
rather small field of view. In comparison with the :ktar, its resolving
power is greater in the center but falls of more rapidly toward the edge.
The coefficient of transmission is 0.7; for the Ektar, O.S. The field of
view of the Uran-9 is only one-half of that of the Ektar, and it is rather
puzzling why the Soviets praise the Uran lens so highly, unless som> further
improvements have been made. The range of achromatization suggests the use
of the Uran lens for red and infra-red work.
Arktur : No thine is
Table 5.
known about this lens except the data given in
0rtaZoz: This is a copy of the Zeiss Dogmar and is used in Fo*.okor
cameras. No description of this c.amere. is available, but the tamer:, is recom-
mended for photography of meteor3(56).
.Arktik: :iothinj: is known about this lens except the focal lens;th given
in Table 5.
The name suggests some connection with the work in the Arctic regions.
Telemar: these are.telephoto-lenses used in the AFA cameras. Data for
Telemar-2 and Teleraar-7 are given in Table 5. Both of these have a narrow
field of view with fair resolution; Telemar-2, from 28 to 11 lines, and
Telemar-7, from 28 to 17 lines. There is another telephoto-lens litt::ted in
Table 5, called the F3, which is apparently not of Telemar type, and may be
the British triplet of the arm mark.
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RMMz Qrk sti at: the only data so far found are given in Table 5. It
is not even certain that this lens is of Russian manufacture.
Jaiar. This objective is specifically designed for photograph. in the
infra-red and is mentioned only in one ;ource(32). The data are given in
Table 5. It is of an ordinary triplet type with elements separated and nega-
tive lens in the middle. From the data in Table II, it is evident that
Industar-A has also been designed for the infra-red region. The de : ii of
the Iniar seems to be quite nnalcgous to the British Triplet, F-24.
Ana * The name means, "P;.therland", a distinctly nationalistic conno-
tation, but in fact it is a pun on the name of the designer, V.S. Rcdin. This
lens is mentioned in only one recent source (1) of 1952 and apparently is a
new development. It is a very wide-angle objective, highly praised and quoted
along with Russar-19. 22, 25, 25a, 29 and 33 as "an aerial photography ob-
jective." This may or may not mean photogrammetry. The drawing of Rodina-2
in source (1) shows eight componrhts, two of which are plane, paral..el slabs
of glass. No more detailed description is available.
u ite : This series of lenses (table 4) is used in the ordinary camera,
L iyev, and due to residual distortion, is of no application to aeriL:l photog-
raphy. For other lenses nothing is known beyond information contained in
table 5.
The general conclusion of the study of Soviet lenses is as fol:..owe: the
Soviets have ~~ome very excellent lenses of their own design and ale many
lenses more or less based on for?ign patterns. These lenses may be as good
or even better ths-an the original Zeiss lenses.
The ';oviet boast, in this
see Figure 10, page 106 of Photographic Supplement, Appendix VII.
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connection, cannot be dismissed as baseless since there are many indications
of their ability to produce first-class optical instruments. It is 2lso ob-
vious that the data ;resented in this report are not complete and there may
be other types of lenses for various purposes about which we know nothing.
In this connection a significant remark is made in source (53). In d.iscussin
the possible application of mirrors in aerial photography in place of lenses,
the authors point out that mirrors give a narrow field of view, but the high
quality of images obtained, "make us believe that mirrors will find their
application in aerial photography." Ap)arently there is some exierimentation
in this direction.
The related problem of astronomical equipment may be considered here for
two reasons. The first is that there is less secrecy in the U.S.S.i. concern-
ing this subject than concerning equipment for aerial photography. The sec-
ond reason is that much closer contact between American and Soviet astronomers
has been possible than in the case of almost any other science. Sone astro-
nomical equipment, such as image converters, may al,-.o well find its application
in aerial photography.
A report on Soviet astronomical equipment has been prepared by Dr. Otto
Struve, one of the outstanding #merican ?.stronomers, and is reproduced sub-
stantially as submitted as Append x 6. The general tenor of Dr. Struve's
report is in good agreement with our appraisal of Soviet optical de-elopmerit.
The report is of interest also, because it is an absolutely Independent
approach to the problem.
We may note here that in the recent general assembly of the Ac?demy of
Sciences, U.S.S.R., ;. A. ikhaylov, director of the Pulkovo observr,tory,
definitely states(57) that Soviet astronomical equipment needs improvement
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so that the Soviet astronomers can surpass capitalistic countries in astro-
physical observation "as they have alrerdy surpassed them in the ide)logical
and methodological respect." It would teem that the `soviets are conscious
of this deficiency in astronomical instrumentation, at least in regard to
large telescopes. The zame idea was expressed without any reservations at
the International Astronomical Union Assembly in September, 10,52-
2. Color Filter
Color filters, adapted for use with aerial photography by the Russians
are many but the situation in this respect is not very clear since r`_ifferent
sources give different data.
Itzch experimentation is going on with f iltert;
at the Optical Institute (GbI) and also at the Institute of Plastic. (GIN
PLASTMJtS). Source (5;!) lists the filters used for aerial photograp'lr as
though they were standard whereas so-tuce (32) describes an entirely different
set of filters but only as applied to one particular camera, Tafa--2, Pabl
YIl contains information condensed from source (52):
COLOR FILTER; USED III AiIRIAL PHGTO R-UaY IIJ . E U.S.S.RR.
