JOINT ARMY NAVY INTELLIGENCE STUDY

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010002-7
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
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• Document Creation Date: December 14, 2016
• Document Release Date: May 6, 2003
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: September 1, 1947
• Content Type: IS

se 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP791144A000200010002-7 .
MI,L,,[,'TARY GEOGRAPHY
This document contains information affecting? the national defense of the Unit States within
the meanie of the ionage Act, 50 U.S.C.,'31 and 32, as amended. Its"tra nission or the
revelation of its contents in any mannerto'an'iunauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES, CHAPTER II
CHANGE IN
SUBJECT MATTER EFFECT
Cover Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Original
List of Effective Pages and Table of Contents,
Chapter II (inside front cover) . . . . . . . . . Original
Text and Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Original
Figure (insert, reverse blank) . . . . . . . . . . Original
Text and Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Original
Figure (insert, reverse blank) . . . . . . . . . . Original
Text and Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Original
Figures (inserts, reverse sides blank) . . . . . . . Original
Text and Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Original
Imprint (inside back cover, reverse blank) . . . . Original
PAGE NUMBERS
unnumbered
unnumbered
pp. II-1 to 11-24
Figure II-33
pp. 11-25 to 11-60
Figure 11-105
pp. 11-61 to 11-94
Figures II-152 to II-154
pp. 11-95 to 11-114
unnumbered
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Note: This chapter is based on material available in Washington, D.C., on 1 September 1947.
PAGE
20. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . II - 1
21. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AREA AS A
WHOLE . . . . . . . . . . . . II - 1
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . II - 1
B. Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . II - 1
C. Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . II - 2
D. Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . II - 2
E. Trafficability of surface materials . . . II - 3
F. Military implications of the terrain features II - 3
22. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF REGIONS . II - 4
A. Region A, Tundra Belt . . . . . . . II - 4
(1) Introduction . . . . . . . . II - 4
(2) Subregion A-1, the Kola Coast Tundra II - 5
(3) Subregion A-2, Trans - White Sea
Tundra . . . . . . . . . . II - 9
B. Region B, Northern Forest Belt . . . . 11-14
(1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . 11-14
(2) Subregion B-1, Kola-Karelia Hills and
Lowlands . . . . . . . . . 11-15
(3) Subregion B-2, the Northern (Sever-
naya) Dvina-Pechora Basins and
Hills . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24
C. Region C, Forest and Clearings Belt . . . 11-29
(1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . 11-29
(2) Subregion C-1, the Baltic - West Rus-
sian Hills and Wet Lowlands . . II - 31
(3) Subregion C-2, Southwest Russian Up-
land . . . . . . . . . . . 11-41
PAGE
(4) Subregion C-3, Central Russian Plain II - 46
D. Region D, Ukrainian Carpathian Moun-
tains . . . . . . . . . . . . II - 55
(1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . II - 55
(2) Subregion D-i, Russian Carpathian
Range . . . . . . . . . . II - 56
(3) Subregion D-2, Northern Foreland II - 59
(4) Subregion D-3, Southern Foreland II - 61
E. Region E, Grassland Belt . . . . . . II - 61
(1) Introduction . . . . . . . II - 61
(2) Subregion E-1, Black Sea - Azov Grass-
land . . . . . . . . . . . II - 62
(3) Subregion E-2, Khoper-Volga Grass-
land . . . . . . . . . . . II - 71
(4) Subregion E-3, North Crimean Grass-
land . . . . . . . . . . . II - 74
F. Region F, Mountainous Crimea . . . . II - 79
(1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . II - 79
(2) Subregion F-1, Southern Mountains II - 81
(3) Subregion F-2, Northern Foothills II - 88
G. Region G, the Volga-Caspian Desert II - 94
(1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . II - 94
(2) Subregion G-1, the Volga Valley II - 95
(3) Subregion G-2, the Caspian Lowland 11-102
24. PRINCIPAL SOURCES . . . . . . . . II -111
A. Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . II -111
B. List of references . . . . . . . . . II -111
Original
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Chapter II
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
Prepared by Intelligence Division, General Staff,
United States Army
20. INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the terrain of European USSR,
with emphasis on relief, drainage, vegetation, and traffica-
bility of surface materials. A brief description of JANIS
40 area as a whole is followed by a more detailed descrip-
tion by regions.
The Plans and Figures are an integral part of this re-
port and full use must be made of them in order to obtain
an adequate view of the various parts of the country and
their differences. PLAN 1 is a general reference map. On
PLAN 2 the boundaries of regions and subregions are
shown, and the locations of all photographs contained in
the chapter are indicated. A study of this map is neces-
sary for an intelligent reading of the text; it should also
be referred to constantly when examining the photo-
graphs. PLAN 3 pictures the general physiography of
this JANIS area. The drainage pattern of streams, lakes,
swamps, and marshes is shown on PLAN 4, and on PLAN 5
vegetation, classified by types, is shown in areal distribu-
tion. General trafficability of surface materials is de-
picted on a series of four plans, PLANS 6 to 9; since traffica-
bility varies greatly with the seasons, the maps represent
trafficability conditions during spring, summer, autumn,
and winter, respectively. PLAN 10 gives further data re-
garding trafficability, showing the areas of mud as of 1
April and as of 1 May.
Detailed maps are included for only three regions and
one subregion. PLAN 11 is a hypsometric map of the Vol-
ga-Caspian Desert Region (Region C) on which drainage
and transportation lines also are shown. For the
Ukrainian Carpathian Mountain Region (Region D) there
are two maps, FIGURES 11-94 and 11-105, one showing pri-
marily routes through the mountains and the other being
a hypsometric and drainage map. FIGURES 11-152 to
11-154 are of the Mountainous Crimea Region, giving
details of relief, drainage, surface configuration, and vege-
tation. FIGURE 11-33 is a detailed map of subregion B-1,
Kola-Karelian Hills and Lowlands.
A brief description of the features discussed in this chap-
ter is given under Topic 2 of Chapter 1. The bare essen-
tials of terrain information are recapitulated tabularly
under Topic 23 of Chapter II. The principal sources con-
sulted in the preparation of this chapter are indicated
and briefly evaluated under Topic 24. It should be noted
that all distances cited in this chapter are in statute miles.
Original
21. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE
AREA AS A WHOLE
The basic reference maps for this topic are PLANS 2 to
11. These should be studied concurrently with the text.
A. Introduction
European USSR comprises 1,659,000 square miles, equiv-
alent to approximately 55; of the area of the United
States (excluding possessions) or about 50'/ of the land
area of Europe. The country is roughly rectangular in
shape; somewhat longer from north to south than from
west to east. For example, it extends over 1,700 miles
from the naval base of Sevastopol' in southern Crimea to
Polyarnyy, the naval base on the Arctic Ocean. Klaipeda,
on the Baltic Sea in the west, lies over 1,300 miles from
Sarapul near the eastern border of the JANIS 40 area.
The landscape of European USSR is monotonous from
one end of the country to another. There is little relief,
except locally. Only a few small districts have elevations
over 1,000 feet. Drainage pattern and characteristics are
similar throughout. There are, however, large-scale dif-
ferences in vegetation and the capability of surface mate-
rials to support heavy traffic. These terrain features were
used to divide the JANis 40 area into seven terrain regions
(PLAN 2).
In this chapter we shall examine the geographic charac-
teristics first of the area as a whole (Topic 21) and sec-
ondly of the regions (Topic 22).
B. Relief
(PLANS 2 and 3)
The most significant geographic feature of European
USSR is the extensive plain with an almost total absence
of relief, in contrast to the rest of the European continent.
However, lowland sections frequently alternate with more
elevated and more strongly dissected sections, locally
termed heights or hills. These eminences lie mainly over
600 feet above sea level, only a few districts being more
than 1,000 feet. Since the general level of the plain, how-
ever, is about 550 feet, few of these eminences rise more
than 670 feet above it.
Ond-`of the breaks in this level-appearing plain is found
in the Southwest Russian Upland (C-2) which is deeply
cut by numerous valleys 150 to 400 feet deep. Also, trend-
ing northwest - southeast across this upland there is a
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series of granite outcrops which forms a kind of elongated
plateau, with elevations 900 to 1,100 feet above sea level,
and continues as disconnected low hills as far south as the
Sea of Azov (Azovskoye More).
In the central part of the JANis 40 area there is another
series of uplands or elevated sections trending north -
south. In its northern extent it is known as the Eastern
Hills (B-lc). Southward, successive parts are recognized
as the South Valdai Hills (C-1c), with elevations from
650 to 1,062 feet; the Central Russian Hills (C-3b) ; and
the Donets Hills (E-1d), where a maximum elevation of
1,220 feet for the series is reached southwest of Voroshilov-
grad.
Eastern elevations known as the Pre-Volga Hills (C-3f
and E-2b) are in reality a north - south trending plateau
with an elevation above sea level of about 1,000 feet. It
extends from Kazan' to south of Saratov and dominates
the right bank of the Volga river either as high cliffs or
as bluffs. In the northeastern part of the JANis 40 area
are the Khrebet Pay-Khoy and the Timan Hills, each
group consists of a series of northwest - southeast trend-
ing ridges which do little to retard cross-country move-
ment.
The major highlands of this JANrs area border the great
plain and thus do not break its continuity. These high-
lands are, the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains (Region
D) in the southwest, the old and much worn down Kola-
Karelia Low Mountains (B-1a) and the rough, rocky land
of Karelia (B-lb) in the northwest, a 300-mile segment of
the Northern Urals (B-2e) in the northeast, and the south-
ern mountains of Crimea (Region F-1). All of these ma-
jor relief features are considered "barrier frontiers" border-
ing the plain.
Elsewhere throughout European USSR there are wide
expanses of level-to-rolling plain. However, wide areas of
swamps and marshes do much to affect cross-country
movement. These terrain features are discussed in Topic
21, C. Despite European USSR's vast extent from the
Arctic Ocean to the Black and Caspian Seas and from the
Carpathians to the Urals, the plain retains its integrity and
low elevation above sea level. Its mean altitude is only
about 550 feet.
C. Drainage
(PLAN 4)
The rivers of European USSR are typically long, many
on its great plains extending 1,000 miles or more; they
have low gradients (average 4.6 to 7.8 inches per mile)
and shallow valleys. Many miles of their courses are
bordered by marshes or swamps. The mountain borders
of parts of European USSR have relatively little effect on
the rivers of the area. Several important rivers rise near
each other on the flattish tops of the Valdai Hills and
follow divergent courses. These radiating streams include
the Volkhov, whose waters flow northward to the Ozero
Il'men'; the Daugava (Zapadnaya Dvina), flowing west to
the Baltic; the Dnepr and Don whose courses are gen-
erally south to the Black Sea; and the Volga, the greatest
of European USSR's rivers, which trends southeast and
discharges into the Caspian Sea. Another flattish divide
separates the northern tributaries of the Volga from the
rivers flowing northward to the Arctic Ocean. Important
among the latter are the Onega, the Northern (Severnaya)
Dvina, the Mezen', and the Pechora.
So nearly level are portions of both of these divides that
during spring flooding there is often a temporary sharing
of water between the diverging streams. Canals have
been built connecting various of the streams whose head-
waters are adjacent; Moscow is now connected by shallow-
draft canal to all seas bordering European USSR, and a
network of larger capacity is under construction.
The country has a great number of unevenly distrib-
uted lakes. The greatest concentration is in the Kola -
Karelia lake region; the largest ones are Lake Ladoga
(Ladozhskoye Ozero) and Lake Onega (Onezhskoye
Ozero). In the grassy lands of the south the few lakes
are insignificant in size except on flood plains where some
areas submerged in spring floods remain shallow lakes
throughout the year. In addition, there are lagoon- and
estuary-type lakes along the shores of the Black Sea and
Sea of Azov (Azovskoye More) and salt lakes in the Cas-
pian Lowlands.
Marshes border many of the lakes and connect them
with adjacent water bodies. In the forested belt and
northward, swamps cover wide lowland areas. South of
the forested belt, marshes are mostly along streams. It
has been estimated that swamps and marshes cover about
6.8' of the total land surface of European USSR. The
most extensive marshes are those bordering the Pripyat'
river.
The main high-water period is in the spring and early
summer (April to June), following the winter snow melt.
Streams overflow many of their banks, extending the
borders of swamps and marshes. Ground water is avail-
able everywhere, but in general it becomes deeper and
more mineralized from north to south. Bordering the
Arctic, for example, ground waters lie close to the surface,
are almost completely lacking in mineral salts, and have
a high organic content. Ground waters in the Black Sea
area lie at great depths (in part deeper than 1,000 feet)
and on the whole are very hard, saline, or brackish.
During the cold season the water bodies of nearly all
9f European USSR are covered with ice. The ground, too,
frozen or snow-covered and drainage is practically at a
s andstill. This period of ice cover varies in duration
from less than two months in the southwest on the lower
Dnestr to seven months in the northeast on the lower
Pechora. Thickness of ice varies from a few inches in
the south to over 3 feet in the north. Since subfreezing
temperature is required for the freezing of salt water,
duration and thickness of ice on the salt lakes and the
Caspian Sea vary with salinity.
D. Vegetation
(PLAN 5)
The latitudinal extent and position of European USSR -
comparable to that of the area from St. Paul, Minnesota,
to beyond the Arctic Circle - give the country a wide vari-
ety of vegetation. Zonation in a broad sense is definite,
with fairly wide areas of transition. Vegetation ranges
from the tundra type in the north to the Mediterranean
forest in southern Crimea and to dry desert forms of vege-
tation in the Caspian Lowlands. Forest and grass, how-
ever, are dominant.
For approximately a hundred miles inland from the
Arctic coast is the tundra, most of whose subsoil remains
permanently frozen. Its dominant vegetation consists of
lichens and mosses. This zone is similar to the Barren
Grounds of Canada. On its southern margin, however,
are associations of berry bushes and sedges, and also dwarf
trees such as birch, willow, and various conifers. South-
ward, but mainly north of a line from Leningrad to Molo-
tov (Perm), the trees gradually become numerous and
taller. This is a transition zone.
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MILITARY GEOGRAPHY Page 11-3
South of the Leningrad - Molotov line the growth of
trees becomes dense and forms an immense forest of coni-
fers mixed with birch. This coniferous forest belt, spread-
ing across European USSR from west to east, extends
southward for about 600 miles.
Farther to the south, but mainly north of a line from
Kiev to Kazan', the dominant conifers are replaced by
broadleafed trees such as oak, beech, ash, and maple.
Here, except in the swampy district of the Pripyat' river,
much of the forest has been cleared to provide cropland
and meadows. Crops include small grains, flax, sugar
beets, and vegetables.
Extending across the southern part of this JANIS area
is a vast grassland (steppe) on which trees are either ab-
sent or rare. The grasses vary from tall feathergrasses
in the north to shorter and progressively wider-spaced,
tufted grasses in the south. Much of this area is now
under cultivation.
West and north of the Caspian Sea, and on both sides
of the lower Volga, the grasses become sparser, and in
places saline. There are also low-growing wormwood
shrubs common to desert regions. Only along the moist
Volga flood plain are there trees and thick grasses and
reeds. Cultivated areas are confined mainly to the flood
plain.
The marginal mountainous parts of the country are
mainly forest covered. The trees include fir, pine, spruce,
oak, beech, and chestnut. Above timber line there are
mountain meadows and some areas covered with mosses
and lichens.
E. Trafficability of surface materials
Trafficability of surface materials as used in this JANIS
means the ability of surface materials in their natural
state to support vehicles moving either across country or
on unimproved roads made entirely of local soils, and in
some instances to support troops, cavalry, and cargo ani-
mals. The principal criteria used in determining traffica-
bility of surface materials in this JANIS are the areal dis-
tribution of soil textural types and weather records which
give the seasonal distribution of precipitation and the
critical isotherm of 32"F. These data are shown on PLANS
6 to 9.
The northern part of the country is covered with coarse-
to-fine soils of glacial origin; the southern part is cov-
ered with deep layers of fine-textured loessal, residual,
and alluvial soils. In general, the surface of European
USSR can be divided into four broad soil types. These
are:
1) the well-drained, sandy and loamy soils over un-
consolidated materials which are trafficable at all times
except during heavy rainfall, 2) the moderately drained
deep, loamy, and clayey soils over consolidated materials
which are nontrafficable during and for a considerable
time after heavy rainfall, 3) alluvial and other fine-tex-
tured soils that contain well and poorly drained soils
intimately associated, and 4) poorly drained soils. The
last two types are nontrafficable except when firmly frozen.
Caution is urged in the use of PLANS 6 to 9, as they give
an over-all view of soil types and trafficability, rather than
detailed information for any one place. It must be re-
membered, too, that certain areas have their local limita-
tion on cross-country movement, even though the traffica-
bility maps may show them as areas of favorable drainage.
Such areas include the Carpathian. Ural, and Crimean
mountains, the Khibinskaya and the Lovozerskiye tun-
dras, the gullied areas of southern USSR. the rocky por-
tions of the north, the extensive bog and marsh areas of
Original
the west and north (PLAN 4), and the saline soils of the
Caspian Lowland.
Trafficability throughout most of European USSR is
affected by climate rather than by terrain. Least favor-
able trafficability conditions occur in the spring, when
even improved roads commonly fail in spots. Steady melt
begins about 1 March in the vicinity of the Black Sea and
the melt period moves from west and south to the north-
east. During this period little if any cross-country move-
ment is possible. Another unfavorable period for cross-
country movement is in October and November, when
alternate periods of freezing and thawing of the surface
soil disrupt the normal soil-drainage before the onset of
persistent freezing. Any precipitation or freezing temper-
atures during this period make for poor trafficability, by
the formation of deep muds or frozen ruts, which are
detrimental to tires and springs of vehicles.
Winter is the most favored period for widespread cross-
country movement. Surface materials are frozen deeply
enough in normal years to support most military vehicles.
Winter ranges from December to March in the south, and
from October to the latter part of May in the north.
January is the coldest month throughout the country.
During the season of continued frosts, depth of frozen
surface materials varies from none in the extreme south to
40 or 60 inches in the central and northern portions.
Maximum depth of frost penetration is highly significant,
since it is directly related to duration of nontrafficable
conditions in the spring. For example, frost penetration
of 6 inches may be associated with poor trafficability of
only two to four days when thawing occurs but frost
penetration of 36 inches or more ordinarily results in
nontrafficable conditions from four to seven weeks (PLAN
10). Lakes, ponds, rivers, and most swamps freeze over
during October and November and become trafficable un-
til the spring break-up.
In summer, surface materials of European USSR are
generally trafficable. However, trafficability from day to
day during the summer depends upon frequency, intensity,
and duration of rain and the higher rate of evaporation.
Even in summer, in such places as the Pripet Marshes,
areas east of Leningrad, much of the Northern Forest and
Tundra Belts, and on river flood plains, local routes will
have to be chosen with care. Elsewhere cross-country
movement should be feasible during summer except during
or immediately after heavy or prolonged showers.
F. Military implications of the terrain features
Insofar as the surface configuration is concerned, cross-
country movement is feasible in most places. However,
it may be prevented or retarded by: 1) the steep escarp-
ments on the west banks of the large rivers, 2) the wide
river flood plains bordering most of the streams, 3) an
extensive network of deep gullies and ravines in the south-
ern part, and 4) rock-strewn areas in the northwest.
Greater deterrents to cross-country movement than re-
lief are: 1) the drainage net throughout the country, 2)
the vast, poorly drained areas which are covered with bogs,
swamps, and marshes, and 3) the numerous lakes in the
west and north. However, the barrier effect of the streams
and lakes is greatly reduced in midwinter when most are
firmly frozen. In fact, the ice on Lake Ladoga was used
as the major supply route to Leningrad in World War II
when all land approaches had been blocked. The major
rivers are serious barriers during the spring flood periods
and temporarily in summer following any excessive rain.
Both the Germans and the Russians crossed the Dnepr
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JANIS
and Don after some preparation, but relief irregularities
and swampy bottomlands channelized all approaches to
these rivers.
On an area of slight relief, variation in vegetation be-
comes of primary importance in such aspects of military
operations as cross-country movement, deployment, and
concealment. In the north, the low moss, sedge, and
scrub trees of the tundra offer few obstacles to movement
and only limited possibilities for concealment and fuel
supply. Southward from the tundra, the great forest belt,
although interrupted by marshes, moors, and scattered
man-made clearings, is a serious barrier or impediment
to movement but offers maximum concealment and an
unlimited supply of wood.
In the transition zone between the forest belt to the
north and the grassland to the south, there is no open
area which cannot be dominated by fire and observation
from adjacent forested areas. Here movement would en-
counter alternating openings and wooded patches.
In the vast grassland belt, cover and concealment are
poor. Concealment is possible only in crouching or prone
positions.
Insofar as trafficability of surface materials is con-
cerned, the most favorable season for movement is in win-
ter (December - February) when most surface materials
(including lakes and bogs) are firmly frozen. However,
low temperatures and snow would hamper free movement
of personnel and equipment. Another favorable period
occurs in summer (June to October) when most surface
materials are dry. Least favorable periods for movement
are during spring (March to mid-May) and autumn (Oc-
tober and November) when deep mud covers most of this
JANIS area.
22. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF
REGIONS
Since the surface of European USSR is so regular, chief
regional differences are due to vegetation. As a result,
vegetation was the basis for delimiting the Tundra Belt
(Region A), the Northern Forest Belt (Region B), the
Forest and Clearings Belt (Region C), and the Grassland
Belt (Region E). The Volga - Caspian Desert (Region G)
was determined on the basis of climate. Only the Ukrain-
ian Carpathian Mountains (Region D) and Mountainous
Crimea (Region F) were determined on the basis of relief.
Each of these regions is discussed on the basis of relief,
drainage, vegetation, trafficability of surface materials,
and the military significance of each terrain feature.
A. Region A, Tundra Belt
(1) Introduction
The Tundra Belt extends along the entire Arctic coast
of European USSR from the Norwegian boundary to the
low northern extension of the Ural mountains and the
Kara river (PLAN 2). For the purposes of this study the
Tundra Belt Region includes the Arctic islands close to
the USSR coast, i.e., Kolguyev, Vaygach, and several small-
er islands. This region has an irregular shape, extending
about 900 miles from west to east but its north - south
width varies from 25 to 200 miles. The total area is
approximately 120,000 square miles, about equal to the
area of New Mexico.
The lake-strewn, rocky upland surface on the west, the
Northern Urals on the east, the dense forest belt to the
south, and the icy Arctic Ocean to the north, combine
to make this Tundra Belt difficult of access as far as land
or water routes are concerned.
Few roads or railroads are found within the Tundra Belt.
The Guba Pechenga (Petsamovuono), with its ice-free port
of Liinakhamari, is the Arctic terminus of a gravel-surfaced
highway from Rovaniemi (Finland) (330 miles), where it
connects with the railroad to Kemi at the head of the Gulf
of Bothnia. Kol'skiy Zaliv, with the ice-free port of Mur-
mansk, is connected with Leningrad by the Murmansk
railroad. A military road was constructed between Mur-
mansk and Liinakhamari during World War II. East of
the White Sea, a 1,000-mile extension of the Soviet rail-
road system was built during World War II to connect
Kotlas and the coal mines at Ust'-Vorkuta and Khabarovo,
a small port on the Yugorskiy Shar strait. This railroad
crosses the great Pechora river, which is navigable to boats
in summer throughout subregion A-2.
The Tundra Belt, as defined here, includes not only the
low, mossy, and lichen-covered areas and bare rock ridges
near the Arctic Ocean, but also a strip of mixed lichen
and scrub tree vegetation farther south which forms a
transition zone between the treeless tundra on the north
and the extensive Northern Forest Belt (Region B) on the
south (PLAN 2). The tree-tundra zone is included because
the widely spaced patches of short scrub trees, 6 to 15 feet
high, merely form islands one half to 10 miles apart amid
the predominant, low tundra vegetation.
Within the Tundra Belt varied types of terrain are
found. They include low, narrow coastal plains, river low-
lands, extensive marshy areas, hilly ridges, dissected up-
land or plateaulike surfaces and steep-sided ravines
(PLANS 2 and 3). By far the greater part of the terrain
is flat-to-gently-rolling. There are no mountains within
the Tundra Belt, but there are widely scattered hills or
hill chains such as the Timan Hills or ridges and Pay-
Khoy hills. None is sufficiently rugged, steep, or compact
to constitute a major obstacle to any kind of military
operations. Steep slopes are confined largely to coastal
bluffs and sides of river valleys which are typically deep-
cut, especially west of the White Sea (Beloye More).
By far the best staging areas lie east of the White Sea,
but here minor relief features greatly affect cross-country
movement. These features consist of frost bulges and
peat mounds in bog sections. In places these mounds are
many feet high. Detailed information on their local dis-
tribution is lacking. In addition, extensive marshes and
moors also have a major effect upon cross-country travel.
Trafficability is best during winter, when most marshes
and moors are frozen firmly and blanketed by snow. Al-
though the total snowfall is not great, a thickness favor-
able for travel accumulates rapidly.
Poor surface drainage of level areas during early sum-
mer is caused by frozen subsoil. This greatly restricts
normal ground operations for all types of equipment
throughout the Tundra Belt, limiting movement to foot
travel, to light pack animals such as reindeer, or to the
waterways. There are large areas of Canada with similar
conditions.
The Kola Coast Tundra, west of the White Sea, is
drained by comparatively short streams, many of whose
valleys are gorgelike (PLAN 4). East of the White Sea,
the Trans - White Sea Tundra is drained by hundreds of
streams, most of which are unsurveyed. Most streams
present obstacles to cross-country movement either by
their gorgelike character in the east, or wide, and in many
places marshy, flood plains in the west. In winter, how-
ever, frozen surfaces of streams assume an added, im-
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FIGURE II-1. An isolated village on west bank of the Guba Pechenga (Petsamovuono).
Direction unknown. Usually small fishing villages of wooden construction occupy such sheltered terraces in fiords. Before 1900.
portant aspect, for they provide easy access to a region
otherwise poor in transportation routes. The numerous
lakes and extensive marshes and moors which retard or
restrict movement in summer become trafficable for some
types of vehicles during the period of continued frosts.
There are few annual plants in the tundra zone. The
dominant flora consists of mosses and lichens (PLAN 5).
Dwarf shrubs grow only to the average height of the
protective snow cover. Height of woody growths in-
creases southward. Bushes and trees are found to be
sheered off at snow level by the action of frost and dry
winds. Slow-growing evergreen shrubs also are found
in the southern portion of the Tundra Belt; for example,
a juniper trunk three inches in diameter may be 500 years
of age. Grasses cover large tracts of higher and drier
ground and river plains. There is practically no vertical
or horizontal concealment possible in the tundra. Food
resources are scarce or lacking.
Soils of the Tundra Belt are dominantly of glacial or
marine origin and range from heavy glacial clays to light
sands. In addition, there are large areas of bare, smooth
rock surface without any soil, other than a thin layer of
decomposed rock. There are numerous boulder-strewn
areas, and large expanses of marsh and bog.
In spring (May-June) there is a muddy period during
the melting of the snow and for two or three weeks after-
ward. Travel is possible only in rocky regions at this
time (PLANS 6 and 7). Warmth in the short summer
season is not sufficient to dry out the ground in the low
areas. Peat marshes generally remain impassable even
in late summer and autumn (PLAN 8). A short mud
period just before the period of continued frosts greatly
restricts movement, particularly in river valleys having
clay soils. In winter most surfaces, including bogs and
marshes, are covered with a layer of ice and snow (PLAN
9). This layer, however, cannot support the same amount
of weight as ice on streams. Most frozen marshes can
support animal-drawn sleighs but can be traversed by
motor vehicles to only a limited extent.
(2) Subregion A-1, the Kola Coast Tundra
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-The Kola Coast sub-
region of the Tundra Belt (A-1) extends in a northwest -
southeast direction for about 300 to 350 miles across the
northern portion of the Kola Peninsula. In the west it
occupies a coastal zone about 50 miles wide. Eastward
the belt narrows to about 25 and 15 miles in width in
the valleys of the Zapadnaya Litsa and lira rivers respec-
tively. Farther eastward the zone widens and includes
the entire basins of all the north-coast rivers and the
middle and lower portions of the Ponoy and Purnach
rivers. South of 66`'30' N, and between 40? E and 38? E
the tundra occupies only a narrow 5- to 10-mile-wide
coastal strip. The Kola Coast zone covers some 20,000
square miles, or about twice the area of Vermont or
New Hampshire.
Within the Kola Coast Tundra varied types of terrain
are found, including low, narrow, coastal, and river low-
lands, dissected upland or plateaus, poorly drained depres-
sions, hilly ridges, and steep-sided rocky ravines.
In general the Kola Coast Tundra (A-1) is a level-to-
hilly, rocky plateau 600 to 700 feet high, which declines
gently to the southeast, but drops precipitously to the sea
or to narrow beaches along the northern coast. This
entire coast is lined by steep, almost barren granite hills
and vertical cliffs. The coast, particularly west of (Kol'-
skiy Zaliv), is indented by many bays and inlets, and
bordered by steep, cliffy granite formations. The coast
as far south as Sosnovka is steep and rocky except for
isolated low areas at the heads of bays and lowlands at
the mouths of rivers. Such places as a rule are the sites
of small fishing villages (PLAN 4 and FIGURE II-1). Oc-
casional heights of 300 to 700 feet furnish excellent ob-
servation sites. Rivers reach the coast in deep valleys
cut through the granite hills and do not furnish easy
access inland (FIGURE 11-2).
Southwest of Sosnovka the coast changes from steep
granite cliffs to shores lined by steep clay banks about 40
feet high, interrupted by granite promontories. A few
low. sandy, marshy areas exist at river mouths. Eleva-
tion of the terrain increases rather gradually inland.
A detailed description of this coastal area is given in
Chapter IV, 41, C, D.
The Rybachiy - Sredniy peninsula west of the Kol'skiy
Zaliv, and Kil'din island east of it, differ physically from
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FIGURE II-2. Steep rocky banks bordering the Pats-Yaki (Patsjoki,
Pasvikelu).
Direction unknown. This river forms part of the boundary be-
tween the Soviet Union and Norway. Rapids are typical of all
rivers between the Soviet-Norwegian border and the Kola river.
These rapids restrict movement in all seasons; in winter, ice is
thin over the rapids. Before 1900.
FIGURE II-3. Typical rocky upland of the Rybachiy-Sredniy
peninsula.
Extensive patches of bare, loose rock dot the Rybachiy-Sredniy
peninsula. Snow persists in sheltered places as late as August.
1928.
the Kola Coast Tundra in that they are composed of rocks
which include clay schist, sandstone, and limestone.
The Rybachiy - Sredniy peninsula is connected with the
granitic Kola peninsula by a low, narrow isthmus, no-
where above 160 feet in elevation. Much of the Rybachiy -
Sredniy peninsula consists of a dissected plateau surface
feet are attained in western Rybachiy and 1,000 feet in
the south-central Sredniy. The north coast of this penin-
sula slopes rather gently to the sea, but the other coasts
are steep or cliffed, in places 200 to 300 feet high. Several
well-defined shore terraces are found along the coastline,
but elsewhere a rather thick mantle of weathered rock
and soil gives a subdued outline to much of the relief of
the peninsula (FIGURE 11-4).
laces, sheer cliffs. Maximum elevations of about 900
of over 500 feat elevation, which is deeply cut by canyon-
like valleys (FIGURE 11-3). It is flanked by steep, and in
FIGURE II-4. South shore of Bol'shaya Volokovaya Guba (bay)
along the west coast of the Rybachiy-Sredniy peninsula.
This bay separates the Rybachiy peninsula to the north from the
Sredniy peninsula to the south. Escarpments of stratified rock
and steep-faced, barren terraces must be crossed to reach the
fairly level upland surface. Before 1941.
Kil'din island resembles Rybachiy - Sredniy peninsula in
geologic composition. Most of the island is a 900-foot-
high plateau that drops to the north and northwest in
almost vertical cliffs, at the foot of which is much broken
rock and stone. To the east and south the surface slopes
in pronounced, broad terraces to Kil'dinskiy Proliv. Deep
canyonlike valleys of small streams have cut into the
vertical, cliff like borders of the plateau.
In general an irregular coastal strip about 50 miles wide
lies along the Murman coast and consists of a plateau 500
to 700 feet above sea level. Elevation increases south-
ward to the drainage divide between the Barents and White
Sea tributaries (in subregion B-1). Dissection of the
plateau surface is most pronounced west of the Voron'ya
(river), and less pronounced in the swamp zone north of
the Ponoy (river). There are numerous small bog- and
lake-filled hollows.
FIGURE II-5. Polyarnyy, the base for the Soviet Arctic Fleet, on the Kol'skiy Zaliv (Kola fiord).
This old photo (July 1899( illustrates a typical fiord between the Petsamo-ioki (Pechenga) and Kola rivers. Snow patches persist well
into the summer. Upland slopes are barren and difficult to cross. Note how buildings utilize flat areas.
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FIGURE 11-6. Landscape north of Liinakhamari in the Guba
Pechenga.
Looking southward. The upland surface is mostly bare rock
littered with loose boulders. There are scattered lakes and moor-
filled hollows containing some dwarf birch. Elsewhere vegetation
consists of lichen and low moss growths. Before 1941.
The granite upland, with maximum elevations of 800
to 1,000 feet, between the Petsamo-ioki and Kola rivers, is
dissected by several narrow, deep, north - south trending
depressions occupied by rivers and or' lakes. These de-
pressions reach the Barents Sea as deep fiords (FIGURE
11-5). This section is cut up by a net of deep gorges or
troughs intersecting at right angles. Many small rounded,
bare upland surfaces between the troughs contain nu-
merous lakes and moor-filled hollows (FIGURE 11-6). Any
cross-country movement is difficult.
Between the Kola and the Voron'ya rivers, and 30 or
more miles inland, a west - east trending ridge Vozvy-
shennost' Keyvy or (Keyvy Hill Ridge) reaches a maxi-
mum elevation of 1,300 feet and crosses the high, rela-
tively fflat, lake-dotted plateau. The ridge decreases in
height to the east. Southward from this ridge is a
swampy, hilly plain 20 to 30 miles wide that contains
many lakes, and extends to a second east - southeast
trending ridge about 1,300 feet high (approximately on the
boundary between Regions A-1 and B-1 on PLAN 2). Near
the Voron'ya river the terrain is a rolling plateau, about
800 feet high and merges with the broad valleys of the
Voron'ya and Kharlovka rivers and the upper valley of the
Iokan'ga river (37` E, 68` N). These depressions could
be utilized as through routes to the White Sea. Dome-
shaped hills of weathered granite rise over 200 feet above
this lowland. The area near Ozero Yenozero (68 N, 38
E) is extremely marshy and contains many lakes and pools.
Southeastward from the mouth of the Iokan'ga to the
broad valley of the Ponoy river a slightly rolling, stony
plateau extends along the coast. Its edge is cut by gorges
with vertical slopes, in places as high as 150 feet (FIGURE
11-7). Bottoms of the gorges vary from narrow and rocky
to broad. flat strips with moors and some lakes. A num-
ber of these gorges, or troughs, run parallel to the coast
between the long narrow Mys (Cape) Svyatoy Nos and
Mys Bol'shoy Gorodetskiy. Inland from the coast the
land rises to a gently undulating plateau 660 to 800 feet
in elevation} which is dotted with numerous lakes, ponds,
and pools interspersed with small marshy areas (FIGURE
II-8). About 25 to 30 miles inland, elevations increase
to about 1,000 feet and the surface is extremely marshy.
Southward the plateau surface merges with the broad
valleys of northern tributaries of the Ponoy river.
The Vozvyshennost' Keyvy (Keyvy Hill Ridge) extends
from northwest to southeast about 125 miles across the
interior of the Kola Peninsula and parallel to the middle
and upper Ponoy river. This ridge is composed of a
Original
Page 11-7
FIGURE 11-7. Gubnoy Valley near Mys (Cape) Orlov.
Looking southward. Deep gorges are common along the Murman
coast. The valleys are of little use as routes because of the rocky
bottom of the stream beds, and deep snows. 1889.
FIGURE 11-8. Tundra north of the mouth of the Ponoy.
Low tundra vegetation dominates on the almost level upland sur-
face near the coast. Access to the upland is difficult from the
fiorded coast. 1889.
chain of broad, granitic, dome-shaped hills separated by
deep gorges or trenches. The ridge descends rather steeply
to the surrounding marshy plain. Maximum altitudes
range to approximately 1,300 feet.
Southeastward the Vozvyshennost' Keyvy narrows
gradually and decreases in elevation. Its southern slope
descends precipitously to the hilly, lake-dotted, marshy
lowland of the middle Ponoy. The northern slope, how-
ever, descends more gently. Near the Acheriok river, the
eastern end of the Vozvyshennost' Keyvy declines rapidly
in elevation and continues as a marshy divide between
the Acheriok and Kolmak rivers.
South of the Ponoy river the surface of the Kola Coast
Tundra is a plateau only 350 to 500 feet above sea level.
Elevation of this low block decreases gradually toward the
east and southeast. Toward the south the upland slopes
gradually and drops to a low coastal plain along the
White Sea. Sand ridges and hills are scattered over
this plain. The lower Ponoy and the lower sections of
its tributaries have cut deep gorges into the plateau, but
portions of the streams flow over the plateau surface
through no pronounced valleys.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-The Kola Coast Tundra is
drained by comparatively short streams, which for the
most, part flow directly to the sea. The most striking
feature of these rivers is the gorgelike character of their
middle and lower courses. Location of these miniature
canyons for the most part is determined by fissures in the
basic rock structure of the area. Large rapids and some
waterfalls are found near the edge of the plateau. Be-
tween the Norwegian border and the Kola river, the lower
courses of all the rivers flow through true Norwegian-type
fiords in the plateau. Eastward from the Kola, the
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fiords become less and less pronounced, but the valleys near
the coast are nevertheless deep and narrow as far east as
the Ponoy estuary. Inland, even the valleys of the smaller
rivers and streams generally are broad in their upper
courses.
The Teriberka flows north - northeastward through
several lakes and empties into the Barents Sea. It is
swift, with numerous rapids and some waterfalls. One
of the largest waterfalls is four miles above the river's
mouth. The right bank is sandy but the left is steeper
and rocky. The stream usually is ice covered from the end
of October to mid-May.
. The Voron'ya rises in Ozero Lovozero, flows northward
about 75 miles, and empties into the Barents Sea. The
stream bed is rocky and full of rapids, some of which are
a mile or two long. Large waterfalls formed by vertical,
granite cliffs, also interrupt the stream. The swift, tur-
bulent stream is considered unnavigable even by the local
inhabitants. The upper course is ice covered from Oc-
tober to May. Because of the swiftness of the stream and
the numerous rapids, it is doubtful whether the ice is
strong enough to be used as a highway in winter.
The Iokan'ga flows eastward through the subregion for
about 90 miles and empties into the Barents Sea. It varies
from 1,800 to 3,000 feet in width near its mouth, and
depths are not less than 12 feet in the same area. Rapids
begin about 3.5 miles from the coast. The Iokan'ga is not
navigable even for small boats. It is ice covered from the
middle of October to the middle of May. Over rapids and
near all waterfalls thin ice may be expected.
Much of the Ponoy river lies within the Kola Coast
Tundra. The breadth of the river varies from 330 feet
at Ozero Vuliyavr (subregion B-1) to 1,300 feet above
Ponoy village near its mouth (FIGURE 11-9). Depths vary
from 0.5 to 6 feet. The bed of the river is either sandy or
muddy below Ozero Vuliyavr. The immediate stream
banks in few places exceed 7 feet in height and are bor-
dered by discontinuous terraces. In the lower (eastern)
one-fourth of the Ponoy, rapids are numerous; the last
(or lowest) is only 4 miles above Ponoy village. Velocity
of the Ponoy in this lower section is from 3.6 to 5.3 feet
per second between the rapids. The river is ice covered
from October to May except over rapids and near water-
falls.
FIGURE II-9. Ponoy river at Ponoi village.
Looking south toward Ponoi village from the upland surface. The
immediate banks of the river in few places are more than 7 feet
high but a short distance from the river steep bluffs prevent easy
access to the undulating upland surface. What appear to be rocks
in the river is a fishing fleet. 1887.
On the Kola Coast Tundra there are numerous large,
broad, and deep lakes in the abandoned valleys of ancient
rivers. One example of such is the series of depressions
through which the present Iokan'ga river passes in its
winding upper and middle course. Some of the depres-
sions are now completely drained and others contain lakes
of varied sizes. Ozero Vuliyavr is a shallow depression of
the Ponoy. The larger lakes all lie east of the Voron'ya
river.
There are also numerous extensive lake-filled shallow
depressions only 2 to 5 feet deep scattered throughout the
subregion. Most of these shallow lakes have flat shores
but great masses of coarse glacial material rise above the
water. The numerous lakes are serious obstacles to cross-
country movement in the summer, but when frozen in
winter can be crossed easily. As a rule they are frozen
firmly from October to May.
Extensive areas of the Kola Coast Tundra are covered
by moors and marshes. One of the largest continuous
areas of marshes lies along the upper and middle Ponoy
river. Another is found in the eastern portion of the
subregion. More or less continuous areas of marsh lie
along the middle course of the Varzina river, between the
Iokan'ga and the Ponoy rivers, and east of the Voron'ya.
Elsewhere, smaller marshes and peat bogs are scattered
over the lake-dotted plateau surface. All the peat bogs
reported in the Kola Coast Tundra are small and shallow
in comparison to those in other northern Soviet areas.
Bogs range from 0.1 to 0.2 square miles in area and depths
are about 5 feet. Outcrops of stone are located in the
midst of some of the marshes.
All the marshy areas are obstacles to movement during
the spring and summer season. Near Ozero Vuliyavr the
immense, level marshes which border the Ponoy flood
plain are covered with water up to 8 feet deep for a week
or 10 days in the spring. In winter (December to April)
the marshes are frozen solidly and can be crossed readily
by men on skis or dog sleds. The frozen marshes may
support light vehicles.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-The dominant form of na-
tural vegetation found in the Kola Coast Tundra (A-1)
consists of moss in the broad upland depressions, and
lichen growths on the drier spots and rocky outcrops.
These low tundra growths, however, are repeatedly in-
terrupted along the streams or on damp but fairly well-
drained places by narrow bands of dwarf birches and
willows, seldom more than 10 feet high. In the south and
west the forest-tundra merges into dense forests (PLAN
2, B-1). Patches of meadow grasses and marsh vegeta-
tion also occur. Because of the severe climate, poor soils,
and short growing season, agriculture is extremely diffi-
cult, if at all possible. The northern limit of agriculture
roughly coincides with the southern boundary of sub-
region A-1 (PLAN 2).
Most of the Rybachiy - Sredniy peninsula is covered with
mosses and other tundra vegetation, in many places reach-
ing to the water's edge wherever the coast is not steep or
rocky.
The coast of the Petsamo-ioki (Pechenga) area, which
is exposed to north winds, is barren. A short distance in-
land, vegetation becomes comparatively varied for such
high latitudes and consists of dwarf birches, berry bushes,
and heather, all of which are less than 3 feet high. South-
ward along the fiords and gulfs the vegetation becomes
richer and more profuse. Comparatively tall trees appear
about 15 miles inland and gradually change from scattered
dwarf birch to dense patches of conifers.
Tundra and forest overlap in numerous isolated patches,
particularly between the Norwegian border and the Kola
river. As a rule, the upland surfaces are covered with
tundra vegetation, but lower elevations and those along
the narrow stream valleys are clothed with stunted growths
of pine, spruce, birch, and juniper.
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FIGURE II-10. Aquatic sedge in the Voron'ya river.
Alluvial islands, covered with aquatic sedge and other water-
loving plants, are shown in the foreground. These growths are
common along the rivers. 1887.
The Voron'ya river is bordered by sparse growths of
spruce and birch and occasional pines. Birch growths
reach the coast in most valleys. The flat upland sum-
mits along the middle course of the river are covered with
tundra vegetation, chiefly lichens. Near Voron'ye on the
Voron'ya, about 50 miles inland, flat patches are covered
with dense growths of grasses about three feet high.
Grasses include sedge, bluegrass, and reed grass (FIGURE
II-10). The shallow margins of the Voron'ya are often
choked with "water buttercup."
About 60 miles inland, just north of Ozero Lovozero
(between subregions A-1 and B-1), peat-mound forma-
tions slope steeply toward the sphagnum moss quagmire
bordering the lake. These mounds are covered chiefly by
a dark sphagnum moss in places only 1.5 feet thick. Other
growths include dwarf birch and berry bushes such as
blueberry, cloudberry, crowberry, small cranberry, and
mountain cranberry (lingenberry). The moist spaces be-
tween the mounds are covered with other species of sphag-
num moss and cottongrass.
Various mosses, cinquefoil, and marsh marigold grow
over marshes throughout the subregion. On seaward
slopes there are small patches of peat bog heavily water-
logged in their upper layers and covered for the most part
with sphagnum moss, willow, dwarf birch, crowberry, bog
cranberry, and blueberry.
As a rule birch is not found on the broad, level upland
areas less than 35 miles inland from the Barents coast.
At its northernmost limit the birch appears as a bush,
but only 5 miles farther south one encounters stunted birch
trees about 10 to 12 feet high (FIGURE II-11). Such
growths extend inland to the southern border of subregion
A-1 (PLAN 5).
Vegetation of the Kola Coast Tundra is low and does not
restrict cross-country movement. However, passage
through the poorly drained sections would be extremely
difficult except in winter when these areas are firmly
frozen. Vegetation offers little or no concealment or cover.
(d) Traicability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-Surface materials on the almost treeless, moss-
covered Kola Coast Tundra in general consist of glacial
deposits and glacial-scoured rock. Most of the coastal
strip, 12 to 20 miles broad, is covered with clay or loamy
material, with sandy loam in some places. In the interior
sand and gravel predominate. The surface is composed
largely of sand and stones and has little finer material.
In numerous places soil cover is lacking completely, and
the hard bedrock is exposed. The dome-shaped Vozvy-
shennost' Keyvy are strewed in places with granite stones
and boulders. Continuous sand and gravel deposits are
found only on the beach of Lumbovskiy Zaliv, the delta of
the Iokan'ga river, and terraces of lake basins. Lowlands
and flat areas usually contain peaty soils. Except in cores
of peat mounds, such as those around the north end of
Ozero Lovozero, reports indicate that permafrost (per-
manently frozen subsoil) does not occur on the Kola
Peninsula. Soils above the permafrost are usually satu-
rated during the summer.
Throughout the area cross-country movement is stopped
for about eight weeks in May and June, during the period
of spring thaws. Even well-built roads and railways are
temporarily blocked by sinks and slides during this period.
Melting ice and summer rains create muddy conditions
and poor trafficability, particularly on deep soils in the
narrow valleys and on the lower slopes of hills. Some
areas with only thin soil layers over bedrock are dry and
firm after June. In winter, (October to May) trafficability
is generally good except during extremely cold weather.
(3) Subregion A-2, Trans - White Sea Tundra
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-The Trans - White Sea
Tundra (A-2) is essentially a slightly elevated, level-to-
rolling plain. The area, which is divided into two unequal
parts by the broad flood plain of the lower Pechora, in-
cludes the Malozemel'skaya (Little Land) Tundra west of
the Pechora and the Bol'shezemel'skaya (Big Land)
Tundra to the east.
FIGURE II-11. Typical forest-tundra.
This area at the eastern end of the Vozvyshennost' Keyvy in the upper Acheriok river basin is representative of all forest-tundra
regions. Most vegetation consists of mosses, stunted, scattered birch, and low evergreens. Before 1900.
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FIGURE 11-12. Northwest coast of the Poluostrov Kanin (Kanin Peninsula).
The rocks in the foreground are exposed during low tide. The bluff in left center is typical of the northwest coast of Poluostrov Kanin.
Steep slopes beyond the cove are covered with lichens and dwarf birches which furnish fodder for reindeer herds. Before 1941.
Most of the subregion lies north of the Arctic Circle
and ranges from low, level, and marshy areas to gently
sloping coastal sections; bedrock, coastal cliffs ranging
from 130 to 160 feet in the extreme northwest of the
Poluostrov Kanin (Kanin Peninsula) decrease to 15 to 30
feet toward the east (FIGURE 11-12). However, the north
coast of Cheshskaya Guba ranges from 30 to 60 feet high.
Other coasts of this bay are rather uniformly low. The
Yugorskiy Poluostrov (peninsula) coasts are also high and
cliffed. In places steep clay, sand, and gravel cliffs line
the coast (FIGURE 11-13).
FIGURE 11-13. Coast near Mys Voronov.
Steep, crumbling, clayey sand banks containing many rocks are
cut by numerous gullies. A narrow beach, littered with much
driftwood and rock, is exposed at low tide. Before 1941.
The narrow portion of subregion A-2 bordering the coast
of the White Sea and eastward to the mouth of the Mezen'
has a sandy coast with hillocks about 40 feet high covered
with peat and small bushes. There are some marshy flats.
This coastal strip is backed by level-to-rolling terrain. De-
tailed coastal descriptions are discussed in Chapter IV,
41, A, and B.
Extending northwest - southeast across northern Poluos-
trov Kanin (Kanin Peninsula) is the flat-topped Kryazh
Kanin Kamen', in general 400 to 600 feet high, with a
maximum elevation of 790 feet (FIGURE 11-14). The ridge
decreases southeastward and merges with the slightly dis-
sected, terraced coastal plain, 150 feet in elevation and
about a mile wide. A tundra plain, hillier in the northern
portion, lies south of the ridge and extends as far as the
base of the peninsula. This plain rises evenly to about
50 feet within 6 miles of the coasts. It is little dissected,
and contains numerous small lakes and low moss-covered
peat mounds. This type of tundra is covered with north -
south oriented mounds, or bulges, about 9 inches high, 32
inches long, and 24 inches wide. They are carpeted with
a layer of moss less than an inch thick, under which
peat lies to depths of 9 to 10 inches. This type of tundra
is difficult to cross.
Southward from the Chesha river and Cheshskaya Guba
the elevation of the low plain increases and the terrain is
slightly undulating. This area abounds in lakes contain-
ing sedge- and moss-covered islands. These lakes, of
varied sizes and shapes, are surrounded by sedge marshes
(FIGURE 11-15).
Eastward, between the Pesha and Pechora rivers, the
Timan Hills, in reality a series of five low, parallel, flat-
topped ridges, from 600 to 1,060 feet high trend north-
west - southeast across the subregion (PLAN 2, A-2a). The
ridges have gently sloping sides and as they alternate
with level tundra lowlands they give a distinct hilly ap-
pearance to the landscape (FIGURE 11-16). In addition,
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FIGURE 11-14. Coast near Tarkhanovo on the Poluostrov Kanin (Karin peninsula).
Looking southeast. View of the northwestern portion of the Kryazh Kanin Kamen' along the coast. Gentle-to-steep slopes lead to the
flat-topped ridge summit. Low rock cliffs rise from the water along the small beach at the upper right. Lichens and dwarf bushes
growing on the ridge slopes furnish pasture for large reindeer herds. Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-15. Tundra landscape northeast of Mezen'.
The extensive plain northeast of Mezen' as far as Cheshskaya
Guba is only slightly undulating. Level terrain generally favors
movement, but here numerous small lakes and tundra moors tend
to restrict movement to sandy hills or low peat ridges crossing the
marshy sections. In winter this area is frozen and movement of
men, and at least light vehicles, is entirely feasible. Before 1941.
occasional bedrock outcrops of crystallines, sandstone, or
limestone rise as hills above the plateaulike surface of the
ridges, particularly in the northern portion. The ridges
serve as the watershed between tributaries of the Pechora
and Mezen' systems. The valleys of these rivers provide
easy portages across the Timan ridge chain. In places,
however, the streams cut through the Timan ridges in deep
gorgelike valleys.
Eastward from the Timan Hills to the Pechora, is the
Malozemel'skaya Tundra, a rolling, elevated, sandy plain
about 450 feet above sea level, containing numerous
streams and lakes. The highest point is over 600 feet high
and lies west of the delta of the Pechora river. This high
point is the northern terminus of one of several north -
south trending ridges of glacial clays, sands, stone, and
boulders common to the Malozemel'skaya Tundra. The
sandy portions of the Malozemel'skaya Tundra also con-
tain minor relief features, such as isolated or continuous
ridgelike dunes and wind-hollowed spots and basins (lo-
Original
tally called yarei). These wind-hollowed spots are irregu-
lar in shape, and are steep sided. Their depths vary from
eight inches to over three feet. In some places several
hollows blend into one large basin covering 60 to 80 square
miles.
Southward to the southern border of the region the
glacial ridges become lower (seldom above 300 feet), dis-
continuous, and finally merge in the slightly undulating
marshy plain of the lower Pechora.
Although the extensive Bol'shezemel'skaya Tundra, ex-
tending east of the lower Pechora river as far as the north-
ern Urals, is in general a low coastal plain, it possesses a
variety of minor types of terrain. There is a gradual in-
crease in elevation eastward, the surface is covered with
alternate marine and glacial deposits, and vast marshy
expanses are dotted with sandy and clayey hills. That
portion of the tundra between the lower Pechora and the
longitude of Khaypudyrskaya Guba (bay) has been studied
less than the area farther east, but Russian geographic
literature indicates that the two parts are very similar.
FIGURE 11-16. The Tinian Hills.
Most of the Timan Hills in subregion A-2 form low ridges covered
with forest-tundra. This view shows spruce interspersed with low
birch and bushes. Areas between the ridges contain lakes or
marshy areas. Cross-country movement would not. be easy iii
such terrain. Before 1941.
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The area bordering the lower Pechora is a gently rolling
plain composed of crystalline rock covered with glacial
material and alluvial deposits. The basin of the Kolva-
Vis river which lies north of the Usa - Pechora confluence
is an execptionally sandy plain with numerous small lakes,
marshes, and sand hills. In places these sand hills shift
with the wind because of scant vegetation cover.
Along the Khoseda-Yu river, to the east, high, thick,
glacial ridges with large boulders, trend northeast - south-
west across sandy glacial or marine deposits. The lower
Khoseda-Yu is bordered by broad sections of flood plain,
consisting mainly of meadows overgrown with willow
bushes.
The Adz'va river, a right tributary of the Usa, flows
through a lake-dotted, marshy plain containing thick peat
bogs. Along sandy and well-drained parts of the river
banks there are wind-hollowed basins and mounds of
shifting sands.
The area north of the Adz'va river and west of the
Korotaikha river is a vast sandy, slightly rolling plain
containing large marshes and peat bogs. Here and there
are deep lakes and broad, low glacial ridges that rise 60
to 80 feet above the surrounding land. This higher land
forms the watershed between the Usa - Pechora tributaries
and those streams flowing northward directly to the Arctic.
The marshes and bogs are overgrown with dense willow
growths from 7 to 13 feet high, which would hinder move-
ment because they prevent free movement even of rein-
deer trains.
Eastward from the Korotaikha river lies the Khrebet Pay-
Khoy, a low, old, worn mountain range, consisting of
narrow, northwest - southeast trending, stony ridges.
Isolated bedrock crests rise from its central part. Else-
where the surface is covered by glacial materials. Some
ridges rise 600 to 1,300 feet above sea level and 300 to 500
feet above the surrounding country. Elevation increases
from northwest to southeast, but Gora Mor-Pay, only about
40 miles inland from Proliv Yugorskiy Shar, is 1,560 feet
high and is the highest point in the Khrebet Pay-Khoy.
Usually the Pay-Khoy ridges are discontinuous. One
extends almost unbroken from the Bol'shaya O-Yu river
to the sources of the Kara. The surface between the ridges
is covered by diverse glacial debris and immense sedge
marshes; the terrain is slightly rolling, and slopes to the
west and south of the Khrebet Pay-Khoy, becoming flat,
and poorly drained. Near the coast low hills and short,
low ridges rise above the plain. The surface is little dis-
sected but contains short, narrow gullies, 160 to 330 feet
deep, which open into the main river valleys. Generally
the northeast - facing slopes of the Pay-Khoy are steeper
than those facing southwest, and larger streams crossing
the ridges form deep canyonlike valleys.
Eastward of the Pay-Khoy, elevation decreases gradually
but the region is slightly hilly and contains numerous
moraine ridges and marshes. Southeastward, the Pay-
Khoy range is separated by a tundra plain from the most
northern extension of the Urals. For detailed description
of the northern Urals, see subregion B-2.
In addition to the mainland Tundra Belt Region, two
large islands, Kolguyev and Vaygach are, included within
the area of this JANIS. Ostrov Kolguyev lies about 60 miles
northeast of Kanin peninsula. From the sea, the island
has the appearance of a rounded tableland. In the middle
of the island there are high hills, but no outstanding peaks.
The northern and northwestern coasts are the highest,
with bluffs standing 80 to 130 feet above the sea. These
coasts are little indented. Most of the southern half of
the island is rimmed by a low, sandy, coastal plain. In-
land the plain gradually merges with the tableland of
the interior. The island has numerous short rivers; their
mouths are generally shallow and become blocked with
sand and gravel when winds blow from the sea. Tundra
vegetation covers the island.
Vaygach island is separated from the mainland by Pro-
liv Yugorskiy Shar. It is a rocky island with many bays;
many islets and submerged rocks surround it, being par-
ticularly numerous along the western and northwestern
coasts, Ridges of limestone and shale, about 60 feet high,
extend parallel with the western coast about 5 miles in-
land. About 7 miles from the eastern coast, a chain of
northwest - southeast trending shale hills, (Sanina moun-
tains) crosses the island. Viewed from the sea, the island
appears to have a fairly even surface but, for the most
part, the coast is steep and rocky.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-Subregion A-2 is drained by
hundreds of streams, but little is known about them since
surveys for much of the area are not available. Therefore,
most stream courses marked on maps are only in approxi-
mate location. The rivers and their main tributaries rise
in marshy ground, flow northward or southward, and are
serious obstacles to operations involving east - west move-
ment. Some rivers are comparatively navigable in sum-
mer, but the numerous sand islands, shallows, and sand-
banks require local pilots for safe navigation. The rivers
of this subregion are fed principally by melting snow.
Melt water in spring provides 501/ to 70% of the yearly
run-off; because the surface is still frozen melt water runs
off rapidly. In winter, the frozen streams are by far the
best transportation routes. Some coastal sections, such
as that of Cheshskaya Guba, are crossed by a large num-
ber of streams which, during low tide, are very narrow and
reveal a bottom of silt.
The two largest rivers crossing the subregion are the
Mezen' and the Pechora. Since both rivers flow mainly
through the forested subregion B-2 and their flood plains
are covered with tree or meadow growths, they will be
discussed under subregion B-2. However, that part of
the Mezen' within subregion A-2 is 4.7 to 7.2 miles wide,
is 22 feet deep at its mouth, and has a sandy bottom. Its
rate of flow is one to two feet per second. The stream is
ice covered from mid-November to early May. The
Pechora has a wide, sandy, island-filled channel and
flows through low, flat terrain. The river is about 27
miles wide in the delta region and has mouths 7.2 miles
apart. Usually the Pechora is 8 feet deep at the mouth
but depth may increase to 24 feet during prolonged north
winds. Rate of flow varies from 1.5 to 2.5 feet per second.
The stream is ice covered from the end of October to the
end of May. Spring floods are common.
The Korotaikha is about 250 miles long and navigable
by river boat for 50 to 100 miles at any water level. Even
at relatively low water this river is an obstacle to move-
ment, and reindeer herders must ferry across it. The
Bol'shaya O-Yu is a swift river, averaging 130 to 160 feet
in width. It contains many rapids and a deep narrow
valley. Two terraces, 3 and 10 feet above the level of
the stream, border the river. Boat travel at average water
level is possible only for 40 to 50 miles upstream.
On the areas between the numerous rivers there is a
multitude of lakes with interconnecting channels; some are
temporary and are very shallow. Those lakes are serious
obstacles to movement in summer. Many of the lakes,
through natural drainage, have been replaced in whole or
part by marshes, and some have dried up completely. The
lakes of the Neruta lowland in the Malozemel'skaya
Tundra lie in shallow, saucerlike depressions 1.5 to 7 feet
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deep with an average area of 2 to 4 square miles. Most
of their shores and bottoms are peat covered.
Another lake-dotted area lies south and west of the
upper Korotaikha river. These lakes are generally about
1 to 4 square miles in area, but those in the upper course
of the Adz'va attain considerable size, being 10 or more
miles in length.
There is much marshy area in subregion A-2. Ex-
tensive, poorly drained areas cover nearly 50`; of the
surface of the level lowlands and also are well developed
on the flat tops of the glacial ridges. Peat mounds of
various shapes, 15 to 40 inches high and flat topped, are
separated by peat moss mires and cover about 35 of the
entire tundra area. In places low, continuous peat ridges
form natural passageways across the extensive marshes
(FIGURE 11-17). In the Bol'shezemel'skaya Tundra peat
seldom exceeds 8 feet in depth, but in the west it does
reach 13 or more feet. However, the mounds are not as
high here, and summer thaw reaches greater depths.
FIGURE 11-17. A peat ridge near the village of Nes'.
Peat ridges provide in many places the only passageways across
the low, marshy areas common to the Trans-White Sea Tundra.
Marshy areas or stagnant pools are found on both sides of these
natural causeways. Before 1941.
Along parts of the coast are extensive meadows. For
example, one which is four miles broad and eight miles
long lies at the mouth of the Vizhas. Another meadow
five miles broad extends some distance upstream from
the mouth of the Chesha. Throughout the entire tundra
belt the scattered, extensive marshy areas prevent move-
ment in summer, or restrict it to the better drained glacial
areas which cross them. In winter these extensive marshes
are frozen to various depths and are trafficable to a
limited extent.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-The vegetation of the
Trans - White Sea Tundra has been studied in detail only
in the eastern part, but indications are that plant distribu-
tion is similar throughout the entire subregion. From
south to north there are such varied types of tundra as
1) forest, 2) dwarf birch, 3) moss, and 4) in scattered
areas, moss associated with willows or sedges. Lines of
demarcation between the tundra types are not sharp and
in many places overlap one another.
The forest-tundra forms a zone of transition from the
dense forest on the south to the tundra on the north.
The forest-tundra contains chiefly thin-trunked larches,
pine trees, isolated clumps of dwarf birch, and areas of
tundra. Typical sections of forest-tundra are found 1)
in the basin of the Khoseda-Yu river from its headwaters
to Khoseda Khard Cultural Base where patches of sparse
spruce woods alternate with dwarf birch growths, alder,
and other plant combinations; 2) along the right bank of
the middle Adz'va, where dwarf birches dominate on better-
drained sections and isolated spruces mingle with willows
in its southern part; 3) in the basin of the Kolva-Vis.
Original
FIGURE 11-18. High peat mounds in the Pechora basin.
In parts of the Pechora Basin, peat mounds are serious obstacles
to cross-country movement. Before 1941.
where sparse spruce woods occur; and 4) along the upper
Usa and lower courses of its northern tributaries, the
Bol'shaya Rogovaya and Adz'va.
In general the trees of the forest-tundra are confined to
sandy soils, are not higher than 25 to 35 feet, and are
widely spaced. On the northern edge of the forest-tundra,
spruces, usually 3 to 7 feet high, occupy southern slopes.
Higher-trunked stands of spruces are found in the river
valleys but, wherever the surface tends to be saturated or
water-logged, tree growths disappear.
On swampy portions of the forest-tundra, willow groves
7 to 13 feet high obstruct cross-country movement. In ad-
dition, there are impassable, tall sedge tussocks up to 3
or 4 feet high with deep mires between them, and bogs
with flat-topped mounds occupy about one-third of the
area. These mounds consist of peat, and generally are
only 15 to 25 inches high. In some places, however, they
are 10 to 15 feet high and form serious obstacles to cross-
country movement (FIGURE 11-18). The mounds are of
varied shapes and sizes, averaging between 30 and 45 feet
across; they are separated by depressions containing
tundra grasses and peat moss.
Dwarf-birch tundra is found in damp but well-drained
areas; in general, this type of tundra is passable but not
trafficable. The dwarf-birch tundra is typified by nu-
merous stands of low birches, only four to six feet high
and varied forms of grasses and bushes. This type of
tundra is the most extensive of all tundra subdivisions.
The southern limit of the dwarf-birch zone crosses the
Poluostrov Kanin (Kanin Peninsula) south of the Kryazh
Kanin Kamen' (ridge), crosses the Pechora basin at about
68" N, includes the upper course of the Laya river and ex-
tends to the sources of the Usa. Typical sections of the
dwarf-birch tundra include: 1) the watershed between
the Adz'va river and Khaypudyrskaya Guba, 2) the lake
region east of the headwaters of the Adz'va, and 3) the
area between the lake region and the Korotaikha river.
Included also are numerous peat marshes and patches
of tussock. Isolated trees are found in well-sheltered
places. The dwarf-birch tundra is almost completely lack-
ing in forest growth.
One common plant association in the dwarf-birch tundra
includes the marsh tea, an herb found under dwarf-birch
growths. Its prevalence increases eastward and in places
is more prominent than the dwarf-birch itself. The
presence of marsh tea indicates great extremes of heat
and cold. Lichens also grow in the drier portions of the
dwarf-birch tundra. Willows 7 to 13 feet high also grow
within the dwarf-birch tundra as a rule, but are confined
to the hollows, small stream valleys, and the banks of
brooks. These growths present major obstacles to move-
ment, even to reindeer trains. Along well-established
reindeer routes used by the local inhabitants, a broad, more
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or less unbroken band of dwarf-birch and or willow has
developed naturally.
Northward from the dwarf-birch tundra a narrow zone
of moss and moss-willow tundra borders the coast. Pure
moss tundra prevails in the western and northern por-
tions. Southeastward from Khaypudyrskaya Guba along
the east - west middle course of Korotaikha river and east-
ward to the middle Kara, moss-willow tundra dominates.
Mossy tundra has sparse lichen growths, but neither
trees nor underbrush. In general, moss tundra predomi-
nates on well-drained areas, whereas plant associations of
sparse low bushes, mainly willow, but some birch, alternate
with sedge growths on the moderately drained areas. On
the rocky areas lichens are associated with low berry
bushes. The birches are usually low, 5 to 8 inches high,
flattened, and appear in small clusters; small, scattered
willow bushes, 20 to 24 inches high, grow on damp, gentle
slopes. Their branches are well developed and have a
dense foliage. Strips of taller willows grow along the
river valleys. Spaces between the bushes are covered
mainly by moss, but sedge and reed grasses do appear.
In general, the moss tundra is much marshier than the
dwarf-birch tundra to the south and contains much sedge,
15 to 25 inches high. Low bushes are not characteristic
of this type of tundra but do grow in protected valley
lowlands which are snow filled in winter.
Along the coast of Yugorskiy Shar strait is a tundra and
sedge-marsh zone of "polygonal tundras" on dry swells,
so named because the surface has been broken into a net-
work of polygons by frost cracks. The greater part of
the polygonal tundras is bare of vegetation and in many
places is covered by fine rubble. In the deep cracks be-
tween the bare spots, mosses, lichens, and herbaceous
growths appear.
Coastal meadows also occupy large sections such as the
area 4 miles broad and 8 miles long around the mouth of
the Vizhas river and the one 5 miles broad and extending
inland from the mouth of the Chesha. Grasses are usually
16 to 18 inches tall and not very thick.
Vegetation develops and grows rapidly in the strong sun-
light that prevails at the end of the snow-melting period.
Two weeks after the disappearance of the snow the tundra
blooms and becomes green. The color of this vegetation
is chiefly green and remains so until late August. In the
mossy or lichen tundra are patches of very light green and
almost white reindeer lichens, which are visible for a long
distance. In September and at the beginning of October
the forest-tundra is dark green mixed with yellow; the
dwarf-birch tundra is yellow, green, and reddish brown;
and the mossy tundra is gray-green, with flecks of white
and rusty brown. In summer in the zones of dwarf-birch
and forest-tundra, fair concealment is afforded. During
winter the bare bushes and clumps of trees no longer offer
any sort of concealment.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10) .-Trafficability of surface materials of the Trans-
White Sea Tundra (A-2) is similar to that of the Kola
Coast Tundra (A-1). In general this subregion is covered
with mixed glacial deposits consisting of clays, sands,
stones, and boulders. This veneer of glacial material is
generally thin or may be entirely lacking on some of the
highest elevations of the subregion such as certain sum-
mits of the Pay-Khoy ridges on the Yugorskiy peninsula.
Glacial deposits of the Malozemel'skaya and Bol'shezemel'-
skaya Tundras, however, average 13 to 16 feet deep but
may be as deep as 130 feet and contain a large number of
boulders. Bedrock outcrops are conspicuous in the north-
ern portion of the Timan Hills.
Except for the rock outcrops in the Timan Hills and
elevated parts of the Malozemel'skaya and Bol'shezemel'-
skaya Tundras, much of the surface is covered by extensive
marshes, bogs, and swamps. In places, the extensive peat
bogs are crossed by long, elevated peat ridges or mounds
which are fairly dry in summer and used locally by the
inhabitants as routes across the bogs.
A clay belt borders the Khoseda-Yu river, but about 60 or
75 feet above the valley floor clay is replaced by level sandy
terraces on both sides of the river. These terraces are
overlain by a heavy, bouldery loam.
In contrast to subregion A-1, the greater part of sub-
region A-2 has a permanently frozen subsoil layer (perma-
frost) 12 to 80 inches below the surface. This frozen layer
varies in thickness from 70 feet in the lower Pechora valley
to 1,600 feet on Vaygach island northwest of Yugorskiy
peninsula. Permafrost is absent on the Poluostrov Kanin
(Kanin peninsula) and in coastal areas. Land underlain
by permafrost usually is marshy, for the impermeable layer
of frozen subsoil prevents proper underground drainage
and thus permanently waterlogs the top layer of soil.
This phenomenon occurs even on fairly steep slopes, where
irregularities in the depth of the frozen layer may act as
dams to the underground water.
Depth of thaw is never great. It is shallowest beneath
a peat cover and deepest in well-drained, sandy soils.
The Russians have reported depths of thaw in the Bol'-
shezemel'skaya Tundra peat beds to reach 1.6 to 2.6 feet;
in loamy soils, 2.3 to 4 feet; and in sandy soils, 5 to 6.6 feet.
These figures, however, refer only to areas not subject to
the action of lake or running water and those not under
snow cover. Soil is not frozen under snow drifts 10 feet
deep unless freezing occurred before the period of con-
tinued snow.
In general there are great difficulties to movement of
men and vehicles at all seasons in the Trans-White Sea
Tundra subregion. Surface materials are nontrafficable
during May and June and during alternate periods of
thawing and freezing when mud is deep. Another short,
nontrafficable or mud period occurs in October before the
onset of continued frosts. This mud period is caused by
frequent rain or snowfalls and alternate periods of freez-
ing and thawing. Mud is most notable- on clay-filled,
river-valley bottoms. Surface materials are most traffica-
ble during the winter when the moors and marshes may
be frozen firmly enough to support vehicles. However,
cold weather and deep snow drifts in places hinder all
forms of cross-country movement. During the summer,
cross-country movement is impracticable for men, ve-
hicles, or animals because the heat in the short summer
months is not sufficient to dry out the surface in the
extensive, low, undrained depressions. Peat bogs and
marshes generally remain impassable even in the late
summer and autumn. Sandy soils and rocky areas dry
out quickly and are usable for limited movement, but such
areas are not continuous. In general, there are great
difficulties to movement of men and vehicles at all seasons
in this subregion.
B. Region B, Northern Forest Belt
(1) Introduction
Stretching across the northern part of the USSR from
Finland to Asia, south of the Tundra Belt (Region A), is
the Northern Forest Belt (Region B). It includes the
northern part of the great Russian plains of Europe, the
northern section of the Ural Mountains, the mountains
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of the Kola Peninsula, and some other, lesser uplands.
The soils of the Region are mostly of coarse materials left
by the old continental glaciers, with much clay, sand,
gravel, and boulders. Typical vegetation of the plains,
and spreading up the hills and mountains, is the conifer-
ous forest with a slight admixture of broadleaf trees.
Breaks in the forest cover include poorly drained meadows
and marshes and some cultivated fields. Very little area,
however, has been cleared for cultivation and the popula-
tion of the entire region is scant. Both population and
cultivated area are mainly in the southwestern part of
the Region.
The Northern Forest Belt is accessible by sea from the
west and the north (Baltic and Arctic) and by land from
the north, west, south and east. Most land routes to the
area cross many swamps and marshes, gravel ridges, rock
hills, dense forests, and many lake-covered areas.
In general the region of the Northern Forest Belt is rec-
tangular in shape, having an east - west length of about
850 miles and a north - south breadth of about 500 miles.
Irregularities to this shape, however, are at the north-
western and southeastern corners. At the former, is a
bulge which includes about 50,000 square miles; at the
latter, a somewhat smaller area is missing from the rec-
tangle. The approximate total size of the Region is
450.000 square miles. This is about the area of Texas,
Oklahoma, and New Mexico combined.
The area suitable for maneuver is limited by forests and
marshes even in the plains and lowlands. Throughout
the hills and mountains the irregular terrain and the
forests combine to make movement difficult.
The greater part of Region B consists of wide plains
with minor interruptions of low hills and swells between
the many streams. The major uplands are for the most
part near the borders of the region-the mountains of the
Kola Peninsula in the northwest, the ranges of hills along
much of the Finnish border, the northern Ural Mountains
on the east, and the gently rising swell on the south which
forms the Volga-Arctic divide. Other uplands are the
ranges of hills east of Lake Onega and the Timan Hills
which lie across the northeastern section of the Region.
Except for a relatively small section in the southwest,
the entire Region drains to the Arctic Ocean and its arms.
Since the White Sea (Beloye More) cuts deeply and irreg-
ularly into the northern coast, short streams flow into it
from north and west, as well as from the south. The two
largest rivers in the Region are the Northern (Severnaya)
Dvina and the Pechora. The former flows northwest into
the White Sea; the latter, generally northward into the
Pechorskaya Guba (bay). There are many lakes and
much poorly drained land-both swamps and marshes-
within the Region, particularly in the western half. The
greater part of the southwestern section, including the two
large lakes-Ladoga and Onega-drains to the Gulf of Fin-
land, and the extreme southern part drains south to the
Volga.
In general the surface materials of the region consist of
a thin, irregular, glacier-deposited cover of clay, sand,
gravel, and boulders. Many boulders are of such size as
to interfere seriously with troop and vehicular movement.
Patches of muck are found here and there and the soils,
which have a large admixture of clay, are very sticky
when wet. Marshes and swamps are difficult to cross
mainly because of lack of drainage and, in the latter, the
stand of trees. Over the whole region, however, the soils
and surface waters are frozen firmly during the winter
months and thus are readily traffic-able.
Original
The predominating vegetative cover is the coniferous
forest. This is mixed in some places-to a greater extent
in the south-with deciduous trees which are mainly lin-
den, birch, aspen, and willow. Spruce forests cover great
areas in the south and central sections; the stands are
generally thick and the undergrowth relatively unimpor-
tant. In the north, pines predominate; here the forests
are more open and the undergrowth of shrubs and berry
bushes is relatively greater than in the spruce forests;
tree trunks, moreover, are shorter in the north. Along
many streams throughout the forests there are dense
bands of willow and birch thickets. These are found
especially where streams cross occasional breaks in the
forests, such as meadows and marshes. Grasses predomi-
nate in the meadows, and in the marshes, reeds and shrubs
are numerous. Other breaks in the forests have been
made by clearings devoted to crops, but such area is very
small.
The Northern Forest Belt is divided into two subregions:
the Kola-Karelia Hills and Lowlands (B-1) and the North-
ern Dvina-Pechora Basins and Hills (B-2). Each of these
will be discussed separately.
(2) Subregion B-1, Kola-Karelia Hills and Lowlands
(PLAN 3)
Subregion B-1 and Region A-1 occupy the extreme
northwest corner of the Soviet Union, adjacent to Finland.
The boundary with Finland is about 950 miles long. Sub-
region B-1 has a maximum north - south length of about
800 miles and an average east - west width of about 250
miles across its central part.
The relief, which nowhere reaches more than 4,000 feet
above sea level, is distinguished by a gradual downward
slope from the Finnish border toward the east, and by dis-
tinct terrain features trending northwest - southeast.
Much of the area is made up of features such as elongated
ridges, tumbled piles of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders,
and lakes, and poorly drained plains. Hill sections alter-
nate with a multitude of lowlands occupied by lakes, rivers,
and swamps.
The relief of the subregion falls into three major types:
low mountains, hills, and coast or lowland. This sub-
region is divided into six sections (PLANS 2 and 3, FIGURE
II - 33). These will be discussed separately.
(a) Relief (PLANs 2 and 3).-The Kola-Karelia Low
Mountains (FIGURE II-33, B-1a) area is the most elevated,
mountainous, and complex part of the subregion. There
are five east - west trending series of elevations, ranging
from low hills to plateaus and low mountains (called
"mountain tundras"), with heights varying between 1,000
and nearly 4,000 feet above sea level. These swells are
separated by predominantly swampy, lake-filled depres-
sions which also trend east - west. These depressions pro-
vide difficult but feasible strategic avenues of approach
from Norway and Finland to the economic heart of the
Kola Peninsula, the Imandra-Kandalaksha area, and
Kandalakshskaya Guba, despite the general ruggedness of
this part of the peninsula. One major and several minor
depressions, leading from the ice-free northern coast, pro-
vide strategic avenues of approach to the east - west val-
leys and to the southern coast of the Kola Peninsula.
All of the depressions are similar ; all consist of forested
and swampy plains, 150 to 650 feet above sea level, in
places slightly hilly, or with a few isolated hills and ridges
rising from 750 to 850 feet above the swamps. The hills
and ridges serve as natural obstacles to cross-country
movement and as natural defense sites.
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Page 11-16 JANIS 40
The four major strategic depressions are, from north to
south:
1) The Notozero-Lovozero depression follows the Lota river,
Ozero Notozero, Tuloma river, Ozero Kolozero, the lowland
along the north foot of the Khibinskaya Tundra and Lovo-
zerskiye Tundry, Ozero Lovozero, and the Ponoy river to the
east coast of the Kola Peninsula. The relatively broad
lowland is much reduced in width between the Tuloma and
the Kola rivers by the high and steepsided mountain spurs
and hills of the "mountain tundras" to the north and south.
2) The Babinskaya-Imandra depression follows Ozero Girvas.
Ozero Babinskaya Imandra, the lowland along the south
foot of the Khibinskaya Tundra and the Lovozerskiye Tun-
dry. Here this depression joins the northernmost one to
include routes along Ozero Lovozero, and the Ponoy river to
the east coast of the Kola Peninsula.
3) The Kovdozero depression which follows Ozero Kovdozero,
Ozero Tolvant, and crosses a mountain divide to Kuolayarvi
(formerly Salla). The railroad connecting Kuolayarvi,
near the Finnish border, with the Kirov (Murman) railroad
follows this depression.
4) The Olanga-Pyaozero depression, which follows the Olanga
river and Ozero Pyaozero.
In addition to these major east - west trending depres-
sions, there are several shorter and narrower east - west
depressions of secondary importance. Numerous north -
south transverse valleys of various sizes, some of which are
broad, such as that of Ozero Umbozero, connect the major
east - west depressions.
The major north - south depression, formed by the Kola
river, Ozero Kolozero, Ozero Imandra, Niva river, connects
the ice-free northern coast of the Kola Peninsula at Mur-
mansk with the southern coast at Kandalaksha. This
route is followed by the Kirov (Murman) railroad running
south from Murmansk (FIGURE 11-19).
FIGURE 11-19. The Niva river valley, 3 miles north of the town of
Kandalaksha.
Looking north. The Niva river valley, covered with coniferous
forest, forms part of the north - south depression connecting the
ice-free port of Murmansk and Kandalaksha. Mount Zheleznaya
Gora ("Iron Mountain") is in the right background. Before 1941.
A secondary north - south depression follows the Voron'-
ya river, Ozero Lovozero (lake), and the Varzuga river to
the southern coast of the Kola Peninsula. A variation of
the route following this depression turns west at the south-
ern end of Ozero Lovozero, skirts the south foot of the
Lovozerskiye Tundry and Khibinskaya Tundra, and con-
tinues along either Ozero Kanozero or Ozero Imandra and
the Niva river to Kandalakshskaya Guba. A northeast -
southwest trending depression follows the Kola, Tuloma,
and Lota river valleys. In the extreme southwestern sec-
tion, the lowland connects with the east - west trending
Babinskaya Imandra lowland.
The low mountains of the subregion, called "mountain
tundras" by the Russians, include parallel chains of both
small and large detached mountains and ridges trending
northwest - southeast or west - east. In some places the
FIGURE 11-20. Valley of the Lota river.
Looking north-northwest. The mountain in the left background,
elevation about 1,560 feet above sea level, has a smooth, rounded
summit typical of the mountains in the Kola Peninsula. The
banks of the river are sandy. The river can be crossed easily in
the section shown here, but there are large rapids farther down-
stream. Before 1941.
chains of ridges combine to form plateaus. These are
bordered by numerous radiating spurs and by lowlands
(FIGURE 11-20).
The highest mountains, with peaks almost 4,000 feet
above sea level, stretch eastward between the Notozero-
Lovozero lowland and the Babinskaya Imandra lowland.
Northward and southward, the mountains are lower; the
highest peaks in the north reach almost 2,000 feet and the
highest in the south reach more than 2,500 feet at a point
north of Kandalakshskaya Guba. In the extreme south,
a peak reaches nearly 2,000 feet.
The rocky summits of the mountain tundras are gen-
erally broad, smooth, and rounded (FIGURE 11-21). Some
are covered with sharp-cornered boulders and morainal
debris. In places there are high, vertical-walled, semi-
circular recesses (cirques). Some of the dome-shaped
summits are separated by broad, flat gulches, into some of
which rather deep valleys are cut.
FIGURE 11-21. A typical view of low mountains in the Kuolayarvi
area.
Probably looking north from the northern slope of the foothills.
Gora Rokhmoyva (2,150 feet above sea level), 9 miles south-south-
west of Kuolayarvi, is the highest summit in the Kuolayarvi area,
ceded by Finland in 1945. The coniferous forest in the valley,
the brush on the slopes between litters of loose rocks, and the
rounded bare summit, are typical. Before 1941.
The mountains are separated by deep, narrow, and angu-
lar north - south and northwest - southeast trending
gorges, ravines, valleys, and basinlike depressions having
steep slopes, many of which are vertical. Many of these
depressions are relatively broad (one to six miles) and are
occupied by large swamps, lakes, streams, and forests.
Noteworthy is the fact that the mountain slopes drop
steeply to the major east - west trending lowlands.
The steep slopes are covered in places with large sharp-
cornered blocks of stone and boulders. In many places
the irregular, hummocky, hilly swells surrounding the
Original
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'MILITARY GEOGRAPHY Page 11-17
40 *0 . 11~
FIGURE 11-22. Khibinskaya Tundra (mountains).
Murmansk with Kandalaksha. The best route from the
west is through the Kovdozero depression connecting Kuo-
layarvi and Kandalakshskaya Guba. In the depressions,
low, but in places steeply sloping, hills, rising above the
general surface, will restrict and channelize movement and
provide natural defense sites.
The Western Hills (FIGURE 11-33, B-1b) area extends
from the southern border of the Kola - Karelia Low Moun-
tain area in the west to the Svir' river depression. The
altitude of the area is between 300 and 700 feet in the
east, and most of area rises westward to about 700 to
1,000 feet. In the southwestern part elevations decrease
toward Lake Ladoga. The highest elevation, 1,296 feet
above sea level, is near the center of the area between Ozero
Segozero and Ozero L'yeksa. The surface in general is
hilly and the higher, central part is fairly rugged and dis-
sected; however, in the lower-lying areas near the northern
and southern borders, the terrain is rolling, without promi-
nent heights.
Looking eastward from Ekostrovskiy on the western shore of
Ozero Imandra. The top of the mountain has a smooth and
rounded, gently sloping, plateaulike outline. The sides drop
steeply to the lowland along the Ozero Imandra. Irregular
hummocky moraine hills encroach on the lower slope. A strip
of coniferous forest shows along the east shore of Ozero Imandra
and the lower mountain slopes. The upper slopes and tops of
the mountain are bare. Before 1941.
mountains encroach on the lower slopes; on the slopes of
some of the mountains, there are terracelike earth ledges.
Special mention must be made of the two largest moun-
tain masses of the subregion. The Khibinskaya Tundra
has a maximum elevation of 3,963 feet and is 20 to 24
miles across at the base (FIGURE 11-22). The Lovozer-
skiye Tundry has a maximum elevation of 3,694 feet and
is 10 to 20 miles across at the base. These mountains
have many of the general features of the others in the
area; but in addition to being larger and higher, their
steep sides are cut with a great number of valleys and
deep gorges. In many parts, almost vertical walls rise
1,500 to 2,000 feet above the surrounding lowlands. In
contrast to other mountains of the subregion, their gener-
ally rounded summits are broken by sharp peaks, and
precipitous walls rise several hundred feet above them.
Both mountains are horseshoe-shaped; a deep, angular
sink opens southward in the Khibinskaya Tundra (FIGURE
11-23) and eastward in the Lovozerskiye Tundry.
FIGURE 11-23. Khibinskaya Tundra (mountains).
Looking west. Ozero Bol'shoy Vud'yarn (Lake Yun (Big)
Vudyavr ) is located in a spacious, deep, angular sink in the
southern part of the Khibinskaya Tundra. The southern shore
of the lake, to the left in the photograph is now occupied by the
apatite mining center, Kirovsk. The relief has been modified by
heavy glaciation, which shows in the smooth and rounded outlines
of the mountain's surface. The mountain slopes drop steeply to
the depression. The lower slopes are forested, the upper slopes
and summits are bare. 1891.
The steep-sloped mountains of subregion B-1 will stop
all cross-country movement of vehicles; however, the rela-
tively broad, flat, east - west and north - south trending
depressions provide strategic avenues for movement of
mechanized forces, despite the general ruggedness of the
terrain. The most important route follows the north -
south trending Kola river - Ozero Kolozero - Ozero Imand-
ra - Niva river depression connecting the ice-free port of
Original
FIGURE 11-24. Yevgora village on the south coast of Ozero (lake)
Segozero.
Probably looking in a northerly direction. Yevgora village stands
in a small cleared and cultivated area bordered by hilly, forested
land. The elongated, northwest - southeast trending ridges of
bedrock and glacial debris are typical of the Western Hills section
of the subregion. Before 1941.
The northwest - southeast trend of the relief features is
especially pronounced in this area (FIGURE 11-24) and
elongated, isolated groups of ridges and hills would affect
movement. The numerous parallel northwest - southeast
and north - south trending hills and ridges reach eleva-
tions of 300 to 800 feet above sea level and include irregu-
lar, hummocky hills, long narrow ridges, oval-shaped hills,
and swells with an irregular serpentine course. The
length of the ridges and swells varies from a few dozen
yards to one or more miles, and heights range from only
a few feet to 200 or 250 feet. Some of these ridges stand
in groups of chains which are as much as 5 to 6 miles
long. The interridge areas form a complete network of
more or less swampy depressions of varying widths. A
few comparatively level expanses are found. The river
valleys follow the general trend of the relief, and long,
narrow lake depressions characterize the area. Ridges
formed primarily of bedrock outcroppings have steep
slopes; in many sections they render the terrain difficult
to traverse. Other ridges, covered with a mantle of glacial
sand and stones, have gentle slopes.
The very irregular, northwest - southeast trending hilly
relief will interfere with all cross-country movement across
this grain and will tend to channelize all movement in a
northwest - southeast direction. The area situated be-
tween Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega (often called South
Karelia or the Olonets Isthmus) was the theater of most
of the military action in the Soviet-Finnish wars of 1939-
1940 and 1941-1943. This area is described below as the
Ladoga-Onega Lowland (B-if). Operations along the rest
of the Soviet-Finnish border soon bogged down and re-
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JANIS 40 Confidential
mained more or less stalemated by terrain and climate.