Filter
Pearl=
Spectral Region in mp
I
ZhS-16
450
- 560
Bl:ie-Yellow
II
ZhS-18
49O
- 560
B1e-Ye11,w
III
OS-12
530
- 600
Orange
IV
OS-14
560
- 610
Orange
V
i:S-14
620
- 509
Red
The following inf"ti-red ::filters are mentioned:
Uo. (6,
mission 780 - 900; KS'-30., 600 - 1000, and RS-12, 900 - 1100 m?.
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The finest lens is of to use unless it is incorporated in a camera.
This involves details of accomodation of the film, shutters with appropriate
speeds, filters, etc.
}}g and MAK-1. These cameras are reproductions of foreign apparatus (so
admitted by the Soviets), the first being a copy of Zeiss, RNA 6-11, and the
second. of Eastman Kodak, K-1. However, the Soviets used the sear lenses
in these cameras. These cameras were found unsatisfactory for many reasons
and, after some little use for aerial surveys on scales of 1:50,000 and
1:100,000, they were discontinued. Soviet cameras are known as APA (Aero-
Poto-Apparat = Aerial Photo Camera). For precise photogrammetry, A?A-13,
MAFA-17 and TAFA..2 are used.
AFA-13 was the first camera developed by the Soviets. It used the ob-
jective, Industar, was wholly automatic and weighed 30 k1g. Because of its
long focus objective (30 cm.) this camera can be used only for large scale
photography on scales of 1:3,500 to 1:13,000.
WA-13 is the further development of the preceding camera., AFL-]3. The
long focus Industar objective is replaced by the short-focus Russar (10 cm.)
to make It usable for surveys of scales of 1:25,000 to 1:100,000. She shutter
is manufactured by the GGOMZ. Both vacuum and mechanical clamping are used
to flatten the film. Shutter speeds are 3/60 or 3/45 to 3/130. Efficiency
is 90 percent. The frame size is 180 mm. sq., using 190 mm. film in rolls of
22.5 meter-lengths and 150 exposures. Interva]o meter works 10 to 120 seconds
and the gross weight of the camera is 80 kig.
Besides having fiducial marks, each negative has a statoscope and time
recording made by an additionalobjective,
T_ f
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The Soviets consider the main defects of this camera to be the unreli-
ability of the shutter and of the electric motor (0.1 HP fed by a 12-volt
generator). Apparently there is also metering trouble and the method of im_,
pressing fiducial marks cannot be considered satisfactory.
TAFA-2 is identical with the preceding, except that it has only one ob-
jective, the Russar-19, with shutter speeds 1/25 to 3/100, and with 90 per-
cent efficiency. The size of the photograph is 23 x 23 cm. which, with the
size of the roll as 24 cm x 50 meters, gives about 200 exposures.
For aerial reconnaissance many other cameras are used. Most cf them
are automatic and some of them appear to be of very fine design. .ince there
is an English translation available(54) of a very thorough description of
most of these cameras, it does not seem advisable to go into great detail
here and the most important data are given in Table IV. The Soviet notation.
AFA 33/20 means AFA-33 with a camera lens of 20 cm. focal length. NAPA means
Night AFA; that is, a camera for night work used with flares. AShch APA
means slit camera, known in the U.S.A. as the shutterless strip camera.
SOVIET AERIAL RZCONNAISSANCE SHUTTERS
sera
Lens
AFA- 33/20
Orion-la
Rotary
1/50, 1/100,
1/200
70 percent
AFA- 33/50
Induatar A
Louvre
1/75, 1/100,
1/300
55 percent
AFA- 33/75
Telemar-2
Louvre
1/75, 1/100,
11300
5? percent
AJU- 33/100
Telemar-7
Louvre
1/75, 11125
1/200
55 percent
AlA- 3&
AFA- Ili
Industar-A
Industar-51
Louvre
,
1/100,1/200,
1/300
1/200
1/300
1
/400
6'
t
D'&-3s
Industar-17
ai
Louvre
.
,
1150
9
6
7 percen
percent
NAFA-13
Industar-],3
Louvre
1/50
60 percent
DAFA-13-EZ
Industar-13
Louvre
1150
&.! percent
MAYA-19
Industar-51
Rotary
1/50
60 percent
A Shch AFA-2..(Russar-Plasmat
(Pus sar-25
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The last-named apparatus deserves special notice. It is not mentioned
in a 1947 source 54) but is described in the source dated 1949(53) vriich
means that it was presumably developed between these two years year. It .serves
the same purpose as the American apparatus, S-;', but.its constructional fea-
tures are quite different. The lenses, Russar-Plasmat and Russar-2x, are
mentioned only in this connection.
In a source(58) which does not deal specifically with photoerar,metry,
the apparatus,A Shch AFA-2, is described at some length as one of the finest
achievements of Soviet instrumentation. It was developed by V.S. Semenov
who received a Stalin prize for its construction. The apparatus is definitely
used for reconnaissance ,under conditions of poor illumination and low alti-
tude when ordinary cameras are not usable. The record is obtained on con-
tinuous rolls of film, 10 to 45 meters long.
AD-2: This is a nine-lens apparatus designed by Drobyshev and used for
surveys on scales of 1:100,000 to l:20C,000. The focal length of all cameras
is 135 mm. with a/f = 1:4.5. There is a synchronized shutter with .n effi-
ciency of 82 percent. The combined field of view is 1400, and the iegativa
size is 12 x 12 cm. The camera was designed and manufactured as early as
1931, but it is not mentioned in recent literature and is apparently not used
currently. The Russian point of view is that the development of wile-angle
Russar objectives wholly obviated the necessity of such cumbersome Ind ex-
pensive apparatus.