This occurred despite strong efforts by the Finns and Ger-
mans to push eastward from the Kuolayarvi district and
cut the Kirov (Murman) railroad at Kandalaksha, where
it was then nearest to the border. Like the area de-
scribed above, the Western Hills are better suited to defense
than attack. The Finns, however, advanced across the
Olonets isthmus to Lake Onega and occupied Petrozavodsk
on the Leningrad-Murmansk railroad.
The Eastern Hills (FIGURE 11-33, B-1c) area has been ex-
plored very little according to available Russian publica-
tions. The relief of the area consists largely of a chain of
five low ridges roughly forming an open question mark
around the eastern side of Lake Onega and extending
southward. These include from south to north: the
northern part of the Valdayskaya Vozvyshennost' (Valdai
Ridge), which has a maximum altitude of 886 feet; the
Tikhuinskaya Gryada (Tikhvin Ridge), 958 feet; the Me-
gorskaya Gryada (Megra Ridge), south of Onezhskoye
Ozero, 968 feet; the Andomskaya Vozvyshennost' (Andoma
Heights), 850 feet; and the Vetrennyy Poyas, 823 feet.
The general elevation is 300 to 600 feet above sea level,
and the higher summits are about 600 feet above sea level
and average 200 to 300 feet above the neighboring valleys.
These ridges are separated by relatively broad, open, ter-
raced valleys with gently rolling surfaces, which include
some swampy sections. The valleys are oriented in a
northwest - southeast direction, except for the northern-
most one, that of the Vodla, which is oriented west - east.
The ridges cross major routes from Leningrad to the east.
The region north of the Vytegra Valley lies outside the
areas of major traffic, since the routes to Arkhangel'sk,
Murmansk, and other points on the White Sea completely
avoid it.
On the one hand the ridges are either broad and flat-
topped, or rounded, and are composed of bedrock covered
with loose glacial materials of varying depth. On the
other hand, there are long, serpentine and narrow ridges,
or irregular, hummocky hills consisting wholly of loose
glacial material. The slopes of the ridges and hills vary
greatly and are gently rounded throughout the area.
These slopes are said to be frequently cut by short, steep-
sided valleys and gullies.
The five low ridges and the relatively uneven surface,
especially the greatly dissected valley slopes and irregular,
hummocky hills, would interfere with cross-country move-
ment. However. the major east - west trending valleys
separating the major ridges provide avenues for movement
across the area.
The southern part of the Kola - White Sea Coast area
(FIGURE 11-33, B-ld)-a belt about 25 to 40 miles wide
along the White Sea-is a swampy plain rising in broad
steps from the coast inland, attaining an altitude of 300
to 500 feet above sea level. The step effect is particularly
marked in the narrower eastern section of the belt; in the
west the general relief is lower. The flatness of the steps
is broken only by minor relief forms, but these are fairly
numerous. Sand dunes line the coast in the vicinity of
the Varzuga river and along other parts of the coast there
are long, low, narrow ridges with an irregular, serpentine
course and oval-shaped hills. About 13 to 15 miles inland
an irregular chain of hummocky, moraine hills enclose
many basins. Lakes are formed where these hills have
dammed the rivers. Elsewhere on the steps are low, flat-
topped ridges, widely separated by expanses of plain.
Northward from the steps is a plateau which, except for
some valleys which cut it, occupies the rest of the area.
The plateau, like the steps leading to it from the coast, is
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largely swampy. Its surface is characterized by outcrops
of hard bedrock having, for the most part, smooth, round-
ed outlines. The plateau is crossed by long bedrock ridges
trending northwest - southeast and rising about 400 feet
above the general level of the plateau. These ridges in-
crease in altitude toward the northwest, where they reach
a maximum height of about 1,000 feet above sea level.
The valleys of the upper Varzuga and upper Ponoy rivers
which cut the plateau have broad, relatively flat, and very
swampy floors. Above these valleys, however, are many
low, gently sloping hills and some ridges of bedrock. The
ridges trend mostly north - south, and some are connected
by lower hills. Some of these elevations rise 300 to 500
feet above the valley floor, but most of them are lower.
Some of the ridge slopes rise almost vertically 150 to 400
feet. Basins of drained-off lakes constitute other minor
irregularities on the valley floors.
Ridges and low hills obstruct movement in the relatively
flat coastal area. Movement across the area is handi-
capped by the lack of railroads and by the few roads in
the area, whose usefulness depends upon the weather and
the time of the year.
A belt of swampy lowland, varying in width from 25 to
50 miles and skirting the southwestern shore of the White
Sea, constitutes the greater part of the Southwest White
Sea Coast area (FIGURE 11-33, B-le). Extending from the
head of Onezhskaya Guba (Onega Bay) to Kandalaksh-
skaya Guba, the generally flat plain rises gently inland in
a number of steps to elevations between 300 and 500 feet
above sea level. Here and there, mainly near the coast
and particularly in the extreme north, low hills of hard
bedrock rise above the broad, flat valleys of the many
streams crossing the lowland. A few of these hills stand
from 300 to 600 feet above the surrounding, swampy plain.
The landscape of the Onezhskiy Poluostrov (Onega
Peninsula) contrasts strikingly with the flat lowland west
of the Onega river. Running the length of the peninsula
are two roughly parallel chains of irregular, hummocky
hills. The larger chain, near the southwestern coast, is
4 to 9 miles broad and extends southward beyond this area
to the Vetrennyy Poyas, hills inland from the head of
Onezhskaya Guba (Onega Bay). Near its mouth the
Onega River breaks through this chain of hills. The
average elevation of these hills is about 380 feet above
sea level, the maximum elevations being slightly over 500
feet. The Solovetskiye Ostrova (islands) are a continua-
tion of this chain and have altitudes up to 450 feet above
the sea. The other chain of hills lies along the north-
eastern side of the peninsula and elevations do not exceed
450 feet. These hills are separated from each other and
from the chain of hills to the southwest by swampy, north -
south and east - west valleys.
The relatively flat surface and low relief of the swampy
plain extending west and northwest from the Onega river
present no serious terrain restrictions to cross-country
movement, except for some isolated hills in the north and
the generally poor drainage. On the Onezhskiy Poluo-
strov (Onega Peninsula) the irregular, hummocky hills
constitute some restrictions to cross-country movement
and would channelize movement locally along the major
valleys in areas where the swamps can be avoided. This
district is an important transit area because it contains
sections of the Kirov (Murman) railroad, part of the rail-
road which connects the Kirov line with the railroad be-
tween Arkhangel'sk and Moscow, and a section of the
Stalin White Sea - Baltic Canal.
The Ladoga-Onega Lowland area (FIGURE 11-33, B-1f)
comprises four generally low sections surrounding Ozero
Original
 Confidential Approved For Release 2003/051,,41TA IA F PO7c OA'Ipl,$ A000200010002-7 Page II-19
Vygozero, Onezhskoye Ozero, Lake Onega, the Svir' river,
and Ladozhskoye Ozero (Lake Ladoga). With the excep-
tion of its southwestern section, which adjoins the Forest
and Clearings Belt (Region C) the area is bounded for the
most part by the Western and Eastern Hills areas.
The Ozero Vygozero and Lake Onega depressions are
a natural continuation of the White Sea coastal lowlands.
They are parts of an area of great military importance,
serving as a major north - south corridor, containing im-
portant sections of the Kirov (Murman) railroad and the
Stalin White Sea - Baltic Canal. The Ozero Vygozero
depression is connected with the coastal zone by the Vyg
river valley. The depression has a low, rolling surface, in
places hilly, rising toward the south, where it attains a
maximum altitude of 500 feet above sea level along the
watershed between Ozero Vygozero and Lake Onega.
The northwest - southeast trending, fingerlike penin-
sulas projecting into the northern end of Lake Onega have
steep shores and surfaces which are partly low and partly
rolling (FIGURE 11-25). Around the southern half of the
lake the land is relatively level, in contrast to the rolling
surface to the north, and is terraced to some extent.
Many streams have cut shallow valleys in this generally
flat terrain.
The Svir' river and Lake Ladoga lowlands form a natural
east - west corridor leading from the interior and from
the Ozero Vygozero and, Onezhskoye Ozero depressions
to the Gulf of Finland at Leningrad. This continuous
lowland area serves as a major east - west corridor, con-
taining important sections of the White Sea - Baltic water-
way and of the Kirov (Murman) railroad and other rail-
roads, some of which connect with the railway net of
southern Finland.
The relatively broad lowland of the Svir' river has a
flat-to-rolling, terraced surface which rises northward and
even more southward to 400 to 600 feet above sea level.
The Lake Ladoga lowland is bounded on the west, north-
west. and north by ridges which rise to an altitude of 300
FIGURE 11-25. North shore of Lake Onega.
The north shore of Lake Onega is cut by long, narrow bays or
fiordlike arms trending northwest - southeast. The terrain is
hilly but nowhere very high. The amount of cultivated land is
considerable for Karelia. Many fields, meadows, and roads are
enclosed with man-high fences of closely spaced laths. Before
1941.
to 550 feet above sea level (FIGURE 11-26). The ridges are
dotted with small domes or knobs, some of whose sides
are steep. This hilly section was the core of the defense
of Leningrad against Finnish attacks from the Vyborg
(Viipuri) area, then a part of Finland. Troop movement
was impeded by the rolling, forested terrain.
From the eastern shore of Lake Ladoga the terrain rises
gradually (11 to 16 feet per mile) toward the Western
Hills area. The surface of the higher sections near the
hills is rough; some of the surface forms are in long nar-
row ridges with an irregular, serpentine, north - south
course.
These ridges, in general parallel, would interfere with
movement from the southwest or northeast and would
tend to channelize movement in a northwest - southeast
direction. The ridges would also provide good defense
sites. Around the southern part of Lake Ladoga the relief
of the lowland is as flat as that around the south end
of Lake Onega.
FIGURE 11-26. Ryaysyalya (Rdisdld) about 20 miles west Lake Ladoga.
The low, rolling, in places hilly, forested surface, interrupted in many places by cultivated areas, is typical of the area west of Lake
Ladoga. The Finnish town of Tyaysyalya (Raisala) and the surrounding area have been in the Soviet Union since 1945. Before 1941.
Original
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On the whole, the flat or rolling relief of the Ladoga-
Onega Lowland area, with low hills in places, presents
only local relief restrictions to cross-country movement.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4 and FIGURE II-33).-The area
is drained by a multitude of rivers, lakes, swamps, and
moors of various sizes. No available map or set of maps
shows more than a fraction of these innumerable fea-
tures in the subregion, and the courses and outlines of
many of those shown are admittedly inaccurate (July
1947). In many parts of the area there are no clearly
defined watersheds, and the natives declare that most of
the water systems are interconnected by swamps and bogs.
This drainage condition is the most important factor in
the military geography of the subregion. The problems
associated with movement in a swampy, wet, forested area,
interlaced with rivers and dotted with lakes, are present
nearly everywhere. This kind of area is best traversed in
winter, even despite relatively deep snows.
The rivers are relatively short and closely spaced; their
width varies greatly, narrow stretches alternating with
numerous lakelike reaches. Long stretches of the streams
are broken up into numerous arms which flow around a
profusion of islands at different velocities. Many of the
rivers contain series of falls and rapids (FIGURE 11-27).
The rapids are particularly broad and many are so shallow
in summer that they can be forded.
FIGURE 11-27. Rapids of the Segezha river near the river's exit
from Ozero (lake) Segozero.
(Lake; Segozero discharges northward into the Segezha river, a
stream about 55 miles long and full of rapids. The river is re-
ported to be ice covered from October to the end of April or begin-
ning of May. Typical of the subregion are rapids and low, partly
rocky, river banks covered with coniferous forests. Before 1941.
The annual fluctuations of the levels of many rivers are
quite large, particularly those which do not have large
lakes in their systems. The water level is lowest in late
winter, just before the thaw, and there is a second low
during the late summer. The melting of the snow cover
in the spring regularly produces very high water; the
melting is reported to begin about the first of May in the
south and in May to June in the north, but the exact dates
vary greatly from year to year. The rivers may rise 30
feet or more and become torrents which may prove to be
impassable obstacles. It is not rare for rivers to change
their courses, because during the high water in the spring
they overflow wide areas The summer and fall rains also
often cause a noteworthy rise. The volume of streams
draining through large lakes, however, is comparatively
well balanced.
Rivers, in common with other bodies of water, are frozen
over during the entire cold-weather period and cease to be
obstacles then; rather, they become readily used highways.
In the southern part of this subregion the rivers first freeze
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over sometime between mid-November and the beginning
of December; in the central and northern parts they begin
to freeze over early in November. It usually takes only a
few days after the onset of the cold weather to form ice
thick enough to support light vehicles. In general, the ice
on the rivers is thick enough to support heavy vehicles as
early as November or December and it continues to be
capable of supporting vehicles until shortly before it
breaks up in spring. The break-up is between the end
of April and the end of May in the southern and central
parts and between mid-May and the beginning of June
in the northern part. It should be noted that the dates
of freezing and thawing vary greatly from stream to
stream.
The relief of the immediate banks of the rivers varies
considerably. In most stretches gently sloping shores al-
ternate with steep ones. There are places where vertical,
bare rock cliffs will hinder cross-country movement con-
siderably even when the surfaces of the rivers are frozen
(FIGURE 11-28).
FIGURE II-28. The Vodopad Kivach (Kivach waterfall) in the Suna
river.
The Suna empties into the northwest arm of Lake Onega. Water-
falls, narrow constricted valleys, and steep, rocky banks as in this
view of the Vodopad Kivach (Kivach Waterfall) on the Suna are
typical of rivers in the subregion. Before 1941.
Many large and small lakes occur in this area (FIGURES
11-22 to 11-26). The number of lakes in Karelia has been
estimated to be as large as 35,000 and to occupy at least
12'; of the territory. The lake area on the Kola Peninsula
is about 5'/ , but a good part of this is made up by the large
Ozero Imandra with its numerous appendages, Lovozero,
Umbozero, Kolvitskoye Ozero, and Notozero. In the lake
district the terrain is characterized by broad water bodies
with many bays, peninsulas, islands, and isthmuses.
Original
 Confidential Approved For Release 2003/0 lLifAW-8I 8g EkR 1f 4A000200010002-7 Page 11-21
Typical of most of the lake basins is their elon-
gated, grooved shape. In south and central Karelia the
lakes have dominantly northwest - southeast trend, which
is continued in the many long, narrow, rocky bays on the
west and northwest sides of Lake Onega. In north Kare-
lia the most pronounced trend is east - west. Most lakes
are grouped into systems, some of which consist of chains
of lakes linked together by short channels; in other sys-
tems a central lake receives waters from surrounding ones
and drainage to the sea is by one river. In marshy areas
there are a number of small bog-lakes without visible
outlets.
These lakes vary considerably in depth, but many have
a maximum depth of 100 to 300 feet. Their water levels
are said to be fairly even throughout the year and are
reported to rise only about 3 to 4 feet during the spring
high water.
As a rule, the shores of the lakes differ sharply. On
their long sides, following the general trend of the relief,
the shore for the most part rises rapidly for several yards;
in places it consists of cliffs of bedrock (FIGURE 11-29). On
the short sides,the bottom of the lake shelves very grad-
ually to the shore and there is a long, swampy lowland
which prolongs the lake depression.
FIGURE 11-29. Ozero Iniandra.
A section of steep and rocky coast of Ozero Imandra shows in the
foreground with a section of low, flat coast in the right back-
ground. This difference in the shore of the various parts of the
lakes in the subregion is typical. In most cases, on their long
sides, following the general trend of the relief, the shore rises
steeply; on the short sides, there is a low, swampy, flat shore.
Before 1941.
The lakes freeze over from the beginning to the middle
of November and are covered with a firm sheet of ice for
many months. The bearing capacity of the ice on the
small lakes is high every winter. The ice cover of the
lakes in the northern part becomes at least 3 feet thick
and very strong. As a rule it is thickest in March. The
ice is capable of supporting the heaviest vehicles as early
as November or December and this capability continues
until a few days before the break-up in spring. The lakes
do not become free of ice usually until May or early June,
three or four weeks after the large rivers are clear.
The lakes, plus the rivers and canals, form waterways
which are the principal transportation network in the area
(FIGURE 11-30). This system is much used for floating
logs. When unfrozen, the abundance of lakes is perhaps
the most serious natural obstacle to military movement in
this subregion. In the areas of greatest concentration of
lakes it is impossible to maintain any definite direction
of advance. Save for the ice-cover period, the deep, widely
ramified lake chains, united by short, copious stretches of
river, present serious impediments to movement.
Original
FIGURE 11-30. A lock in the Stalin Canal.
The White Sea - Baltic Waterway, of which the Stalin Canal is a
part, plus other canals, rivers, and lakes, forms the principal
transportation network of the area. The White Sea coast and
(Lakes Vygozero and Lake Onega depressions form an area of
importance, since it serves as a major north - south corridor con-
taining important sections of the White Sea - Baltic Waterway
and the Kirov (Murman) railroad. Before 1941.
Outstanding in their importance in this area are, Lakes
Ladoga and Onega which rank first and second, respec-
tively, in size among the lakes of Europe. The former
has an area of about 6,000 square miles, a northwest-
southeast length of 130 miles, and a maximum width of
75 miles. The lake surface is only 18 feet above sea level.
Lake Onega has an area little more than half as great but
is some 10 miles longer. It has a maximum width of 53
miles. Because of their great size these lakes are major
barriers to cross-country movement of vehicles.
The depth of Lake Ladoga is very uneven, and sharp
changes in bottom slopes are common; the lake is partic-
ularly shallow in Shlissel'burg Bay. In general, the lake
is shallow in the extreme south and deep in the north.
The bottom shelves gradually to 200 to 330 feet in the
middle of the southern half of the lake, and to a general
depth of 500 to 700 feet farther north, with a maximum
of 800 feet. Lake Onega has a maximum depth of about
260 feet and the greater part of the lake is between 70
and 130 feet deep; within a short distance of all the shores
the water is more than 30 feet deep.
The seasonal range in water level of both lakes is about
7 feet. The level is lowest in April before the melting of
snow and ice; following the melt, the greatest height is
reached in May and June. The water is very clear and
cold. Many rivers enter each lake. During the high-
water stage a wide belt of lowland bordering the southeast
shore of Lake Ladoga becomes flooded.
In Lake Ladoga the current is normally counterclock-
wise, but it is often disrupted by strong winds, which very
quickly whip up waves over six feet high. Lake Onega
has no pronounced current except in the middle of the
lake, where it depends on prevailing winds, and near the
mouths of rivers and the outlet into the river Svir'.
The shores of approximately the southern half of both
lakes are low, mainly of sand and loam, in which are many
large boulders; swamps or marshes occupy some sections.
The shore lines are fairly regular and there are almost no
islands. The northern shores of the lakes are high and
steep, consisting mainly of bare bedrock. The Lake La-
doga shore is broken by numerous small indentations and
in the north is fringed by many small, high, rocky islands
(FIGURE 11-31). The indentations of Lake Onega's north-
ern shore, on the other hand, are featured by long, narrow
bays or fiordlike arms, trending northwest - southeast, be-
tween peninsulas which project as much as 40 miles into
the lake. Many small, rocky islands are scattered in these
bays (FIGURE 11-25).
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FIGURE 11-31. Northwestern part of Ladozhskoye Ozero between
Yakkima and Lakhdenpokh'ya.
The steep and rocky shores of this part of the lake are broken
by numerous small indentations and are fringed by many small
islands. Coniferous forests cover the land. Before 1941.
Ice generally appears in the lakes about the first of
November, but sometimes earlier forming first in the shal-
low parts and near the shores. The northern part of Lake
Ladoga, with its greater depth, seldom if ever freezes com-
pletely over; but in cases of very low temperature in De-
cember or January it has been known to freeze for a dis-
tance of 20 miles from shore. Only about once in 10 years
does the shallower, southern part of Lake Ladoga freeze
over completely to a thickness permitting it to be crossed
by vehicles. This average was exceeded during recent
years. In the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940 motor sleds
were driven across it, and during the German siege of
Leningrad in 1941-1943 that city was supplied in winter
almost entirely by means of a railroad laid across the ice
from the vicinity of Sviritsa. The ice attains a thickness
of 24 to about 40 inches but it does not remain smooth
throughout the lake area. Over the shallows and reefs
the ice sometimes piles up to a height of 15 to 30 feet, and
during alternate periods of cold and warm weather strong
winds form stacks of ice 70 to 80 feet high on the shores.
Ice conditions on Lake Onega usually permit travel across
the lake to begin about the middle of January in any direc-
tion. In the shallow southern end of Lake Ladoga the
break-up of the ice begins in middle or late March. In
the deeper northern parts of both lakes it is somewhat later
and in some places ice may last until the middle of May.
These lakes are navigable nearly half the year. Owing
to fogs and extremely violent gales, however, navigation is
difficult at times. Petrozavodsk, on the Kirov (Murman)
Railroad, is the chief port of Lake Onega.
Because of the difficulties of lake navigation and the
shallowness of the southern end of Lake Ladoga the old
Mariinsk Waterway, joining Shehbakov on the Volga with
Leningrad, was dug slightly inland from the south shores
of the lakes. Between the lakes this water route follows
the Svir' river (140 miles), which is the outlet of Lake
Onega to Lake Ladoga; from the latter lake the Neva river
constitutes the final link to Leningrad. The route of the
new White Sea - Baltic Canal system traverses Lake Onega
from Povenetskiy Zaliv (gulf), northern arm of the lake, to
the lake's outlet-the Svir' river. From the mouth of the
Svir' around the southern end of Lake Ladoga to the Neva
a new canal was dug which passes closer to the lake shore
than the old Mariinsk Waterway.
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An immense variety of swamps and marshes at normal
level covers about 35/ 4 of the area. These wet lands not
only cover extensive areas of the flat, rolling lowland, river
basins, and other basins among the glacial ridges, and flat
surfaces of the broad steps rising inland from the White
Sea coast, but also large portions of the plateaulike water-
shed areas lying 500 to 600 feet above sea level. In spring
some of these wet areas are completely covered with water
for one to one-and-a-half weeks, sometimes to a depth of
several feet, so that only isolated ridges rise above the
water. In many sections most of the swamps and marshes
have the same elongated shape as the lakes, since these
swamps and marshes occupy either lake depressions over-
grown with vegetation, or interridge areas.
The swamps and marshes freeze more or less in the same
way as the other bodies of water. However, their freezing
takes a longer time, and in certain places in spite of con-
tinuous cold weather, the ice formed on them during the
winter is not thick enough to support heavy vehicles.
Within the wet lands are some marshes (or moors),
which are somewhat better drained and therefore are
comparatively dry. They are partially covered with dwarf
bushes, including heather, marsh tea, and various kinds
of berry bushes. The lumpy surfaces of these areas, how-
ever, although for the most part covered with a thick moss
carpet, make travel very laborious. Such areas are easy
to recognize by the brown-red color of the moss.
Other marshes, bushless and recognizable by their shiny,
light-green-colored moss, are even more difficult to tra-
verse, as one often sinks in up to one's knees. These
marshes are often interspersed with over-saturated
"trembling" or "quaking" sections (zybuny or tryasiny),
which also are shiny and light green. They have only a
thin, poorly consolidated moss cover on top of a deep layer
of soft but sticky swamp muck. A break-through may be
fatal. Long poles should be taken along in crossing such
danger spots, which are usually marked by small open
pools of water and patches of brown muck. Roads built
across these areas must be supported by piles.
In crossing marshes on foot, it is advisable to keep to the
tree-and-bush-growth in so far as possible and to watch
for the brown-red and darker kinds of moss, indicating
drier subsoil. Tussocks also indicate easier going for foot
travelers.
The vast swamps and marshes are a considerable barrier
to cross-country movement except in winter when they are
firmly frozen. The unforested or sparsely wooded ones
may then become the most favorable terrain for move-
ment of all sorts. The swamps, marshes, and flooded
areas which at times expand to about one-half of the area,
are passable for all types of vehicles only on roads and
small strips of dry terrain. In subfreezing weather they
are passable for tracked vehicles.
Ground water is found at shallow depths in depressions
and at variable depths in the uplands.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Practically the entire area
of subregion B-1 is covered by more or less continuous
coniferous forests. These forests, however, have some var-
iation in composition, size of trees, and density of stand
(FIGURES 11-19, 11-20, 11-24, 11-26, 11-27, 11-28, and 11-31).
The typical northern spruce forest, with some admixture
of pine and birch trees, predominates in the Lake Ladoga
Lake Onega area. Here and there this forest has been
thinned by lumbermen or by forest fires, but much of it
is very dense. In this section a greater acreage has been
cleared for cultivation than elsewhere in the subregion,
but forests continue to predominate. -The only part of
the subsection in which broadleaf forests are found is in
Original
 Confidential Approved For Release 2003/05/,1$J-F3 Pdv9~PA0HA000200010002-7 Page II-23
the extreme south, in the northern section of the Valdai
Hills; here the forest is of mixed broadleaf and coniferous
trees.
Forests in which pines predominate, with a small ad-
mixture of spruce, cover the general area of central and
northern Karelia. The pine forest is in general more open
than the spruce forest. North of the pine forests, across
the southern and central parts of the Kola Peninsula,
spruce again predominates. However, this spruce forest
is very sparse and the trees are only 15 to 25 feet high.
North of this second spruce belt is a narrow strip of pine
forest, bordered on the north by a narrow strip of birch
forest.
The northern forest limit is not sharply defined, the
transition to the tundra of Region A taking place in a
belt of forest-tundra having a maximum width of 25 miles,
over which grow patches of sparse, dwarf birches.
In the Ozero Imandra district the pine strip is missing,
and the spruce forest merges with dwarf birch growth
about five miles south of the town of Kola. Along the
north side of Kandalakshskaya Guba, there is a large area
of pine forest, which at some places reaches through to the
Murman coast tundra. In general, however, the spruce
and birch extend farther north than the pine.
On the mountain slopes the upper limit of the forest
varies with the locality. In the far north in the vicinity
of the town of Kola it is very low, being about 560 feet
above sea level. In the interior of the Kola Peninsula,
where the summers are warmer, spruce and pine forests
grow much farther up the mountain slopes; there they
are succeeded by a scrub-birch zone 300 to 500 feet in
vertical width. These birches sometimes form quite im-
penetrable thickets, with dense crowns 7 to 10 feet high.
Above the scrub-birch zone "high tundra" (grasses, herbs,
lichens, and mosses) prevails, such as is on the Chuna,
Khibinskaya, and Lovozerskiye tundras (FIGURES II-21 to
11-23). On the southern slopes true forest often reaches
up to 1,500 feet above sea level, but on the northern slopes
it frequently ceases at 800 feet above sea level. South
of the Kola area, few mountains extend above tree line.
In the dense spruce forests of the southern part of this
subregion the undergrowth is relatively slight. The
ground is covered with an almost unbroken carpet of green
moss and there are many berry bushes. The predominant
ground cover in the pine forests of central and northern
Karelia is white reindeer lichens, above which is a fairly
thick growth of a variety of shrubs. Undergrowth de-
velops to a greater extent in the forests of the Kola
Peninsula, where much of it consists of dwarf birch, usu-
ally dense in the vicinity of streams and lakes; locally in
many places the birch exceeds even the coniferous forest
in growth. Bordering many of these streams is a narrow,
damp, almost impenetrable band of willows with occa-
sional birches. The lakes are bordered with a similar,
though less developed, bush growth. In many places be-
hind these thick bands along rivers and lakes stretch
broad, marshy meadows. Blueberry and raspberry bushes
are numerous throughout much of the undergrowth of the
Kola Peninsula, as are mosses, marsh tea, and other low-
growing plants.
The forests constitute a major barrier to cross-country
movement and the use of mechanized equipment. In
most places, except where the land has been cleared or
thinned by lumbermen and farmers, or by forest fires,
the forests impede traffic. In the more open parts of the
forests, where equipment might pass or men filter through,
visibility is limited by the undergrowth. Traffic is fur-
ther impeded by the swamps and marshes, which have
Original
varying degrees of passability. Entangled undergrowth
and masses of half-rotted, moss-coated, fallen timber block
the way at many places. Furthermore, extensive accumu-
lations of boulders and stony talus cover many of the
slopes, which are mostly overgrown with damp, slippery
moss and present great difficulties for rapid movement.
The vegetation of the swamp and marsh areas which
cover about 35'' of the subregion has been discussed in
the swamp and marsh section of drainage conditions.
This subregion is only thinly populated, and agriculture
is very little developed. The southern boundary of sub-
region B-1 coincides in general with the southern bound-
ary of the areas predominantly forested. Fairly large
areas of the forest have been cleared in the Lake Ladoga
and Lake Onega lowlands (FIGURE 11-32) and along the
railroads. In the rest of the area, cultivated land is found
only along the lakes (FIGURE 11-24) and larger rivers.
Meadow areas also are found here and there along the
streams. Rye, barley, and oats are the main crops. The
cultivated vegetation is not tall enough or dense enough
to impede military traffic.
FIGURE 11-32. A typical landscape of cultivated fields ?vest of Lake
Ladoga near Valklarvi.
Probably looking eastward. This rolling surface with northwest -
southeast trending valleys has been partially cleared and contains
numerous cultivated fields. Before 1941.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
9) .-The dominant surface materials of this subregion
consist of glacial clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. These
materials are spread mainly in varying thicknesses over
the country up to elevations of about 1,300 feet above sea
level, and in some cases to an altitude of 2,000 feet. The
unevenness of the mantle is emphasized by the hills and
the many long, narrow, irregular ridges of glacial deposits
found throughout the lowland sections. In other places
the glacial cover is not present and the bedrock outcrops
in more or less extensive areas. Smooth rock surfaces
predominate on the knobs of hills and mountains, and
where rocks form the numerous rapids and waterfalls in
the rivers.
The soils of much of the glacial area are sand or a
mixture of sand and loam over the coarser sand, gravel,
and boulders of the glacial debris. Locally soils of silt
or clay have developed. Loose stones and boulders are
common on and in all the soils. Very great obstacles to
traffic and cross-country movement are presented by the
numerous boulders, which are widespread at the foot of
the mountain tundras, rocky hills, and glacial ridges.
Drainage is a major factor in the trafficability of this
area. Sections of well-drained soils are very limited and
discontinuous; they include the mountains in the vicinity
of Ozero Imandra, parts of the undulating plains of glacial
till which are scattered mainly throughout the southern
and eastern parts of the area, and the numerous glacial
ridges of irregular serpentine course.
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Small strips along the flat coastal plain of the White
Sea and large lakes are formed of sand, loamy sand, or
sandy loam over deep stratified sands or stratified sands
and silts. These strips are in general well drained, but
within them are numerous swampy areas, with poorly
drained soils of silty sand and clay with a high proportion
of peat.
The lowland sections or depressions have mainly poorly
drained, loamy, silty or clayey soils with numerous areas
of peat. The peat soils predominate to a large extent in
the lowlands which have been formed by the choking up
of former lakes and swamps. These depressions are not
always wet.
Soil trafficability is greatly dependent upon seasonal
climatic conditions. The swamps, marshes, and muddy
areas generally freeze solid in winter and thus cease to be
the obstacle to cross-country movement that they are
during the warm season. However, the freezing of these
areas takes longer than the freezing of lakes and rivers;
and in certain places, in spite of the continuous cold
weather, the ice formed on the swamps and marshes dur-
ing the winter is not strong enough to support heavy
vehicles.
The surface of the ground is probably frozen firm in the
south from the middle of November to the end of March.
In the north the surface is frozen for a few weeks longer,
from the end of October to the beginning or middle of
April. Occasional thaws occur toward the beginning and
end of this period. The ground is most firmly. frozen
during the months of December, January; February, and
March. No permanently frozen subsoil has been reported
anywhere in the area. When the ground surface is frozen
it can support heavy vehicles.
Sections which are difficult to traverse at any time be-
come almost absolutely impassable even for foot travel
during the spring thaw (muddy season), occurring during
late March, April, and May in the south and during mid-
April, May, and June in the north. At this time the few
paths which lead through the swamps are covered by
water, and unsurfaced roads become practically bottom-
less. Other strips of land which are ordinarily dry in these
generally wet sections become muddy and swampy. Ac-
cording to the experience of the Germans, the surface is
then passable to a limited degree for full-tracked vehicles
except in gullies, for half-tracked vehicles only in higher
sections. Movement of other vehicles must be confined
to the few hard-surfaced roads available.
Late spring, summer, and early autumn rains soften the
ground and the unsurfaced roads. Because of the wide-
spread, poor-to-moderate drainage conditions and the fre-
quent rainfalls during the spring, summer, and fall sea-
sons, completely dry surface conditions are infrequent, or
continue for short periods only, except on local areas of
well-drained soils. During the months of heaviest rain-
fall, June to September, even the unsurfaced roads are not
usable for rapid movement; tracked vehicles can move
over the roads only with great difficulty. The muddy
period in the autumn is not nearly as severe as the period
in spring or summer.
Abundant stone, gravel, and sand are available through-
out the area for use as road-building material and for other
construction purposes. The hard bedrock surfaces do not
lend themselves to rapid road construction.
. (3) Subregion B-2, the Northern (Severnaya) Dvina-
Pechora Basins and Hills (PLAN 2)
Lying east of the Kola - Karelia Hills and Lowlands sub-
region (B-i) is the Northern Dvina - Pechora Basins and
FIGURE 11-34. Northern Dvina-Pechora Basin.
The Severnaya Dvina - Pechora Basin along the Mezen' river be-
tween Yuroma and the town of Mezen' is an undulating plain of
moderate elevation. It has been cleared of forests and is partly
under cultivation. Before 1941.
Hills subregion (B-2) ; it is about three times the size of
the land area of subregion B-1 and constitutes the re-
mainder of the Northern Forest Belt (Region B). The
Tundra Belt (Region A) borders subregion B-2 on the north
and the southern boundary is near, but south of, the
Volga - Arctic divide. On the east subregion B-2 is lim-
ited by the JANIs boundary.
FIGURE 11-35. Upper Valley of the Vychegda at Vol'din.
The Vychegda is an eastern source stream of the Northern Dvina.
This stream cuts through an undulating plain covered with scat-
tered areas of low hills and ridges. Before 1941.
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-The Northern Dvina -
Pechora Basins and Hills subregion is essentially a plain
of moderate elevation, rising very gently toward the south-
east and east, where it merges with the northern Ural
Mountains (FIGURES 11-34 to 11-36). The general uni-
formity of the surface is broken mainly by the much worn-
down belt of Timan Hills (Timanskiy Kryazh), which
crosses the subregion diagonally from near Cheshskaya
Guba southeastward to the JANIS boundary, and by the
northern Ural Mountains which rise along the northern
section of the eastern regional border. Also, belts and
clusters of low, sand-gravel hills are scattered over the
major basins. Five relief districts of the subregion may
be recognized. They will be discussed separately.
FIGURE 11-36. Vychegda valley at Aykino.
View southeast across the gently sloping terrain on the high
right bank toward the lower alluvial plain containing abandoned
stream beds and lakes. Before 1941.
Original
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In the northwestern and central parts of the Northern
Dvina Basin the terrain alternates between wide river
valleys, or lake basins, and clusters of generally northeast -
southwest trending hills (B-2a). The gently rounded hills
reach elevations of 500 to 800 feet above sea level, but they
rise only 150 to 250 feet above the adjacent lowlands.
The lake basins of the southwest, and the portions of the
Onega, Northern Dvina and Mezen' river basins are 25 to
60 miles broad, and their sides descend in a series of wide,
gently sloping steps (FIGURE 11-36). These lowlands are
very poorly drained. Cross-country movement within the
Northern Dvina Basin is limited in summer by the poor
drainage, and, as a result, possible movements are con-
fined to short traverses of the sand-gravel hills and to
longer journeys along the rivers and the elevated sections
of their banks.
In winter movement of moderately heavy vehicles is
possible on the ice-covered streams and lakes and along
trails through the woods. However, corduroy or mat rein-
forcements must be placed over many of the thinly frozen
bogs in the lowlands.
The broad, east - west belt of swells, which occupies the
eastern part of the southern border of the subregion, con-
stitutes the Volga - Arctic Divide area. Its general ele-
vation is about 800 to 1,000 feet above sea level, and it is
cut into large blocks by wide, sand-filled, poorly drained
valleys. The tops of the blocks are gently undulating, with
scattered sand and gravel hillocks. Many of these upland
surfaces are also poorly drained. The major valleys, which
separate the blocks, are 2 to 6 miles in breadth, and are
flanked by a series of sand and gravel terraces. The minor
valleys, which are cut across the river terraces and into
the blocks are narrow, steep-sided, and generally free of
terraces. Cross-country movement over the area of the
Volga - Arctic Divide generally is confined to the terraces
in the major valleys and to the somewhat elevated sandy
banks of the larger streams.
The Timanskiy Kryazh (B-2c) formation is a worndown
series of northwest - southeast trending uplands (FIGURE
11-37). In part these uplands, which form the watershed
between the Mezen' - Northern Dvina and Pechora systems,
are little more than a broad plateaulike swell. Elevations
reach 800 to 1,000 feet above sea level and rise only 200 to
400 feet above the adjacent valleys. Over the solid rock
base of the hills is a thin cover of loose soil and stones.
Major valleys in the Timan Hills are 20 to 40 miles in
breadth and rise gradually in broad terraces to the edges
of the old rock platforms, where there are rather sharp,
rocky shoulders 150 to 250 feet high. The lesser valleys
FIGURE 11-37. The Tinian Hills.
The Timan Hills consist of undulating-to-slightly-hilly terrain.
Forests, mainly spruce and some birch, have been thinned by
forest fires. Before 1941.
Original
are much like the major valleys but are on a smaller scale.
Movement is easiest along the lower, flatter slopes of the
solid rocky ridges.
The Upper Pechora Basin (B-2d) occupies a large tri-
angular area in the northeastern part of the subregion.
Throughout most of its extent the basin is a gently rolling
plain rising to 600 or 700 feet above sea level in the south.
However, in the east, toward the Northern Urals (B-2e) the
plain is more dissected and somewhat higher. There it
reaches elevations of 600 to 1,000 feet above sea level.
The general level of the plain is broken by a series of
rounded swells which rise slightly above the plain and the
broad valleys (10 to 40 miles wide) of the Upper Pechora
system. These valley bottoms lie 100 to 250 feet below the
general level of the plain. West of the Pechora, these
swells are parallel to the Timan Hills but east of that river
the elevations are parallel to the Urals. These low folds
have fewer sand and gravel hillocks and are considerably
better drained than the Northern Dvina Basin to the
west (B-2a). If it were not for the dense forests in the
Upper Pechora Basin, cross-country movement would be
fairly easy on the comparatively well drained swells.
Most valleys in the Upper Pechora Basin are wide and
flanked by terraces. However, both the inner valley flats
and the terraces are occupied by extensive swamps, marsh
areas, and dense forests.
In the eastern part of the subregion, a foothill ridge
of the Urals extends from south to north between 62 N.
and 64' N. It is an elevated area of widespread limestones,
sandstones, and clay schists. The limestone region has an
extremely uniform relief but limestone caves, sinkholes,
and underground streams are common. All the water-
sheds in it are relatively level and have a general altitude
of 600 to 800 feet above sea level. Rivers have cut into
this elevated plain and formed narrow valleys, with high,
sheer embankments.
The valleys in the sandstone and clay schist zone, and
in the eastern margin of the Pechora plain, are accom-
panied by as many as four terraces, with heights of 15
to 20, 33 to 40, and 55 to 65 feet above the river. The
flood plain, 3 to 10 feet above the stream, is very narrow
and poorly developed in contrast to the wide flood plains
elsewhere in the subregion. The rivers of the Pechora
basin are at present in the stage of deepening their beds.
In the limestone region the terraces are inconspicuous
because of the narrowness of the valleys. Eastward from
the foothill ridges, the Ural Mountains rise abruptly above
the extensive Ilych lowland. Cross-country movement is
easiest along the bases of slopes and on the terraces. How-
ever, cross valleys, which are cut into slopes and terraces,
and the rock debris on the slopes, greatly restrict the speed
and range of movement.
The section of the Northern Ural Mountains included in
this subregion consists of two parallel ridges, the eastern
one of which forms the drainage divide between the Pe-
chora and Ob' rivers, despite its lesser height. These
Northern Urals have a total breadth of 24 to 25 miles, and
the north - south, lengthwise valleys between the two
chains are 3 to 7 miles wide. The two chains are heavily
dissected by the Pechora river system on the west. The
western chain is broken up into numerous detached eleva-
tions, among which the sharp, rocky peaks, located about
64 N, reach 5,470 feet. The average elevation of the
Urals farther south is only 2,400 to 2,800 feet. The passes
in the Northern Urals lie at altitudes of only 1,300 to
2,000 feet above sea level.
The main chains are flanked on the west and east by
lower ridges and foothills. Like the western chain, the
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Page II-26 JANIS 40
FIGURE 11-38. Lower Sukhona river near Velikiy Ustyug
(Severodvinsk).
View downstream of the Sukhona river, western source of the
Northern Dvina a few miles above the mouth of the Yug river,
near Velikiy Ustyug. The steep, left bank of the stream is com-
posed of marl. Before 1941.
western foothill ridges are broken up into detached blocks
of sandstone, called parmas, ranging from 1,000 to 3,000
feet in height.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-With the exception of small
portions of the southern borderland of the Northern
Dvina - Pechora Basins and Hills subregion, the entire area
drains northward into the White and Barents seas. The
major streams, such as the Onega, Northern Dvina, Mezen',
and Pechora, flow in a general north - northwest direction,
and divide the plain into a series of extensive, low swells.
Movement between these higher interstream areas is im-
peded more by the broad marsh and swamp zones in the
valleys than by the streams themselves. Steep banks
along the streams form secondary local barriers to cross-
country movement (FIGURES 11-38 and 11-39).
FIGURE 11-39. Steep bank of the Pinega river.
The Pinega river is the main right tributary of the lower Northern
Dvina. In this view, near Karpogory, the steep bank containing
loose stones is almost devoid of vegetation. Movement across
such river banks would be channeled through breaks in the
embankment. Before 1941.
Movement across streams, marshes, and swamps is
greatly facilitated during the winter season, when they are
frozen hard. For example, in the northern part of the
subregion, ice reaches a thickness of 27 inches in late
winter (March). In general, the season of deep frost
lasts from late October or the beginning of November
until late April and early May. As in other parts of the
northern USSR, many of the moss- and forest-covered
bogs underlaid by peat, are so insulated by their cover
that the frost does not penetrate deeply. As a result,
any roads constructed on this formation would not support
heavy equipment unless the insulating layers were stripped
off and several days elapsed, during which the frost could
penetrate deeper into the ground.
The ice breaks up on the streams during April, May,
and early June. This break-up starts on the headwaters
because of their more southerly location. During this
period great ice jams form in the middle and lower sec-
tions of the streams and large areas of the wide valleys
are flooded to a depth of several feet. The volume of these
spring floods reaches immense proportions as a result of
the melting of the snow cover, which averages 24 to 27
inches. These spring freshets, with their ice jams and
floating ice, last to the middle or latter part of June,
after which the streams gradually carry off the flood
waters from the inundated valleys, and remain at or near
high-water stage until the latter part of July. In late
summer and fall (August to early October) the streams
are at low-water stage, but the swamps and marshes re-
main as major barriers. Myriads of mosquitoes, flies, and
gnats are present in these poorly drained areas.
The lakes in the southwestern corner of the subregion
(Beloye, Vozhe, Lacha, and Kubenskoye) are shallow and
usually have flat, sandy shores. The lakes have a freez-
ing and flooding regime similar to that of the rivers and
consequently expand and contract greatly in depth and
area.
All the rivers of the Northern Dvina Basin (B-2a) have
a large number of meanders, and flow through broad
valleys, which in spring are flooded over vast expanses.