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Instruments for the determination of position of the impulse type, and
the continuous wave (C.W.) type have been developed by the Soviets but this
development is surrounded by the utmost secrecy and it is very diff.."cult to
come to any definite conclusion as to the efficiency and originality of such
instruments. The impression is, however, that the Soviet developmeat is
along the lines of C.W. rather than the impulse type.
Of the fact that instruments of this sort are being used in geodesy in
the U.S.S.R., there can be no doubt. The official directions of th,) GUGK
for the compilation of maps of scales of 1:200,000 and 1:100.000 specify the
use for control of 'astronomic and radiolocation points. Astronomic points
should have mean errors not exceeding ?1:0 in latitude and,10.81 in longitude.
They should be corrected for the deflection of the vertical on the 'oasis of
gravimetric observations'. Unfortunately nothing further is specified in
regard to "radiolocation points*. (29) Presumably they are expected to be of
the same precision as the astronomical points. Many other statements of the
game nature may be quoted but none of them is explicit enough to warrant a
detailed analysis.
The related subject, that of radio-location as used at sea as ~~f 1949
is discussed somewhat more thoroughly(59). This reference states that vari-
ous instruments for the purpose of radio-navigation were developed by L.I.
Mandel'shtam, N.D. Papaleksi and Ya. Shchegolev. These are the oec
usually quoted in connection with the development in radio-location on the
surface of the earth. Instruments called "radiodalnomer" and "radiolag" are
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mentioned. Both require two radio stations at each and of the measured line.
Further, the system "Loran" is described but it is not clear whether it is
used in the U.S.S.R. The illustration showing action of Loran has or its
base, the map of the Eastern coast of America.
In 1930 Mandel'shtam and Papaleksi obtained a patent for the determina-
tion of position by means of radio using the phase-method. This method is
based on the difference in phase of radio-waves received by the ship from
sending stations A and B (a family of hyperbolas). This is compared with an-
other system of hyperbolas based on the phase difference between the- signals
from another pair of stations C and D. The intervals between the stations
are taken either as 100 or 200 km., depending on local conditions. On this
principle several instruments were developed by Mandel'shtam and Palaleksi.
One of these instruments, the so-called Fazovyy Zond,"was copied by the British
and was called by them Dece or .Nav1 a for without any Indication of the pri-
ority of Soviet scientists.'
There is no description of this "Fazovyy Zond" beyond the statement that
the main transmitting station is in the center of the triangle formed by the
three subordinate stations, and that this apparatus is more precise than the
"Navigator". At a distance of 200 to 300 km., the "Fazovyy Zond" is supposed
to record positions "within a fraction of ameter". Observation Is made visu-
ally as well as by a recording apparatus.
We have, then, from source (59) the names of three instruments used in
the U.S.S.R.,all of the C.W. type:
Rus;an Name
Meaai
Approximate 'western
equivalent
Pazovyy Zond
Phase Sonde
Decca
Radiolag
?
Lorac ?
Radiodal'nomer
Radio Range Measurer
Lorac
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The "radiolag" is apparently based on the principle of change cf phase
angle of radio waves with the motion of one station in respect to the other;
it is essentially a navigational instrument and as such is of no interest for
geodesy.
The "radiodal'nomer' is based on the measurement of a number of phase
cycles with the change of the wave-length of the sending station. This ap-
paratus is of potential use in geodesy.
The "fazovyy zond", from its description, is hardly applicable to geo-
detic purposes.
Aseyev,( 0) in a book published in 1951, gives the theory of the inter-
ference method ("Fazov y Zond") as well as the impulse method of radioloca-
tion, (that is, the same principle as Shoran) but does not supply any descrip-
tion of instruments.
We have to consult pre-war sources to get any details at all about Soviet
instruments for radio-locat).on. Podop'yanov, in his book "Badiolokatsiya".
published in 1945, but which gives a statement that the situation described
there refers to pre-war years, gives a few details about Soviet instruments
The impulse range-finder of the Gouban type was developed at the Lenin-
grad Section of the Institute of Communications in 1932 and was described by
Bonch-Bruyevich in that year. It was used for the investigations of the iono-
sphere like the similar instruments of Breit and Tuve, and others. The appa-
ratus of Mandel'shtam and Papaleksi is described in a general way but is con-
sidered as a further development of similar apparatus of Espenschied (1930)
and Alford (1937).
The only data directly related to our problem have been found in a book(62)
edited by Mandel'shtam and Papaleksi and published in 1945. The experiments
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described there were made some years previously. The radio-geodetic labora-
tory of TsNIIGAiX conducted a series of experiments in 1936-39 with the instru-
ments, RIR-l and RIR-2 (Radio Izmeritel' Rasstoyanty = Radio Range Distance).
These were apparatus developed by 4landel'shtam-Papaleksi-Shchegolev and based
on the same principle as the "Radiodal'nomer' mentioned above. The develop-
ment of RIR, and apparently of other similar apparatus, took place In the
Laboratory of Radio-Physics, Leningrad Industrial Institute and in the Labora-
tory of Oscillations, Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences, U.u.S.R. TTl.e
RIG-1 and RIG-2 apparatus was to be tested for geodetic applications and the
following tasks were set up:
(a) to reach a precision of from 5 to 10 meter:; in the measureient of
distances of 20 to.120 Ian. With a 5-meter precision in the first case, the
relative precision would amount to 1:4,003; in the second, 1:24,000. The
highest precision hoped for would Just about satisfy the requiremen"a of
first order triangulation.
(b) to preserve this precision under all physical and geographical con-
ditions.
(c) to develop methods of determination of geodetic positions for topo-
graphic and geodetic work.
(d) to develop and manufacture apparatus suitable for use under difficult
conditions.
As the result of these tests, problems (a) and (b) were considered solved
and the apparatus was recormnend=.d for mass production.
The description of actual tests confirms this optimistic attitude.
The following results of determination of distances are quoted with their
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D s to c
Mean Error
Relative Merl Error
Nara-Shalikovo
34.515 met.
? 0.5 met.
1:70,000
Nara-Kubinka
21,761
0.6
1:36,000
Pugachev-Gorelyy
50,241
0.8
1:63,000
Gay
The only available description of the apparatus says that it is based on
the measurement of the difference in phase of radio waves between the sending
and reflecting station; that is, apparently of the "radiodal'nomer" type, and
that the wave-lengths used were between 240 and 360 meters.
The small relative errors given above represent only consistency of
measures. There is no comparison between geodetic distances and distances
determined by the apparatus, RIG. In fact, the entire book is full of dis-
cussion about the uncertainty of the exact velocity of the propagation of
radio-waves. Unless this point is settled all distance determinations made
by means of radio-waves, are incorrect.
For the determination of distances at sea another apparatus, MPShch-4
and MPShch-6, was used. There are said to be similar to RIG. The letters
are abbreviations of the names of Mandel'shtam Papaleksi ;,hchegolev, the in-
ventors who, between 1932 and 1936, obtained eight patents on these devices.
The precision obtained by means of this apparatus is not very impressive. At
the distance of 113,740 meters between Cape Ray-Navolok and Island Ploskaya
Luda (White Sea), discrepancies between the geodetic distance and the radio
distance were from 10 to 160 meters, with a relative error of from 1:10,000
to 1:700.
Concerning the exact performance of the Soviet radio-instruments in
actual geodetic practice, very little Information can be obtained. Nesmeyanov
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and Romanovskiy,(63) discussing the possible improvements of aerial surveying
methods state definitely that a precision of 1:10,000 at a distance of 30 klm.
has been achieved by the method of radio-wave interference, and that all in-
dications are that this method can be used for distances of up to 100-150 klm.
"In most regions radio-determinations in conjunction with astro-gravimetric
positions allow development of a reliable geodetic network without the con-
struction of trigonometric signals and reconnaissance work'. Fffieieney of
this method is considered to be greater than that of ordinary geodetic methods.
Chebotaarev,(56) in 1948, says that,"the measurement of distances by the
method of radio-wave interference has long ago been incorporated in geodetic
practice and we have certain achievements in this direction'.
A,Ta. Shchegolev,(64) (not the inventor mentioned previously biLt appar-
ently his brother) in 1946, speaks of distances up to thousands of }:ilometers
that can be measured by radio-interference methods, obviously an irresponsible
statement for public consumption. Ile says further: "The methods of radio
interference developed by us (apparatus MPShch) are used in problem;, in which
especially high precision is required: for hydrographic investigation of seas
and for geodetic work. Such instruments will be applied in aerial surveying
for the compilation of maps."
Fortunately we can more or less establish the precision in geodetic
measurements made by radio methods as of the date, 1945. In that yAar on May
12th, N.D. Papaleksi delivered a paper on this subject at the meeting of the
TeNIIGAiK(65) The statement of this scientist is of much more value than is
the indefinite boasting of popular writers.
It is evident from this paper that the problem of determination of dis-
tances by means of radio was taken up quite seriously by the Soviets. As early
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as December 25, 1934 a special conference was organized by the TsNII(;AIK to
consider this problem. Many expeditions were sent out with the following in-
stitutions participating:
TsNIIGA.iK (C t al t totte of Geodesy, Aerial Survey
a~ art raphyJ
Leningrad Polytechnical Institute
Institute of Physics. Academy of Sciences
Hydrographic Department, GLAVSVMORPUT'
Especially important was the "recent' (1945?) expedition to the Caspian
Sea where various types of apparatus were tested.
Papaleksi considers two pieces of equipment already described, ')oth of
which are based on the interference method: Radiodal'nomer and Radii>lag, but
only the first one is recommended for geodetic work. We have for this
instrument:
D = K (Al _Ap)
v
720'.LOf
Af difference of frequency
A ~ = difference in phase
?p = correction due to physical condition of ground.
The precision of the measurement of distance D is determined by two
factore:
(1) precision of apparatus and method (Af and AY)
(2) precision of determination of the velocity of waves, v,
entering into constant K.
After careful consideration of the problem, Papaleksi comes to the con-
clusion that there is no difficulty in controlling factor (1). It i3 only
necessary to go to shorter wave-lengths of the order of 1 or 2 meter:; and,
theoretically at least, the instrument can be made ..^s precise as neeled. How-
ever, the other factor cannot be controlled because it involves physical
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properties of the air (humidity, temperature, barometric pressure) at, well as
of the ground (conductivity and dielectric constant). Actual experiiients
conducted by the TsNIIGAAiK resulted in a precision of 10 to 15 meter:: regard-
less of distance, over homogeneous ground and only of a precision of 20 to 30
meters over dissected areas, water, etc.