Even the major streams are shallow at low water (two
to three feet), and at many places sandbars and sandy
islands project above the water. The number of sandbars
and their locations change every year, hampering the
use of the rivers for navigation. During high water, mini-
mum depths reach 4 to 6 feet.
On the Volga-Arctic Divide (PLAN 2, B-2b), the slight
permeability of the subsoil and the relative abundance of
precipitation, which averages from 20 to 22 inches, cause
considerable swampiness. The rivers have a somewhat
smaller run-off than the remainder of subregion B-2. The
rivers are full in the spring and very shallow at mean low
water.
In the Upper Pechora Basin (B-2d) the precipitation is
less abundant, but the run-off from the Northern Urals
supplies the Pechora system with sufficient volume to
create great floods in spring dammed up behind the
frozen northern reaches, and to maintain high-water levels
throughout the summer and autumn. The Pechora also
has a considerable number of sandbars, and its channels
frequently shift.
All of the streams of subregion B-2 are practically un-
regulated. Bank reinforcements against the powerful
ice jams and spring floods exist only over short stretches
near the largest towns.
The river Onega, in the western part of the subregion,
is 250 miles in length; and is the outlet for lakes Vozhe
and Lacha in the southwestern part of the area. The
river's breadth increases from 150 or 200 feet near Ozero
Lacha to approximately one mile at the point where the
stream leaves the subregion. Maximum depths vary from
12 to 25 feet in summer to 16 to 43 feet during spring
floods. Minimum depths over sandbars vary between three
and six feet. The bottom of the Onega is sticky mud
almost everywhere. There are many rapids, the first
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lD lD w
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FIGURE 11-33
KOLA-KARELIA HILLS AND LOWLANDS
JANIS 40
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FIGURE 11-40. The Northern Dvina at Verkhnyaya Toyrna.
View upstream from the steep, east bank toward the large, sand
islands in the river. Before 1941.
being only 8.5 miles above the mouth. As a result of these
rapids and the swift current of the Onega, it is little used
for navigation and forms a considerable barrier to cross-
country movement, except when frozen (November to
May).
The Severnaya Dvina river (FIGURE 11-40) is one of the
larger rivers of the USSR, draining 140,000 square miles,
an area only slightly smaller than California. The Sever-
naya Dvina is the old historic trade route to the Arctic
first followed by the Muscovites, and the port of Ark-
hangel'sk at the mouth of the Dvina was the first gateway
through which old Russia established direct trade rela-
tions with the Atlantic countries. The Northern Dvina,
together with its largest source stream, the Vychegda,
is 1,100 miles long. The Northern Dvina system varies in
width from 1,000 to 1,600 feet in its upper reaches (Suk-
hona and Vychegda) to an unencumbered channel two
miles in width near Arkhangel'sk. In its lowest reaches,
the river forms a delta and breaks up into a series of
channels each one-fourth to one mile in breadth, and the
total width of the channel is 2 to 10 miles. The depths
vary tremendously, but critical minimum figures are 6
to 8 feet over the sandbars during the spring floods (May
and June) and only 2 to 3 feet in the shallows in late
summer (August and September). Many stretches of the
river have depths of 18 to 25 feet in summer and 40 to 75
feet in spring. The bottom is predominantly sandy, but
in the lower course finer material replaces the sand in
part. There are many sandbanks, which change their
locations every year, especially in the upper course. The
banks are sandy, steep, and generally high (FIGURES 11-38
to 11-40).
At some places on the lower course the banks consists
of great strata of limestone, gypsum, and alabaster. The
banks are generally free of timber and have villages of con-
siderable size every few miles. There are no rapids on
the Dvina and its main tributaries until the uppermost
headwaters are reached. The Northern Dvina is still an
important trade route, used by large powerboats and many
rafts. The main barrier effects of the stream are the
multiple channels, the great spring floods, and the ex-
tensive swamps and marshes, particularly along the left
bank. The stream and adjacent swamps and marshes are
frozen to a considerable depth from late October to April-
May. By mid-January the ice is 2 to 2.5 feet thick at
Arkhangel'sk.
The river Pechora has a total length of approximately
1,200 miles, of which about 1,000 miles lies within sub-
region B-2. It drains an area of 120,000 square miles, of
which over 100,000 is in subregion B-2. In its upper
reaches the Pechora is 200 to 500 feet wide, and this width
Original
increases nearly a mile below the mouth of the Usa. One
or two constricted areas in this lower section have widths
of 2,000 to 2,500 feet. Mean depths are 6 to 8 feet in the
upper course and 10 to 15 feet in the lower. Minimum
depths in these sections are 3 to 4, and 7 to 8 feet. The
bottom is mostly sand and gravel. The banks of the
Pechora vary greatly in height, but in general the right
bank is high and sloping; in some places it forms bluffs
of 100 to 250 feet. The left bank varies from 20 to 100
feet in height on the upper and middle reaches, but is
only 5 to 10 feet above mean water level in the last north-
ward stretch below the mouth of the Tsil'ma. The only
rapids on the Pechora are on its uppermost reach, where
it descends from the Northern Ural Mountains and enters
the extreme southeastern corner of its basin (PLAN 2, B-2d).
Like the Northern Dvina, the Pechora, with its great width,
high banks, and poorly drained valley, is a considerable
barrier to cross-country movement except in midwinter,
when the waters are deeply frozen. The Pechora can be
navigated by river boats throughout subregion B-2 and is
so utilized by the Soviet authorities.
The upper courses of the rivers on the west slopes of
the Northern Urals usually have a gentle fall and broad
valleys. Down stream (northward), the rivers become
genuine torrents and break through the western foothills
in narrow defiles. Characteristically, they flow alter-
nately through lengthwise and transverse valleys. These
streams are not navigable, but their narrow valleys form
the main passageways across the Northern Urals.
As the western slope of the Northern Urals is composed
of hard and mostly water-impermeable rocks, the water
table is everywhere near the surface. However, the con-
siderable steepness of the slopes does not permit the water
to accumulate or stagnate. Any excavations made in the
thin soils of these slopes could be easily drained.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-On the northern edge of
the Northern Dvina - Pechora Basins and Hills subregion
(B-2), the forest-tundra gradually merges southward into
very sparse, swampy, weak-trunked spruce forest, the type
most widespread in the basin of the Pechora. The com-
paratively low, thin woods here have an undergrowth of
the small shrubs, herbs, mosses, and lichens common also
to the forest-tundra. This type of forest occupies a zone
25 to 60 miles broad, extending south from the northern
boundary of Region B to the river Peza, an eastern tribu-
tary of the lower Mezen'.
Under favorable conditions of drainage, shelter from the
winds, and other factors, the virgin forest penetrates into
the tundra zones on sandy, better-drained areas, through
valleys of the large rivers, and over sheltered loamy
slopes. Along the gulches and small stream valleys, on
the other hand, the forest tends to recede to the south.
Farther south, approximately between the 65th and 60th
parallels, runs a broad strip of forest (tayga), in which
spruce forests predominate, alternating with pine forests
which are in general on sandy soils and in localities ad-
jacent to rivers. Siberian species of spruce, larch, and
fir are common in the east, but they gradually disappear
toward the west in favor of European species of spruce and
fir; in the west the larch vanishes altogether. Though
widely distributed, the larch rarely predominates, but as
a rule is sprinkled among pine stands. Broadleaf trees
are lacking, save for very rare occurrences of linden, and
birch, aspen, and willow in the west. Peat moss occupies
large parts of the poorly drained areas throughout sub-
region B-2.
Along the southern boundary of subregion B-2, in gen-
eral south of the 60th parallel, the somewhat less swampy
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southern tayga is also dominated by spruce. However, it
has a notable admixture of broadleaf species, chiefly linden
and maple. In this southern tayga the swamps and
moors tend to be of the bushy type. Also, the undergrowth
is more dense than farther north.
Unlike other parts of the virgin forest belt of subregion
B-2, that of the Northern Urals is characterized more by
larch forests than by forests of any other species. The
larch grows on the bedrock outcrops and everywhere forms
the upper timberline. These trees attain a considerable
height under the most favorable conditions, but become
typical brushwood toward their upper limit. Larch forests
reach northward all the way to the head of the river Kara,
where they occupy only the passes. In the latitude of
Gora Pay-Yer (67? N), the timberline reaches 1,000 feet,
and around the headwaters of the Pechora the Urals are
forested to the very top. Larch is a needleleaf or con-
iferous tree, but unlike most coniferous trees, it loses its
leaves in winter, reducing the possibility for winter con-
cealment.
FIGURE 11-41. Dense forest at Vel'sk.
The dense forest cover would impede cross-country movement.
Photographshows a tall forest of spruce, aspen, and birch near
Vel'sk, a lumbering center on the new railway between Konosha
on the Arkhangel'sk railway and Kotlas on the Severnaya (North-
ern) Dvina.
In general, throughout the subregion, the virgin forest
forms a dense cover (FIGURE 11-41). Branches grow low
on the trunks, and restrict horizontal observation. Not
only is the tree stand relatively dense, but there is much
underbrush in the southern areas and much moss-covered,
fallen timber in the central and northern portions. There
are some major breaks in this forest growth. These con-
sist of strips of meadow along the main streams (FIGURE
11-42), large, irregularly shaped moors underlaid by peat
in the flooded valleys and on the more level divides, and
the almost unwooded north and east slopes of the Timan
Hills (FIGURE 11-37). Most of the meadows are marshy in
spring and early summer.
In spite of the complete lack of care, the quality of the
timber is good wherever the trees grow on soil sufficiently
sloping to have good drainage. Owing to the slowness of
its growth, such wood is very firm and durable and hence
especially prized on the world market. In the lowlands
and on the almost level watersheds the forests are very
swampy, so that the trees have weak trunks, are poorly
developed, and provide low-quality wood.
The entire virgin forest belt offers very few points for
orientation from the air. At a low level, the immense
forest appears to be almost without reliable landmarks.
From high altitudes, the broad streams and especially
the larger lakes will serve to orient the flier to a certain
FIGURE 11-42. Lower Pinega at Soyala.
View from the low, left bank toward the high, gypsum cliffs of
the right bank. Meadow and willow vegetation covers the damp,
low, left bank, whereas coniferous growth covers the better-
drained right bank. Before 1942.
extent. The smaller rivers and lakes look so much alike
and many of them are so inaccurately recorded on existing
maps that they are useless for orientation.
(d) Trafftcability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
9).-Surface materials in the Northern Dvina - Pechora
Basins and Hills subregion have not been studied in de-
tail, but in general on the hills and swells they are sand,
gravel, and in places solid rock; in the lowlands they are
sand and clay, overlaid to a large extent, by marl and
muck. A thin top cover of light-gray, powdery, loam-like
soil overlies heavy clay or sand-clay subsoil on some low-
land and lower slope areas. With the exception of the
solid rock ridges, along the northwest border and in the
Timan Hills, most of these soils are deep and loose enough
to be excavated readily. However, power shovels would
be necessary to break such soils when they are frozen hard,
i.e., from October to late May. Due to the generally poor
drainage, most excavations in the lowland areas and on
some of the more level upland blocks would quickly fill
with water as soon as the ground thawed.
Throughout the northern Dvina Basin area (B-2a) sand-
gravel ridges are covered by light-gray loamy soils and the
lowlands by muck soils. Along the western boundary of
the subregion there are occasional patches of bare gypsum
and limestone. In these limestone and gypsum forma-
tions there are great numbers of funnel-shaped sink holes
as much as 50 feet deep and 70 feet in diameter, and lime-
stone caverns. Roofs of some of the caverns have col-
lapsed, creating long, irregular trenches as deep and
wide as the sinkholes.
The Volga - Arctic Divide (B-2b) in general has sand and
gravel soils in the wide valleys. Some of these sands and
gravels are overlaid by several feet of muck. On the roll-
ing surfaces of the upland blocks, clays, loams, and thin
sand deposits are common.
The Timan Hills area (B-2c) has many gently rounded,
bare rock ridges. Most of these rocks are hard and diffi-
cult to quarry. The thin soils of the lower slopes and
valleys are chiefly sand and gravel, with patches of muck
in the poorly drained areas. Along the slopes and their
bases there are extensive fields of angular blocks of rock,
some of which are several feet in diameter. These ma-
terials greatly restrict movement of vehicles on these
slopes, which are the driest and otherwise most favorable
areas for movement, and give some horizontal cover.
The Upper Pechora Basin (B-2d) has widespread areas
of thickly bedded sand and gravel with layers of clay and
sandy loam. In the valleys these materials are mixed
and are frequently overlaid by muck in the swamps and
marshes.
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The soil cover in the Northern Urals is predominantly a
thin mantle of fine, rubbly earth. Clayey and sandy-loam
soils are found in the valley of the upper Pechora. In
the Northern Urals, even more than in the Timan Hills,
loose rocks, including large, angular blocks, accumulate on
the slopes and particularly along their bases. Since many
of these blocks are several feet in diameter, the resulting
rock piles constitute serious obstacles to movement along
the more gently inclined lower slopes. Some of the valley
floors are covered more or less completely with these large
rocks and, as a result, are nontrafficable.
C. Region C, Forest and Clearings Belt
(1) Introduction
Region C, the Forest and Clearings Belt, forms a broad
wedge-shaped band which tapers gradually from west
to east across all south-central European USSR. The
Region lies between the Northern Forest Belt (Region B)
on the north and the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
(Region D) and the Grassland Belt (Region E) on the
south (PLAN 2).
The Forest and Clearings Region is surrounded by other
Soviet territory, except on the west where the Region fronts
on Rumanian and Polish lands and the Baltic Sea. How-
ever, these western border lowlands and seas are under
Soviet control at the present time (July 1947). Conse-
quently, in spite of its large size, this region is relatively
inaccessible in the political-military sense. Physically,
in contrast, the Forest and Clearings Belt is relatively ac-
cessible on the west where it fronts directly upon the
North European (German-Polish) Plain and the navigable
Baltic Sea, and on the south where the region merges with
the gently undulating plains of the Grassland Belt. The
Region extends 1,200 miles from east to west. From
north to south it measures 950 miles on the west (Lenin-
grad to Kishinev (Chisinau)) and 475 miles on the east
(Kirov to Saratov). The area of the Region is approxi-
mately 700,000 square miles, which is more than nine-
tenths the size of Mexico.
Region C, the Forest and Clearings Belt, contains not
only the zone of extensive man-made clearings within the
broad-forested areas in European USSR, but it also in-
cludes on the south the band of alternate grass and forest
patches called forest-steppe in the USSR and parkland in
North America. Topographically the region includes
large sections of the hill and wet basin lands west of
Moscow and Kiev and extends over the flat-topped, dis-
sected uplands and intervening flattish plains of the Car-
pathian foreland and central European USSR. Within
this Region are three of the great Russian cities, Kiev,
Leningrad, and Moscow, all of the important commercial
or industrial centers of European USSR except a few in
the adjacent Grassland Belt, and two-thirds of the key
Slavic population of the entire Soviet Union.
The Forest and Clearings Belt is a vast plain broken
only by scattered hilly areas in the northwest (toward the
Baltic) and by broad, flat-topped, stream-cut uplands in
the southwest and center. None of these elevated areas
is rugged, except where bluffs border major streams such
as the Volga. Local differences in elevation between up-
land and intervening flattish plains range from 50 to 700
feet, with most of the differences less than 400 feet. Re-
lief features do not handicap cross-country movement
and the broad level areas afford almost unlimited pos-
sibilities for the rapid construction of roads and airstrips.
Original
Locally on these broad, relatively level areas large and
small gullies are obstacles and must be detoured.
Poor drainage is the dominant characteristic of most of
the lowlands, and of some of the hill lands northwest of
a line from L'vov to Kiev to Shcherbakov. The remainder
of the Forest and Clearings Belt, with the exception of a
strip along the Oka and Middle Volga, is well drained.
Most of the large rivers, the Daugava Zapadnaya Dvina,
Niemen (Neman, Nemunas), Dnepr, and Volga are navig-
able, and their headwaters have been connected by canals
cut through the low, hilly divides. The navigation season
on these streams is limited by winter ice and spring
floods and lasts only five to six months, from April or
May to October or November.
Soils of the Forest and Clearings Belt vary from loose
loams and sands in the south and east to heavy clays,
muck, and coarse gravels near the Baltic. Even the
heavy, wet clay soils are trafficable for heavy vehicles
most of the time after the spring mud has dried and
before the irregular autumn rains. From late June to
early October, heavy showers may reduce trafficability
for a few days. After the period of autumn rains most
of the soils are frozen hard and firm from late December
to April, when the spring thaws start. Some bog soils
and forest soils with thick moss or snow cover do not
freeze deeply, even in midwinter, and will support men
and light equipment only. During the period of spring
thaw and rains (April through June) the clay, bog, and
many loam soils are nontrafficable even for tracked ve-
hicles, and men and horses have difficulty in passing over
the deeper mud areas. This belt of deep mud follows the
belt of spring thaw northward across the Region as is
shown on the Trafficability of Surface Materials maps
(PLANS 6 to 9).
Vegetation in Region C is a succession of forest with
clearings, and this alternation, which is of such importance
to military operations, gives the Region its unity and
name (FIGURE 11-43). On the north margin of the Forest
and Clearings Belt, coniferous trees, such as pine, fir, and
spruce, are dominant. In the central and southern sec-
tions of the region, oak, beech, maple, poplar, and other
deciduous trees mix with the conifers, and in the extreme
south, eventually replace them. The clearings in the
forests of the central and northern parts of the Region
are of two types, man-made and natural marshland
(FIGURE 11-43). The man-made clearings generally are
less than a mile across and are occupied by meadows and
crops, chiefly small grains, flax, and vegetables. Some
of the marshlands are used as pasture and meadow; most
are unused. Along the southern border of the region
natural openings in the form of strips of natural grass-
land now are largely planted to crops of sugar beets and
small grains. Farther south groves of poplar and willow,
between the grass strips, become smaller and more widely
spaced until the grasslands are dominant. This is the
boundary zone with Region E, Grassland Belt.
The Forest and Clearings Belt is characterized by, 1) the
presence of forest areas, 2) the extensive bogs in the
northwestern lowlands and the spring and autumn deep
mud in all areas, 3) the freezing of streams and most bogs
each winter with the resulting decreased speed of exca-
vation and construction, 4) existence of slightly higher,
natural areas and routes through wet forest land, and 5)
locally large, very deep gullies, as well as smaller shallow
gullies cut into pastures and cultivated fields, visible to
horizontal view only at close range.
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FIGURE 11-43. Forest and clearings in lowland area north of Polotsk in the Daugava (Zapadnaya Dvina) drainage basin.
Alternate clearing and swamp forest. The cleared land is on slightly higher ground near the streams. Wet meadows are among the
flooded lands between the sharp bends in the stream (note dotted areas along the stream). Margins of the swampy areas in the forest
are indicated by the light-colored, irregular streaks in the forest. Low, wet-moorland vegetation forms dark, flattish, oval breaks in
the forest, near lower margin. The vertical (north - south) route is a railway. The right-left (east - west) route is a first-class road.
October 1943.
Confidential
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The Forest and Clearings Belt is divided into three sub-
regions: the Baltic - West Russian Hills and Wet Lowlands
(C-1), the Southwest Russian Upland (C-2), and the Cen-
tral Russian Plain (C-3). Each of these subregions is
discussed separately.
(2) Subregion C-1, the Baltic - West Russian Hills and Wet
Lowlands (PLAN 2)
This subregion lies north of the flat-topped Southwest
Russian Upland (C-2) and west of the better-drained, un-
dulating Central Russian Plain (C-3). The Baltic - West
Russian Hills and Wet Lowlands subregion is an irregu-
larly shaped area with maximum dimensions of 700 miles
north - south and 525 miles east - west. It has a total
area of 300,000 square miles, which is approximately equal
to the area of Texas and Louisiana combined.
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-Dominant relief forms
within subregion C-1 are flat-to-slightly-rolling plains
separated by chains or blocks of low, rounded hills. Many
of the hill groups are knobby but not jagged. Slopes are
generally less than 15'/, and maximum elevations are
only 800 to 1,100 feet above sea level. Most of the plains
are poorly drained for at least part of the year, and several
of them have large lakes near their centers. These flat-
tish, poorly drained lowlands of 50 to 300 feet elevation
cover more than half of the subregion. The largest and
most significant of these wet lowlands is the Pripyat'
(Pripet Marshes) Swamp Zone (C-ie). The more im-
portant hill areas are Baltic Hilly Areas (C-la), Hills of
the Piepus - I1'men' Divide (C-lb), South Valdai Hills
(C-ic), and the West Russian - Smolensk Ridge (C-ld).
The following discussion will treat the groups of lowlands
and hills in order from the Baltic coast zone on the north-
west to the Pripyat' basin and upper Dnepr (Kiev -
Bryansk) lowland on the southeast.
Northwest of a line from Warsaw, Poland, to Moscow,
the hills and wet basins of the Baltic - West Russian Hills
and Wet Lowlands subregion are arranged in irregular
bands which fan out north and northeast from a point
near Grodno, where the Warsaw - Moscow line crosses the
Polish - Russian border.
The western and middle areas of these hills (C-la and
C-lb) are low, gently rounded ridges with many irregular
lakes and occasional knobby areas of quite irregular
pattern (FIGURE 11-44). Most of the knobby sections have
woods on the upper slopes and small lakes or wet moor-
lands in some of the depressions between the elevations
(FIGURE 11-45). Average elevation above sea level of the
western and central hill areas is 350 to 750 feet, with oc-
casional high points reaching 1,050 feet. Few of the
ridges and knobs rise more than 150 to 200 feet above the
adjacent valleys. Steep slopes (greater than 20'; to 30'; )
are limited largely to short stretches where major rivers,
such as the Neman (Niemen), and the Daugava Zapadnaya
Dvina, cut through the hills on their way to the Baltic
Sea.
The eastern and southern hilly areas (C-lc and C-ld)
are in general similar to those in the north and west,
although the eastern and southern hills are broader in
many places. They are strung out in a continuous series
of ridges cut only by the gorge of the middle Neman south
of Kaunas. Lakes and marshes are quite numerous in
the knobby parts on the easternmost hill area (C-1c).
Slopes, heights, and shapes of the hills in this subregion
are less a barrier to movement than are the lakes and
swamps, dense forests, and loose, gravelly soils on the
slopes. The elevated, dry, hilly areas, with their wide-
Original
FIGURE 11-44. Hills with forest and clearings to the west of Vil'nyus
(Wilno).
Typical low, rounded hills in west USSR. Here the small clearings
are occupied by pastures and wet valley meadows. After heavy
rainfall the bottomland is usually flooded for a few hours. A
small village crowns the hill in the background..
spread, loose, gravelly soils are suitable sites for main
roads and railroad lines, and favor the quick, easy con-
struction of temporary roads and of landing strips. In
fact the West Russian Smolensk Ridge (C-ld) is used as
an elevated, well-drained, 375-mile-long causeway through
the wet lowlands of western USSR. This ridge is followed
by the main highway and railway between Warsaw and
Moscow and was the approach used by Napoleon in 1812
and Hitler in 1941 as the main pathway of advance upon
Moscow. Local high, dry roads use other hilly areas in
the subregion, and the main railway from Warsaw to
Leningrad follows the Grodno - Vil'nyus - Daugavpils string
of hill blocks almost to Peipus Lake (Chudskoye Ozero).
The lowlands of the Baltic - West Russian Hills and Wet
Lowlands subregion are separated by the belts of hills, and
form five comparatively distinct areas. On the west, near
the Baltic Sea, one string of depressions extends north
from Kaunas, near the Polish boundary, along the shores
past the border of the Gulf of Riga and on to Tallinn on
the Gulf of Finland. This group of shallow, flattish basins
between the hills is partially drained, and it forms the agri-
cultural cores of the former Baltic States, Lithuania,
Latvia, and Estonia (FIGURE 11-46). On their western and
northern margins these lowlands reach the sea in the
form of generally low, flat, sandy coasts with many areas
of dunes and offshore bars. Only in the extreme north,
along the Gulf of Finland, are most of the coasts steep.
In the northern part of the subregion, the second and third
areas of lowland form a double line of small plains which
run northward from Vitebsk along the Peipus Lake
(Chudskoye Ozero) and Ozero Il'men' depressions, respec-
tively. The remaining two lowlands in the subregion are
comparatively large river basins, namely, the Kalinin
Basin along the upper Volga north of Moscow, and the
upper Dnepr drainage areas (including the Poles'ye
(Pripet Marshes) above Kiev.
All of the lowlands in subregion C-1 are flattish to very
gently rolling and are poorly drained. Details concern-
ing the swamps and marshes in these lowlands are given
under (b), Drainage. It should be noted here, however,
that the presence of wet lands in these lowlands has not
prevented their use as main routes, especially in areas
where long, round-topped ridges (like the West Russian -
Smolensk Ridge) are not available. Railways and roads
cross all the lowlands, but such routes are fewer in the
extremely swampy areas such as the Pripyat' (Pripet
Marshes) Swamp Zone. There the routes are channelized
along isolated hill groups, low sand-gravel ridges 20 to
50 feet high, and other slightly elevated areas which rise
above the bogs. Agriculture is also carried on in all the
lowlands but is localized on the higher, drier areas (FIGURE
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c .3. .. 4_w
FIGURE 11-45. Area east of Opochka.
Knobby-type hill lands with forest on the upper slopes, farms and villages on the lower slopes and saddles. Small lakes and moors in a
few of the larger depressions. Note the three small oval lakes (black spots) and larger, flattish moorland areas (medium gray) near
the lower margin of the view. The road and village patterns are more irregular among these hills than in the adjacent flat lowland
areas. Probably 1943.
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FIGURE 11-46. Summer view of Central Lithuanian Plain north of
Kaunas.
Dryland type of plain in the Baltic area. The low but well-
drained valley plain at left slopes gently upward to the rolling
plain at right and in background. Such well-drained lowlands
are cleared and cultivated intensively. Even here scattered
patches of woodland offer some concealment. Before 1941.
FIGURE II-47. Harvesting in White Russia.
Flax harvest on the slightly elevated, but nearly level fields in the
lowlands south of Minsk. These fields have been cleared of
forest. Remnants of the woods are seen in the background.
Before 1943.
11-47). These elevated dry areas with their easily worked
sandy soils are the best sites for the quick construction
of roads and landing fields.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-The poorly drained lands of
the Baltic - West Russian Hills and Wet Lowlands sub-
region are of two general types: 1) temporarily flooded or
saturated lands which dry out and become firm late in
summer, and 2) the more widespread moors, marshes, and
swamps, which are always saturated or flooded and are
soft and yielding except when frozen hard. The moor
areas contain thick, spongy, water-saturated masses of
grass, reeds, and shrubs with scattered areas of trees on
slight elevations (FIGURE 11-48). Moors generally fill old
lake beds and other poorly drained depressions, and are
largest and best developed in the lowlands of the sub-
region. Moors and small lakes are found in the irregular,
knobby sections of the hill lands. Marshes and swamps
are distinguished in this report according to the pre-
dominance of grass and reeds in the former, and trees
in the latter. They frequently are found in stream flood
plains. Both marshes and swamps are covered with water
or ice most of the year and never become completely dry
or firm. They are distributed throughout the western
and northern lowlands of the subregion and cover the
major part of the Pripyat' (Pripet Marshes) Swamp in
the southeast.
In areas such as the small plain south of the Gulf of
Riga and the upper Dnepr plain between Gomel' and
Bryansk, the lowlands are largely the temporarily flooded
type. These lowlands, together with many small marshes
and swamps, extend in narrow strips along the streams.
Original
FIGURE 11-48. Large moor south of Grodno.
The common elements of a moor landscape in the Baltic area are
here shown. Small pools of sluggish water, and broad expanses
of grass, reeds, and shrubs overlooked by scattered thickets of
small trees and brush. The low grass and reed areas are water
soaked and impassable except when frozen hard (late December
to mid-March). Thin forest on the low ridge in the background
marks the far edge of the moor. Before 1941.
Between these streams are slightly higher and better-
drained areas within which movement and deployment
are possible.
The presence of saturated areas near the streams chan-
nelizes movement within the drier interstream areas and
limits stream crossings to points where spurs of high
ground approach the streams. This situation is modified
by the partial drying out of the ground in late summer,
August to October, when crossings may be made at many
additional points. A similar lessening of the barrier effect
comes with the freezing of the wet lands and streams in
midwinter, from December to late March. During this
period the hard-frozen ground and streams may be crossed
in many places by men and light vehicles. Heavy wheeled
traffic and the heaviest tanks, however, were unable to
move freely across all swamps and marshes in the Lenin-
grad area during the relatively mild winters of 1942-43
and 1943-44. Such heavy equipment broke through the
frozen crust into the boggy ooze below. The spots, where
the thinly frozen surface gave way, were located in brush-
and reed-covered areas which had become deeply drifted
from early fall snows.
The wettest lowlands in this subregion (the basins of
the Pripyat' river, Ozero I1'men' and Peipus Lake (Chud-
skoye Ozero) have drainage conditions similar to those in
the intermittently flooded areas, but in these wetter basins
the problems of poor drainage are intensified (FIGURE II
-49). Within these basins the strips of marsh and swamp
along the streams are wider and more numerous. Even
FIGURE 11-49. Marshland along the shore of Ozero Chudskoye
(Peipus).
Marsh grass growth is here less continuous than in some wet
lowlands. Such areas are nontrafficable and largely impassable
except when firmly frozen. Before 1941.
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FIGURE II-50. Valley of the Zapadnaya Dvina west of Polotsk.
Here a low swell is cut by the Daugava (Zapadnaya Dvina) and its tributaries to depths of 50 or more feet. Flat peat moors form open-
ings in the woods (upper right) and much of the woodland is swampy. The rolling nature of the terrain is shown more distinctly in
the cultivated clearings along the Daugava (Zapadnaya Dvina) (center) and the large tributary (upper left of view). The Daugava
(Zapadnaya Dvina) is 500 to 550 feet wide in this view. Probably 1943.
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Welija".Moor (V?liya Moor)
Flacb-Moor (Flat Moor)
keine Flle j3struktur ! I No strewn, Channel
FIGURE I1-51. Wet terrain south of Volkhov.
The large flat shrub- and bush-covered moor at lower left of the picture is waterlogged; it is nontrafficable and generally impassable
except when frozen hard (late December to early March i . Even then, heavy equipment might break through the frozen crust. Low
sand ridges, in the right and upper part of the view, are dry, and are sites of the local trails (white line) through the wet Il'men' -Volk-
hov lowland. March 1943.
small tributary streams are bordered by extensive swampy they merge across the low, flat interstream divides into a
belts, although some streams have narrow bands of slightly continuous swamp-marsh land. These marsh, moor, and
elevated dry lands along their banks (FIGURE 11-50). In swamp areas of the Pripyat' and Ozero I1'men' are scores
the most poorly drained zones of the Pripyat' and Il'men' of square miles in area (FIGURE 11-51). They are broken
depressions the swamps along stream belts enlarge until only by a few well-drained sand and gravel swells (FIGURE
Original
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FIGURE 11-52. Dry sandy land near the Pripyat' river.
This slightly elevated sandy area is a dry island among the great
Pripyat' swamps and marshes. The scattered scrub trees are
smaller than those on other sandy areas. Note the wide roadway
in which the trail is shifted frequently. Before 1941.
11-52), which rise high enough to be called hills in a few
places. Average elevations are 20 to 50 feet above the
surrounding wet lands. No large, continuous blocks of
dry land exist within the Pripyat' and Il'men' basins.
Also, there is very little drying out of the low areas in late
summer. As a result, the usual July-to-October period
of drier ground common to the subregion and increased
possibilities of movement do not occur within these two
large, wet lowlands. However, these two areas are frozen
over during the same seasons (December to April) as
the less wet lowlands, and are subject to the same hazards
of thinly frozen surfaces under early formed snow drifts.
Also, many of the moss-covered swamps in the lowlands
are self-insulating, in that the moss layer adds to the
heat-retaining qualities of the snow blanket.
Streams and lakes of the Baltic - West Russian Hills
and Wet Lowlands subregion are barriers to movement.
Only the largest water bodies, such as the Niemen (Neman)
and Daugava (Zapadnaya Dvina) rivers and Lake Peipus
(Chudskoye Ozero) and Ozero Il'men', are navigable. The
use of these waterways is limited, moreover, by stretches
of shallow channel, which are 4 to 6 feet deep in the
rivers and 7 to 20 feet deep in the lakes. Only flat-bot-
tomed, river-type boats are used on the navigable stretches
of these rivers and lakes. However, during the spring
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floods (April and May) much timber is floated down the
shallow upper stretches of the Niemen (Neman) and
Zapadnaya Dvina, and many of the smaller streams.
The many strips of swamp and marshland along stream
flood plains are even greater barriers to movement than
streams (FIGURE 11-54). For example, at many points
along the Daugava (Zapadnaya Dvina), the largest stream
lying entirely within the subregion, swampy strips along
the stream are two to three times the width of the stream,
which in its lower course is only about 1,200 to 2,000 feet
wide. Its maximum depth is from 25 to 35 feet during
summer water levels Where the Daugava can be ap-
proached across the poorly drained lands it has a firm
sandy bottom which favors fording and bridging.
The main handicaps to stream fording or bridging in
subregion C-1 are the periods of spring floods which, during
their early stages, bring down much floating ice. These
flood periods last roughly two to three weeks. Floods
begin early in March near Kiev in the south and end
late in April in the northern part of subregion C-1 (FIGURE
11-53). During this flood season, lakes in the subregion
also reach their maximum volume Shallow Ozero Il'men',
for example, overflows during April and becomes three
times its average size. These floodwaters from the lake
flow off through the river Volkhov and keep it in flood
through May and early June (FIGURE 11-55).
FIGURE 11-53. Flooded road in the Central Pripyat' area.
Sheets of snow-melt water, such as the one shown in the view,
block most of the roads in the Pripyat' basin during late March
and April. Before 1939.
Original
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FIGURE II-54. Moors, forest, and crop areas south of Pripyat' river.
Slightly elevated and better drained portions of the Pripyat' basin are usually cleared and cultivated. Forests indicate lower and more
moist areas, whereas the large treeless moors, such as that in the upper portion of the view, indicate continuously saturated soil.
Movement through areas such as those shown in the view is difficult, but local movements are possible on the islands of crop land. Note
the village along the road (left center( and the more scattered farmsteads (lower rights . 1942.
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FIGURE 11-55. Volkhov valley north of Novgorod.
Looking north. In the foreground is a broad band of flooded forest, portions of which probably are wet even in dry weather. Farther
back, the Volkhov has inundated the adjacent sloughs and part of the farm land on the far bank. In the background, clearings in farms
and woods alternate with small moors. May 1943.
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FIGURE 11-56. Ice on Neva river at Leningrad.
Looking northeast. The light railways are easily supported on
the thick midwinter ice. Note that no load-distributing mat is
used on the ice to support the combined weight of cars and their
loads and tracks. In the background is the old fortress of St.
Peter and St. Paul on an island in the Neva. Before 1941.
In midwinter the streams and lakes are frozen over
hard and firm and their barrier effect is thus eliminated
(FIGURE 11-56). This period of ice-covered streams lasts
from late November to late March in the southern (Kiev)
area, and from late November to late April in the northern
(Leningrad) district. The modifying effect of relatively
warm winds from the Baltic Sea prevents earlier freezing
in the northern part of the subregion.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Main forest vegetation
types in the Baltic - West Russian Hills and Wet Lowlands
are dense coniferous forests in the north (near Leningrad)
and mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests in the center
and west from Kalinin to the Baltic Sea. Chief species
of trees in these forests are: 1) pine (on sandy lands),
spruce, fir, in the northern forest zone, and birch and alder
in small areas (FIGURE 11-57); and 2) pine, oak, beech, fir,
birch, and alder in the mixed forest belt (FIGURE 11-58).
FIGURE 11-57. Spruce forest in the Valdai Hills area northwest of
Kalinin.
This dense stand of large trees, with a typical unpaved road in
center of view, indicates the large supplies of timber and firewood
readily available and the ease of finding cover and concealment
there. Movement of vehicles, including tanks, is largely confined
to roads of the type shown. Before 1927.
All of the forest areas of subregion C-1 are interrupted
by either natural or man-made clearings. The natural
clearings or openings, exclusive of lakes and streams, are
occupied by marshes or moors with thin reeds, grasses,
bushes, and other low-growing plants. The man-made
clearings are devoted to crops, meadow, and settlements
(FIGURE 11-59). Chief crops in these clearings are barley,
flax, rye, oats, field turnips, potatoes, forage grasses, and
other low-growing annuals.
Forests occupy 50';e to 70';l' of the land in most of the
hilly areas of the subregion. Although clearings are no-
Original
FIGURE 11-58. Dense forest west of Vil'nyus (Wilno).
This untouched forest of mixed coniferous and broadleaf trees
occupies part of the Baltic Hilly Areas (C-la). Here timber is
larger and the stand denser than in the forests farther north.
Much of the hill area is more rolling and more difficult to traverse
with heavy equipment than the portions shown here. Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-59. Cleared hill lands southwest of Vil'nyus (Wilno).
Only remnants of the original forest are scattered among the
fields, here lying fallow, on the typical gently rolling hills of the
Baltic area. Note the relatively dense stand of trees in the hollow
in the left background. Before 1941.
where more than a few miles apart, exceptions to this
high percentage of forest cover are found in the South
Valdai Hills (C-1c) and the Baltic Hilly Areas (C-la).
These uplands are less than 50'' forested and have at
least 30' . of the land cleared and in farms. The remain-
ing upland area is moor or marsh.
The better-drained plains, located in the Baltic Hilly
Areas and in the Dnepr basin northeast of Kiev, are only
10'f to 40'(' forested, 20' ( to 30"(" wet lands, and as much
as 30'( to 40'(" in farms. Poorly drained lowlands such
as the Pripyat' and Ozero Il'men' basins have 50(( to 60',
forest, 20((' to 301(' marsh and moor, and only 10'( to
20' in farms. In all of these areas the actual settle-
ments, mostly small farm villages, occupy less than 2'
of the land. They are included with the farms in the
figures given above.
The common pattern of vegetation distribution in the
Baltic - West Russian Hills and Wet Lowlands subregion
is a series of openings occupied by crops or low moor and
marsh growth and surrounded by woods or dense forest.
The woodland may be open enough for free movement
of tanks and other tracked equipment; but the extensive,
heavy forest is a thick mass of trees, brush, and fallen
timber, difficult to penetrate except along roads and
trails. Much of the forest and woodland is swampy
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FIGURE 11-60. Swamp in Pripyat' basin south of Pinsk.
Characteristic heavy growth of forest with small trees, dense
undergrowth, much open water with grass and reeds along the
banks. Cover and concealment are good in these woods but cross-
country movement is almost impossible. Before 1939.
(FIGURE 11-60). In World War II the Soviet commanders
took full advantage of their superior knowledge of the
swamps and forests of Baltic - West Russian Hills and
Wet Lowlands. They used local guides and trails un-
marked on any map to bring tanks and artillery deep into
the densest forest growth.
The vegetation of subregion C-1 furnishes good con-
cealment and fair cover in the forest and woodland areas
and only fair concealment and almost no cover in the
openings. In natural openings the 5- to 8-foot-tall reeds
and brush of the marshes and moors provide more con-
cealment than the 2- to 4-foot grain and root crops in
the farmlands. Abundant firewood and timbers up to 10
inches by 20 feet are available in the wooded areas.
Large supplies of forage could be obtained from the
growing crops and meadows in summer, but food supplies
from the cropland would be available chiefly in late sum-
mer and autumn. The "scorched earth" policy used by
the Russians during World War II deprived the Germans
of this food supply. Also any seized food supplies would
have to be withheld from the local population which nor-
mally has to import part of its food. Small areas near
the Baltic Sea and east of Kiev are exceptions to the fore-
going as, in some years, they import no staple foods.
(d) Traffleability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10) .-Throughout most of the Baltic - West Russian Hills
and Wet Lowlands subregion bedrock underlies thick lay-
ers of sand and gravel. In the low, poorly drained areas
clay and muck overlie the sands. Many of the sandy soils
which are marked on the soil trafficability map as draining
rapidly are in the nearly flat plains areas and actually are
waterlogged. This apparent anomaly results from the fact
that the streams have very low gradients and cannot re-
move the water as fast as it can drain from these loose
soils; thus the water table continues high. Poor drainage
of soils in flattish lowlands is particularly marked in the
western and northern parts of the subregion in the Baltic
and I1'men' plains. There the spring melt waters from
deep snows are followed by heavy spring and summer rain-
fall which prolong the period of soil saturation (PLANS
6 and 7).
The predominantly gravel, sand, and sandy loam soils
on the slopes of the hilly areas drain quickly and are
trafficable except during and shortly after heavy rains.
Exceptions to this are the irregular depressions in the
knobby parts of the hill lands around Vil'nyus (Wilno, Vil-
na) and west of Rzhev. These small basins among the
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rounded, gravel hills are occupied by swamps or moor and
are nontrafficable. However, these wetlands are passable
by men on foot if local guides are employed and trails are
used. Also the moors and lakes within the knobby hill
sections can be bypassed along the well-drained slopes of
the adjacent knobs and higher terrain between the knobs.
As a result, the hill lands of subregion C-1 are generally
trafficable and passable, and provide routes of penetration
into the country.
Difficulties of cross-country movement and of deploy-
ment in the marshes, swamps, and wet meadows of the
lowlands in the Baltic area have been explained in detail
in the section on Drainage (Topic 22, C, (2), (b)). These
excessively wet and nontrafficable lands have soft, boggy,
clay, and sandy loam soils. The interstream areas have
patches of similar soils but with a preponderance of sand,
gravel, and some bouldery soils on the slightly elevated
swells and isolated hills (FIGURE 11-61). Such sandy and
rocky, elevated areas drain rapidly and are trafficable.
FIGURE 11-61. Boulders in a field on Saaremaa island, Estonia.
The large boulders in the field (foreground) and the smaller
ones in the stone fences are only the larger rocks in this gravel-
boulder soil. Many smaller rocks remain in the ground. Scrub
trees are reclaiming the stony pasture in the foreground. Boul-
ders and rock fences, such as those in the view, offer considerable
horizontal cover and concealment. Before 1941.
However, these slightly higher areas are only isolated
spots or strips surrounded by the soft, wet soils, and are
not useful for roads or cross-country routes. Such roads
as do exist in the lowlands of the subregion are supported
on deep fills or corduroy-brush mats in the numerous
boggy areas. Only short stretches of the better roads have
the more expensive deep-fill foundation. Most of the roads
have a surface of natural soil or thin gravel with corduroy
mats over the worst of the soft areas (FIGURES 11-62 and
11-63). During the fall and winter of 1941-42 in the Len-
ingrad area average roads were quickly torn up by motor-
ized traffic; in many boggy places the corduroy mat sup-
port was crushed down into the soft soil and disappeared.
Such roads had to be remade almost completely after a
few weeks' use. Similar deterioration of roads on the soft
soils of the wet lowlands occurred in other parts of sub-
region C-1.
Trafficability of soil and durability of roads in the sub-
region varies with the seasons. Conditions described
above are largely those of summer and early fall, June
to October. During October or early November heavy
rains over a period of one to three weeks create a short
season of deep mud and bottomless roads. This was the
season in which the roads were cut to pieces around Len-
ingrad in the campaign of 1941-42. During late Novem-
ber and early December sudden, sharp drops in tempera-
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FIGURE 11-62. Road through forest in lowland near Minsk.
Natural earth road through the wet but not completely swampy
forest. Boggy soil areas, such as the one shown, are almost com-
pletely nontrafficable except when frozen hard (late December to
late March). After 1941.
FIGURE 11-63. Road in lowland east of Leningrad.
Typical corduroy road across a marsh. Note the narrowness of
the road and the open water at the left. Before 1941.
ture following heavy rains may solidify deeply rutted roads
into almost nontrafficable masses of frozen ruts and ridges.
Such roads tore tires off trucks and treads off tanks in
World War II.