Papaleksi sees further development of the method by using microlraves
(the line of sight limitation) and setting up apparatus on triangulation
towers (40 meters high) to get away from the disturbance produced by the
ground. Under such conditions geodetic distances of from 9.5 to 30 kLm. can
be determined.
If we take the highest precision quoted by him (10 meters), and the dis-
tance 30 klm., the relative precision is then 1 3,000, quite unsatisfactory
for.geodetic purposes. It is of the same order of magnitude as meas:xres made
in the White Sea in 1939, Papaleksi is aware of this and says plainly that
the trouble is not with the instrument but with the variation in the velocity
X produced by natural conditions. He advocates that prompt efforts :mould be
made to solve this problem both theoretically and through experimentation.
In other articles he points out that the velocity v cannot be determined
with a precision greater than 1 2,500 and until more is known, geodetic mea-
sures cannot be made precise enough for practical purposes.
Such was the status of the problem in the U.S.S.R. in 1945. Urdoubtedly
much experimentation on the'determination of the velocity of propagation of
radio waves is going on in the U.S.S.R., but nothing is allowed to C:et into
print. In fact, a volume on the "Investigations on the Propagation of Radio-
waves n(66) published in 1948, contains nothing but theoretical inveFtigaticns,
the only Soviet experiment quoted there being of 1945. The difference between
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this volume and the volume published by Mandelshtam and Papaleksi in 1945 is
striking. More recent Soviet theoretical papers invariably quote experiments
on the progation of radio-w,ves made abroad rather than use their own results.
An interesting side-light on this problem is shown is a paper by 0. A.
Gerasimova, "Resume of experiments abroad in the application of radio-location
methods in geodesy and cartography"(57) published in 1948. The author states
that her report is based on 15 papers published in various foreign technical
periodicals. The author discuses in detail the Wright Field tests )f Shoran
and the British Gii. In all this detailed discussion there is not a word about
the Soviet apparatus and not a hint whether the author considers the American
and British results satisfactory or unsatisfactory. It is quite different
from the usual boast that Soviet instruments are just as good or even superior
to those made abroad. It is evident that the subject of radio determination
of distances had become a state ecret,4n the U.S.S.R. by 1948.
Since there is no detailed description of Soviet instruments later than
those of 1939, nothing can be said about their merits in comparison with simi-
lar instruments made in the West. It is, however, clear that the Russians
tried to adapt radio methods to geodesy at a much earlier date than was done
in the U.S.A., and undoubtedly further experimentation with new modelc of RIG
and A'P''Shch-6 has been conducted with more satisfactory results than those
obtained in 1936-39.
kx
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Ge~j:
A considerable number of Soviet publications have been reviewed. result-
ing in the following general conclusions:
Soviet instruments are of superior design in the field of photog-
raphy with short focus lenses and in the construction of medium size meniscus-
type Schmidt type telescopes. The Soviets have made no attempt to l uild any
large instruments, but it would Rppear that the technological progress made
since the end of the first world war has been sufficiently large to justify
the belief that they could, without too much difficulty, build any =rttrument
up to about 200 inches in aperture.
Particularly impressive are the image converters which have bean used in
practice in the U.S.S.R. but of which no detailed description has been found.
From the results on the spectrum of the night glow and the observat'-ons of
solar prominences at a wave length of 10,000 A, one would infer that they have
surpassed in this particular field any instruments now available in the United
States. Image converters for astronomical purposes are under construction at
the Yerkes Observatory but thus far no results have been announced. In Parisi
successful image converters have been built by Lallemand, but from the avail-
able descriptions one would be inclined to believe that the Soviet image con-
verters are superior in sensitivity and in wave length range.
The question of secrecy is one that becomes apparent as one sy.;tematically
surveys the Soviet literature. One has the impression that the Soviets are
permitted to refer rather freely to astronomical instrument construction,
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provided that these instruments have been built in observatory shops or in
pre-war Russian factories and.scientific departments of various organizations.
On the other hand, instruments built in Germany by Zeiss or in U.S.:,.R. by
German firms that were moved from the eastern part of Germany to the :soviet
Union are described without reference to the maker. In one case an impression
was formed that a modern instrument described by the Soviets was actually built
by Zeiss or by engineers who formerly were connected with Zeiss.
There is also an obvious tendency not to reveal the existence of any
radio instruments which almost certainly exist but which have never been men-
tioned in any of the articles on this subject. It is quite clear that the
Soviet radio astronomers, for example, Shklovsky, have access to all the
modern techniques and that they are fully capable of exploiting then? results.
The question which remains open is whether they are able to rul diffrac-
tion gratings of the kind now being made in this country at Johns Hopkins
University and at the ?Mount Wilson Observatory. The only reference to a
grating spectrograph does not indicate the source. It may be an old grating
purchased outside of the U.S.S.R. before the war.
With regard to photographic plates, it is obvious that they manzfacture
several different kinds but that most of their own emulsions are slower than
those made in the United States. The only exception appears to be a photo-
visual emulsion developed by Martynov in collaboration with a U.S.S. A. plate
manufacturing concern.
Manufacture of Optical Glass
a) For teleecoues
D. D. Maksutov(12) speaks of "pre-war experience... gained in the
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making of three kinds of ultraviolet glass (Kroh, K-8, Flint, F-1; and heavy
flint, T F-1)" which were not only as good as foreign makes of UT gL ss but
rather surpassed them in quality."
The optical constants of K-8 and F-2 are as follows:
Glass nc-1
K-8 0.51390
nD-1 nGI -1
D1 YG
o 16-~a 0.52196 0&5264!'
0.7022 -0.5583
np - nc Y
0.00806
64.06
7-2 0.61160 o, 0.62844 -os 0.01684 36.60
0.7150 This statement appears on page 57: "We have previously used mostly .;lass K-8
(for meniscus telescopes), but it should be possible to find some more favor-
able kind from among the many glasses made in our country.*
b) For mtrrore
It is probable that Maksutov has used some
our pyrex, but he prefers metals.
Metals for Mirrors
Maksutov describes experiments made
metals and different forms of castings.
less steel, were found to be free of the
temperature. "After 13 years of
viction that it is impossible to
flector, and that in the future,
The largest mirror of metal
210 mm. This mirror was made of
kinds of glass resembling
in his laboratory with different
Copper, then silver, and then stain-
"edge-effect" due to changes in the
experimentation I have reached the Firm con-
obtain with glass a really high grate re-
metallic mirrors will be largely used."
described by Maksutov, has a diameter of
stainless steel: EZh-2 steel with Impurities:
Cr 13 - 15 per cent
Ni 0.6
Si
07 "
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Mg 0.5 per cent
C 0.13 - 0.23 per cent
Hardness - 197 (Brinel's scale)
The parabolic mirror was made in three days, in 1937. There were no changes
until 1943. when it became astigmatic after having fallen to the fluor from
a height of one meter. The problem of the internal stresses has not yet been
adequately solved.
Alai ini
Those techniques were developed in the U.S.S.R. in 1934. Better methods,
not described, are said to be under investigation. Also, the technaue of
making non-reflecting coatings for transparent optical parts is fully described.
Maksutov states that his laboratory makes the best "plane and Lon-spherical
surfaces." He is prepared to extend the size of his mirrors to 3 meters.
Phot lgctric Photometry
B. V. Nikonov and E. K, Nikonova describe(68) a new stellar phctometer
which employs a Russian-made photomul.tiplier (YEU - 17) having Caesium-sulphide
photocathodes "which in its,parameters surpasses the American made photomul-
tiplier 931-A." The precision of astronomical measurements with this instru-
ment is about the same as in the case of comparable American photometers.
The limiting brightness is not stated, but is probably also similar to that
of our own instruments.
Meridian Circles
L. D. Agafonova and A. I. Nefed'yeva(69) describe the old meridian circ16
at Kazan. This instrument was built by Repsold in 1845, and it is still in
use. From this work it is possible to infer that no major fundamental
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improvements have been introduced in Russia in the construction of meridian
telescopes.
$eliou~e ers
These instruments have been long ago abandoned in most countries. At
Kazan - Engelhardt,A. A. Nefed'yev(69) describes current investigatiDns which
are in progress with a heliometer constructed by Repsold in 1874. In this
respect there has been no new development in the Soviet Union.
Zlectroalc ,te Image Convert r$
Writing in the American Scientist(70) about recent work on the aight glow
of air, J. Kaplan remarked: "Krassovsky, working in Russia, observed the 0-2
band at 9976 A, an accomplishment that must be noted with special interest,
when it is realized that the most intense infrared emission at 10,44JA, first
observed by Stebbins, Whitford, and Swings in 1944, would require 1,F)O0 hours
exposure of a hypersensitized 73astma.n 1-Z plate and an f/l spectrograph having
a dispersion of 2000/A mm. Krassovsky accomplished his important observations
by using a prismatic spectrograph and Cs-O-Ag electron image converter."
An image converter was also used by G. S. Ivanov-Itholodnyy{71) 'or re-
cording the infrared line of He I. A 10830 in solar prominences. Th: dis-
persion was 8 A/mm. No details of the converter are given.
Schmidt Te 1scQg15_and Males. tov-Type Meniscgs Telescopes
A Schmidt telescope, constructed by Ma.ksutov in 1937, for the Kazan-
Engelhardt Observatory is de:1cribed by D. Ia. Martynov In Izv. Engelaardt-
Kazan, No. 27, 1951. The diameter of the correcting plate is 381.5 run, that
of the spherical mirror is 517.7 mm; f/2.5. The plateholder contain., a field-
flattening lens. The instrument is in all respects comparable to Schmidt
telescopes of similar size in the U.S.A.
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Photographic Plates and Materials
Martynov, in a description of the Kazan-Engelhardt Schmidt telel,cope,
states that Agfa Astro plates are used, also Ilford Fine Grain Ordinary HD 45 -
for blue-violet light. Apparently these are faster than ,soviet made emulsions.
But in the red region he uses Soviet Panchromatic film HD 900.
A photovisual emulsion similar in sensitivity (with respect to '.) to the
human eye was developed by Martynov in collaboration with "the scientific
laboratory of factory No. 8." The sensitivity was very great (m:~g. 1.5.6 pv
in 10 minutes). On blue sensitive Agfa Astro the same instrument gives mag.
16.0 pg, in 5 minutes. As far as could be judged, German made color filters
have been used in this work.
0. A. Mel'nikov has used 'Kodak 103a-0 plates with his new (1949) u.v.
spectrograph(72).
G. S. Badalian(73) uses Agfa Astro and Panchrom. Plates of German make.
with "Atu antia" filter, probably also of German make.
Hor izontLal Telescope
Sh. T. Khabibullin describes such a telescope(69). Its purposr is the
study of the physical libration of the moon.