By late December all roads, exposed soils, and streams
are frozen hard. However, as explained in the section on
Drainage (Topic 22, C, (2), (b)), boggy areas with a thick
moss or deep snow cover formed early in the season may
freeze thinly and later give way under heavy equipment.
Brush mats on roads in boggy areas produce the same
insulating effects; consequently the ordinary roads in the
subregion were classified by the Germans as nontraf icable
for heavy tanks. An additional winter traffic hazard in
the subregion is the deep snow of midwinter (December to
March). Snow must be cleared frequently from the nar-
row roads cut through the forest, or deep drifts will block
all wheeled and tracked vehicles, except special wide-
tracked snowmobiles.
Spring thaws and rains cause deep, muddy surfaces
throughout the lowlands of subregion C-l. The mud sea-
son begins in mid-March in the southern district (Kiev)
and lasts as late as mid-April in the northern section
(Leningrad) (PLAN 6). Deep mud, which stops all cross-
country movement and traffic on most roads, lasts three to
four weeks in any given locality. This is followed as a
rule by another period (two weeks) of gradually drying
surfaces and slowly improving trafficability. The coarse,
Original
better-drained soils in the hilly areas of the subregion
remain relatively dry, firm and trafficable during the
spring thaws. Boggy soils in the patches of moor on
the hills become soft in the spring but are easily bypassed
via the surrounding sand and gravel knobs and ridges.
In summary, the hilly areas of subregion C-1 generally
are passable for men and trafficable for vehicles at all
seasons; but the lowlands are passable, and for the most
part trafficable only in midwinter. During other seasons
the lowlands are fairly passable and trafficable in late sum-
mer, but they are nontrafficable and almost impassable
during the spring thaw season and during the fall rain
and freeze season.
(3) Subregion C-2, Southwest Russian Upland (PLAN 2)
The Southwest Russian Upland is a series of low, par-
tially dissected plateaus of 600 to 1,300 feet elevation above
sea level. The upland extends northeast from the Ukrai-
nian Carpathian Mountains (Region D) and the river Prut
as far as the Pripyat' (Pripet Marshes) Swamp Zone (C-le)
and the Dnepr (PLAN 2). On the west the upland extends
beyond the JANis 40 border. This subregion is roughly
quadrangular in shape and is oriented slightly northwest
to southeast, with its long axis parallel to the Carpathian
Mountains. The long northwest - southeast axis meas-
ures about 350 miles and transverse dimensions vary from
200 to 250 miles. The area of the subregion is about
60,000 square miles, which is approximately equal to that
of the State of Georgia.
The Southwest Russian Upland is the westernmost of a
series of alternating low, dissected plateaus and still lower
and flatter plains (C-2 and C-3) which occupy the south-
ern and eastern parts of the Forest and Clearings Belt
(Region C). This western upland is considered as a sepa-
rate subregion chiefly because its surface is more or less
level and is not cut up into small fragments on flat-topped
hills, as is that of the uplands farther east in parts of the
Central Russian Plain, subregion C-3.
Another reason for treating the Southwest Russian Up-
land as a separate subregion is its function as an east - west
route extending between the swamps and marshes of the
Pripyat' basin on the north and the rugged, forested
Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains on the south. This dry,
relatively flat-topped area south of the Pripyat' Swamp
Zone extends eastward to Kiev, just as the Smolensk
ridges form a raised east - west route north of the Pripyat',
extending eastward to Moscow. The Southwest Russian
Upland has been used as a route of advance on Kiev and
South Central USSR (the Ukraine) from the earliest times
to and including World War II. Several passes in these
mountains give access to the Hungarian plain and middle
Danube basin.
The city of L'vov occupies the most strategic point with-
in the Southwest Russian Upland. This city is located
at the westernmost and narrowest part of the subregion
where the main east - west routes pass into and out of it.
L'vov also is far enough west to control key railways which
extend northwest to Warsaw and central Poland and
southward to the Carpathian passes and Hungary. In
addition, L'vov is on the main railway which runs from
the USSR along the northeastern foot of the Carpathians
into eastern Rumania.
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-The Southwest Russian
Upland is composed of a series of broad northwest - south-
east trending plateau blocks marked off by the deeply in-
cised valleys of the Prut, Dnestr, Yuzhnyy Bug, and Dnepr.
Each block, with one exception, reaches its maximum ele-
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FIGURE II-64. Entrenched valley of the Dnestr east of Stanislav.
Even near its headwater, the Dnestr has cut several score feet
below the flat plateau, as can be judged from the size of the
houses among the trees in the left middleground. Note that
woodland is limited to the valley bottom and lower slopes.
Before 1941.
vation (900 to 1,300 feet) along its northwestern margin,
and slopes gently south - southeastward to the next mar-
ginal river gorge, which is 100 to 450 feet below the adja-
cent plateau (FIGURE 11-64). The northernmost of these
plateau blocks lies north of a line from Przemy'sl through
L'vov to Zhitomir. Northward the surface declines and
gradually reaches the level of the low, marshy plain of
the Pripyat' Swamp Zone (FIGURE 11-65).
FIGURE 11-65. A flat, barren, sandy area north of Zhitomir.
Exact location not determined. This sandy area is in the border
zone between the Southwest Russian Uplands and the Pripyat'
Swamp Zone. This area has less forest than most of the border
area. The wide roadway is typical. Before 1941.
A similar gradual decline in elevation marks the south-
eastern boundary of the subregion from Kishinev (Chfis-
inau) to Cherkassy, although the final merging of the
plateau with the Black Sea plain on the south lies within
the Grassland Belt (Region E). Both the northern-Prip-
yat' (Pripet Marshes) Swamp Zone-and the southern
(Grassland Belt) margins of the plateau blocks are series
of projecting, partially forested ridges interfingered with
wide, flat valley extensions of the adjacent lowlands (FIG-
URE 11-66). On the south the outermost low ridges of the
plateau are completely grass-covered and are placed, there-
fore, within the Grassland Belt (Region E).
The incised valleys of the major streams-Prut, Dnestr,
Yuzhnyy Bug, and Dnepr-and their main tributaries form
a series of deep grooves in the monotonous, nearly level
surfaces of the plateaus of the Southwest Russian Upland
(FIGURE 11-67). These valleys are considerable barriers
to any cross-country movement, due to their depth of 100
to 450 feet, steep walls, and wet, marshy floors. The val-
leys tributary to the Pripyat' system on the north are shal-
lower and wider but have larger marsh strips than those
of the four above-named streams, and also are considerable
impediments to movement (FIGURE 11-68). A narrow,
FIGURE II-66. Broad valley in the southern border of the Southwest
Russian Upland.
The wide, flat valley (right) and gently rounded ridge (left) are
largely in crops and grass. Trees in the village are planted. The
wide, unpaved, grassy street is typical of those in villages in this
area. Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-67. Valley of the Seret, north tributary of the Dnestr,
in the area south of Ternopol'.
Probably looking north. This deep, steep-sided valley forms a
giant trench in the flat plateau. Such valleys are typical of the
major north tributaries of the Dnestr in the Southwest Russian
Upland. Note the woods on one slope at right, the barren opposite
slope, and the cropland and villages in the valley. Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-68. Valley of the Sluch', tributary of the Pripyat', west
of Zhitomir.
North-flowing streams, like the Sluch', do not cut as deeply into
the plateau as the south-flowing, Dnestr tributaries. Neverthe-
less these northern streams and their valleys are considerable
barriers to movement. Note that the Sluch' valley shown here,
has lower and more gently sloping sides, some parts of which are
cultivated. Also note the greater amount of woodland on the
plateau surface (left background). Before 1941.
nearly level watershed belt extends east from L'vov past
Ternopol' and Proskurov to Kiev.
In addition to the deep-cut valleys, several minor types
of irregularities break the surfaces of the southwestern
plateau blocks. These irregularities are: 1) groups of
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FIGURE 11-69. Low rounded limestone hills on the southern portion
of the upland.
View of area a few miles southeast of Ternopol'. These hills rise
about 130 feet above the flat treeless surface of the plateau. Scat-
tered scrub woodland (left background) occupies part of the
rounded summit areas of the hills. Such hills are only slight
barriers to cross-country movement in spite of scattered limestone
ledges. Before 1941.
round-topped hills, 40 to 150 feet high, which trend north -
south across the subregion in a narrow zone east of Terno-
pol' (FIGURE 11-69); 2) narrow, steep-walled gullies 20- to
50-feet deep throughout the subregion, and particularly
numerous between the Dnestr and the Yuzhnyy Bug (FIG-
URE 11-70); 3) small hollows or sinks a few yards in diame-
ter and 6 to 20 feet deep. The hills and gullies offer
some obstruction to rapid maneuvering of vehicles.
Plateaus on the low hills also make excellent observation
points. The plateaus as a whole, with their numerous
broad, flat, well-drained surfaces, now largely cleared of
trees, offer almost limitless opportunities for emergency
landings and for the rapid construction of landing strips.
However, branching gullies locally dissect these uplands,
particularly along the Dnepr (FIGURE 11-70).
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-The basic drainage pattern
of the Southwest Russian Upland already has been out-
lined under the discussion of plateau blocks and valleys.
The major streams within the subregion-the Prut,
Dnestr, and Yuzhnyy Bug-are navigable for small boats
in their lower courses, i.e., toward the southeastern bound-
ary of the subregion. These streams and their marshy
Original
valleys are large enough to obstruct cross-country move-
ment in some degree. For example, at average summer
water level, the Dnestr is 250 to 800 feet broad and 7 to 18
feet deep along most of its course through the subregion.
The Prut and Yuzhnyy Bug are slightly smaller. These
streams average only 150 to 400 feet in breadth and 4 to 16
feet in depth. Their steep-walled, marshy-floored valleys
are greater barriers than the actual streams.
The largest stream in the Southwest Russian Upland
is the Dnepr, which forms the eastern boundary of the
subregion. Immediately south of Kiev this large stream
is 1,300 to 2,400 feet broad and averages 10 to 25 feet deep.
The Dnepr is navigable for flat-bottomed river boats
throughout the stretch which borders subregion C-2. The
Dnepr, together with the wide, partially marshy flood
plains on its east banks and the high bluffs on its west
banks, is a considerable obstacle to east - west movement
(FIGURES 11-71 and 11-72). Poorly drained valley floors
also form important barriers along the northern streams
FIGURE 11-71. View of Dnepr river.
Below Kiev, exact location not determined. Looking toward the
northeast. The contrast between the high-bluffed west (rights
bank and the low flat east (left) bank is apparent. In the back-
ground is the gently rolling upper Dnepr Plain east of Kiev. One
of the larger river steamers is shown in the channel. Before 1941.
Steep earth walls of these gullies crumble easily and erode rapidly. Note the predominant grass cover of the plateau sur-
face in the view and the few trees in the village shown in the background. Before 1941.
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JANIS 40
FIGURE II-72. Upper Dnepr, north of Kiev.
The Dnepr with its wide lowland containing numerous channels is a barrier to movement at all times except when firmly frozen in
winter. Settlements lie on higher, better-drained portions or on upland surface. The high-bluffed west bank, which marks the eastern
margin of the Southwest Russian Upland (subregion C-2), shows clearly at the right center of the view. 1943.
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tributary to the Pripyat'. These small streams are only
150 to 350 feet wide and 3 to 12 feet deep at average levels.
Drinking water in the subregion is available in large
quantities only near the bottoms of the deeper valleys and
of the tributary valleys. By late summer the water table
in many places is 100 to 150 feet below the surface of the
main plateau blocks. As a result of this occurrence of
potable water, most of the farm villages are located near
the base of the valley slopes (FIGURE 11-73).
FIGURE 11-73. Valley of the Dnestr at Zaleshchiki.
Village on the gently sloping valley floor located so as to obtain
water from the stream or shallow wells. Note the even horizon
formed by the level surface of the plateau. Before 1935.
The Prut and the Dnestr receive much snow-melt water
from the Carpathians and thus experience a second flood
season in late June and early July. The first flood of the
year comes in April or May, is common to all streams in
the subregion, and lasts for 10 to 15 days. During the
June-July high water the flooded area in these valleys may
be half a mile to a mile wide, depending on the type and
amount of previous precipitation and the width of the
valley floors.
All of the stream and valley marshes in the subregion
are frozen over from late December to late February. Dur-
ing that period the frozen surfaces will support men and
light vehicles. Heavy vehicles may break through the ice
or frozen crust unless abnormally cold weather has created
unusually thick ice.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Almost continuous forests
of oak, beech, hornbeam, and other broadleaf trees occupy
the plateaus and interstream ridges of the northern and
northwestern divisions of this subregion. Many of the
valleys are in crops. Between L'vov and Cherkassy the
upland area is occupied by grass and crops, of which the
major ones are wheat, barley, rye, sugar beets, and pota-
toes. Patches of broadleaf woodland are on the scattered
hills and the valley slopes (FIGURE 11-74). Much poplar,
willow, and low alder appear among the small oaks in the
valleys. Farther south, on the clay loam soils between
the Dnestr and Prut, the upland flats support much oak-
hornbeam forest, the valley slopes are cultivated, and the
marshy valley bottoms are occupied by grass and reeds
with some willows along the streams.
Only these almost continuous stands of oak and other
broadleaf forest on the northern and southern upland sur-
faces furnish much cover and concealment, but these
would be greatly reduced in fall and winter when the trees
are bare. In the central crop and grassland area of the
Southwest Russian Upland, between L'vov and Kiev, the
low vegetation furnishes concealment only from horizon-
tal observation. This central zone has a surplus of forage,
wheat, and barley in the autumn, but there is very little
firewood or timber. In contrast, the northern and south-
ern forested belts of the subregion have abundant supplies
of firewood and timber, but only moderate amounts of
surplus grain and forage.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-Fine, silty loam material covers the plateau blocks
and the shallower valleys of the Southwest Russian Up-
land to a depth of 20 to 50 feet. South of the Dnestr and
along the Prut there is much clay loam, with clays and
some sands occupying the deeper valley lowlands. Most
of these soils quickly become bottomless, almost liquid mud
FIGURE 11-74. Kremenets, a city in a small valley near the northern border of the Upland.
Location of the city in the valley and the woodland on the valley slopes and on the adjacent plateau surface are typical features of the
Southwest Russian Upland. Before 1941.
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during the spring thaw season of late March to early May
(PLAN 6). The heavy clay soils in the Dnepr-Prut zone
are sticky when wet and are even less trafficable than the
silt loams farther north. These silt loams on the plateaus
drain rapidly and become fairly dry and firm within two
or three days after ordinary rains. In contrast, the heavy
clays on the river bottoms dry more slowly, and some areas
never become completely dry and firm.
During the summer and autumn, from June to October,
the silt loams and most of the clay loams of the subregion
are trafficable except for a few hours after the heavy
showers which occur throughout this period. During the
summer season, clouds of dust rise from these fine-grained
soils when they are dry. This dust cloud quickly reveals
location of any column moving along a road or across
ploughed fields.
In early winter, November and late December, unsur-
faced roads quickly become a series of hard ridges and ruts
as sharp, freezing weather follows heavy rains. These
frozen ruts damaged treads on German tanks in World
War II. As winter advances the ground freezes hard and
remains firm until thaws set in during mid-March. Dan-
ger of heavy vehicles breaking through the frozen soil crust
over the valley bogs has been described (Topic 22, C, (2),
(b)).
(4) Subregion C-3, Central Russian Plain (PLAN 2)
The Central Russian Plain is very roughly quadrangular
in shape with its long axis oriented east - west. It varies
in length from 525 miles on the north to 725 miles on the
south, its width varies also, from 435 miles on the west to
375 miles on the east. Total area of the subregion is
340,000 square miles, which is approximately the combined
FIGURE 11-76. Upper Don plain, north of Voronezh.
The more rolling land in the foreground gives way to nearly flat
plains in the background. Scattered strips of woodland in the
depressions separate the broad grass and crop areas in the back-
ground. Before 1941.
area of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. Differences
in relief, drainage, and soil trafficability within the sub-
region do not overcome the fundamentally unifying fac-
tors of low elevation, few steep slopes, cover of alternate
forests and clearings, and generally good drainage.
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-Major relief features of
subregion C-3, are a series of low, generally flattish plains
alternating with wide belts of slightly elevated hill lands.
Huge, deep gullies and many smaller ravines cut the sur-
face of these areas locally.
The plains are of three slightly different types : 1) the
wide, very gently rolling, but well-drained, lowlands of
the Middle Dnepr Plain (C-3a) and Upper Don Plain (C-
3c) (FIGURES 11-75 to 11-77; 2) the small, flat, incompletely
drained basins and gently rounded divides of the Upper
FIGURE 11-75. Middle Dnepr Plain, southeast of Kiev.
This nearly flat and almost treeless plain is typical of the middle Dnepr area (FIGURE 11-92). The wide, unpaved, multitracked road
and thatched-roof houses also are typical. Roads and fields such as these are deep in mud after every heavy rain and become com-
pletely nontrafficable after the spring snow melt and rainy season. 1925.
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FIGURE II-77. Upper Donets Valley, northeast of Khar'kov.
Wooded valley floor (upper part of view ( contrasts greatly with the flat treeless crop-covered upland (lower left of view). Wooded low-
land furnishes concealment and some cover, but high water table and swampy nature of its floor make it a barrier to movement.
Note gullied margin of the upland (left center), gullies and gully heads biting into the level area (lower center) and the village loca-
tion on higher ground (lower right). July 1943.
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FIGURE 11-78. Low divide, south of the upper Volga near Yaroslavl'.
These low, rolling, elevated areas, locally called "plateaus", are
partially cleared and much more easily traversed than the wet
lands in the depressions near the streams. Before 1941.
Volga Lowland (C-3e) and the Oka-Vetluga Wet Lowland
(C-3d) (FIGURE 11-78); 3) the narrow, flattish, seasonally
flooded areas of the Middle Volga Flood Plain (C-3g). All
of these plains are elevated less than 500 feet above sea
level. The only extensive areas within the plains which
have slopes with gradients greater than 25' are: 1) short,
steep banks along a few of the major streams, 2) scattered
sand ridges, 15 to 25 feet high in the Oka-Vetluga Wet
Lowlands (C-3d) east of Moscow, and 3) the edges of ter-
races in the Middle Volga Plain (C-3g). Relief condi-
tions in these plains interfere very little with military
operations. The ubiquitous forest areas and the poorly
drained stream basins east of Moscow are the main handi-
caps to movement and deployment within the subregion.
The hilly areas of the Central Russian Plain (C-3) also
vary slightly in their relief characteristics. The western-
most hill lands of the subregion, the Central Russian Hills
are round-topped in the north and east, but in the south-
west, near Bryansk, and Orel, there are some broad, flat-
topped ridges (FIGURES 11-79 and 11-80). Within this hilly
area local differences in elevation exceed 100 to 200 feet
in few places; and the highest points, which lie east of the
center of the area, range from 700 to 900 feet above sea
level. The eastern terminal slopes, which overlook the
Don plain north of Voronezh, are fairly steep (15` to 30`')
and rise 150 to 200 feet within less than a mile. With
the exception of these broad scarps there are few steep
slopes in the Central Russian Hills. Farms, roads, and
railways occupy the gentle hill slopes and flat-to-rounded
crests as well as the valleys. Relief factors interfere very
little with movement and deployment within these hills.
Here, as in the adjacent plains, forest patches on the slopes
and small, poorly drained areas in some of the valleys are
the chief terrain obstructions. On the western margin of
the Central Russian Hills elevations are lower and the hills
merge with the undulating upper Dnepr plain west of
Bryansk (FIGURE 11-81).
The eastern hill lands of the subregion are located on
either side of the middle Volga; the Pre-Volga Hills (C-3f)
on the west and the Trans-Volga Hills (C-3h) on the east.
In each of these upland areas the hills are flat-topped and
FIGURE 11-79. Valley east of Klin in the Central Russian Hills.
North of Moscow. Broad gently sloping valleys and rounded hills of small elevation, as shown in the view, are typical features of the
Central Russian Hills. Most of the valley slopes are in crops or grass; yet even here patches of woodland offer concealment. Note
the typical dirt road (left middle ground) leading to the village in the center background. Before 1941.
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FIGURE II-80. Flat. sumohii type of lhills.
West of Orel. Horizontal visibility is extensive along the flat interstream areas and across the valleys. Sparse scrub trees on the
slopes of the shallow valleys offer some concealment. Note how the roads follow both the flat. interstream, cropped areas (lower
right) and the grassy or cultivated bottoms of the valleys. Other features in the view are the villages along the road i left center i
kind the series of entrenchments which extend diagonally from lower left to upper right. August 1943.
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FIGURE 11-81. View in Forest and Clearings Belt about 80 miles northwest of Orel.
Clearings with crops and a village extend west from the small stream (upper left) . Other clearings (center and lower right) are being
reclaimed by forest. Note that even the main road (left) is partially obscured by the heavy forest growth or by shadows of the trees.
Although the land is not hilly, it has sufficient slope to be free of swamps and moors. The only wet lands are narrow bands of marsh
along the streams. These marshes are indicated by the edge of the cultivated fields (upper left). September 1943.
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 FIGURE 11-82. Large gullies in the Pre-Volga Hills.
Typical deep, narrow, dry gullies, flooded deeply in spring and
after heavy summer rains. Note where buildings are being under-
mined by the caving sides of the gullies. Before 1941.
the valleys are sharp-cut, steep-sided notches 60 to 400
feet deep (FIGURE 11-82). Valley bottoms are generally
narrow and winding in both of the Volga Hills areas, al-
though the northern part of the eastern or Trans-Volga
Hills (north of Kazan') has many valleys with flat, sandy
bottoms; these valleys vary in width from one-eighth to
one-quarter of a mile. Within both the Pre-Volga and
Trans-Volga Hills, elevations gradually increase toward
the east. Highest elevations in the Pre-Volga Hills (1,100
to 1,250 feet) lie within 5 to 25 miles of the Volga. These
hills terminate abruptly in bluffs, 300 to 600 feet high,
along the west bank of the Volga (FIGURES 11-83 and 11-84) ,.
Eastward, beyond the low flood plain of the Volga, the
Trans-Volga Hills rise gradually northeast and east toward
the Ural Mountains foreland, which lies outside the area
of JANIS 40. Elevations in the Trans-Volga Hills reach
only 650 to 850 feet above sea level at the eastern boundary
of the JANIS area, although greater elevations are attained
farther east.
FIGURE 11-83. Diagram of a typical section of the Volga river
valley between Kazan' and Kuybyshev.
View is northwest toward the high right (west) bank. Main ele-
ments of the physical landscape at July low water are shown by
numbers on the diagram: 1) flattish top of Pre-Volga Hills; 2)
bluffs along the high west bank; 3) debris at foot of the bluffs;
4) narrow valleys which separate hill blocks; 5) low terraces
(chiefly on left (east) bank) which are flooded in the spring
(April-June) ; 6) higher terraces, usually drier than those close
to the river, but which may be flooded during high water; 7), 8)
sandbars, islands, and enclosed false channels; 91 steep east bank,
found on outside of bends only; 10) higher nonflooded terrace
leading up to Trans-Volga Hills (to right of view) ; 11) main chan-
nels of Volga; 12) deep gullies crossing the level areas. (Vertical
proportions are greatly exaggerated.)
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FIGURE 11-84. High bluffs on the right (west) bank of the Volga
opposite Kuybyshev.
These high, solid-rock bluffs topped by vertical cliffs and pierced
by narrow-notched side valleys are slightly higher than the aver-
age for the lower Volga but otherwise are typical. Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-85. Lower Kama valley east of Kazan'.
Although the stream is low at this esason (summer) the broad,
main rocky channel, plus steep, partially forested banks, with
much loose rock on the slopes, constitute a handicap to movement.
Before 1941.
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Many of the interstream, flat-topped hill blocks, particu-
larly in the Pre-Volga Hills, are several miles across and
scores of miles long. As a result, farms, roads, railways,
and some villages are located in clearings on tops of the
ridges. However, better ground water supply and easier
gradients cause many villages and routes to be located
within the narrow valleys. Through railways alternately
follow valley bottoms and ridge tops, using in each locality
the one which is most nearly alined with the direction the
route must maintain.
Block ridge-and-valley terrain such as that in the two
Volga Hills areas tends to channelize movement along the
easily traversed, flat, ridge tops and within the few broad,
flat-bottomed valleys. Both V-shaped and broad-bot-
tomed valleys are steep sided, and movement across them
is possible but difficult, particularly if the valley soils are
soft and slippery from snow-melt or recent rains. Gullies
across level areas compel detours. Moderately dense for-
ests on the slopes add to the difficulties of cross-country
movement in the Volga Hills areas, but the barrier effect
of these woods is secondary to the barriers of relief and
of the streams (FIGURE 11-85).
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-Most parts of the Central
Russian Plain are well drained. The only extensive areas
of swamp and marsh are: 1) large sections of the Oka -
Vetluga Wet Lowlands (C-3d) ; 2) small stream basins such
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FIGURE 11-86. Volga and its low, east bank.
The low, east or left bank of the Volga shows in the background beyond the large raft in the channel. These low, largely grass-
covered lands are flooded in spring. Note the scattered clumps and strips of woodland on the flood plain. Before 1941.
as the Kostroma in the Upper Volga Lowland (C-3e) ; 3) a
few wide valleys in the Volga Hills areas (C-3f and C-3h)
north and south of Kazan'; and 4) the seasonally flooded
bottomlands along the Volga below Kazan' (C-3g and
FIGURE 11-86).
Only the Oka - Vetluga Wet Lowlands (C-3d) and Volga
Flood Plain (C-3g) are large and continuous enough to act
as barriers to cross-country movement. The other poorly
drained areas are noncontinuous and may be bypassed
with little difficulty on adjacent higher and drier lands.
Even the Oka - Vetluga Wet Lowlands (C-3d) are inter-
rupted by 15- to 25-foot sand and gravel swells and short
ranges of hills that rise 50 to 200 feet above the swamps
(FIGURE 11-87). In contrast with this, the Middle Volga
Flood Plain (C-3g) south of Kazan' is covered with 5 to 20
feet of water to a width of 3 to 5 miles during the spring
flood season from mid-April to early June. At that time
these flooded lowlands are a formidable barrier. This bar-
rier effect is increased during the early stages of the flood,
from April to early May, by the presence of ice blocks in
the floodwaters.
FIGURE 11-87. Vetluga valley east of Gor'kiy.
Log jam during the spring flood season (April, May) in the Vet-
luga river, a small northern tributary of the Volga. Most of the
low, gravel-filled valley floor is under water at this season. Note
the range of forested hills in the background. Before 1941.
Within the Oka - Vetluga Wet Lowlands (C-3d) and
Middle Volga Flood Plain (C-3g) most of the poorly
drained lands are tree-covered swamps, although there are
some grass and reed marshes. Swamps are even more
dominant in the poorly drained valleys of the Pre-Volga
Hills (C-3f) and Trans-Volga Hills (C-3h) areas. The
Middle Volga Flood Plain (C-3g) has many reed- and grass-
covered marshes among the extensive swamps.
Only the major streams in the Central Russian Plain
(Region C-3)-Don, Oka, and Volga- will be discussed
here in some detail. The Dnepr is treated in connection
with the Southwest Russian Upland (C-2). The smaller
streams in the Central Russian Plain (C-3) are not wide
and deep enough to constitute serious barriers except dur-
ing spring floods (April to May) and at that time their
valleys are so deep in mud that the streams can hardly be
approached. Banks of these small streams are of clay or
loam and are less than 10 to 20 feet high at low water
(August to September). The west and the south banks
are almost invariably the higher ones. Bottoms of these
lesser streams are generally sand and sand loam.
The upper Don river is only 100 to 150 feet broad and
3 to 6 feet deep near its headwaters but increases rapidly
southward, and at Voronezh (on the southern boundary
of Region C) the river reaches about 660 feet in breadth
and 32 feet in depth. During spring high water the Don
at least doubles its width and depth. Even small tribu-
taries are then in flood, and many of these flood again
after every heavy summer rain (FIGURE 11-88). The high
west bank of the Don attains elevations of 100 to 120 feet
where sections of the Central Russian Hills (C-3b) reach
the river.
The Oka river also increases greatly in size within the
Central Russian Plain (C-3). The river is 150 feet wide
FIGURE 11-88. Stream in flood, upper Don area.
This typical, easily destroyed wooden bridge is flooded and en-
dangered by a summer rainstorm. For a few hours after the
storm the stream will remain deep and wide, a considerable barrier
to cross-country movement. Before 1941.
Original
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and from 2 to 5 feet deep near Orel in the Central Russian
Hills and it reaches 800 to 1,500 feet in breadth with depths
up to 40 feet near its junction with the Volga in the
swampy lowlands east of Moscow. Sand bars are com-
mon, however, and water is only 2 to 3 feet deep over them.
All measurements refer to average summer depths. Banks
of the Oka are generally low (20 to 25 feet) especially in
the wet lowland southeast of Moscow. These low banks
are little protection in flood time (April to May), when the
river rises at least 25 feet, overflows its banks, and spreads
out to a maximum width of 3 miles. Such floods deposit
much sediment and, as a result, the channel bottom and
the banks of the Oka are made up largely of fine loam near
the headwaters and coarse sand and gravel in the lower
stretches. The Oka, like the Don, is navigable for small
flat-bottomed boats, but would form a greater barrier to
military operations.
The Volga is a large stream even in its upper reaches
north of Moscow. Near Yaroslavl' the river is 885 feet to
3,500 feet wide and 10 to 14 feet deep. From Gor'kiy to
the mouth of the Kama river the Volga ranges between
one-half and one mile in width and 15 to 35 feet in depth.
However, sand bars in the stretch below Gor'kiy reduce
the depth at some points to 4 to 6 feet. Finally, in the
great flood plain area south of Kazan', the Volga averages
a mile and a quarter in width and 50 to 60 feet in depth,
with shallows of 7 to 10 feet. All of the minimum depths
quoted for the Volga are increased two or three times
during the April-to-June flood period. Although sand
bars reduce the effective channel depth of the Volga to 8 to
10 feet below Kazan' and 6 to 8 feet above Gor'kiy, the
river is still a great commercial artery and is as effective
a barrier to movement as a large stream can be. In com-
mon with the Oka, the barrier effect of the Volga is in-
creased by the dense, and in many places swampy, forests
along its banks. The high, south and west banks of the
Volga, which rise to 300- to 500-foot cliffs south of Kazan',
already have been discussed under Relief (Topic 22, C,
(4), (a)).
The barrier effect of all the streams in the Central Rus-
sian Plain is much reduced during the period when they
are frozen over. This ice season lasts from early Novem-
ber to late March in the Yaroslavl' district and continues
until early April in the Kazan'-Kuybyshev stretch. Dur-
ing this midwinter period, men and light equipment can
cross the ice, especially if it has been reinforced by ice
blocks and brush and pole mats.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Dominant vegetation in
the Central Russian Plain (C-3) is dense forest, with many
clearings. These openings in the forest are occupied by
crops, meadows, or marshes. In some places the forest
has much undergrowth, which is low but dense (FIGURE
11-89).
North of the Volga, the forest is dominantly coniferous
(fir and spruce, with pine on the sands) but has some oak
and poplar on the finer, better-drained soils (FIGURE 11-90).
South of the Volga, the broadleaf (oak, beech, poplar, horn-
beam) trees increase in number and in many parts are
dominant (FIGURE 11-91). Near the southern border of
this subregion trees, chiefly poplar and willow, are limited
to the valleys and around the villages where they are
planted (FIGURE 11-92). Cereals, which are now grown
over the greater part of the broad, natural prairies, con-
stitute the main vegetation. Chief crops grown in the
clearings of the middle and northern sections of the Cen-
tral Russian Plain are: barley, potatoes, sugar beets, for-
Original
FIGURE 11-89. Forest with much brush and scrub growth, Moscow
area.
In this early winter view the snow and frost have covered the
trees and underbrush and filled the frozen ruts in the road.
Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-90. Dense coniferous forest near the Volga, north of
Moscow.
The narrow logging road provides the only path for advance of
vehicles through the forest. The surrounding dense growth of
large trees provides much cover and concealment off the road.
Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-91. Oak forest west of Voronezh.
Low but dense stand, chiefly of scrub oak. The narrow earth
road is typical. Firewood is abundant, but timber is limited in
size and amount. Vertical cover and concealment are less here
than in forests farther north, but horizontal observation and, to
some extent, movement, are obstructed by the scrubby growth,
especially when trees are in leaf. Before 1927.
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FIGURE 11-92. Southern margin of middle Dnepr plain, west of Khar'kov.
The broad, flat valley in the middle distance rises gently to the broad, rolling interstream area in the background. Note gullies
on slopes in background. Grain crops occupy almost all the surface. Note the scattered trees in the villages and along the railway. 1945.
age, grasses, and garden vegetables. None of these crops
offers much concealment or any cover, but the dense
forest patches afford excellent concealment and consid-
erable cover (FIGURE 11-93). The Soviet armies found in
World War II, as the Russian armies found in 1812, that
the dense forests on the Central Russian Hills north and
west of Moscow were one of the main natural defenses of
the city. The swamps and forests along the upper Volga
south of Kalinin also helped slow the second great German
attack in November and December, 1941. Swamps and
forests along the Oka are a further barrier which helped
to protect Moscow in 1941.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-With the exception of the swamps and marshes
FIGURE 11-93. A valley between Mirgorod and Poltava.
Natural groves in the valley bottom (left) and planted trees around the village on the valley margin (right) break the monotony of
the low crop-and pasturelands (center). 1945.
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Original
 Confidential Approved For Release 2003/05(IJITA$V' -E8GR2 ,i#4A000200010002-7
along the Oka, Vetluga, and middle Volga, and the wet
valleys in the Volga Hills, most of the soils in the Central
Russian Plain drain quickly and are trafficable most of the
year. Chief seasons of soil trafficability and nontraffica-
bility in this subregion are similar to those in the Baltic -
West Russian Hills and Wet Lowlands subregion (C-1).
The winter season of hard-frozen, highly trafficable soil
(late December to March or April) is followed by the spring
thaw or mud season (early April to mid-June) with its
bottomless roads and generally nontrafficable surfaces
(PLANS 6 and 9). By late June the non-swampy ground
has dried. Good trafficability then prevails (except after
the occasional heavy summer rains) until the short
autumn rainy season of October to November (FIGURE
11-75). This short mud season helped to halt the first
great German drive on Moscow (October 1941). In some
years the muddy roads are frozen quickly at the beginning
of winter, and the hard ruts are partially filled by early
snows, making the roads very rough and almost nontraffic-
able (FIGURE 11-89).
In the Central Russian Plain (C-3) there is little dif-
ference between the trafficability of the soils on the hills
and those on the plains, as the lowland soils contain more
sand and are more porous than the soils, on the hills.
Page 11-55
D. Region D, Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
(PLAN 2 and FIGURES 11-94 and 11-105)
(1) Introduction
The Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains Region is located
in the extreme southwest of European USSR. It consists
mainly of the central part of the Carpathian Mountains, a
range which extends both west and southeast out of the
area covered by this JANIS. To the west, the higher and
more extensive western Carpathians lie in Czechoslovakia
and Poland, and to the southeast the broad southern Car-
pathians occupy much of Transylvania in western Ru-
mania.
The part of the Carpathian Mountains included in this
region is relatively low and narrow, and contains a number
of strategically important north - south pass routes be-
tween the Hungarian plain and the easily traversed South-
west Russian Upland (subregion C-2). These passes are
readily accessible from both north and south over the
mountain forelands, which are transitional areas of lower
foothill relief included in the Ukrainian Carpathian Moun-
tains Region. From the north a well-developed road and
rail net connects with a road and railroad extending along
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Original
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the outer edge of the northern foreland, and from this line
four main roads and three railroads extend southward up
the valleys and across the mountains. (See FIGURE 11-105.)
From the south the Hungarian plain provides easy access
to the upper reaches of the river Tissa (Tisa) and its tribu-
tary streams whose valleys form natural routes across the
Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains. Except for the narrow,
north - south valleys and the foreland areas to the north
and south, however, most of the region is not easily acces-
sible by land. There are no continuous natural routes or
lines of communication extending entirely through the
northwest - southeast - trending axis of the region, al-
though in many places limited movement is possible in this
direction.
The Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains Region forms a
crude triangle with the towns of Przemy'sl (Peremyshl'),
Uzhgorod (Uzhorod), and Chernovtsy (Cernauti) lying
near the corners. It is approximately 100 miles from the
northwestern corner near Przemy'sl to the southwestern
corner south of Uzhgorod, and approximately 200 miles
from each of these points to the southeastern tip of the
region southeast of Chernovtsy. The total area is about
11,500 square miles, approximately as large as Maryland
and Delaware combined.
Nearly the whole Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains Re-
gion is rugged in relief, although few of the mountains
are over 6,000 feet above sea level. The terrain restricts
movement to the roads in a few north - south transverse
valleys. Outside these valleys cross-country movement is
restricted by steep slopes and dense forest vegetation.
Lack of roads in most areas limits movement to the trans-
verse valleys. Only in the mountain foreland areas to the
north and south are there areas sufficiently level to make
cross-country movement feasible. To the north of the
main mountains the hilly terrain of the foreland has been
largely cleared, and many of the slopes are gentle enough
for the movement of vehicles. To the south on the fore-
land plain the relief is nearly level, and there are few forests
which interfere with movement.
Most of the precipitation within the region occurs dur-
ing the late spring and summer, when heavy rains often
turn mountain streams into torrents and the narrow val-
leys are completely flooded. Extensive areas in the fore-
lands also are inundated when streams overflow. Soil
drainage is poor in large parts of the relatively level south-
ern foreland and along the stream valleys in the northern
foreland area. In both places the alluvial soils range
from medium to fine texture and are likely to be nontraf-
ficable during spring thaws and during and after spring
and summer rains.
Population is sparse in the rugged terrain because of the
dense forests, and thin mountain soil. Here stock-raising
and lumbering are the principal occupations. In the fore-
lands conditions are more suited to agriculture, the land
is used for crops as well as pasture, and the population
density is much greater. The towns of Przemy'sl, Sambor,
Drogobych (Drogobycz), Stryy (Stryj), Stanislav (Stanis-
awow), and Kolomyya (Kolomyja) are located at the
mouths of the principal valleys along the northern border
of the region. Their commercial and economic importance
is due chiefly to trade, and oil and salt deposits. Uzhgorod
and Munkachevo (Mukacevo) are agricultural market
towns located on the foreland plain south of the Carpathi-
ans. All of the towns are transportation centers, and
among the routes radiating from them are some that ex-
tend across the mountains.
Within the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains Region are
three natural subregions which vary primarily in relief
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and vegetation. The Russian Carpathians Range subre-
gion refers strictly to the main mountain mass, whereas
the Northern Foreland subregion designates the hilly ter-
rain which merges into the gently undulating Southwest
Russian Upland north of the Carpathians. South of the
Russian Carpathians Range lies the plain of the Southern
Foreland which, as the Hungarian. plain, extends south-
ward out of the area covered by this JANIS. Each of these
subregions will be discussed separately.
(2) Subregion D-1, Russian Carpathian Range (PLAN 2
and FIGURE 11-105)
(a) Relief.-The Russian Carpathian Range is a link
between the higher western and broader southern Car-
pathian Mountains; the Range comprises a major part of
the low central or forested Carpathians. The Range ex-
tends northwestward from the headwaters of the Tissa
(Tisa) river beyond the western limit of this JANIS area.
West of this arbitrary boundary, immediately outside the
JANIS area, the mountains and the crests are so low and
rounded that they are merely hills with easy north - south
routes between the Polish and Hungarian plains. Still
farther west, the true western Carpathians are a real moun-
tain barrier to north - south communication.
The Russian Carpathian Range consists principally of a
main sandstone range and a southern belt of old volcanic
materials. These mountains form an arc trending north-
west - southeast. The average width of the mountains is
about 60 miles, and highest elevations are between 3,000
and 5,500 feet above sea level in the west and between 4,500
and 6,750 feet in the east. In the western part of this sub-
region, stream valleys and valley basins are more numer-
ous and passes are generally lower (FIGURES 11-95 to 11-97).
FIGURE 11-95. Low, rounded mountains near Uzhok.
Direction unknown. Mountains in the western part of the Uk-
rainian Carpathians are much lower and more rounded than the
mountains in the eastern part, and the valleys are wider. Much
of the original forest has been destroyed and large areas of hill
and mountain land are utilized for pasture. Before 1936.
West of the river Stryy,in the northwestern part of the
subregion the mountains consist of numerous parallel
ridges trending northwest - southeast. The many crests
of these ridges are gently rounded, with most of the heights
ranging between 1,500 to 2,500 feet above sea level. Move-
ment through this northwestern part of the subregion is
relatively easy, as the upper Dnestr and several of its tribu-
taries form fairly broad transverse valleys through the
parallel ridges. There are likewise many discontinuous
northwest - southeast valleys between the ridges. These
valleys, drained by small streams, have been mostly cleared
and are inhabited. Lower slopes of the ridges have gentle
grades.
Original
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FIGURE 11-96. Valley basin along the Opor at Skole.
Probably looking southeastward. Section of railway in fore-
ground is the main line connecting the towns of Stryy and
Munkachevo via the Beskid Pass. This basin is about 1 mile
wide and 2 miles long. It narrows to a width of a few hundred
yards at each end. The Opor flows along the base of the Russian
Carpathian Range shown in background. Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-97. Valley basin at Volovets (Volove) .
Direction unknown. One of the few valley basins in the Russian
Carpathian Range. These north - south trending valley basins
located near the upper southern slopes of the mountains form part
of the natural transverse routes across the mountains. The valley
basin is almost entirely cultivated. Before 1936.
A fair network of roads covers this area west of the Stryy,
but as a rule these roads are unimproved and in poor con-
dition. Only two main roads and two railroads cross the
mountains in the western part of the subregion. One
main road and a railroad extend northward from Uzhgorod
up the river Ug (Uh), across the Uzhok (Uzok) Pass at an
elevation of 2,915 feet, and down the Dnestr to the towns
of Sambor, Przemy'sl, and L'vov (FIGURE 11-105). A second
road and railroad extend northward from Munkachevo
along the river Latoritsa to the village of Svalyava
(Svalava). At this place the transportation lines divide.
The railroad follows a northeasterly tributary of the La-
toritsa to the Beskid Pass, with an elevation of 3,215 feet at
the tunnel, follows the Opor valley to the Stryy, and then
turns northward to the towns of Stryy and L'vov. The
road northward from Svalyava winds through several small
east - west and north - south valleys to the mountain crest
at Pereval Veretskiy, which is located some 12 miles west -
northwest of the Beskid Pass at an elevation of 2,759 feet.
This road then swings northward to the Opor valley where
it again parallels the railroad to the town of Stryy. This
road and railroad form the most important route across the
central Russian Carpathians.
Southeastward from the Stryy the parallel ridges of the
Western Russian Carpathian Range unite and form a more
massive type of mountain chain. This mountain chain,
known as the Gorgany chain, extends from the Pereval
Veretskiy to the Tatar Pass in the area containing the
source of the Prut. These mountains, which are deeply
cut by transverse valleys, are higher and more rugged than
Original
the parallel ridges to the west. Slopes are steep, although
just south of the crest line there are large summit areas
with rolling relief at elevations about 4,000 feet. These
highland areas are extremely isolated but are used by
herders during the summer after the snows melt.
Within such mountains large areas are covered with
sandstone blocks which, together with the deep narrow
gorges of the upper stream valleys, make movement ex-
tremely difficult.
Except for the passes at each end of the Gorgany chain,
there are no important passageways across this section of
the Russian Carpathian Range. A main road extends
northward from Chust (Khust) up the Rika to the crest
of the divide, but continues as a secondary road part way
down the northern slope, where it connects with a main
road to the town of Dolina. A railroad extends part way
up the southern slopes from Khust.