The precision-coelostat was built by the Soviet factory, GOMZ. The ap-
erture of the plane mirror is 300 man. The stability of the reflected ray was
guaranteed to-+ 1", but actually gives only 5" to 7".
The photographic aplana.tic objective of f = 8000 mm, f/65 was nade ac-
cording to Kazan Obs. specifications, but the name of the maker is aot given.
During the oboervation!- serious difficulties were encountered oith the
seeing.
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Sect rogramhs
0. A. Mel'nikov and B. Z. Ioannisiani describe(72) a new slitles UV
spectrograph and its tests made at high elevations.
The telescope of 250 mm aperture consists of a parabolic mirror and
Cassegrain secondary, quartz Cornu-type prism and a quartz doublet L ns,
aperture 46 mm, f = 280.1 rim.
Photographs of the completed instrument resemble pre-war telesc,pes made
by Zeiss. The specifications wera made by Mel'nikov at Pulkovo and is col-
laboratory. In 1946 the Pulkovo Observatory requested B. K. IoanniAani to
design the telescope....." The construction was completed in 1946-4.1 "in
the factory, with the close participation of P. V. Dobychin."
The tests were made at an elevation of 3250 meters in Armenia, in 1949.
The results indicate essentially what might have been expected: Somewhat im-
proved penetration into the UV rt=gion of stellar spectra, but never short of
X 3000. An identical instrument was built for the Byurakan Observal?ory(74,
but again the maker's name is omitted.
pho oKraph~ is Telecopes
Bull. Stalinabad Astr. Obs. No. 2 (1952) mentioned the installt:tion of
a new ?eiss astrograph "Triotar" (D = 92 mm, f/4-5)
G. S. Badalian(73) uses an "Ernostar" 5-inch astrograph of Gerian make..
Spectroheliograph
G. A. Monin and A. B. Severayy(75) describe a new spectrohelio~Traph con-
structed in the shop of the Simeiz Observatory. The solar image is formed by
a 20 cm parabolic mirror and has a diameter of 8 cm. The collimator and
camera are 15 cm aperture mirrors with f = 6 meters. The 41 persin; unit is
T
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a plane grating 50 x 70 mm in size, with 600 lines per mm. The maker of the
grating is not stated - probably it is not of Soviet manufacture.
Bad io- strono v
Observations of meteors are mentioned by A. Savrukhin(76) "For -,-%dio-
acoustic observations a receiver of the type "Record" was used. A v rtical
antenna (aluminum tube 7 meters in length and 50 mm in diameter) was connected
with the receiver. No trace of acoustic effects was found in the range of
short waves used (10 mgge) from meteors of apparent magnltudeo3, -1, -2, -3
and even -7.
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APPENDIX VII
F oaaea'aIO 31PPLUM
SECRET
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Fig. 1 - Oblique Stereocomparator
("Naklonnyy Stereokomparator)
1.
Carriage of Coordinates xl
("Karetka Koordinat xl")
2.
Carriage of Parallaxes
("Saretka Parallaksov")
3? and 4+. Movable Parts of the
("Podvizhnyye Chasti.
Objective of the Binocular
Ob"yektiva Binokulyara")
5.
Immovable Binocular
("Nepodvishnyy Binokulyar")
6. and 7. Glass Scales 6 and 7
("Steklyannyye Shkaly 6 i 7")
8.
Transverse Scale 8
("Poperechnaya shkala 8")
Note: This is called "shkala
8 in the text but appears
as 09" in the photograph.
9.
Microscope 9
("Mikroskop 9")
10.
Parallax Screw 10
("Parallakticheskiy Vint 1.0").
Sources Drobyshev, B.V.. Pototrammetricheekiye Pribory i
Instrumentovedeniye. Moscow. 1951.
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Fig. 2 - Design of the Optical Lay-out for Readings of Coordinates
and Parallazes in the "Naklonnyy Stereokomparator".
(oblique Stereocomparator).
("Skhema opticheskogo ustroystva dlya otechetov kocvrdinat
i parallaksov v naklonnom stereokomparatore").
1.
Scale x1;
("Shkala xl").
2.
Immovable Optical System
for Scale x1;
("Nepodvizhnaya Opticheskaya
Sistema dlya Shkaly xl").
3.
Optical System of Carriage ("opticheskaya Sistema Karetki p").
of p (Parallaxes);
4.
Scale of Parallaxes p;
("Shkala Parallaksov pN).
5.
Scale of y1;
("Shkala y10)
6.
Optical System for Scale
(Nopticheskaya Sistema
of 71;
dlya Shkaly y1").
7.
Block of Three Prisms;
("Blok iz trekh prism").
8.
Microscope;
("Mikroskop").
Source; Drobyshev, F.V., Fotogrammetricheskiye Pribory i
Instrumentovedeniye. Moscow, 1951-
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Fig- 3 - Optical System of the Oblique Stereocomparator.
("Opticheskaya Sistema Naklonnogo Stereokomparatora").
1.
Pentagonal Prism;
("Pentaprisma").
2.
Small Objective;
("Malyy Ob"yektiv").
3.
Mark;
("Marks" )
4.
Pentagonal Prism;
("Pentaprizma").
5.
Objective;
("Ob"yektiv").
6.
Prism;
(" Pri sma") .
7.
Objective;
("Ob"yektiv")
8.
Prism with Five Reflections;
("Prisms a Pyat'yu Otrazheniyami").
9?
Rhombic Prism;
("Rombicheskaya Prizma").
10.