The Gorgany chain of mountains merges on the south
with the Charnogor (Chernogora) range which extends
southeastward out of the subregion and the JANis area
(FIGURE 11-98). The Charnogor range is composed of hard
sandstone and has an elevation of 6,750 feet above sea level
at Gora Goverla (Mt. Hoverla), the highest elevation in
the Russian Carpathian Range. Much of the Charnogor
is extremely rugged and densely forested. It is suitable
only for limited mountain-type operations. Snows fur-
ther impede cross-country movement within the area dur-
ing the winter. Movement across the divide is impeded by
long ridge summits rising more than 5,000 feet above the
elevation of the valley bottom of the Tissa (Tisa) at Sighet.
Passes through these summits are not opposite each other,
but can be linked circuitously by way of the intervening
valleys. Such routes furnish the few feasible ways across
the Charnogor range. The principal pass in this area, the
Tatar Pass, at an elevation of 3,054 feet above sea level is
part of such a trans-mountain route. The main road ex-
tends up the Tissa (Tisa) from Sighet, over this pass, and
down the headwaters of the Prut to the foothill town of
Delyatin (Delatyn). The railroad passes the crest of the
range via a tunnel at an elevation of 2,883 feet. This pass
is a few miles southeast of the road.
FIGURE 11-98. Khrebet Charnogor.
rounded summits are the highest mountains in the Russian Car-
pathian Range. Dense forests cover the slopes to an elevation
of approximately 5,000 feet; summit areas are covered with snow
for about 9 months of the year. Before 1941.
On the south side of the Russian Carpathian Range is a
narrow fringe of old volcanic mountains consisting of sev-
eral groups of mountains which are separated from the
main sandstone mountain range by a nearly continuous
valley trough, one to three miles wide. From east to west
these volcanic mountains are divided into separate groups
by the main headwater streams of the Tissa (Tisa). Each
of these groups of mountains is about 8 miles wide and 20
miles in maximum length. Most of the old volcanic moun-
tain groups are low and rise from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above
the level of the plain with the highest elevation at 3,523
feet above sea level. The mountains are rounded and the
slopes are not steep. Movement throughout the area
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would not be difficult. Main roads and railroads follow
the principal valleys, and numerous secondary roads and
trails extend along the numerous small tributaries.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4 and FIGURE II-105).-Stream
flow in the Russian Carpathian Range is irregular, due to
the seasonal distribution of precipitation, and the im-
permeability of the rock. During the spring and summer
rains and during periods of sudden thaw, streams in the
mountains rise in a few hours, and become torrents. Nor-
mally the water recedes in a short time. In narrow valleys
the floods may occupy the whole valley bottom, thereby
rendering the valleys impassable.
The northern slopes of the Russian Carpathian Range
are drained principally by the upper headwaters of the
Dnestr and its tributaries. Only a narrow fringe along
the northwestern margin of the area drains westward to-
ward the headwaters of the San and on into the Wista
(Vistula). The Dnestr flows in a general northeast direc-
tion to the northern boundary of the region at Sambor,
where the course of the stream changes to a southeastern
direction parallel to the mountains. Here the stream is
10 to 20 miles north of Region D. Principal tributaries of
the Dnestr flowing northeastward from the Russian Car-
pathian Range include the Stryy, Svitsa (Swica), Lomnitsa
(Lomnica), and the Bystritsa (Bystrzyca). These streams
are narrow and shallow except during the periods of high
water. In the southeastern part of the subregion, the
northern slopes of the mountains are drained mainly by
the headwaters of the Prut and its tributary, the Chere-
mosh (Czeremosz) (FIGURE 11-99).
FIGURE 11-99. Upper course of the Prut.
Direction unknown. Looking downstream near Yaremcha
(Jaremcze) , south of Delyatin (Delatyn I. The stream bed is rocky
and the valley slopes, which are covered by leaf forests, are steep.
The single-track railway viaduct and road bridge are on the main
communication lines between Kolomyya and Khust (Chust).
Before 1941.
The southern slopes of the Russian Carpathian Range
are drained by the Tissa (Tisa), which rises in the eastern
part of these mountains near the Tatar Pass. This stream
flows southward in a long gorgelike valley, and during high
water the stream is a mountain torrent (FIGURE II-100).
Due to its normally irregular flow, dams have been con-
structed in the mountains to regulate the flow of water.
During dry periods in the summer months, when the water
level is too low to float logs, dams are opened periodically
to create a larger flow of water. Any military movement
along the stream might be endangered if waters impounded
by these dams were suddenly released.
Numerous tributaries flow southward down the slopes
of the mountains to the Tissa (Tisa). From west to east,
FIGURE II-100. The Chernaya (Black) Tissa.
Direction unknown. Looking downstream near Yaremcha
Yasena (Jasina). Typical of the narrow, steep-sloped mountain
valleys which are filled with torrents during spring thaws and
following heavy summer rains. Landslides and wash-outs often
destroy lines of communication such as the road at the left.
Before 1936.
FIGURE II-101. Valley of river Tereshva.
Exact location unknown. The valley of the river Tereshva is
typical of the narrow valleys of the Russian Carpathian Range.
During spring thaws and periods of heavy summer rains, the entire
valley bottom may be covered with flood waters. Valley slopes
are generally steep, and mountains are largely covered with forest.
Log rafts are floated downstream during periods of high water
but may strand, as appears to be the case in the picture, when the
water level falls. Before 1936.
the principal streams are the Ug (Uh), Latoritsa, Rika,
Terebla, and the Tereshva (Teresva) (FIGURES II-101 and
11-105). Most of these streams, before entering the plain,
are typical mountain streams with rocky beds and wide
fluctuation of flow.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Characteristic vegetation
of the Russian Carpathian Range is heavy forest on the
slopes and natural grass-herb pasture above the timber
line (FIGURE 11-102). Much of the original forests has been
destroyed either by fire or lumbering, especially in the west-
ern part of the subregion, where the mountains are lower
and less rugged, and along the valleys where the forest is
most accessible. Generally, the mountains are forested
up to an elevation of 4,000 feet and in some places 5,000
feet. Large areas of high, rolling ridges above the tree
line are covered with a natural alpine-pasture type of grass.
These areas of natural pasture, called poloninas, are used
for the summer grazing of cattle and horses brought up
from the lower slopes and valleys. Only patches of juniper
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FIGURE 11-102. Forested mountains of the Russian Carpathian
Range.
Direction unknown. View of Bystri valley west of Uzhok near
the crest line in the western part of the Russian Carpathian
Range. Mountains of sandstone are rounded, and higher slopes
are covered with forest. Relief, combined with vegetation, tends
to restrict movement to a few main lines of communication.
Before 1936.
or outcrops of bare rock break the monotony of these natu-
ral pastures. On the lower slopes the trees are principally
broadleaf, chiefly oak and beech, and at higher elevations,
mainly conifers. Wider valley bottoms for the most part
are cleared for cultivation. Principal crops are grains,
beets, and potatoes.
On account of their greater height and difficulty of ac-
cess, the Gorgany chain of mountains remains covered with
thick forests of tall trees. The lower, wooded zone has
beech forests, mixed with ash, maple, pine, and fir, whereas
the upper wooded zone is almost entirely pine. The timber
line is very irregular, ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 feet ele-
vation. Extensive tracts of creeping mountain pine,
through which it is difficult to pass, partly cover the rock
heaps on the slopes.
The slopes of the Charnogor range are covered with thick
woods. Oak forests containing dense underbrush cover
the lower slopes; above this zone are mixed forests of beech,
birch, ash, maple, fir, and pine. Above an elevation of ap-
proximately 4,000 feet there is a belt exclusively of dwarf
pines which extend to an elevation of somewhat over 5,000
feet.
Dense forests combined with rugged, high mountain re-
lief make military operations difficult, especially in the east-
ern half of the Russian Carpathian Range. During the
military operations in the World War I, however, due to
the many clearings, the forests proved to be far less a bar-
rier to movement than was anticipated.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-Rugged relief and steep slopes cause generally non-
trafficable conditions in the Russian Carpathian Range,
regardless of surface materials or weather, except locally
or on established routes of travel in the valleys. Most of
the mountains have well-drained soils covering bedrock.
These soils consist of mixed shallow-and-deep loams and
clays weathered from the parent rock. Depressions and
mountain basins are filled with fine-to-coarse alluvial ma-
terials. On slopes soil depth varies from a few inches to
several feet; on rolling upland and depressions the depth
ranges from a few feet to many feet. Bedrock outcrops
locally, and rock fragments are scattered through the soils.
Sandstones and the other local rocks erode and weather
easily. Consequently, huge landslides, which often destroy
the roads, frequently occur in the mountain valleys.
Forest ground is very wet after heavy summer down-
pours, causing sudden heavy run-off which fills mountain
creek and stream valleys, rendering the area almost non-
trafficable immediately after storms. Run-off, however, is
comparatively rapid due to the steep slopes, thin soils, and
impermeable nature of the bedrock.
In winter snow cover at higher elevations and on the sum-
mits is several feet deep; on the Khrebet Charnogor snow
covers part of the surface for nearly nine months.
(3) Subregion D-2, Northern Foreland (PLAN 2 and FIG-
URE 11-105)
(a) Relief.-The Northern Foreland subregion is be-
tween the most conspicuous break in slope and height of the
FIGURE 11-103. Northern Foreland.
Looking westward along the northern edge of the Russian Carpathian Range from the area where the Prut enters the foreland area.
The town of Delyatin (Delatyn) is located in the basin at left background. Low, foreland hills with gentle-to-medium slopes have
been largely cleared of forests, which makes cross-county movement comparatively easy. Trees afford some concealment. Most of
the land is either under cultivation or in pasture. Before 1941.
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Russian Carpathian Range and the northern boundary of
the region. Thus on the north, the hilly foreland grades
gradually into the rolling uplands of subregion C-2. The
foreland fringes the mountains for the entire length of the
region, and varies in width from a few miles to a maximum
width of about 30 miles. The terrain is gently undulating-
to-hilly with numerous alluvial valleys cutting across the
area (FIGURE 11-103). General elevation above sea level
ranges from approximately 750 to 1,000 feet with the higher
foothills of the Carpathians reaching an elevation of about
2,500 feet above sea level.
Movement throughout the Northern Foreland is rela-
tively easy. The slopes of the hills generally range from
151/1( to 301/ and movement is not confined to the roads
during the dry season. The valleys permit easy access to
the mountains. Locally, however, movement is hindered
by gullies and by streams which are entrenched in the val-
leys. In many places movement across the streams would
be channeled through breaks in the discontinuous bluffs
and stream embankments.
A relatively poor network of roads serves the subregion.
A main road and railroad extend along the northern edge
of the foreland area and lateral lines extend southward up
the main valleys and across the mountains. Otherwise
communications consist mainly of secondary roads and
paths.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4 and FIGURE II-105).-Most
streams of the northern slopes of the Russian Carpathian
Range extend across the foreland in a northeasterly direc-
tion and enter the Dnestr, which flows southeastward,
roughly parallel to and a few miles to the north of the north-
ern boundary of the region. As the mountain streams
enter the foreland area they decrease in velocity and in-
crease in width. A few meander widely over broad valley
floors (FIGURE 11-104). The streams range up to an aver-
age depth of 5 feet and vary in width up to about 300 feet.
Natural fords provide means of crossing even the larger
streams during periods of normal flow. Marshes extend
along several of the streams and also cover several large
interstream areas.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Most of the foreland has
been cleared of the original forest growth and now is either
under cultivation or utilized for grazing. Valleys and
lower slopes are mainly in cereals, beets, potatoes, and pas-
ture. On the higher, or steeper slopes, the dominant vege-
tation includes natural grasses in pasturelands, and woods
of broadleaf trees.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-In the Northern Foreland there is generally fair
trafficability on relatively level-to-hilly terrain. Soils con-
sist principally of fine-textured loam and clay. The fine-
textured surface soils dry slowly after the heavy summer
rains. As a result, movement is stopped for approximately
three weeks during spring thaws, from the latter part of
March until the middle of April. This period is followed
by short periods of poor trafficability during the month of
May; movement becomes fair in June, and is normally
good from July to November.
From December to late in April, frozen ground renders
the soil trafficable, but movement is hindered by frequent
and heavy snows, which average from 10 to 15 inches per
month from November to April. Hilly land with slopes
mainly 15 14, to 30'% in gradient dominates the area, thereby
furnishing good drainage. Tracked vehicles can move on
most of these slopes when soils are dry, but steeper slopes
stop all types of vehicles.
Along the lower flood plains within the region, the soils
vary in texture from coarse, near stream channels, to fine
farther back from the streams. Natural drainage differs
widely according to season. In contrast with conditions
FIGURE 11-104. Cherna Cheremosh Stream at Zhab'ye (Zabie).
Probably looking eastward downstream toward the outlying Khrebet Chernogor. Entrenched and meandering Cherna Cheremosh with
relatively wide valley and gentle slopes in foreground. Farm houses are widely scattered throughout the valley and on lower slopes.
Before 1941.
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FIGURE 11-105
UKRAINIAN CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
Roads - First class '1204 Spot elevations in feet
Roads - Second class . . Passes
50 60 70
EUROPEAN U. S. S. R.
UKRAINIAN CARPATHIAN
MOUNTAINS
RELIEF
(REGION D)
Region boundaries 4.- Railroads ? Single track
............ Subregion boundaries Railroads - Two or more tracks
International Boundaries . . Railroads - Narrow gouge
D-1 Russian Carpathian Range T Railroads - Under Construction
D-2 Northern Foreland Rivers
D-3 Southern Foreland _ : Marshes and swamps
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prevalent in the level-to-hilly terrain of the foreland, move-
ment is stopped on the lower flood plains for about five
weeks in April and May, during spring thaws of the snow on
the higher levels. Short periods of poor trafficability fol-
low during June and July, but movement in summer is gen-
erally good on well-drained areas; poorly drained areas al-
ways must be detoured.
(4) Subregion D-3, Southern Foreland (FIGURES 11-94
and 11-105)
(a) Relief.-The Southern Foreland extends from the
gentle slopes of the old volcanic mountains, which are part
of the main Russian Carpathian Range, to the extreme
southwestern boundary of the region. This subregion is
actually the northern fringe of the Hungarian plain and
has a northeast - southwest width of about 20 miles and a
length of about 55 miles. Elevation above sea-level near
the foot of the Carpathians is only about 350 to 500 feet,
and most of the plain is nearly flat. Relief in itself offers
no continuous barrier to cross-country movement, drainage
being the principal hindrance to movement.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4 and FIGURE II-105).-Streams
emerge from the mountains and meander across the plain.
Some of the streams disappear in marshes. Hundreds of
miles of dikes have been constructed along the banks of the
streams but, even so, large areas are threatened each year
with inundation during the periods of spring thaw and
heavy summer rains. Revetments and embankments have
been constructed along many of the roads and railroads
within this area.
The principal stream draining the southern slopes of the
Russian Carpathian Range is the Tissa (Tisa) with its
tributaries. The Tissa (Tisa) flows southward in the east-
ern part of the Ukrainian Carpathian Region, but at the
foot of the mountains it turns westward and enters the
Hungarian plain near Khust. As the river debouches from
the mountains, in a broad valley which is a part of Sub-
region D-1, the stream drops less than 10 feet per mile, and
its depth is little more than three feet. After the Tissa
(Tisa) enters the foreland plain its depth increases to over
eight feet, and its gradient diminishes to about two feet per
mile. Southwest of Khust the river flows along the bound-
ary of the region for several miles, then makes a wide bend
to the south into Hungary, and finally cuts back across the
extreme southwestern corner of the region at Chop (top).
Most of the tributaries of the Tissa (Tisa) before entering
t'he plain, are typical mountain streams with wide fluctua-
tion of flow, but between Uzhgorod and Khust they widen
as they leave the foot of the mountains and meander across
the plain to the Tissa (Tisa). Several of the streams flow
in a network of channels.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-The forests of the Southern
Foreland now cover only 20'," of the total area, and culti-
vated crops occupy 50 to 60'( . Principal crops are ce-
reals. About 10 of the land is in pasture, and an equal
amount lies fallow.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-The surface materials of the Southern Foreland con-
sist mainly of medium-to-fine-textured river deposits which
are nontrafficable except during dry weather. Several
areas of marsh in the central part of the plain are impass-
able to wheeled vehicles throughout the year, and extensive
areas are flooded after heavy rains for a considerable pe-
riod, due to the generally poor drainage. Numerous areas
are criss-crossed by irrigation and drainage ditches which
would impede cross-country movement.
Original
Frequently the heavy summer rains in the mountains
and the rapid run-off cause the streams on the plain to over-
flow their banks, rendering areas untrafficable or difficult
to negotiate. Large areas could be flooded easily for mili-
tary purposes by breaching embankments or dikes along
the streams. In late summer the soils are generally dry
and trafficability is good. Freezing temperatures occur
during the winter months, and the top soil and streams
freeze, but not deeply enough during normal years to sup-
port heavy equipment.
E. Region E, Grassland Belt
(1) Introduction (PLAN 2)
The vast Grassland Belt (Region E) is in the southern
portion of the area included in this JANIS. It lies south
of the Belt of Forests and Clearings (Region C), east of the
Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains (Region D), and west
of the Volga-Caspian Desert (Region G). On the south
the region is bordered by the Black Sea, the Mountainous
Crimea (Region F), and the Sea of Azov. The Grassland
Belt includes much of the vital Ukraine but only the north-
ern three-fourths of the Crimean Peninsula (E-3, Crimean
Grassland). The region has a maximum east - west
length of more than 1,300 miles and a maximum north -
south width of 550 miles. These are the approximate dis-
tances from Washington, D. C., to Houston, Texas, and from
Washington, D. C., to Savannah, Georgia, respectively.
The area of the Grassland Belt is about 250,000 square
miles, about the combined areas of California and Oregon.
This Grassland Belt has no outstanding terrain obstacles
to movement. Its wide expanses of level-to-rolling, grass-
covered plains have for centuries provided the most con-
venient and best natural route between the east and west
for both traders and invaders.
Both agriculture and industry have significant positions
in the economy of the Grassland Belt. Very little un-
developed land remains. The more moist areas in the west
and south supply the USSR with most of its cereals, vege-
tables, and fruits. Agriculture is highly mechanized and
depends greatly upon power from gasoline. This depend-
ence makes agricultural pursuits particularly vulnerable in
time of war. Agricultural products form the bases for
such industries as milling, sugar-refining, brewing, and dis-
tilling. The drier portions of the Grassland Belt support a
more pastoral economy with its related industries. In ad-
dition, there are large deposits of coal in the Donets Hills
and iron ore near Krivoy Rog and on the Kerch Peninsula.
There also are large deposits of limestone, fire clays, man-
ganese, mercury, bauxites, and salt, all of which are vital
to war industries.
Furthermore, the Grassland Belt is highly urbanized.
It contains such cities as the ports of Odessa, Rostov-na-
Donu (Rostov-on-the-Don), Kherson, and Taganrog; the
smelting centers of Krivoy Rog, Mariupol', and Taganrog;
the coal mining center of Stalino; the locomotive-manu-
facturing center of Voroshilovgrad; the aluminum and
chemical center of Zaporozh'ye; the hydroelectric center of
Dnepropetrovsk (Dniepropetrovsk) ; the industrial centers
of Rostov-na-Donu and Stalingrad; and the commercial
and oil-refining center of Kuybyshev.
The Grassland Belt is a part of the Great Plains of Cen-
tral Europe which extend almost unbroken from the Car-
pathian Mountains on the west to and beyond the eastern
borders of this JANIS. Its outstanding relief characteristic
is its vast expanse of generally level-to-rolling, open and
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treeless, low-lying terrain. Northward there is no natural
barrier; the northern section merges more or less imper-
ceptibly with Region C. The monotony of the plain sur-
face, however, is considerably broken by minor relief fea-
tures such as wide, relatively shallow valleys of southward-
flowing streams which cross the area, local gullies, and a few
isolated groups of low hills. Gullies and ravines are found
principally in the steeper right banks of the streams.
These steep, high, right (west) banks are conspicuous and
constitute the major relief features. Only a few areas are
as high as 600 to 1,000 feet above sea level.
In general, most of this Grassland Belt is adequately
drained by the lower reaches of such wide streams as the
Prut, Dnepr, Dnestr, Donets, Don, and the Volga which
form barriers to cross-country movement. Furthermore,
the low gradients of all these streams are contributing fac-
tors to the flooding of land adjacent to the streams, par-
ticularly the left (east) bank, during the spring break-up
and after heavy or continued rains. Left banks are in
general marshy, and movement is restricted during all sea-
sons except mid-winter, when most surface materials are
deeply frozen, whereas right (west) banks are moderately
high and in places cliff like. Salt marshes, shallow salt
lakes and estuaries (limany) along the coast, and wet
meadows along major streams form significant but local-
ized terrain barriers to movement, principally in summer.
Tall reeds and marsh grass may offer some concealment
from ground observation.
Potable water is scarce, particularly in the more southern
sections because of the low annual rainfall, low water table,
and in places, the salinity of the soil. As a rule, deep wells
or artesian wells furnish the only good water available to
the inhabitants of the region. Settlements, however, ex-
tend ribbonlike along the high right banks of streams so as
to take advantage of the river water and the good soil and
surface drainage afforded there. Small streams are often
dammed so as to store water for irrigation and drinking
purposes during droughts.
The climate is characterized by great seasonal, and at
times sudden day or night, fluctuations in temperature.
The annual amount of precipitation also varies, but aver-
ages about 16 inches in the west near Odessa and decreases
rapidly toward the east. Precipitation is mainly in late
spring or early summer; snow cover is light. Detailed cli-
matic data are presented in Chapter V, 54.
Natural vegetation in the Grassland Belt, as the name im-
plies, is dominantly grass of various types. Feathergrasses,
which cover most of the uncultivated portions of the north-
ern part of the Grassland Belt, are tall enough to conceal
crouching men from ground observation. Tracks through
the grass can be readily observed from the air. The short
grass in the drier southern and eastern portions of the
Grassland Belt offers no concealment. Cultivated fields of
wheat, rye, sweet clover, and sunflowers offer best conceal-
ment in late spring and early summer but even then con-
cealment is afforded only for very low objects. Some scat-
tered wooded sections situated along stream banks and on
the more moist portions of valley slopes provide limited
concealment.
Cross-country travel is comparatively easy because of
the low grass vegetation and extensive areas of gentle
slopes, even though numerous minor relief features such as
low hills and ridges, river valleys, gullies, and ravines are
local obstacles to movement. The lack of any major natu-
ral terrain barriers other than rather high, mostly
earthen, stream banks within this vast Grassland Belt gives
military significance to the region, for its terrain is well
suited for large-scale mechanized warfare. Many battles
of World Var II were fought within the Grassland Belt_
Even though terrain conditions favor movement in most
places, cross-country travel is restricted or may be com-
pletely stopped during spring thaws and rains and late fall
rains for a period of several weeks. At these times deep,
sticky mud mires vehicles. Winter is most favorable for
movement because most surface materials are frozen deeply
enough to support all types of vehicles. Late summer is
also favorable to cross-country movement because surface
materials are dry and climatic conditions are not severe.
At this time, however, thick clouds of dust are stirred up by
any movement across the area and mark the course of an
individual machine, rider, or major unit. This dust is
harmful both to machines and personnel.
The comparative lack of usable vegetation for conceal-
ment in the dominantly grass vegetation of Region E is a
handicap to all forms of movement, particularly by day.
The scattered trees furnish only limited concealment. A
long mud period during the spring thaw and break-up and
another shorter mud season in autumn hinder, and in many
years prevent, movement.
Special equipment is required to negotiate the soft sur-
faces during these mud seasons and during or. after heavy
showers or prolonged rains in summer. Furthermore, the
great width of the rivers crossing the region and poorly
drained flood plains adjacent to them call for special equip-
ment adaptable to crossing such barriers.
Within the Grassland Belt, there are three major sub-
regions: 1) the Black Sea - Azov Grassland; 2) the Khoper-
Volga Grassland, and 3) the North Crimean Grassland.
Each of these subregions contains variations in relief, drain-
age, vegetation, and soils. Each subregion will be dis-
cussed separately.
(2) Subregion E-1, Black Sea -Azov Grassland
The irregular-shaped, east - west trending Black Sea -
Azov Grassland is a gently undulating plain which in-
creases in elevation inland from the Black Sea and merges
with the Forest and Clearings Belt (Region C) and the Rus-
sian Carpathian Mountains (Region D). This subregion
extends about 800 miles from west to east, and about 300
miles from north to south. There are numerous local ter-
rain differences.
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-Within the Black Sea -
Azov Grassland, is the Black Sea Coastal Plain, a strip of
relatively level land at altitudes from 100 to 300 feet and
from 20 to 110 miles wide. This coastal plain extends
about 600 miles along the northern shores of the Black Sea
and Sea of Azov (Azovskoye More) from the mouth of the
Danube in the west to Rostov-na-Donu at the mouth of the
Don in the east (PLAN 2, Subregion E-la and FIGURE 11-106).
No well-defined limit can be given for the northern bound-
ary of this low, flat plain, for it rises gradually from the
coast and merges in the north with the central uplands
(Region C). Despite the uniformity of this area, there
are terrain variations which have military significance.
Among these are innumerable large barrows (mogily, or
old burial mounds), and low, conical, granite outcrops.
Most of these are located on watersheds and therefore are
the high points and afford good observation (FIGURE
11-107). Many of these elevations are in rows such as those
near Novocherkassk. In addition, there are shallow, dish-
shaped depressions (which in many places contain small,
temporary lakes), numerous wide, flat, swampy valleys,
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FIGURE 11-106. Eygenfeld, north of Odessa.
Direction unknown. Terrain, buildings, roads, and trees (planted)
are typical of the grassland plain along the Black Sea coast.
Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-107. Grassland (steppe) east of Mariupol'.
Exact location not reported. Conical, granite hills, such as the
one visible in the central background, are the only apparent re-
lief features rising above the flat coastal plain. Before 1932.
and some coastal marshes. In places there are deep gul-
lies. Only where spurs of the Central Uplands project into
the area, however, are there any pronounced differences in
the terrain just noted.
The Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Danube to
the Dnestr is a low, marshy plain wnich is only slightly
above sea level. This plain is interrupted by some shallow,
salt lakes separated from the sea by narrow bars of sand.
From the Dnestr as far as the Dnepr, the coast for the most
part is steep with many precipitous clay bluffs (FIGURE
11-108). Eastward from Odessa, however, the uniform ap-
pearance of the coast is broken by salt lakes which are
separated from the sea by narrow ridges of sand, steep-sided
gullies, and a few wide estuaries. Steep slopes and bluffs
generally border the salt lake and estuary shores.
East of the Dnepr and along the Sea of Azov to Rostov-
na-Donu the shore is low and bordered by numerous wide,
flat sandbanks and sandspits. A short distance inland,
FIGURE 11-108. Coast of the Black Sea near Odessa.
Exact location not known. In most places the steep, coastal em-
bankments are composed of loam and bordered by narrow, dis-
continuous beaches. The terrain inland is level- to gently-undu-
lating. Before 1932.
Original
FIGURE 11-109. Steep, loam coast along the Sea of Azov.
Exact location is unknown. View is typical of the greater part
of the northwest coast of the Sea of Azov. Small crescent-shaped
or ribbonlike narrow beaches lie at the foot of the steep slopes.
Inland from the steep slopes the terrain is level to gently undu-
lating. Before 1941.
and parallel to the coast there are clayey bluffs averaging
about 100 feet in height. Narrow beaches lie along the
shore at the foot of the slopes (FIGURE 11-109). These
beaches are wider wherever a river, minor stream, or ra-
vine opens upon the sea. There are also extensive delta
areas which contain numerous distributaries, abandoned
channels, mud flats, and related formations at the mouths
of the larger rivers such as the Dnestr, Dnepr, and Don.
A few scattered swampy areas and salt marshes occur
along the coast. For a detailed description of the coast
itself, see Chapter IV, 43, A and D.
The wide, lower courses of several large rivers in the west
constitute effective barriers to free movement because of
their wide mouths and the fact that most of their valley
floors are marshy throughout their entire width and are
passable only when firmly frozen. It usually is possible
to detour some of the salt lakes by moving along the narrow
beaches which separate them from the sea. Otherwise
movement is restricted to roads, dam aprons, or other con-
structions. River barriers are absent between the lower
Dnepr and lower Don.
Northward the extensive coastal plain merges with the
Southwest Russian Uplands (E-1b). Only between the
Prut and the'Dnestr rivers is a landscape change particu-
larly noticeable. This change takes place just north of a
line extending between Leovo (Leova) and Bendery
(Tighina). Here north - south trending streams have cut
flat-bottomed lowlands into the upland surface to depths
of 150 feet or more. Upland or plateaulike surfaces of vary-
ing widths lie between these streams, whose valley sides are
dissected by dry ravines and gulches. Inland, the upland
surfaces of the interstrearn areas merge gradually with the
hills of the Southwest Russian Uplands (C-2). Movement
is channelized either along the main valleys or on the inter-
stream steppe upland surfaces.
Eastward, between the Dnestr and the Dnepr, the terrain
is less dissected and rises very gradually inland. For ex-
ample, elevation increases from about 325 feet at Krivoy
Rog to only 675 feet near Kirovograd (FIGURE II-110).
Along the right bank of the Dnepr the steppe drops rather
abruptly to the river but in places forms a hilly bank. Here
and there along the Bug and Dnepr rivers, there are out-
crops of granite, such as those near Konstantinovka on the
Bug, Dnepropetrovsk on the Dnepr, and in the vicinity of
Mariupol' (FIGURE II-111).
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JANIS 40
Confidential
Exact location not available. Vegetative cover CURE 11-110. Landscape near Krivoy Rog. .
gives very limited concealment from ground observation on this rolling steppe, Aline-
ment of dwellings is typical of the grassland (steppe). 1930.
Direction unknown. Terrain affords no natural cover or conceal-
ment, Shallow ravines and granite outcrops such as these along
the Kal'mius river, however, offer some concealment. Before 1932.
Eastward from the Dnepr, the Dnepr-Donets Plain (PLAN
2, E-lc) extends almost to the watershed between the Do-
nets and the Don;. This plain lies less than 350 feet above
sea level but is completely flat and featureless only along
the Dnepr, where a strip of meadowland is flooded up to a
width of 6 miles in the spring. Elevation increases very
gradually northward and eastward to the watershed and
then descends to the Don, the approximate eastern bound-
ary of the Black Sea - Azov Grasslands. At Poltava, near
the northern boundary of the subregion, the surface at-
tains a height of only 500 feet, but retains its gently rolling
character (FIGURE 11-112). Although streams which cross
the Dnepr Plain are in wide, shallow valleys and have
divided the plain into many low and flat interstream eleva-
tions, the impression is one of a vast, rolling plain. As a
rule, the right (west) banks and slopes of the valleys of
the Dnepr's tributaries are somewhat steeper and higher
y 5t Of 12YUM.
Air view of village alined along roadway in grasslands
Shallow gullies typical (steppe).
of this area are about the only sharp
breaks in this undulating terrain. Note small garden patches
behind each dwelling, in contrast to the extensive grain fields.
July 1943.
Exact location is undetermined. Probably looking w11-112. Steppe northern Poltavof the y a r ; , across tered trees, more numerous than in true steppe, offer limited concealment. Road is typical grassland (steFIGuRE 11-
ppe) near Poltava. Scat-ain of buildings. 1945. of steppe regions. Note poor construction
Confidential
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Page 11-65
FIGURE 11-114. Landscape east of Slavyansk.
View shows gullied, high right bank of the Donets in contrast to the low left bank. Vegetation representative of most low-lying por-
tions of valleys will afford some concealment. Low flood plain and gullied right banks (Donets Hills) restrict free movement. Low-
land is easily crossed whenever surface materials are firmly frozen. August 1943.
than the left (east) banks where wide marshy meadows
are located. Gullying is common throughout the area
except in the watershed portions which consequently offer
the best terrain for cross-country movement. Although
gullied areas retard movement, they provide cover or con-
cealment for small units in the otherwise unbroken, open
terrain (FIGURE 11-113).
To the southeast, the level Dnepr-Donets Plain ascends
and merges with a much dissected, higher area, the Donets
Hills, which are low and rounded (PLAN 2, E-ld). An
irregular line drawn southward from Izyum on the Donets
Original
to about 25 miles north of Osipenko on the Sea of Azov, may
serve as the western boundary between this hilly region
and the lower-lying Dnepr plain to the west. To the north
and east is the river Donets, along which are steep, badly
gullied, and in places cliffed, rocky, limestone slopes, par-
ticularly eastward from Izyum (FIGURE 11-114). South-
ward the Donets Hills merge with the Black Sea coastal
plain without any emphasized boundary. Maximum ele-
vation of the Donets Hills is about 1,200 feet above sea level
a few miles west of Voroshilovgrad. The shallow, steep-
sloped valleys, as well as wider valleys penetrating the broad
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FIGURE 11-115. Terrain in the Donets Hills.
Looking north. West of Voroshilovgrad in the Donets Hills. Streams have cut deep, wide valleys into the upland surface. Most of
the area is cultivated. Movement is favored along valley floors more than over the apparently almost level upland surface, for the
gullies and ravines which have cut into the upland surface cause numerous local detours. June 1943.
level upland surfaces, together with local gullies in the
Donets area give it a hilly appearance (FIGURE 11-115).
Cross-country movement is limited more or less to the val-
ley floors.
The Don Steppes (PLAN 2, E-1e) extend eastward from
the Donets Hills and slope up gradually to considerable ele-
vations toward the great bend of the Don west of Stalingrad.
Adjacent to the right bank of the river, particularly where
the Don swings close to the Volga, this elevated plain
descends abruptly and forms high, steep, earthen bluffs.
A part of this area a few miles south of the Don, between
its junction with the Khoper and its great southward turn,
is above 600 feet in altitude. This higher part stands
abruptly above the Don flood plain. Southward, the
steppes extend to and beyond the border of this JANis area
and include the low Manych Depression with its chain
of lakes.
Confidential
The Don Steppes Region is a broad, apparently endless
plain with but few scattered, elevated areas. Elevations
are particularly lacking along the left bank of the Don.
Eastward the land rises and merges almost imperceptibly
with the Pre-Volga and Yergeni hills (about 328 feet above
sea level) which overlook the Caspian Lowland. The
descent to the river Volga and Caspian Lowland in the
Volga-Caspian Desert Region (Region G), however, is
abrupt. (See PLAN 11.) Streams crossing the area flow
southward to the Sea of Azov or the river Don, like the
larger rivers of the steppes, and form a relief peculiar to
these steppe areas. The right banks of the watercourses
in most places are steep, but their left banks are low and
flat.
The river valleys, with the peculiar differences between
their two banks, present more obstacles to movement from
the east than from the west. To be sure the left (east)
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Novo -Y Kairry
FIGURE 11-116. Lower Dnepr river near Kherson.
Cypical view of low swampy left (east) bank with numerous channels which are covered with water in flood time. Note high, abrupt,
Bullied right (west) bank. Roadways cross fields. Settlements are alined along main roadways. November 1943.
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Page 11-68 JANIS 40
bank of each river is low and may be marshy. An approach
from the east requires scaling a steep, right bank (FIGURE
II-116), but the terrain for miles westward is a plain which
offers no obstacle, until another watercourse is encoun-
tered. On the other hand, if one approaches from the west
through the Donets Hills, there would be an abrupt descent
of about 230 feet to the river Donets, across which is a
low, flat, marshy left bank and then a very gradual east-
ward rise to the right bank of the next stream where the
descent to the valley floor is abrupt. This terrain pattern
is repeated at each river crossing, and after a gradual
ascent to a hilly bank overlooking the Don, the descent is
again fairly abrupt to the Don.
On the whole, the terrain of the entire Black Sea - Azov
Grassland Region is suitable for large-scale movement, the
chief exception being along the steep right banks of
streams. Here short, steep ravines and large deep gullies
are obstacles to movement and in many places necessitate
detours. The smooth-cropped land and pastures have been
eroded by gullies which are not visible from a distance.
The average length of these ravines and gullies in the
Grassland Belt has been reported as about 0.3 mile and the
average depth 33 to 66 feet. They are not as great a bar-
rier here, as similar and larger landforms in the Black Soil
Region in the Belt of Forest and Clearings (Region C).
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-Numerous large rivers and
streams flow from north to south through the Black
Sea - Azov Grassland at intervals of 60 to 150 miles. Minor
streams also drain the area. From west to east the six
largest of these rivers are the Prut, Dnestr, Yuzhnyy Bug,
Dnepr, Donets, and Don. These larger southward-flowing
rivers and streams handicap continuous east - west move-
ment, and restrict and channelize movement. North -
south movement also is greatly affected because of the
change in trend of the lower courses of the larger streams.
In addition, the wide, lower courses with marshy valley
bottoms and estuary mouths are also obstacles. Cross-
ings are more or less restricted to bridging points.
In general these southward-flowing rivers are frozen over
for two months (mid-December to mid-February) in the
western part of the Black Sea - Azov Grassland and for
three months (mid-December to mid-March) in the east-
ern part.
1. PRUT.-The Prut, whose shallow valley ranges
from 1.5 to 5 miles wide, has two high water periods. One
lasts from 6 to 10 days sometime between mid-March and
the beginning of May; and the second, a 10- to 20-day, high-
water period occurs during, June and/or July. The first
rise is caused by spring thaws in the lowlands; the latter
period is mainly due to the melting of snow in the Russian
Carpathian Mountains. Knowledge of snow depths will
aid in estimating the probable rise of the Prut. The Prut
freezes over only during unusually cold winters and then
usually between the latter part of December and the early
part of February. The ice cover is seldom strong enough to
bear the weight of most vehicles. That part of the river
within the subregion is considered an obstacle to cross-
country movement. Depth ranges from 6 to 12 feet and
width from 180 to 300 feet. It is not fordable.
2. DNESTR.-From the northern border of the Grass-
land Belt to Tiraspol', the Dnestr follows a winding and
rapidly descending course in a narrow, steep-sided valley,
400 to 500 feet below the general level of the land. Below
Tiraspol' as far as its estuary mouth, a distance of 28 miles,
the main body of the river passes for the most part through
swampy depressions, but the river is braided, and in many
parallel channels the water lies still. The principal high-
water period comes in March and April, and a secondary
rise comes about the end of June or the beginning of July.
During both months the lower banks are overflowed to a
considerable extent. The river freezes over entirely only
during unusual and continued cold. Ice cover may sup-
port vehicles from the latter part of December to early
February.
3. YUZHNYY BUG.-The Yuzhnyy Bug valley, within
the Black Sea - Azov Grassland is for the most part narrow,
with firm, steep slopes except for a short distance above
Voznesensk, where the valley widens and forms a sandy
basin. Here the stream is over 500 feet wide. Southward
from Voznesensk the valley narrows for a short distance
and then widens again. The valley floor is dry in places
and swampy in others. Southward from Kovalevka, the
valley floor is almost entirely occupied by the river or its
estuary mouth. The river is about 4,000 feet wide at
Nikolayev. Ice cover is usually continuous and firm from
mid-December to the end of February, but it will support
vehicles only during periods of continued severe cold. The
estuary mouth also freezes over at times. Thaws occur
rather frequently. Floods occur from early March to mid-
April and often cover the entire valley floor up to a width
of 1.5 miles. Sudden occurrence of high water is rare.
4. DNEPR.-That part of the river Dnepr within the
Black Sea - Azov Grassland has channels so variable that
any but the most recent maps or air photographs are likely
to be erroneous. There are many parallel courses sepa-
rated by islands and sandbanks. The Dnepr has a rocky
bottom between Kremenchug and Dnepropetrovsk. There
is a sand and gravel bottom with many sand islands from
Dnepropetrovsk to Berislav. From Berislav to the river's
estuarine mouth, which is 36 miles long and 4.5 to 9 miles
wide; the bottom is muddy. The left bank below Kremen-
chug is for the most part low and flat, but swampy only in
places. It was here that the Germans made their advance
across the Dnepr. In places, as near Dnepropetrovsk, steep
valley slopes form the right bank. The entire valley floor
from Zaporozh'ye to the mouth is flooded, often to widths
of 3 to 12 miles, from mid-March to the latter part of June;
above Dnepropetrovsk from early January to early March.
The river freezes over only during severe winters and then
is not strong enough to support most vehicles.
5. DONETS.-The right bank of the Donets in many
places rises 300 to 500 feet above the river. In a few places,
such as south of Kamensk-Shakhtinskiy, the left bank also
is steep and high. The river varies from about 200 to 550
feet in width, and 3 to 10 feet in depth. Floods are common
in April and May. Ice covers the stream from mid-Decem-
ber to mid-March and usually is strong enough to support
medium-sized vehicles.
6. DON.-The river Don south of Voronezh varies
from a width of 825 to 1,150 feet in its upper course to
1,000 to 1,950 feet in its lower course. Depths vary from 3
to 40 feet. The course of the Don is winding, and the river
has many parallel channels and backwaters, especially on
its lower swampy course; the bottom for the most part is
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 sandy. The right bank from Voronezh to Kalach is steep,
300 to 500 feet high, whereas the left bank is low and flat.
From the beginning of April to early May the valley usually
is flooded in places below Kalach to a width of 6 miles.
From the Don - Chir junction to Rostov-na-Donu, swampy
areas 2 to 10 miles wide appear alternately on either side
of the river. From mid-December to mid-March, the
stream is covered with ice, often 12 to 34 inches thick; it
is thus strong enough to carry trucks and heavier vehicles.
Navigation on the Don is conducted by shallow-draft steam-
ers and barges south of Voronezh, but special engineering
devices are necessary to maintain adequate depths.
In addition to the southward-flowing streams there are
two large westward-flowing tributaries to the Don: the Sal
and the Manych. The Sal is about 400 miles long; its width
averages about 36 feet and its maximum depth is 10 feet.
Low banks, numerous ponds, and salt marshes border the
Sal. Ice forms from the end of November to mid-December
and the break-up varies from early March to mid-April.
Floods occur in the spring.
That part of the Manych Depression within the Black
Sea - Azov Grassland formerly consisted of a series of con-
nected shallow lakes bordered by salt marshes. It is now
occupied by an irrigation system of regulated courses and
three dams. The water backed up by the uppermost and
largest dam forms Ozero Bol'shoy Manych. The size of
the Manych system, including Ozero Bol'shoy Manych, de-
pends upon the seasonal precipitation in the area and upon
the volume of water transferred from the river Kuban'
through a canal built about 1940 which leads into the
Yegorlyk, an upper left tributary of the Manych.
As a rule, both river and lakes are frozen from the end
of November or early December until the spring break-up,
which occurs between early March and mid-April. In 1939,
it was reported that the canal system was being expanded
eastward through the Kuma Valley so as to connect the
Caspian Sea with the Sea of Azov. The Manych Canal may
be a major obstacle to cross-country movement by motor-
ized units, for channel widths of 30 to 46 feet have been
reported.
Water supply on the whole is plentiful near the large
rivers. Deep wells are common and additional ones may
be drilled almost anywhere. Many villages are located
near gullies or ravines whose streams are dammed up to
form ponds. Water, however, is scarce in late summer,
particularly at a distance from the large rivers. At this
season the water table lowers and small streams and shal-
low wells dry up.
(c) Vegetation.-Most of the steppes in Subregion
E-1 (PLAN 2) are under cultivation and only relatively
small remnants of the original vegetation are to be found.
Two major types of natural vegetation remain in the Black
Sea - Azov Grassland. In the northern portion of the
steppes the dominant type is the feathergrass (Stipa), a
hard-stalked, narrow-leaved, sod-forming grass, mixed
with other plant forms such as varied types of herbs, bul-
bous plants, high weeds, and thistles. Growth ranges from
4 to 6 feet in height and offers limited concealment from
ground observation (FIGURE II-117) . The vegetation of the
southern portion of the steppes consists of a combination
of feathergrass and a fescue grass (Stipa-Festuca), and a
few other types of vegetation. In general, there are no trees
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Page 11-69
FIGURE 11-117. Feathergrass steppe near Voronezh.
Exact location not available. Typical feathergrass steppe with
scattered islands of trees offer very limited concealment. Grasses
usually have stiff, dry stalks, which make walking difficult and
tiresome. Before 1932.
except where planted or where moisture favors natural
growth, such as on valley terraces, within overflow areas
of river bottoms, and along valley slopes (FIGURE 11-118).
Tree growths on the flood plains include sparse-to-medium
stands of aspen, black poplar, and black alder, with oak,
aspen, and maple on higher areas. Wooded sections do
not present difficulty to motorized movement but do pro-
vide some concealment and cover. Flood plain meadows
have abundant couch (quack) grass which is of consid-
erable economic importance. Rush-reed stands are com-
mon along the lower courses of the Dnepr, Don, and Volga.
FIGURE 11-118. Low grass steppe near Mariupol'.
Exact location not reported. Trees, limited to the gullies (balka
of the region, break the monotony of this vast grassland area.
Movement favored by gently rolling terrain. Gullies and vegeta-
tion provide limited concealment. Gullies may necessitate short
detours. Before 1932.
Wheat is one of the principal crops in the Black Sea-Azov
Grassland (FIGURE 11-119). In the portion bordering the
Black Sea, crops include cotton and rice (under irrigation),
some maize, peanuts, sesame, and grain sorghum. Farther
north, alfalfa, sainfoin (a forage crop belonging to the bean
family), Sudan grass, winter rye, beets, carrots, soybeans,
and barley are the most common. Eastward to the border
of the Black Sea - Azov Grassland (Subregion E-1), the
principal crops are spring wheat, rice, sunflowers, sweet
clover, potatoes, and other vegetables. Truck crops are
important near all centers of population. The vegetation
of most of the subregion furnishes little cover and or con-
cealment, except the limited amount in narrow groves near
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FIGURE 11-119. Steppe in vicinity of Poltava.
.
Exact location unknown. View along winding railroad near Poltava. Undulating terrain representative of the grassland (Steppe)
Trees along right-of-way act as snow fences in winter. Elsewhere trees grow only where soils are moist in the ravines or gullies.
Grain probably is winter wheat. Upper middle right slopes appear to be cut by gullies. 1945.
population centers, or along roads or railroads, in orchards,
or along naturally wooded valley slopes (FIGURE 11-120).
Low, sod-forming plant growths favor travel by wheeled
and tracked vehicles off the road during dry seasons, but
foot travel is especially wearisome because of the hardness
of the dry, brittle stems of the various plants.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-Cross-country movement is feasible over most of the
gently rolling terrain of the Black Sea - Azov Grassland.
Surface materials consist mainly of fine-textured, porous
and permeable soils (black earths and loess), which drain
rapidly under normal conditions. Such surface materials
usually are trafficable but difficult to traverse during and
immediately after heavy rains, and they become nontraf-
ficable during the periods of spring thaw and of alternating
rain and freeze-up in autumn. Less trafficable surface
materials which extend along the coast and valley bottoms
include clay loams, clays, and silts that drain less rapidly
than the black earths and are nontrafficable for a consider-
able length of time after heavy rains. In addition there
are alluvial materials and fresh and salt marsh areas, most
of which are subject to flooding and are generally nontraf-
ficable without special equipment except when deeply
frozen (PLAN 4).
The most favorable season for cross-country movement
is in winter, from late December to mid-February, when
most surface materials are frozen firmly enough to support
heavy vehicles (PLAN 9). Snow cover generally is thin and
usually presents no hindrance to movement of tracked or
wheeled vehicles even off roads, although local snow drifts
may be encountered. Extensive cross-country movement
also is possible in summer and early fall even though the
precipitation maximum occurs during this time (PLANS
7 and 8). Conditions favorable to mud exist for only a
short time during the rains and for a short period there-
after. Most rainfall comes in short showers, run-off is
rapid, and the evaporation rate is high. At such times,
movement is restricted locally. Continued rains, how-
ever, make most roads and fields impassable for a longer
period. In addition, heavy rains or continued rains with
resultant run-off cause streams to rise and thus reduces
possibilities of over-all movement. Along the river flood
plains, where there are numerous marshes and where the
soil always is wet, movement at all seasons tends to follow
the better drained, natural levees near the streams.
Numerous roads through the fields are readily passable in
dry weather but are covered with much light, fine dust
that rises in high, thick clouds and so marks all traffic
movement. This fine dust is harmful to both machines
and personnel.
Least favorable conditions for cross-country travel occur
during spring (March-May) and late fall (mid-November)
(PLANS 6 and 8), when there is alternate freezing and thaw-
ing of soils. Occasional mild winters tend to prolong this
fall mud period. Of these two periods unfavorable for traf-
fic, the spring break-up is by far the more severe because
the spring rains fall upon soils that already are saturated
with a winter accumulation of water, and where frozen,
impervious subsoil slows internal drainage. Even im-
proved roads may fail to support heavy traffic in places
because of frost heaving.
The time from the onset of the first thaw to the beginning
of steady melt conditions generally is 15 days. Steady melt
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FIGURE 11-120. Vertical view of grasslands, about 35 miles southeast of Kremenchug.
Village alinement and gullying typical of Russian grassland (steppe). Note field pattern, orchard development, and tree-lined roads.
Gullies dissect the surface and with their headward extensions lend an undulating aspect to the terrain. Locally the gullies inter-
fere with cross-country movement. November 1943.
conditions begin about 1 March in the region nearest the
Black Sea (PLAN 6) and move slowly northeastward. The
mud season occurs during March, April, or May and lasts
from three to four weeks (PLAN 10). During this season
traffic is either halted or restricted to main, hard-surfaced
roads, because heavy vehicles form deep ruts in the tough,
sticky mud on all unsurfaced roads.
During the spring and fall transition periods, however,
heavy ground frosts of several days' duration or light over-
night frosts favor cross-country movement during early
morning hours when lighter vehicles can negotiate the
slightly frozen terrain. (See PLANS 6 and 8 for 32 F.
lines.)
Original
(3) Subregion E-2, Khoper - Volga Grassland
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-The Don - Khoper Plain
(PLAN 2, E-2a) is part of a low, almost featureless plain ly-
ing between the Don and the Vorona-Khoper rivers and ex-
tending northward beyond this Grassland Belt (C-3c).
This plain rises very gradually toward the east and merges
with the Pre-Volga Hills (E-2b): elevations increase from
325 to 650 feet. Cross-country movement is particularly
easy throughout this small area (E-2b) in that the soil is
more sandy and the ravines and gullies common to much
of the Grassland Belt are absent. South - north movement
is preferable on the somewhat higher areas between the
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FIGURE 11-121. View of a typical gully near Saratov.
Exact location not determined. This typical huge, steep-sided
gully is eating headward into the fine-textured steppe soils near
Saratov. Such gullies vary in length and depth but all are hin-
drances to rapid cross-country movement. They are not visible
from any great distance by horizontal ground observation. ? Note
short grass and gently undulating terrain in the background.
Before 1941.
FIGURE 11-122. Volga bank below Saratov.
Exact location not available. View shows typical high right (west)
bank of the Volga and gullies cut into it. Short grass noted in
middle left of picture is typical of the natural vegetation of the
region. Before 1932.
streams. Limited concealment for small units is possible
in the slightly lower valleys.
The Pre-Volga Hills (E-2b) between the Vorona-Khoper
river and the Volga, form the watershed between the Don
and Volga. This area is a gently undulating-to-hilly steppe
with short, deep, dry, gullies and river valleys that give
the surface a slight relief. These gullies, eroded into the
flat surface, are not visible across a broad expanse of ter-
rain, except from a short distance. Ravines and gullies
are most numerous near and along the banks of the Volga
(FIGURE 11-121). Elevation gradually increases from the
west and south then decreases abruptly on the east by a
steep drop to the Volga (FIGURE 11-122). The highest alti-
tude, about 1,200 feet, is southwest of Saratov. Between
Kamyshin and Stalingrad the highest point, about 24 miles
southeast of Kamyshin, slightly exceeds 675 feet. The Pre-
Volga Hills area narrows considerably to the south where
the course of the Don nears that of the Volga. This nar-
row part; of the hills provides the lowest, shortest, and
easiest route across them;. they can be crossed easily, even
off the existing roads and paths, since ravine and gully
detours are short. Movement from the west is feasible
because of the very gradual slope of the terrain toward
the east.
Along the left bank of the Volga, throughout the sub-
region as far south as Stalingrad, there is a wide strip of
lowland, the Volga Lowland (PLAN 2, E-2c), which contains
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FIGURE 11-123. A ferry-landing on the Volga.
Opposite Nizhniy Balykley. This ferry landing utilizes a terrace
below the high right (west) bank of the Volga. Such places indi-
cate narrow and favorable crossing places, and usually give easy
access to the upland surface. Note the construction of the camel
carts common to the country bordering the Volga; note also the
high west bank in the abckground. Before 1941.
meadows several miles wide, subject to flooding. In some
places along the right bank, a narrow terrace extends along
the river, between it and the steep slope to the upland
(FIGURE 11-123). The entire lowland along the river is im-
passable in spring, and even summer travel is difficult
in such places as between Kuybyshev and Syzran', be-
cause of the low-lying terrain with its numerous lakes.
Low, dry swells, however, between these poorly drained
sections make circuitous movement possible. Eastward
from the Volga, the terrain ascends by a series of clearly
distinguishable terraces and merges with a gently undu-
lating, clayey grassland, the Trans-Volga Hills (PLAN 2,
E-2d). The lowest of these terraces is about 30 feet high
and 15 feet wide. The Trans-Volga Hills extend to and
beyond the borders of the area included in this JANIS.
For example, about 30 miles east of the Volga, elevations
increase from about 300 feet to more than 650 feet near the
eastern border of the Khoper-Volga Grassland. Here
higher areas are almost flat, and form low tablelands with
rounded edges. Gullies are cut into these low tablelands
near the Volga (FIGURE 11-124).
On the whole, the subregion is suitable for mechanized
cross-country movement except where swamp-bordered
streams limit travel.
FIGURE 11-124. Upland area south of KuybyshVv.
Exact location not available. This portion of the Khoper-Volga
Grassland is used for raising. livestock. Water hole at lower left.
Long, deep gullies, noted in the background, break the landscape
and retard cross-country movement, necessitating detours.
Before 1945.
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MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-The Khoper-Volga Grass-
land contains fewer streams than the Black Sea-Azov
Grassland to the west. The major streams lie west of the
Volga and flow from north to south whereas minor, nar-
row, shallow streams are east of the Volga and flow from
east to west.
The Khoper river, in the Khoper-Volga Grassland, has
a steep-sided right bank from Bekovo to its junction with
the Don. Between Bekovo and Balashov the Khoper is
from 65 to 100 feet in width but attains 325 feet south of
Borisoglebsk. Depth varies greatly in this river of the dry
steppe; variation both locally and seasonally is between 1
and 6 feet in its upper course and between 1 and 16 feet in
its lower course. The stream bed contains numerous sand-
banks. Highest water occurs during the spring. The
river is ice covered from mid-November to the end of March
or early April.
From Petrovsk (northwest of Saratov) to a point west of
Stalingrad, the wooded winding valley of the Medveditsa,
which is swampy in many places, is approximately 50 miles
west of the Volga. Stream breadth varies from 100 feet
near Petrovsk to 425 feet near its confluence with the Don,
and depth ranges from about 2 to 6 feet near Petrovsk and
to 14 feet in its lower course. Ice cover on this river lasts
from mid-November to early April. The high-water period
occurs in the spring.
West of the Volga, the winding, tree-lined Ilovlya roughly
parallels the Volga at a distance of 20 to 40 miles. Breadth
of the Ilovlya varies from 1.5 to 7 feet. Its bottom is muddy
in its upper course, but sandy in the lower course. In
places, however, the bottom is stony. High-water season is
in the spring.
Although only a small portion of the Volga lies within
this subregion, the river's breadth here varies from 1,650
feet near Syzran' to 7,200 feet near Saratov and Stalingrad.
Depth is always at least 9 feet in the main channel, but
may range from as little as 4 feet over the numerous sand-
bars to 40 feet in deeper portions of the channel. Veloc-
ity increases gradually from 1.6 feet per second in the north
to 8 feet per second below Saratov. Velocity in high water
periods may increase to more than 10 feet per second near
Saratov. The right (west) bank of the Volga appears
mountainlike as it rises abruptly to 650 feet and in places
to aimost 1,000 feet, but the left bank is generally flat.
High water (up to 45 feet) occurs from the latter part of
April to the beginning of June. Overflow often creates a
lakelike river up to 12 miles wide. The stream is ice cov-
ered from early December to mid-April at Kuybyshev, and
from mid-December to early April at Stalingrad. Ice
should be firm enough to support heavy vehicles.
East of the Volga, streams flow westward. The orienta-
tion of these streams makes them more serious barriers to
north - south movement than east - west movement. They
have marshy borders.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-The natural vegetation of
the Khoper-Volga Grassland is similar to that of the Black
Sea - Azov Grassland but differs in that natural grasses
are shorter and grow more sparsely, leaving more ground
uncovered. Today the whole region is predominantly ag-
ricultural, or pastoral, with only scattered spots of natural
vegetation (FIGURE 11-125). Much of the area is utilized
as pastureland (FIGURE 11-126). Crops produced within
the more moist and irrigated sections of the subregion in-
clude spring wheat, truck crops, sunflowers, tobacco, and
others (FIGURES 11-127 and 11-128). The natural grasses
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Page 11-73
FIGURE II-125. Ox team in the Khoper-Volga Grassland.
View is representative of spring season when farmers go to dis-
tant fields and remain there until fields have been seeded. The
level terrain covered with short grasses favors cross-country
travel. However, mud formed by rains, spring thaws, and the
alternating freezing and thawing periods in autumn often stops
all cross-country movement. Before 1941.
FIGURE II-126. Cattle grazing on the Khoper-Volga Grassland.
Exact location not determined. Extensive, level, open grasslands
east of the Volga contain no major natural obstacle to movement.
Note low cover of grass and weeds. Before 1942.
FIGURE II-127. Harvesting wheat near the Don.
Exact location not available. Broad, cultivated plains and fer-
tile soils in the grasslands have led to extensive mechanized farm-
ing. Wheat is the dominant crop. Movement is possible but con-
cealment is limited. Before 1945.
FIGURE II-128. Tobacco field in the Khoper-Volga Subregion.
View south of Marks (Marksshtadt). Extensive tobacco fields in
the foreground cover much of the gently undulating terrain.
Such extensive fields become muddy and permit little traffic over
them whenever the soils are wet. Before 1941.
and the low-growing crops produced within the region pro-
vide no natural concealment. The few wooded areas along
the rivers and on lower portions of valley slopes furnish
some cover and concealment. On the level steppe surface
concealment is difficult by day, hence night movement is
favored.
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Page 11-74 JANIS 40
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10) .-Cross-country movement is relatively easy over the
level-to-rolling, grassy Khoper-Volga Grassland. Soils for
the most part are fine textured, drain rather slowly, and
generally are nontrafficable during wet seasons and for a
considerable length of time after heavy rains. The wettest
month at Saratov is June and the driest is March. (See
Chapter V, 54, A.) Sandy soils which normally drain rap-
idly lie in scattered areas along the Don and Khoper rivers.
Sands are most trafficable when moist but not waterlogged.
Most of the sandy areas in the Khoper-Volga Grassland are
low-lying, have a high watertable, and ordinarily are asso-
ciated with swampland; hence they are relatively impass-
able during wet weather except along low ridges which ex-
tend through them. Alluvial soils on the flood plains along
the Volga are always wet and are trafficable only when
frozen (PLAN 9) or when special equipment is used.
The most favorable season for cross-country movement
occurs in late summer, July through October, when high
summer temperatures and relatively low rainfall thor-
oughly dry out the surface materials. A second favorable
season occurs in winter, December through February, when
most surface materials are deeply frozen (PLAN 9). Much
dust in summer, however, hinders movement by affecting
mechanized units and personnel and by setting up easily
observed dust clouds. Snow affects traffic only locally
wherever drifts occur. Mechanized equipment and per-
sonnel must be prepared for cold weather.
Least favorable surface conditions are encountered dur-
ing the period between the time when the snows melt and
soils thaw and when the soils dry out. Melting of the snow
begins about mid-March (PLAN 6). During this domi-
nantly muddy period (PLAN 10) wheeled vehicles sink to
the axles an unsurfaced roads or fields. Even tracked
vehicles bog down. The spring mud season is most pro-
longed between Voronezh and Saratov. Ground dries out
toward mid-April, but flooding of rivers continues into June.
Of all flood plains, the wide flood plain of the Volga is the
greatest barrier to movement. A secondary mud season
occurs in late autumn (October through November) be-
tween the fall of the first snow and the onset of continued
freezing temperature (PLAN 8). During both seasons, how-
ever, the freezing over of surface materials at night will
often permit limited movement in early morning hours,
but there is usually a delaying effect because of frozen ruts,
detrimental especially to wheeled vehicles and to some ex-
tent to tracked vehicles.
(4) Subregion E-3, North Crimean Grassland
(a) Relief (PLAN 2, E-3).-Southward from the main
grassland of southern Russia and connected with it by the
Perekop Isthmus lies the monotonously level, low-lying
North Crimean Grassland of the northern and middle por-
tion of the Crimean Peninsula (FIGURES 11-129 and 11-130).
The grassland, a continuation of the great steppe or Black
FIGURE 11-129. Grassland landscape of Northern Crimea.
Exact location not reported. View is representative of the dry
northern portion of the Crimea. Level terrain, covered with
scant, low bunch grasses, is well suited to rapid movement.
Watering places at wells, such as the one shown here, are typical
of Crimea. Wells are usually deep. Before 1940.
Sea-Azov Grassland of Russia, extends about 200 miles
from west to east. This grassland occupies about three-
fourths of the total land area of the Crimea and has a mean
altitude of about 80 feet. Elevation of the plain increases
gradually from the low, level plain in the north and merges
with more elevated portions westward and southward.
There is no obstacle to mechanized movement, once the
rounded edge of the low bluffs near the coast is scaled.
Westward an extension of this plain juts far out into
the Black Sea as an elevated "bank" (val), which is higher
than the main steppe area and forms the plateaulike Tark-
hankutskiy Poluostrov which terminates in a steep bluff
coast. 'Valleys of dry stream beds and small gulches or
gorges which are 30 feet or more deep are more prevalent
on the Tarkhankutskiy Poluostrov (peninsula) particu-
larly west and south of Chernomorskaye (Ak-Mechet') than
in any other portion of the subregion (FIGURE 11-131). Al-
though these areas restrict movement locally, they are not
considered major obstacles to movement, as they can be
avoided without long detours. In places limestone out-
crops appear.
Eastward from the main part of the plain the drier
Kerch Peninsula extends between the Sea of Azov and the
Black Sea. The surface of the peninsula is for the most
part gently-rolling-to-hilly but monotonously flat in the
southwest. The most varied relief is in the northeastern
part, where low, narrow, discontinuous, east - west trend-
ing limestone ridges and hills form low, plateaulike areas
with gently rounded tops, producing a rather sharply dis-
sected hill landscape. Elevations of the ridges are as much
as 400 or 500 feet above sea level. Although they drop off
rather abruptly on their margins, they are not major ob-
stacles to movement. These ridges furnish advantageous
observation sites (FIGURE 11-132). The highest elevation
(about 550 feet) lies northwest of the city of Kerch'. In
places limestone outcrops from the ridges form small,
jagged, rocky summits.
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MILITARY GEOGRAPHY Page 11-75
I! I
FIGURE 11-130. Portion of topographic sheet covering Dzhankoy.
Dzhankoy, in Northern Crimea. Contour interval 10 meters. Characteristic terrain and settlement pattern in northern Crimean
steppes. Flat land, cultivated garden plots, road grid, and narrow, usually dry stream beds are typical of the steppe of Crimea. Rail-
road embankments and narrow V-shaped gullies 3 to 15 feet deep are the only apparent obstacles to movement in this steppe area.
Shaded areas are garden plots; circles are trees, possibly orchards; $ indicates vineyards. 1943.
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Page II-76 JANIS 40 Confidential
!PCHAK
I
41.2
Kunan
FIGURE 11-131. Section of topographic sheet showing area in vicinity of Chernomorskoye (Ak-Mechet').
Contour interval 10 meters. Terrain is more dissected in this portion of the Crimea than on Figure 11-130. The balka (gully 1 south
of Chernomorskoye (Ak-Mechet'( is the longest one on the Tarkhankutskiy Poluostrov (Tarkhankut Peninsula) and affects east-west
movement. Note roads follow low gradients. The steep coast is typical of much of the Crimean coast. Note garden patches around
settlements. 1943.
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Stirinirste!.~Qn
.!J
DZ HAYLAV
aias.s 82
.o.
+96.8
rb.Hs
FIGURE 11-132. Portion of Primorskoye topographic sheet.
Contour interval 10 meters. Map shows gradual slope near Primorskoye in contrast to ridge area in northwest and is typical of north-
ern Kerch Peninsula of the Crimea. Ridges are low, narrow and discontinuous. Although not major obstacles to movement, the
ridges channelize movement and could be used as observation posts. Note steep-cuffed north coast, rocky in places. Railroad in south-
ern part is a portion of main line from the Ukraine to Kerch'. 1943.
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Gulfs, such as Zaliv (Gulf) Karkinitskiy, numerous salt
lakes of the estuary type, and the Si'Vash indent the north-
ern coasts of the Crimea (FIGURE 11-133). The coasts of
the Tarkhankutskiy and Kerch peninsulas have narrow
beaches 300 to 600 feet wide, backed by slopes of loamy
soil up to 30 feet high which have not been seriously eroded.
From these slopes there is a gradual rise inland to the gen-
eral plain level (FIGURES 11-131 and 11-132). Elsewhere
within the subregion a low coast is bordered by sandspits,
hooks, and sand bars and the elevation gradually increases
inland.
FIGURE 11-133. View of the Sivash.
Exact location not known. Low-lying marshy coast bordering the
Sivash has low, scant, salt-tolerant vegetation. Movement is lim-
ited to dry season or period of frozen soils. Before 1940.
The level terrain of the subregion favors extensive agri-
culture of mechanized type. Farmers must rely almost
entirely, however, upon artesian or other type wells, or
upon the meager precipitation to moisten the soil.
The numerous scattered farm groups throughout the
subregion, with their earth and rock wall structures, lend
variety to the otherwise almost featureless landscape.
Other man-made structures of topographic importance in-
clude the old earthen walls (Tatar Walls) at two entrances
to the Crimea: at Perekop and middle Kerch Point. They
are 36 feet high and 24 feet wide at Perekop and 24 feet high
by 18 feet wide on the Kerch and do much to channelize
movement.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-There are few streams within
the North Crimean Grassland. Most of them rise in the
mountainous area on the south (Region F - Mountainous
Crimea) ; some flow northwestward but the majority north-
eastward, either as large brooks or small rivers. Most are
intermittent, drying up in summer, and are temporary bar-
riers only during the melting of snows in the mountains
in the spring or after heavy rainstorms. The sandy bot-
toms shift often, and these streams flood dangerously.
During most of the year they can be crossed readily. The
few swampy places along the rivers can be avoided easily.
The only stream of any length which crosses the North
Crimean Grassland is the feeble Salgir and its few minor
tributaries. Even it is not a significant barrier and is too
shallow for navigation. The width of the Salgir averages
from 52 to 66 feet and its depth is only about 2 feet. In
summer, however, the river is much lower, for it loses most
of its water by evaporation and gains very little, due to the
low precipitation. The stream bed often is completely dry
along the lower part of its course.
The salt lakes in this subregion are clustered mainly in
the following groups: 1) the Yevpatoriya group, 2) the
Perekop, and 3) the Kerch'. The lakes are for the most
part very shallow, with the exception of the long Ozero
Donuzlav which is up to 80 feet deep. Prolonged droughts
transform the shallow water bodies into masses of grayish,
foul-smelling mud.
Lakes, and other water bodies within the area are bar-
riers to movement. For example, the body of salt water
between the Perekop Narrows and the narrow tongue of the
Arabatskaya Strelka is so shallow that it can be crossed
here and there by horse-drawn vehicles and foot traffic
but a persistent wind from open water may change the
water-level somewhat from time to time. The Sivash is a
major barrier for movement of any kind because of its
soft bottom. The Russians, however, did cross the Sivash
in the spring of 1944 on earthen causeways constructed for
the purpose. Salt marshes also are common along the
northern bar-locked portions of the coast, on the Kerch
Peninsula, and northeast of Feodosiya.
All water bodies usually have some ice from the end of
December to the middle of March but freeze over com-
pletely only during very cold winters. The straits at Kerch'
and the Sivash likewise freeze only in very cold winters,
such as that of 1941-42 (during January), when traffic was
possible over the ice in Kerch Strait.
Adequate supplies of potable water are difficult to find
in the subregion because of the low water table, scant rain-
fall, and alkaline soils. Since streams are few, the only
surface water is that collected in pools from melting snows
or summer showers. In most places the inhabitants of the
subregion must rely upon cisterns or deep wells (usually
artesian) for their daily water supply, as well as to irrigate
their crops. Most of the wells contain water that is slight-
ly brackish or alkaline. Generally speaking, the location
and size of the settlements represent the availability of
water with fair accuracy. Water is apt to be scarce in all
seasons on the Kerch Peninsula.
Cross-country movement is easy in the North Crimean
Grassland because of the extensive areas of gentle slopes
and the scarcity of river valleys. The only places which
are obstacles to such movement are the gullied area of the
Tarkhankutskiy peninsula, portions of the ridge and valley
section of the Kerch peninsula, and the coastal marshes
and swamplands.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Vegetation of the North
Crimean Grassland is similar to that of all the Grassland
Belt. The lowest, northeastern part, adjoining the Sivash,
has much saltmarsh vegetation and sagebrush. In the
south and west, the chestnut and black-earth soils are
sparsely covered with short grass and shrubs.
On the Kerch Peninsula there is a definite transition
from a dry, semiarid feathergrass-wormwood and worm-
wood steppe to semi-desert wormwood saltwort with its
stunted shrubs. Most of the northern part of the Kerch
Peninsula is covered with a mixed growth of wormwood,
feathergrass, and various herbs. Owing to the alkalinity
of the soil; however, its southwestern district, like the land
around the Sivash, presents a semidesert landscape domi-
nated by wormwood and saltwort. Isolated sections of
stiff, hairy or thorny, low shrubs (frigana) are found in
coastal areas, on stony slopes of gullies and ravines, on more
elevated stony sections of the plain, and on the more moist,
north-facing slopes.
Vegetation does not offer any major obstacle to movement
of wheeled or tracked vehicles. Most of the subregion is
cultivated farmland with numerous wheat, barley, and to-
bacco fields. Wherever the land is not cultivated, it is cov-
ered with short native grass and utilized as pasture. The
extent of cropland and cultivated area, together with the
gentle grass-covered slopes, makes it possible for tracked
vehicles to maneuver quite readily in this region.
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There is a definite lack of natural means of concealment;
hence night movement is favored. The few planted trees,
usually poplars, found on the edges of villages offer no con-
cealment.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-The level-to-gently-rolling terrain of the North Cri-
mean Grassland is very favorable for all types of extensive
cross-country movement. Surface in a t e r i a l s consist
mainly of fine-textured loams, clay loarns, or silty clay ma-
terials with fair-to-slow drainage under normal conditions.
Except for the spring and fall mud periods or after heavy
showers, materials are trafficable throughout the year.
Closely associated poorly and well-drained material and
numerous salt marshes with alkaline soils cover the north-
ern portion of the subregion. On these closely associated
materials movement is stopped for about 10 weeks (early
March to June) during the spring thaws and rains. The
best time for traffic on these soils is in late summer, but
even then trafficability is periodically poor and fair, because
these areas become slippery with the slightest rainfall.
The better-drained, sandy soils usually are most trafficable
when damp or wet. Such soils as those on the Arabatskaya
Strelka and in the dune areas near Yevpatoriya, Cherno-
morskaye (Ak-Mechet'), and Feodosiya, however, are least
trafficable during the latter part of March and early April,
when numerous local inclusions of fine-textured soils be-
come waterlogged.
In general, the most favored period for large-scale move-
ment is during the summer, when most of the surface is
dry (PLAN 7). January and February are also favorable
for movement when the surface materials are apt to be
frozen (PLAN 9). Often in winter cold and warm periods
alternate. During such periods, alternate freezing and
thawing, together with rainfall, may develop almost bot-
tomless, muddy roads overnight. Snow cover is practically
nonexistent.
Least favorable periods of trafficability are during the
spring mud period, from the end of February to the end
of March, and the fall - early-winter mud period from the
middle of November to the end of December (PLANS 6 to 10).
Saturated soil conditions accompany thawing and freezing
and rainfall and cause widespread poor-to-impassable con-
ditions. During World War II it was observed that traffic
on dirt roads could be continued only if the roads were
maintained and separate routes assigned to tracked vehi-
cles and wheeled vehicles.
F. Region F, Mountainous Crimea
(1) Introduction (PLANS 2 and 3)
Mountainous Crimea is located in the southern part of
the Crimean Peninsula and extends along the southern
coast from the city of Sevastopol' in the west to the city
of Feodosiya in the east. It covers a belt about 100 miles
long and as much as 35 miles wide. The region has an
area of about 3,000 square miles, or 501, more than the
State of Delaware.
Sevastopol', one of European USSR's great naval-base -
fortresses, is located on the west coast of the region. By air,
Sevastopol' is about 310 miles from Ankara (Angora), Tur-
key, about 340 miles from Istanbul, Turkey, and only about
350 miles from Bucharest, Rumania. Major industrial and
agricultural areas of the Ukraine are near. For example,
Odessa is about 185 miles by sea or air from Sevastopol';
Zaporozh'ye, about 230 miles by air; and Rostov-na-Donu,
about 330 miles by air. In addition, Zaporozh'ye lies about
200 miles by air from Simferopol', and Rostov-na-Donu is
about 250 miles by air from Feodosiya. From Sevastopol'
Original
a railroad runs northward to Moscow. It passes through
the cities of Simferopol', Zaporozh'ye, Khar'kov, Kursk,
Orel, and Tula.
The low mountainous relief of the region contrasts strik-
ingly with the plain of the northern portion of the Crimean
Peninsula and the Ukraine in Region E. The Main Range,
which in the west is a chain of plateaus and in the east is a
group of branching ranges, extends along the south coast.
The range has an average elevation of 2,000 to 4,000 feet,
and the highest peaks are over 5,000 feet.
The south side of the Main Range is very steep, and a
series of steeply sloping steps and ridges descend to the
precipitous and rocky Black Sea coast. Relatively level
areas along the coast are limited to a few small, terraced
river valleys and basins separated from each other by moun-
tain spurs. The northern slope is considerably less steep
than the south slope.
The steep slopes of the mountainous terrain limit move-
ment to a few valleys, basins, and plateaus. The Main
Range can be crossed by vehicles only over roads which
are more numerous in the more highly developed west than
in the east. There are few passes in the western section,
and those that do exist are 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea
level. In the lower, eastern section the passes are at ele-
vations of 1,000 to 2,000 feet above sea level. Steep grades
and many sharp curves characterize the approaches to the
passes.
Beyond the northern slope of the Main Range is a foot-
hill zone containing two major ridges (the Inner and Outer
Ridges) having precipitous southern slopes and gently slop-
ing, but deeply ravined, northern slopes. Broad east - west
depressions and basins separating the two ridges are con-
nected by narrow and nearly vertical-walled north - south
valleys which divide the ridges into several sections. These
valleys provide a grid of channelized routes. A route con-
necting Sevastopol' on the west coast, Simferopol' in the
interior, and Feodosiya on the east coast is provided by the
interridge depressions and basins. The railroad connect-
ing the naval base-fortress of Sevastopol' with the Ukraine
and Moscow runs along the interridge depression and the
Salgir river valley.
Numerous small streams flow outward from the Main
Range, the source of most of the water for the streams,
and the main drainage divide. Whereas short, narrow,
and shallow streams drain the steep south slope of the
Main Range, larger and longer streams drain the less steep
north slope. Conditions of flow vary considerably. For
example, the rivers reach flood stage during both the spring
thaw period. when the snow is melting on the mountains,
and during the summer, following heavy showers on the
mountains. In summer, the rivers normally contain little
water; are narrow, shallow, or may even dry up. Those
in the drier, eastern section are all intermittent. Even
the Salgir, the largest river in the Crimea, becomes inter-
mittent just to the north of the boundary of the region in
subregion E-3. The water supply obtainable from the riv-
ers, especially in the drier east and north, is limited and
variable. The rivers may be major obstacles to cross-coun-
try movement only during the periods of high water; dur-
ing the remainder of the year they can be forded at many
places, although steep banks are characteristic.
Forests partly cover most of the slopes of the Main
Range, and, together with the steep rocky slopes, restrict
movement to a considerable degree. The forests, however,
afford some concealment and timber. The lower and drier
slopes have broadleaf forests, mainly oak, with Mediter-
ranean maritime mixed forests on the western part of the
south coast only. The higher and moister slopes have
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r
1 ~
AY-PETRINSKAYA YAYLA
I
n
FIGURE 11-134. Profile of
A profile from Alupka to the Bel'bek river, through
FIGURE 11-135. Yapla plateaus of the Main Range west of Yalta.
A section of the broad plateau summit is shown across the center of the picture (light strip). White strips are probably snow
patches along the irregular platform ledges and in the sinkholes and valleys. The steepness of the southern cliffs with their many
waterfalls is emphasized by the zigzag roads. On the broad, lower terraces of the amphitheater (lower right) are cultivated areas,
but for the most part forests, including those of the Crimean pine, cover the southern slopes. The relatively gentle, northern slopes
are covered with broadleaf forests, mainly beech, with some pine. Approximate scale, 1:56.000. 1944.
Confidential Original
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 Confidential Approved For Release 2003/05M/IJITA$ A GEOGRAPHY A000200010002-7
Mountainous Crimea.
the western section of the mountains and foothills.
broadleaf forest, mainly beech, and Crimean mountain
pine in the western section of the southern slope only.
Widely spaced, low, drought-resistant shrubs are spread
over the lower and drier slopes in the east, north, and west.
Grass vegetation covers the lower part of the north slope of
the Outer Ridge, and meadow vegetation the greater part
of the surface of the Main Range plateaus. The shrubs,
grasses, and herbaceous plants do not offer any impor-
tant obstacles to cross-country movement and afford little
concealment.
The most densely populated sections and the cultivated
areas containing fruit orchards, vineyards, and truck
farms are in the interridge depressions, basins, and valleys.
Tobacco plantations are on the lower rocky slopes, or higher
and drier valley terraces. On the south coast, a veritable
"Soviet Riviera", there are many small cities and health
resorts.
Well-drained, shallow, deep, loamy and clayey soils are
found on the slopes of the Main Range and the Ridges.
The soils are shallow and poor on the steeper slopes. Rock
fragments are common in and on the soil; bedrock out-
crops locally. Thick marls, however, are found in the val-
leys and in the interridge depression west of Simferopol'.
From December to February the soils are probably frozen
firmly on the upper slopes of the Main Range and the
Ridges. Only in very cold winters does the soil freeze
firmly at sea level on the south coast. For long periods
during the summer and autumn, the soils are dry and
dusty. These frozen or dry surfaces favor cross-country
movement of vehicles.
Soils can be expected to be muddy and slippery for about
three to four weeks during the spring thawing in March
and April and for short periods following local showers.
During these periods most tracked vehicles could move
cross-country only with difficulty and wheeled vehicles
could move only on improved roads.
Differences in elevation, surface configuration, and vege-
tation in Mountainous Crimea may be divided into two sub-
regions, the Southern Mountains and the Northern Foot-
hills. The Southern Mountains subregion, the highest
mountain zone, extends along the south coast of the Cri-
mean Peninsula and is composed of a chain of plateaus,
several ranges, and ridges. North of this, and paralleling
its entire border lengthwise, is a foothill zone containing
two major ridges skirting a number of depressions and
basins. These comprise the Northern Foothills subregion.
Each of these subregions will be discussed separately.
(2) Subregion F-1, Southern Mountains
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3 and FIGURES 11-134, 11-152,
and II-153).-The Main Range, the backbone of the South-
ern Mountains subregion, extends along the south coast for
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NORTHERN FOOTHILLS SUBREGION
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d
dv
Occ
ro
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10
I
h
a distance of 90 miles. Although it is relatively low, the
highest peaks being little more than 5,000 feet above sea
level, its surface is very rough, and it presents a major
obstacle to movement, especially from the south coast.
The range is, in general, a chain of plateaus in the west-
ern and central sections and groups of separate ranges in
the eastern section.
The plateaus are called yayla, meaning summer pasture.
in Tatar, and thus they are referred to as the "yayla pla-
teaus". In the western section, southwest of Alushta, the
yayla plateaus form a continuous chain, but in the central
section, between Alushta and Uskut farther northeast, the
yayla plateaus are divided into large detached, mesalike
masses such as the Chatyr-Dag and the Karabi-Yayla.
These masses slope steeply in all directions and are sepa-
rated by relatively broad, deep depressions from 1,500 to
3,000 feet below the bordering heights. The general ele-
vation of the summits of the yayla plateaus is about 3,000
to 4,000 feet. Several of them rise to over 5,000 feet above
sea level. The summits average about two to six miles
broad, but in places are less than one mile wide (FIGURE
11-135).
The open and stony summit surfaces of the yayla pla-
teaus comprising the western and central sections of the
Main Ridge present a marked contrast with the steep slopes
of the mountains in the same area (FIGURES 11-135 and II-
136). In many places there are wide, level surfaces bor-
dered by numerous low, irregular hills and rocks. In other
places the plateaus are divided into platforms of various
sizes and shapes which rise in steep, irregular ledges one
above another. The tops of the plateaus are limestones in
which there are many steep-sided valleys and hollows (sink-
holes of various sizes and shapes) and underground caves,
especially in the Chatyr-Dag and the Karabi-Yayla. The
ledges. hills, rocks, valleys, and hollows produce an uneven
summit surface in many places.
FIGURE 11-136. A part of the summit of the Babucjan-Yayla.
Direction of view unreported. The summit of the yayla plateau
is broken here by numerous irregular rocky elevations rising above
the level valley. White limestone outcrops, such as appear in the
foreground, are numerous in the meadows. Before 1932.
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Page 11-82 JANIS 40 Confidential
West of Alushta, the continuous wall of the yayla pla-
teaus has few passes and is a considerable barrier. The
lower, western spurs of the Main Range can be crossed in
a few places, notably in the vicinity of Foros on the main
road through a pass (the Baydarskiye Vorota (Baydary
Gates)), less than 2,000 feet above sea level. Between Foros
and Alushta, a distance of over 30 miles, there are probably
no passes lower than 3,000 feet above sea level. Neverthe-
less, roads and trails cross the surface of the plateaus,
avoiding the irregular areas as much as possible, and wind
down the steep southern slope to the south coast over steep
grades with many hairpin curves (FIGURE 11-135).
In the central section of the Main Range between Alushta
and Uskut, four major "low" and open passes are found be-
tween the major mesalike plateau masses. The pass be-
FIGURE 11-137. Kara-Dag range, southwest of Feodosiya.
Looking west. The Main Range terminates on the east in the vol-
canic, rocky Kara-Dag range (1,883 feet). Its jagged summit
rises high above the general level of the range which, on its sea-
ward side, drops precipitously and forms a very irregular, rocky
coast. In the background appear the rocky summits of a typical
limestone range, the Syuryu-Kaya. Before 1932.
FIGURE 11-138. The southern slope of the Ay-Petrinskaya Yayla (plateau) east of Alupka.
The top of the Ay-Petrinskaya Yayla (upper left corner) has a relatively broad, level limestone surface. The upper part of the south-
ern slope has very high cliffs (grayish areas), dropping to a zone of limestone platforms which descend to the sea in a series of steps,
with alternating steep and cultivated, gently sloping sections. The middle slopes are covered with Crimean pine forest (the dark
areas). March 1943.
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tween the Babugan-Yayla and the Chatyr-Dag has an ele-
vation of 1,968 feet; that between the Chatyr-Dag and the
Demerdzhi-Yayla, 2,500 feet; that between the Demerdzhi-
Yayla and the Karabi-Yayla, about 2,600 feet; and that be-
tween the Karabi-Yayla and several low ranges to the east,
2,500 feet. The pass between the Chatyr-Dag and the
Demerdzhi-Yayla is followed by the main road connecting
Alushta and Simferopol'.
East of Uskut the yayla plateaus disappear, and the Main
Range consists of a multitude of detached, branching
ranges with steep slopes. Most peaks rise from 2,000 to
3,000 feet above sea level; the highest peak is about 3,130
feet. In the extreme east, the Main Range terminates in
the Kara-Dag and Syuryu-Kaya ranges (FIGURE 11-137).
In this eastern section the Main Range can be crossed
through several low passes less than 2,000 feet above sea
level. The main road connecting Saly and Sudak follows
a pass about 1,300 feet above sea level between the Sugut-
Oba and Syuryu-Kaya.
The southern side of the Main Range and the south coast
have a diversified relief. In the section west of Alushta
the continuous chain of yayla plateaus is bordered on the
south coast by very steep cliffs, which attain an elevation
of several hundred feet (FIGURES 11-138 and 11-139). At
the foot of the cliffs, generally less than three miles from
the south coast, is a zone of platforms and low mountains.
These slope down to the sea in great steplike sweeps, in
places forming rocky headlands. At Mys Ayya, at the ex-
treme western end of the Main Range, the mountains reach
the sea in almost vertical cliffs more than 1,600 feet high.
Low, block ranges, typically 600 to 1,000 feet above sea level,
and steep, rocky hills separated by angular basins extend
to the coast west of Balaklava (FIGURE 11-140). Between
FIGURE 11-139. The steep southern coast of Crimea near Foros.
Looking southeast. Between the yayla plateaus and the sea in
this section is a very narrow coastal lowland. Behind it the face
of the range rises in very steep slopes and high, almost perpendicu-
lar walls. The road ascends the slopes in hairpin turns and
crosses the main range through a pass, known as the Baydarskiy
Vorota (Baydary Gate) to the city of Baydary. Scrub vegetation
covers the slopes. Before 1941.
(Mys) Ayya and Alushta, narrow strips of shore drop to the
sea in continuous, steep slopes furrowed with ravines and
gullies. In some places the rocky mountains and spurs
with precipitous slopes projecting to the coast enclose
"amphitheaters" of various sizes such as at Yalta and
Gurzuf which open toward the south. Within these amphi-
theaters are broad, stream terraces with gentle-to-moderate
FIGURE 11-140. Steep, rocky slopes of the Main Range at Balaklava.
Probably looking north. Balaklava is a health resort on the southwest coast. The narrow bay, enclosed by steep, rocky hills, serves
as a naval base. Before 1941.
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FIGURE 11-141. The Tuak coastal district, on the south slope of the Karabi-Yayla (plateau).
The lower slope of the Karabi-Yayla is cut by a large number of rather broad and terraced valleys open to the sea and by numerous
gullies. Small, comparatively level areas, part of which are cultivated, are located between the valleys. The main coastal road winds
across the area, avoiding the steep slopes and larger valleys and gullies. March 1943.
slopes (FIGURE 11-135). These terraces are dissected by an
intricate network of valleys, ravines, and gullies.
From Alushta eastward to the vicinity of Kapsikhor and
the river Voron, the yayla plateaus and ranges to the east
are three to six miles inland from the coast. From the
base of the high cliffs bordering the plateaus and the base
of the steep slopes of the ranges to the east, the surface
slopes somewhat gradually to the sea in broad steps. There
are comparatively flat areas between streams which have
cut ravines and gullies (FIGURE 11-141). In the Kapsikhor
district the slope is less steep. It is cut by broad, north -
south trending valleys of relatively large streams.
East of Kapsikhor and the river Voron, the relief of the
southern slope of the Main Range and the south coast is
again extremely diversified. A series of low mountains
extends down to the coast and between them are basins and
lowlands such as those at Kutlak, Sudak, Meganom, and
Otuzy. These basins are crossed by river valleys with
gently-to-steeply dissected, terraced valley sides (FIGURE
11-142). Some of the ranges and mountains, such as Gora
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Ardych-Kaya (1,168 feet above sea level), are separated
from the main ranges by terraced basins. The slopes of
some of these ranges are unusually steep and precipitous,
particularly on the seaward side, where cliffs of great height
rise sheer from the sea. The slopes of the coastal ranges
of the Kara-Dag drop steeply from a height of 1,440 feet to
the sea (FIGURE 11-137).