Ocular (Ryepiece);
("Okulyar").
Source:
Drobyshev, 7'.V., Yotogrammetricheskiye Pribory i
Instrurnentovedeniye. Moscow, 191)1.
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Fig. 4 - The Drobyehev Stereopantoieter SPD-1.
("Stereopantometr SPD-1 Drobyeheva" ).
Source: Katalog-Spravochnik Laboratornykh
Priborov i Oborudovaniya.
Maehgiz. 1949.
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Fig. 5 - Working Parts of the Drobyshev Stereopantometer SPD-1.
1. Frame 1;
("Stanina 10)
2. Carriage 2;
("Karetka 2")
3. Carriage 3;
("Karetka 3")
"The device is set up on a drawing; board
which has two windows. located coter to
the windows of frame 1, which serve for
the lighting of the negative."
"Along the I - X axis is located the
circular track for support of carriage 2.
which consists of a holder. of two rollers.
of a transverse track and of a supporting
ball-bearing roller. This carriage has
three points of support and moves along
the X - I axis."
"Carriage 3, consisting of a holder and of
two rollers and a rod 5 with a. pencil 6,
also has three points of support and moves
on carriage two along the Y - Y axis."
4. Transparent Disks 4; "Carriage 3 carries supports with trans-
("Prozrachnyye Kruzhki 40) parent disks 4, in the center of which
are points which are measuring marks."
5?
Rod 5;
See No. 3, above.
("Shtanga 5")
6.
Pencil 6;
See No. 3, above.
("Karandash 6")
7.
Plate 7;
"Plate 7, with a projection pressed by
("Plastina 7")
roller 8 with the aid of spring `). has
a parallax device".
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S. Roller 8;
("Rolik S")
9?
Spring 9;
("Pruzhina 9")
10. Screw 10;
("Vint 10")
11. Plate 11;
("Plastina 11M)
12. Rollers 12;
("Roliki 12")
13. Spring 13;
("Pruzhiaa 13")
14, screw 14;
("Vint 14") .
See No. 7, above.
See No. 7, above.
"Screw 10 pushes into plate 7 and
measures the longitudinal parallax F
of the photograph by way of moving
along the X - X axis of plate 11,
which has a projection whi^h is
pressed by rollers 12.
"With the action of spring 13 screw
14 pushes into plate 7 and measures
the transverse parallax P by way
of moving the photograph along the
Y - Y axis."
See No. 13, above.
Source: Katalog-Spravochnik Laboratornykh Priborov i
Oborudovaniya. Mashgiz, 1949.
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Fig. 6 - Topographic Stereometer
("Topograficheekiy Stereometr").
Source: Drobyahev, F.Y. - Fotogrammetriaheskiye Pribo.--y
i Instrumentovedeniye.
Moscow, 1951?
E
fi 679-00202A000100080001-8
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Fig. 7 - Design of Topographic Stereometer.
("Skhema topograficheskogo Stereometra").
Source: - Drobyshev, F.Y. - Fotogrammetricheekiye Pribory
1. Base Carriage;
2. Support of Longitudinal
Parallaxes;
3?
Repeating Support;
4. Rod. Carrying Slide fk;
5?
Rod. Carrying Slide AH;
6. and 7. Rulers of Conver-
gent Device;
9. Rotation Axel (Pin) of
the Correction Ruler;
i Instrumentovedeniye. Moscow.
("Osnovnaya Karetka").
("Support Prodol'nykh
Parallaksov").
1951.
("Povtoritel'nyy Support").
("Sterzhen'. Nesushchiy Dvizhok fk").
("Sterzhen'. Nesushchiy Dvizhok A8").
("Lineyki gonvergentnogo Ustroystva").
("Korrektsionnaya Lineyka").
("Os' Vrashcheniya Korrektsionnoy
Lineyki").
("Vedushchiy Rol i,k") .
e- Center of Rotation of Wire Holder; ("Tsentr Vrashcheniya Niteder-
zhatelya").
p-Screw of Longitudinal Parallaxes; ("Vint Prodol'nykh Parallaksov" ).
r-Run of Level of T-shape Device; ("Dlina Rychaga T-obr%znogo
cc cc T Tetroystva").
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Fig. S - Kern Stereometer
("Korn-Stereometr").
Source: Drobyshev, F.Y. - 7otogrammetricheskiye Pribory
i Inatrumentovedeniye.
Moscow, 1951.
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Fig. 9 - Design of Kern Stereometer.
(NSkhema Kern-Stereometea").
IV
1.
Rack Screw;
(NVint Kremal'yery").
2.
Hand Pilot Wheel;
(NShturval").
3-
Wire-holder;
(NBitederzhatel'N).
(NRolik").
5?
Correction Ruler;
(Ngorrektsionnaya Lineyka')
Note: The word at the top of the drawing is: Stereoscope
("Stereoskop').
Source: Drobyshev` F.V. - Totogrammetricheakiye Pribory i
Ins trumentovedeniye.
Moscow, 1951.
C mepeocKon
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Big. 10 - Various Kind@ of Aerial Survey Objectives.
(MEazlicluiyye Vidy Aeros"yemochnykh Ob"yektivoa.").
a (M &") - "Busses-19"
b (N 611) "$u8>3ar-25";
c "Rusear-29";
d "Rodina-2";
e (" a ") - "Rus sar-31" .
Source: Mikharylov. V. 7a. - Fotografiya i Aerofotografiya,
Moscow. 1952. Geodezizdat.
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