The northern side of the Main Range is less steep than
the southern side (FIGURES 11-134 and 11-135) and is broad-
est in the western part, where it is 12 miles wide in places.
Along most of its length it extends down to the valleylike
depressions and basins of the Northern Foothills subregion,
which has an elevation of about 1,300 feet in the western
and central parts, and about 900 feet in the eastern part.
The relief varies greatly from place to place. At several
places steep-sided block mountains are separated from the
yayla plateaus by deep, steep-walled canyons. At higher
elevations, the surface is much cut up by a ramified system
of narrow and steep-sided valleys which contract to nar-
row gorges in many places. At lower elevations, especially
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KatIak
3000
F-t r.T
6000
FIGURE 11-142. Coastal area in the vicinity of Kutlak.
This coast line is very indented and presents a succession of steep-sloped spurs projecting from the adjacent ranges; in places the
spurs rise almost perpendicularly from the water. Between the ranges are broad basins and valleys fronting the sea. Typical of
these basins is the Kutlak basin (lower right i , in which several tiers of high terraces rise from the banks of the river which
crosses it to the sea. The terraces are covered mainly with vineyards and orchards. The main coastal road (lower right l passes
through the city of Kutlak. March 1943.
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Probably looking southeast. The lower part of the broad, northern slope of the western half of the Main Range has many rolling hills
whose surface is covered by numerous vineyards, orchards, and forests, mainly oak, with shrub growth. The yayla plateaus of the
Main Range appear in the background. Before 1941.
in the western half, the surface is hilly, with branching river
valleys where slopes are comparatively gentle (FIGURE
11-143). The Baydary basin on the river Chernaya, at an
elevation of about 1,000 feet, and the basin of the upper
Salgir river, with elevations between 1,000 to 1,900 feet, have
relatively broad, level surfaces, but they are broken by low
hills.
Valleys of the larger rivers and streams throughout the
subregion are broad in the middle and lower courses and
contain valley flats and terraces which increase in height
toward the Main Range. These river terraces are much
cut up by streams. The valleys lie at right angles to the
Main Range and provide the only practicable transverse
routes over it (FIGURE 11-135).
The mountainous terrain directly affects and limits
movement, especially on the southern slopes, to a few basins
and valleys and level sections on the summit of the yayla
plateaus. In the basins and valleys, deeply dissected ter-
races and steep valley slopes restrict movement (FIGURES
11-141 and 11-142). On the level section of the yayla pla-
teaus tracked vehicles can move cross-country, but in other
sections movement would be handicapped by steep-walled
ledges, hills, valleys, sinkholes, and outcropping rocks (FIG-
URES 11-135 and 11-136). Routes used must be carefully
selected. Here bridging may be necessary to cross gaps
left by broken or dynamited roofs of underground caverns.
On the whole, rapid movement of vehicles is extremely
difficult or impossible off the roads. The mountain ranges
can be crossed only along roads which for the most part
follow relatively low passes, the approaches to which are
over steep grades and many hairpin curves. The network
of main roads could be kept open for traffic, if properly
maintained, even in the winter, when ordinarily they may
be blocked by relatively heavy snowfall (November to April)
in the mountains.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4 and FIGURE II-152).-The crest
of the Main Range forms the primary drainage divide and
directs the flow of the numerous streams which originate
on it. Much of the precipitation which falls on the Main
Range is absorbed and penetrates deep into the limestone
plateaus and mountains. Thus, there are few surface
streams on the summit of the yayla plateaus (FIGURES
11-135 and 11-136). The snow which accumulates on the
higher slopes during the winter usually begins to thaw
some time in April or May. Its gradual melting in the
spring plays an important part in feeding the rivers and
ground waters. At places where the limestone strata are
underlaid by impermeable rock, the water reaches the sur-
face in the form of strong-flowing springs. Some of these
springs are the outbreak of subterranean rivers and are the
sources of the Bel'bek, Salgir, Biyuk-Karasu, and other
rivers. Almost all the larger Crimean rivers are fed by
these underground waters. Particularly heavy rains on
steep sections of the mountains and occasional rapid thaw-
ing of snow sometimes result in landslides. These are pre-
vented in part by capturing the surface and underground
waters and guiding them away from the threatened
sections.
Streams draining the southern slope of the Main Range
are short, most of them being no more than five to eight
miles long. Their beds are steep and filled with great
boulders. The streams are relatively narrow and shallow,
with steep banks. The upper courses pass through narrow
gorges, marked with many waterfalls. All of the streams
on the south side of the Main Range east of Gora Sugut-Oba
are intermittent, and many of the smaller ones are dry
most of the year. The south coast suffers from protracted
summer droughts; during that time even the larger streams
have little water.
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MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
The major rivers of the Crimea rise on the northern side
of the Main Range. They are much longer than those on
the southern side but they, too, are shallow and narrow.
Steep banks are common, especially along the headwaters.
Except at flood stage the streams carry little water.
The season of high water comes with the spring rains and
the melting of snow on the mountains. Occasional heavy
summer rains, the form in which most of the summer pre-
cipitation falls, also raise the level of the streams to flood
state. The run-off, however, is rapid and the torrents, es-
pecially on the south side, swiftly pass to the sea, conditions
of flow changing from hour to hour. The building of reser-
voirs and other measures for the regulation of water run-off
is reported to be important in the economy of the south
coast.
Probably only during unusually cold winters do the water
bodies of this subregion freeze over completely at low ele-
vations. Only in exceptionally cold winters does ice form
on the south coast. Water bodies on the intermediate
slopes probably have ice for a period of about 30 to 90 days
between the end of December and the middle of March.
On the top of the yayla plateaus ice probably lasts consider-
ably longer.
Water supply is limited, especially on the drier south
coast. The rivers are major obstacles to movement only
(luring high-water stages in spring and occasionally in
summer. During the rest of the year, it is reported, the
streams can be forded at various places. Their steep banks,
however, are obstacles to wheeled vehicles.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5 and FIGURE II-154).-The
vegetation of Mountainous Crimea can be divided into four
general types: grass, shrub, forest, and crop. Of these the
forests occupy the greatest area, covering about three-
fourths of the total surface. The greater part of the sum-
mit surface of the yayla plateaus is covered by grassy moun-
tain meadows, most of whose plants are but a few inches
high (FIGURE 11-136). These meadows furnish summer
pasture for flocks of sheep and goats.
Widely spaced stands of drought-resistant, deciduous
shrubs are on the intermediate and lower southern slopes
of the central and eastern, drier sections of the Main Range
(FIGURE 11-142). This scrubby growth includes dense,
thorny stands of the "catch tree," shrubby forms of oak,
small-leafed hornbeam, and the pear tree, with inter-
mingled species of treelike juniper, sage, and others.
Tough, downy or thorny, extremely drought-resistant sub-
shrubs (very low-growing shrubby plants) form open and
scattered stands, between which grow many drought-resist-
ant herbaceous plants and grasses of the steppe type of
vegetation. Such areas are found on the lowest and driest,
north slopes of the Main Range and on the lower slopes of
the mountains and the coast in the extreme eastern part
of the subregion. Rocky peaks of the yayla plateaus have
a combination of drought-resistant vegetation containing
small bushes, shrubs, subshrubs, and some squat alpine
plants. The widely spaced, low shrub growths do not offer
any obstacles to the movement of wheeled or tracked ve-
hicles, and provide no natural means of concealment.
Forest vegetation is confined largely to the slopes of the
Main Range. Large sections of the lower coastal slopes,
basins, and valley floors have been cleared. The forests
show both a pronounced vertical zonation on the mountain
slopes and marked differences between the northern and
southern slopes. In general the higher and more moist
north and south slopes are occupied by broadleaf forests,
mainly beech (FIGURE 11-135). Such forests are above an
Original
Page 11-87
elevation of about 2,000 or 2,300 feet on the northern slope
and above 2,300 to 2,600 feet on the southern slope. They
extend up to the edge of the summits of the yayla plateaus
at 4,300 feet. Below about 3,600 feet elevation, high-
trunked beech trees occupy slopes with a northern ex-
posure, and European chestnut oaks are mingled with the
beech forest on slopes with a southern exposure.
Above 3,600 feet at some places the beech often assumes
a bushy, low-trunked form. There are several places where
other species interrupt the over-all pattern above. Cri-
mean mountain pines form a short, narrow belt on the
western section of the southern slope of the Main Range
from 1,000 feet above sea level to the edge of the yayla pla-
teaus (FIGURES 11-135 and 11-138). These pines also ap-
pear in the upper part of the northern slope, being at some
places intermingled with low-trunked beech forests and at
others forming independent growths. In depressed sec-
tions and at the bottom of many sinkholes on the yayla
plateaus, bushes and trees, mainly of beech and pine, grow.
On the lower and drier north slope between an elevation
of 300 to 800 feet and 2,000 feet above sea level continuing
around, and on the south slope between an elevation of
1,000 feet and 2,300 to 2,600 feet, is another wide zone of
broadleaf forests, mainly oak (FIGURE 11-139). The trees
in general, especially those growing in the driest sections
below 800 feet elevation, branch very close to the ground
and thus are short-trunked. There is an undergrowth of
hornbeam, cornel, and various shrubs throughout the oak
forest area. Extensive areas of alder-hazel stands are
found in the river valleys.
The Mediterranean maritime mixed forests grow on the
south coast from sea level up to about 1,000 feet elevation,
or somewhat higher in places (FIGURE 11-139). It consists
largely of short-trunked oaks and junipers with wild pis-
tachio, some species of ash and elm, and an undergrowth
of a wide variety of herbaceous and shrubby plants. Many
of the plants in this vegetation type are green all year. To
the east of Alushta the evergreen undergrowth disappears
and the forests become poor, mostly because of the greater
dryness there. Gradually the forest of the west is displaced
by drought-resistant, deciduous shrubs. On the driest and
stoniest slopes where the forests have been cut, are low-
growing, extremely drought-resistant subshrubs forming
open and scattered stands, between which grow small
drought-resistant plants.
The forests on the mountain slopes offer better oppor-
tunity for concealment than the grasses or shrub growth.
The mountain forests provide the only relatively large
source of timber for miles and are a local supply of mate-
rial for construction purposes and fuel. The forests, in
addition to the steep, rocky terrain of the mountains, re-
strict maneuverability to roads and small strips of land.
Along the south coast are numerous cities with villas lo-
cated in the midst of well-kept gardens and parks, alternat-
ing with cultivated fields, many enclosed by stone walls,
typically about two feet high and one foot wide. In many
places the dark green, forested slopes of the ridges overlook
extensive fruit orchards and vineyards in the valleys. To-
bacco plantations are laid out at many places on the rocky
slopes and on higher and drier valley terraces. A typical
valley landscape such as found at Alupka, Yalta, Gurzuf,
Alushta, or Sudak includes a resort center on the broad,
lower river valley surface spread out amid orchards, vine-
yards, and parks, with tall stately cypresses, pines, cedars,
magnolias, laurels, and other ornamental southern plants
(FIGURE 11-144).
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JANIS 40
FIGURE 11-144. South coast of Crimea, east of Alupka.
Looking west. This typical landscape of the south coast includes
sites of sanatoriums, rest homes, and parks with cypresses and
ornamental plants, surrounded by orchards, vineyards, and to-
bacco plantations. The coastal zone is composed of alternating
steep and gently sloping areas. Before 1932.
In the area north of the crest of the Main Range culti-
vated sections such as truck farms, fruit orchards, vine-
yards, and tobacco plantations are confined to strips along
the streams, and to the lower hills of the northern slope of
the Main Range (FIGURE 11-143).
The cultivated crops and plants in the valleys and on
slopes do not offer any serious obstacles to the movement of
wheeled or tracked vehicles, and they provide some oppor-
tunity for concealment.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
9).-Relatively soft rocks are found in the valleys,, basins,
and on the lower slopes of the Main Range. Relatively
hard rocks constitute the bedrock of the plateaus, moun-
tains, and ridges of the Main Range. These rocks outcrop
locally and rock fragments are common (FIGURES 11-136,
11-139, and 11-140). Road construction is not rapid across
the latter areas.
Because of the great diversity of relief, climate, vegeta-
tion, and surface materials, the soils differ considerably
from place to place. They have a wide range of drainage
conditions, texture, and thickness over bedrock. Since the
soils are discussed in terms of the generally dominant con-
ditions, local variations from these conditions should be
expected.
The slopes of the mountains and plateaus have well-
drained, shallow and deep, loamy, and clayey soils. Es-
pecially on slopes west of the river Al'ma and on the steeper
slopes throughout the area the soils are thin and poorly
developed. Deeper soils are found in the valleys and basins,
such as the Baydary basin.
Landslides are encountered on the steeper slopes and
sometimes cause great damage to highways and buildings.
The fallen materials on the southern slopes of the Main
Range form "chaoses" (piles of boulders) at places along
the coast and at the foot of the precipitous walls of the
yayla plateaus and mountain masses. These are local de-
velopments and usually can be avoided. More widespread
are great heaps of finer, weathered fragments forming
whole mantles of deposits on the slopes of the Main Range
(FIGURE 11-153).
Soils are probably frozen firm on the upper slopes of the
mountain masses during December, through February, and
probably for a month or more longer on the yayla plateaus
(PLAN 9). Heavy frost occurs only in these areas, and
wheeled and tracked vehicles can move rapidly on the frozen
soils. Based on very limited information it appears that
at Yalta and other places on the southern coast of the sub-
region no firmly frozen ground is to be expected. Here
frosts occur infrequently. For example, the frostless pe-
riod is about 250 days on the south slopes compared to
about 150 days on the yayla plateaus.
Soils can be expected to be slippery and muddy for about
three weeks or a month during the spring thaws which oc-
cur in late April on the yayla plateaus and higher moun-
tains (PLAN 6) ; these thaws come between early March and
late April on the slopes of the main range. In these areas
during this period most tracked vehicles could move only
with difficulty, especially in gullies, and wheeled vehicles
would be stopped except on the roads.
Soils are slippery and muddy locally for short periods
following the infrequent showers which occur throughout
the year on the south coast and mainly in the summer in
the rest of the subregion. Rapid drainage of the porous
limestone surface counteracts the effects of the heavier and
more frequent showers which occur on the yayla plateaus.
Thus, the surface is kept dry.
During a large part of the summer and autumn the soils
of the entire subregion are dry and dusty because a consid-
erable portion of the rainfall during these seasons falls in
the form of short, heavy showers, followed by long periods
of warm, sunny weather (PLANS 7 and 8). Movement of
both tracked and wheeled vehicles is favored by the dry
surface conditions.
Building materials are abundant. In some places in the
Main Range, marble and hard, crystalline limestone are
quarried. At Balaklava limestone is quarried for use as
high-grade flux in the metallurgical plants of Kerch' and
the Ukraine.
(3) Subregion F-2, Northern Foothills
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3, and FIGURES 11-152 and
II-153).-Below the northern slope of the Main Range is an
arc-shaped belt of foothills formed by two ridges with steep
southern and gentle northern slopes (FIGURE 11-134).
These ridges are called the Inner Ridge (on the south) and
the Outer Ridge (on the north). The ridges are separated
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FIGURE 11-145. The Bel'bek river valley, about 10 miles southeast of
Duvankoy.
Probably looking southeast. The Bel'bek river flows from the
north slope of the Ay-Petrinskaya Yayla through the Inner and
Outer Ridges and empties into the sea north of Sevastopol'. Pic-
tured above is the entrance to the deep gorge cut by the Bel'bek
river through the Inner Ridge and, in the middle and foreground,
a section of the Outer Interridge Depression where it is crossed
by the Bel'bek river valley. The main road, connecting Yalta on
the south coast with Duvankoy on the Sevastopol'-Simferopol'
railroad, follows this gorge. Before 1941.
from each other and from the Main Range by a series of
depressions and basins. Transverse valleys divide the
ridges into a number of separate heights.
The Inner Ridge is higher and narrower than the Outer
Ridge. The section west of Simferopol' averages 1,340 to
1,500 feet above sea level, and has a maximum elevation of
about 2,400 feet. The section in the vicinity of Belogorsk
(formerly Karasubazar) is a little higher, averaging 1,500
to 2,000 feet with a maximum elevation of about 2,500 feet.
The Inner Ridge averages two to six miles in width. There
are rocky cliffs along th, southern edge of the Inner Ridge
and at places where it is cut through by narrow, north -
south gorges of the major streams (FIGURES 11-145 and
11-146). Near the southern edge are some scattered hills,
with steep, rocky slopes, made up of giant limestone steps
and ledges. Many caves extend into these limestone ledges.
The steep slopes and caves provide a unique kind of natural
fortress and were used in antiquity as populated and forti-
fied centers.
The northern slope of the Inner Ridge is relatively flat
and descends gently at an angle of about 10 degrees to the
outer depressions and basins (FIGURE 11-146). The surface
of this northern slope is cut by many narrow, steep-walled
ravines (FIGURES 11-147 and 11-148).
The Outer Ridge is considerably lower and broader than
the Inner Ridge, averaging in its central part about 300 to
Original
FIGURE 11-146. The steep-walled valley of the Churuk-Su river at
Bakhchisaray.
Direction of view unknown. The Churuk-Su river is a tributary
of the Naga river which cuts through the Inner Ridge and provides
a corridor connecting the Inner and Outer Interridge depressions.
The short grass is interspersed with light-colored limestone out-
crops. Note in the background the even skyline of the Inner
Ridge. Before 1941.
FIGURE 147. A ravine in the Inner Ridge north of Bakhchaisaray.
Direction of view unknown. Deep ravines cut into the Inner and
Outer Ridges and channelize movement through them. The sides
of the ravines are mostly bare rock walls; many are vertical.
Vegetation is found only on the valley floors. Before 1941.
400 feet above sea level along its northern base, and about
1,000 to 1,200 feet along its summit. This ridge averages
about 11 miles wide in the west and about six miles in the
east. The northern slope of the Outer Ridge, like that of
the Inner Ridge, has a generally flat surface which slopes
gently (at an angle of only about 3 degrees) to the plain
at the north. The southern side of the ridge, however, is
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JANIS 40
FIGURE 148. The Outer Interridge depression, west of Bakhchisaray.
In the lower part of the photograph the river Kaga is shown cutting through the Outer Ridge in a deep gorge. The dark areas in the
lower left and right corners are sections of the relatively flat, gently sloping, north side of the Outer Ridge. The steep, southern
slopes (light areas) of the Outer Ridge overlook the level surface of the Outer Interridge Depression covered with orchards, vineyards,
and tilled fields. The railroad and the asphalt-surfaced road, connecting Sevastopol' and Simferopol', pass through Bakhchisaray.
The light-colored strips in the upper part of the photograph indicate the nearly vertical-walled ravines cut into the northern slope of
the Inner Ridge by tributaries of the river Kaga. May 1944.
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FIGURE 11-149. Sevastopol' and vicinity.
Movement of tracked and wheeled vehicles is restricted in the vicinity of Sevastopol' by deeply cut, narrow, steep-walled river valleys.
The lower western section of the Outer Ridge is composed of round-topped, steep-sided hills which end in steep cliffs along the coast.
May 1944.
steep. There are rocky cliffs along its edge and at places there are steep-sided, round-topped, rocky hills. Rivers
where the ridge has been cut by major transverse river have cut steep-walled valleys in the ridge (FIGURE 11-149).
valleys (FIGURE 11-148). In the extreme eastern section, east of the Main Range
In the extreme western section of the Outer Ridge in the in the vicinity of Feodosiya, the Outer Ridge is broken up
vicinity of Sevastopol' the relief is less pronounced, but into detached hills and basins such as at Koktebel' (FIGURE
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FIGURE 11-150. Aerial view of Koktebel' and vicinity.
In the eastern part of the Northern Foothills the relief is broken up into hills and basins, and the coast is irregular. A portion of the
top of the Outer Ridge appears in the upper left corner. On the gentle slopes at the foot of the cliffs below the summit are vineyards
and fruit orchards. May 1944.
11-150). Feodosiya lies on the slopes of a 525-foot hill
which projects into the sea forming Mys Il'i.
Sinkholes such as those found on the yayla plateaus of
the Main Range also occur on both the Inner and Outer
Ridges; the sinkholes are less numerous and smaller, how-
ever, than on the Main Range, for limestone layers are thin-
ner and differ in composition.
The two southwest - northeast trending interridge de-
pressions west of Simferopol' are known as the Outer De-
pression (between the Outer and Inner Ridges) and the
Inner Depression (between the Inner Ridge and the South-
ern Mountains subregion) (FIGURE 11-134). Each depres-
sion has an average width of about two miles and probably
is no more than three miles wide at any place. The general
elevation of the Outer Depression increases from about 300
to 600 feet in the west to 600 to 900 feet in the east. The
Inner Depression is somewhat higher, varying from about
900 to 1,300 feet above sea level and being higher on the
southern than on the northern side. The floors of the de-
pressions, particularly of the outer one, are relatively flat,
but are interrupted with hills. In the Outer Depression
these hills are low and rounded (FIGURE 11-151); in the In-
ner Depression they are higher, often steep sided, and more
numerous.
East of Simferopol', for a distance of about 20 miles, the
Inner and Outer Depressions unite, and the depression
varies in width from five to eight miles. Its surface aver-
ages about 600 feet above sea level at the northern edge
and about 1,300 feet at the southern edge. Ridge remnants
and low cliffs produce a diversified, uneven surface com-
pared to that of the Outer Depression west of Simferopol'.
In the vicinity of Belogorsk (formerly Karasubazar) is a
series of basins separated by broad expanses of the broken
Inner Ridge. The basins average about 600 to 900 feet
above sea level, and the ridge remnants rise above them,
reaching a maximum elevation of about 2,500 feet. The
surface of the basins is hilly and there are steep slopes in
places, especially in the southern section.
Throughout the subregion nearly all of the larger and
some of the smaller rivers have more or less broad and
fairly level valleys containing a series of low river terraces.
The river valleys narrow to one or two miles for the larger
rivers, and to one-half mile and less for the smaller rivers;
at places these valleys change into narrow gorges with al-
most perpendicular walls as they cut through the Inner
and Outer Ridges (FIGURES 11-145 and 11-146). The river
valleys connect the interridge depressions and basins with
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FIGURE 11-151. The Outer Interridge Depression at Sinm/eropol'.
Probably looking, northwest from the base of the northern slope of the Inner Ridge. The steep, southern slope of the Outer Ridge
shows in the background and the notch in the skyline probably marks the valley of the river Salgir where it cuts through the ridge.
Cultivated fields cover the surface of the depression. Before 1941.
the lowland to the north of the region and with the passes
across the mountains of the Southern Mountains sub-
region.
'T'hroughout the subregion, maneuverability is channel-
ized by the narrow and deeply cut valleys and ravines where
the rivers cut into the Inner and Outer Ridges, and by the
cliffs on the southern edge of the ridges overlooking the
interridge depressions and basins. Here the terrain offers
excellent cover and concealment. Within the interridge
depressions and basins the gentle relief favors movement
of vehicles. The major east - west route follows the rela-
tively broad, level interridge depressions and basins con-
necting Sevastopol', Bakhchisaray, Simferopol', Belogorsk
(Karasubazar), and Feodosiya. Along this route is an as-
phalt-surfaced road and, for part of the way, a railroad.
There are several north - south routes which follow the
gaps cut by the rivers through the Inner and Outer Ridges;
the major one, containing the railroad connecting Se-
vastopol' and Moscow, follows the Salgir river valley (FIG-
URES 11-145 to 11-147, and 11-151).
According to the experience of the Germans during
World War II, movement of tracked and wheeled vehicles
is restricted in the area around the fortress of Sevastopol'
(FIGURE 11-149), the important naval base on the Crimean
Peninsula, by the deeply cut valleys to the northeast, and
by the mountain spurs to the south. However, the local
use of mechanized vehicles is possible. Steep slopes of hills
in sections of the inner depression and basins along the
southern border of the subregion offer some restrictions to
the rapid movement of vehicles.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4 and FIGURE II-152).-Several
small rivers rising on the northern side of the Main Range
drain the Northern Foothills subregion. The Inner and
Outer Ridges west of Simferopol' forms a drainage divide
between the rivers flowing westward into Zaliv Kalamitskiy
and those flowing northward into the Sea of Azov. The
rivers are relatively short, narrow, and shallow. Even the
Salgir, the largest river in the whole Crimea, has an average
depth of only two feet after it leaves the hills and passes
Original
into the steppes to the north, where it dries up in summer.
During the thawing of snow on the plateaus and moun-
tains in the spring and after heavy showers in summer, the
streams become torrential; their waters carry much sand
and cause dangerous local floods. An area particularly
subj ect to floods is located along the river Burul'cha, a tribu-
tary of the Salgir, near the base of the Outer Ridge.
Water bodies at low elevations freeze over completely
only during the coldest winters. At higher elevations in
the interior, water bodies probably have ice for a period of
about 30 to 60 days in January and February. especially
during the colder winters.
The rivers are temporary major obstacles only during
the flood period of spring and occasionally in summer.
During the rest of the year, it is reported that the rivers
can be forded at many places. Locally, steep banks are
obstacles to wheeled vehicles. While the Outer Ridge
merges into the steppe to the north, the water supply from
streams is limited.
(e) Vegetation (PLAN 5 and FIGURE II-154).-Similar
to the Southern Mountains subregion, there are fou. gen-
eral types of vegetation: grass, shrub, forest, and crops.
However, forests cover only a small part of the surface.
The areas covered by grass and shrubs are approximately
equal.
The grassland consists of steppe with sections of sparse
oak forest. Grass occupies an almost unbroken belt of
varied width along the lower part of the northern slope of
the Outer Ridge. Along its higher, southern margin small
sections of low-trunked oak forest project from the forested
slopes to the south. Grasslands provide good surface for
vehicles.
Tough, downy or thorny, low-growing, extremely
drought-resistant subshrubs form open and scattered
stands, between which grow many drought-resistant plants
and grasses of the steppe type of vegetation. This vege-
tation is found on the Outer Ridge and interridge basins
south of Sevastopol', the upper slopes of the Inner Ridge,
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the interridge depression and basins, and part of the In-
ner Ridge east of the river Al'ma, and hills and basin west
and south of Feodosiya. These widely spaced, low shrub
growths do not materially interfere with the movement of
vehicles, but do not provide natural means of concealment.
Forest vegetation, mostly oak, is found primarily on the
upper slopes of the Inner and Outer Ridges and in the inter-
ridge depressions between the river Al'ma and the river
Chernaya and on the Inner Ridge east of Belogorsk (Kara-
subazar). Small patches of trees are found on other sec-
tions of the Inner and Outer Ridges and the interridge de-
pressions and valleys.
Broadleaf forests of short-trunked trees, mainly oak, are
found between an elevation of 300 and 1,000 feet above sea
level. Undergrowth is present in places. Denser and
more luxuriant stands of forest are found in the valleys.
Some of the trees, particularly the European oak, are suit-
able for construction timber.
The forests locally restrict maneuverability to roads and
small strips of land. According to reports of the German
experience during World War II, movement to the east
of the fortress of Sevastopol' was restricted by dense under-
growth in the forested areas. The forests, however, offer
better opportunity for concealment than the grass or shrub
vegetation. In addition, the forests are a local source of
material for construction purposes and fuel.
Truck farms, fruit orchards, vineyards, and tobacco plan-
tations are confined to the interridge depressions and ba-
sins, and strips along the streams (FIGURES 11-147, 11-150,
and 11-151). Much of the lower part of the northern slope
of the Outer Ridge has been brought under cultivation,
wheat being the predominant crop. In some years pro-
tracted droughts have a disastrous effect on the crops.
These crops provide some concealment and do not inter-
fere materially with the movement of vehicles.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
8).-Relatively soft rocks are found in the interridge de-
pressions and basins and in river valleys, whereas rela-
tively hard rocks constitute the bedrock of the Inner and
Outer Ridge surface. Bedrock outcrops locally and rock
fragments are common in the soil, especially on the ridges
(FIGURES 11-146 and 11-151).
Well-drained, shallow, deep rubbly and loamy soils, over-
lying consolidated rock, are found on the Inner and Outer
Ridge. Especially in the western section of the Outer Ridge
south of Sevastopol' and on most of the Inner Ridge, the
soils are shallow and poorly developed on slopes where bed-
rock outcrops. Thick marls are present in the valleys and
the outer depressions west of Simferopol'.
Landslides on the steep shoulders of the foothill ridges
play a notable role in the relief. The large, collapsed
masses usually break up into blocks and small fragments,
mantling the surface at the foot of the steep slopes.
Firmly frozen ground occurs on the coast and at low
levels only during very cold winters. It is likely that on
the average no firmly frozen ground is to be expected at
Sevastopol'. At higher elevations soils are probably frozen
firm for varying periods during January and February.
Muddy soil conditions can be expected for a few weeks
during the spring thaws in March and April (PLAN 6) and
for short periods in summer during and following infre-
quent, heavy, local rain showers (PLAN 7). Where the soils
are muddy, most tracked vehicles could move cross-country
only with difficulty; wheeled vehicles would be stopped ex-
cept on the roads. Dry, dusty soil conditions can be ex-
pected for long periods during the summer and autumn
(PLANS 7 and 8). During periods of protracted drought,
the dry and dusty soil conditions last for weeks at a time.
Stone for building material is reported to be abundant
in many places. It is quarried from the Inner Ridge lime-
stone.
G. Region G, the Volga-Caspian Desert
(1) Introduction (PLAN 2)
The Volga - Caspian Desert (Region G) extends south-
eastward from the Grassland Belt (Region E) to the Cas-
pian Sea. It extends across the lower Volga river and
forms the southeastern part of the JANIS 40 area. Bound-
aries of the Volga - Caspian Desert Region are marked by
physical features on the northwest and southeast, i.e., des-
ert margin and seacoast, but coincide with the arbitrary
boundaries of JANIS 40 on the southwest and northeast.
Terrain conditions similar to those of Region G extend
across the margins of the area covered by this JANIS into
Russian Kazakhstan on the northeast and into Russian
Daghestan (covered in JANIS 41) on the south. The Volga -
Caspian Desert Region is an irregular quadrangle measur-
ing about 320 miles northwest to southeast, and 250 miles
northeast to southwest. The region contains 60,000 square
miles, and is slightly larger than the State of Florida.
The Volga - Caspian Desert Region, together with its ex-
tension southward into the JANIS 41 area, lies across the
path of any movement along the west side of the Caspian
Sea and into the Stalingrad, Donets, and Moscow area
(PLAN 2). This is significant because one of the passable
invasion routes to Central European USSR is from northern
Iran via the Caspian Sea and the narrow strip of lowland
between itswest coast and the Caucasus Mountains (JANIs
41 for detail). The Volga - Caspian Desert Region also
would be crossed in any movement along an old nomad in-
vasion route around the north coast of the Caspian Sea.
This route also reaches Stalingrad and can be extended
west to the Donets industrial areas. (See Chapter IX.)
The Volga - Caspian Desert Region is a low, nearly flat
plain. The prevailing flatness of the plain is broken only
by the Yergeni hills along the western margin of the re-
gion and by minor irregularities such as sand dunes near
the Caspian, a flat-topped ridge east of the Volga, and steep
banks along the present bed, as well as several abandoned
beds of the Volga.
Chief drainage feature of the Volga - Caspian Desert is
the lower Volga river. Its numerous channels and great
width (7 to 20 miles in flood season) form a considerable
barrier across the Region. The Volga has a main channel
with depths of 6 to 60 feet and is an important commercial
route from the Caspian to Stalingrad and central European
USSR. Lesser drainage features of Region G are the nu-
merous shallow marshes along the Caspian coast and small,
shallow lakes and ponds scattered over the plain northeast
and southwest of the Volga. The Volga - Caspian Desert
has virtually no potable surface water aside from that of the
Volga, and ground water can be tapped only by deep wells.
Vegetation throughout most of the Volga - Caspian Des-
ert comprises scattered clumps of salt grass with some low,
widely spaced shrubs. A belt of nondesert vegetation ex-
tends along the Volga. This belt includes grassy meadows
which alternate with strips of broadleaf forest., In the
delta area, reeds 10 to 20 feet high partly cover the islands.
Chief surface materials affecting trafficability in Region
G are silty clay and sandy soils with areas of sand dunes
and relatively loose, silty clay and fine.sandy soils along
the course of the Volga. All of these surface materials are
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FIGURE 11-152
MOUNTAINOUS CRIMEA-RELIEI
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
AZOVSKOYE MORE
(SEA OFAZOV)
I feodosiyskiy
45?
00'
Go
Aldyeh.
Passes and gaps
Region boundary
Subregion boundary
STATUTE MILES
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$oktebel'
Kara-D.ag iS[
oniya
)Mys Ili
EUROPEAN U. S. S. R.
MOUNTAINOUS CRIMEA
(REGION F)
R E L I E F
Mostly all weather roads
Primary seasonal roads
Other seasonal roads
Railroads, single track
~^--- Rivers
-- Intermittent Streams
Salt lakes
1437 Elevations in feet
440
30'
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Topo., I.D.
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FIGURE 11-153
MOUNTAINOUS CRIMEA-SURFACE CONFIGURATIC
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
Wal
W.
7,
oktebof
EUROPEAN U. S. S. R.
MOUNTAINOUS CRIMEA
(REGION F)
SURFACE CONFIGURATION
Northern Foothills Subregion
Outer ridge.
Subsided section
Hills and basins
Inner ridge
Inter-ridge depressions
Inter-ridge basins
River valleys with terraces
Region boundary
Subregion boundary
Rivers
Intermittent Streams
Salt Lakes
dosiya
Zaliv
Southern Mountains Subregion
Yoyla Plateaus
Slopes with accumulation of talus and blocks
Lower mountains
Medium altitude ranges and mountains with basins and valleys
? Block ranges
Steep upper zone of Northern slope with ramified system
of narrow valleys
Less steep lower zone of Northern slope with ramified system
of narrow valleys
Basins of Northen slope
Steep upper zone of Southern slope dissected by narrow
valleys and ravines
Less steep lower zone of Southern slope dissected by narrow
volleys and ravines
5 10 15 20
STATUTE MILES CONFIDENTIAL
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45?
00'
44'
30
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FIGURE 11-154
MOUNTAINOUS CRIMEA-VEGETATION
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
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KALAMX '?SKf ZALfl ,.
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Page 11-95
FIGURE 11-155. A portion of the Volga Valley south of Vladimirovka.
The contrast is striking between the surface of the Volga flood plain on the lower half of the picture and the Caspian Lowland on the
upper half. Numerous islands are enclosed by multiple channels. The relatively steep edge of the Volga Valley is cut by gullies.
Note how the roads and trails avoid the Volga flood plain. July 1942.
frozen from late December to early March, but only to a
limited extent in the drier soils in the Caspian Lowland.
The shallow ice cover on the bodies of water probably is not
thick enough to support heavy equipment. During the
spring thaws of March and early April, the nearly bare sur-
face of the desert is muddy and almost impassable for two
or three weeks Along the Volga, mud caused by floods
in May and June adds to the barrier effect of the river at
that time. Later in the summer and during fall and early
winter, the desert and riverbank surfaces are dry and traffic-
able except for short periods after infrequent summer
showers. During this dry period, great clouds of dust are
stirred up by wind or moving vehicles. Visibility is reduced
considerably and outdoor activity is almost impossible
during dust storms. The Volga - Caspian Desert is divided
into two subregions: the Volga Valley and the Caspian
Lowland.
Original
(2) Subregion G-1, the Volga Valley
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-From the northern bor-
der of Region G to the Caspian Sea, the Volga Valley ex-
tends northwest - southeast for 270 miles as a long, narrow,
shallow depression (PLAN 11). The valley varies in width
from about 20 miles near the northern border of the region
to only 7 to 15 miles in the central and lower reaches. The
delta is nearly 90 miles wide from southwest to northeast.
The part of the Volga Valley included in this subregion
lies below sea level and declines gradually from 20 to 30 feet
below sea level in the north to 85 feet below sea level in the
south where it flows into the Caspian.
The river divides the surface of the Volga Valley into nu-
merous islands and islets of various sizes and shapes; the
largest island is nearly 30 miles in length (FIGURES 11-155
and 11-156). Movement across the river is markedly lim-
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FIGURE 11-1 56. The Volga Valley near Staritsa in winter.
Staritsa is located on a higher part of the valley floor. The streams and lakes are frozen and the ground is snow covered. At this
time light vehicles can cross the flood plain and easily surmount the low edge of the valley. January 1943.
ited by these numerous islands, some of which shift their
location and size and may even entirely disappear after a
high-water period.
Although the Volga Valley is a nearly level plain, there
are significant local variations in the relief. From the
northern border of Region G southeastward to Mikhay-
lovka, the valley bottom contains many narrow, discontin-
uous channels 180 to 200 feet long, paralleling the Volga.
These channels are filled with water during the spring
floods. Sand dunes, 45 to 60 feet high, 7 miles long, and
averaging one-half mile in width, cover part of the surface
between these channels.
South of Mikhaylovka, mound-ridges ("Baer hillocks"),
varying from one-half to 12 miles in length, are found on
the Volga flood plain. These mounds, generally 600 to 900
feet wide and 18 to 27 feet high, serve as sites for settle-
ments. For example the central part of Astrakhan' is lo-
cated on one of these mounds. Intervals between the
mounds vary from about 600 feet to one mile. Water flows
between these mounds during the flood period and converts
them into islands.
The delta proper, which begins about 30 miles north of
Astrakhan', is a low-lying area composed of numerous islets
and islands of various sizes. During flood periods, only the
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FIGURE 11-157. A section of the Volga delta.
View near Il'inka which can be seen in the lower right corner. The Volga delta contains numerous river channels, lakes, marshes,
islets, and islands of various sizes. This type of terrain is also characteristic of the old Volga delta along the Caspian coast west
of the present delta. Cross-country movement is almost impossible here except when surfaces are frozen firmly. April 1942.
higher portions of these islands and islets remain above
water. Maximum elevation of the delta is about 35 feet
above the level of the Caspian Sea, but 50 feet below sea
level (FIGURES 11-157 and 11-158). The coast of this vast
delta is about 110 miles long, excluding the innumerable
coastal irregularities.
It is difficult to map the delta of the Volga and its shore-
line, for there are hundreds of low, reedy islands separated
by numerous distributaries below Astrakhan'. The chan-
nels of these distributaries are constantly shifting (FIGURE
11-157). In addition, the level of the Caspian Sea fluctuates
a few inches from season to season and with each seasonal
shift in level, there is a change in the deposition of debris
by the river and shore currents. Since 1929 the level of the
Caspian Sea has been lowering slowly.
Steep bluffs border the Volga flood plain, limit maneuver-
ability, and form a barrier to movement across the valley
(FIGURES 11-155 and 11-159). The right (southwest) bank
of the Volga which is about 80 feet high at the northern bor-
der of the subregion, decreases to 40 feet at Yenotayevsk
and is 12 to 30 feet high near Astrakhan'. This high right
(southwest) bank is not continuous, however, and between
Staritsa and Zubovka the break is about 9 miles long.
Downstream or southeast from Yenotayevsk, the high bank
Original
again becomes discontinuous and forms detached hills.
The much lower northeast bank forms earthen bluffs cut
by steep-walled gullies, especially along the northern third
of the Volga Valley subregion (FIGURE 11-155).
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-The river Volga and its valley
form a strategic land and ice route in winter from the Cas-
pian Sea inland to Stalingrad and the interior of Soviet
Russia. In summer the river is an equally vital waterway.
At the northern border of the subregion numerous small
channels branch off from the main channel of the Volga.
The principal branch is the Akhtuba which flows along the
northeastern edge of the flood plain. Numerous interlac-
ing channels wind between the main channel of the Volga
and the Akhtuba (FIGURE 11-155). Backwater and marshy
areas lie along the entire northeastern side of the Volga
Valley (Subregion G-1). The river furnishes a source of
potable water, after treatment, so that drinking water is
not a major problem. No tributaries enter the Volga in
its course across the Volga - Caspian Desert (Region G).
The main channel of the Volga river within Region G is
about 270 miles long. Its usual course is along the south-
west edge of the flood plain but it changes direction in many
places. The stream is undermining the river bank con-
stantly, especially during the spring high-water stage
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FIGURE 11-158. View of Astrakhan' and vicinity.
Astrakhan' is located on several islands in the Volga delta. The lower parts of Astrakhan' are protected from the flood waters by
a system of walls, since the Volga river rises about 10 feet during the spring flood period. The railroad shown connects Astrakhan'
with Stalingrad. October 1942.
(FIGURE 11-158) so that the banks frequently cave in and
form shallow bars which may become islands. Often, how-
ever, these are washed away completely by floods. During
each flood period, new channels are dug and old ones filled
with mud or sand.
An outstanding feature of the Volga is the great delta
which lies at the river's mouth. Actually, over 200 chan-
nels flow through a vast wedge of alluvium which projects
into the Caspian Sea. From a point about 30 miles north
of Astrakhan' where the Buzon branch diverges from the
main channel, a succession of large and small distributaries
carry the waters of the Volga to the sea, forming a mass of
waterways and slow swampy land. This area is somewhat
similar to the delta of the Mississippi River, and has similar
problems of military geography.
The average gradient of the Volga in the upper half of
its course within this subregion is about 0.13 to 0.14 feet
per mile. Directly above Astrakhan' it is only about 0.08
feet per mile. Consequently, the rate of flow is not great,
but the velocity increases considerably during flood period.
The Volga river is deep in most places. The depth range
varies from 13 to 60 feet or more. However, the river is very
shallow in the lower delta area and where it empties into
the Caspian Sea. A 6-foot channel through the delta below
Astrakhan' is kept open by dredging. Numerous critical
sandbars and other impediments to navigation are distrib-
uted along the course of the river. In ordinary years the
minimum depth over most sand bars is 7 feet, but the depth
is less than 5 feet in unusually dry years. The width of the
main channel varies from 0.25 to 1.25 miles.
The Volga overflows during a spring high-water period,
which usually begins late in May or early in June and
reaches its highest level in the second half of June. At
flood stage, water covers the lower section of the flood plain
to a width of 7 to 20 miles. At that time the Volga Valley
has the appearance of a lake with islands and hills rising
from a few to several feet above the flood waters. Major
villages on the Caspian Lowland are located, therefore,
along the edge of the valley, or, within the valley, on sites
above the level of flood waters. Embankments and drain-
age works have been constructed to control the flood in
some places. For example, the walls and dams which keep
flood waters from the lower section of Astrakhan' have a
total length of more than 20 miles (FIGURE 11-158). De-
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FIGURE 11-159. Kanzennyy Yar on the steep edge of the Volga Valley.
The sharp break between the level of the Caspian Lowland and the floor of the Volga Valley (lower left center) forms a high, earth
bluff at this point. Roads have been cut in the cliff leading from the Caspian Lowland to the Volga flood plain (center of view,.
August 1942.
struction of these embankments and drainage works at
times of high water would result in the flooding of an ex-
tensive area at Astrakhan' and in the lower delta.
The average rise of the flood water is considerable. The
rise is often 38 feet above low water at the northern border
of the region, 28 feet above low water at Yenotayevsk, and
1.4 feet above low water at Astrakhan'. During exceptional
floods, however, the water may rise 43 feet above low water
at the northern border of the subregion, and 17 feet above
low water at Astrakhan', or about 5 feet above normal high
crest.
In the summer when flood waters subside, many perma-
nent, large lakes and ponds remain. Some lakes and ponds
in the lower part of the valley are salty, and their shore-
lines may even have a crust of salt. Low-water stage oc-
curs from early September to mid-October.
Solid ice cover on the main channel and its branches be-
gins in December and ends in March (FIGURE 11-156). The
Volga remains frozen for about 110 days (mid-December to
early April) at the northern border of the subregion and
100 days (from the middle of November to the middle of
March) at its mouths. During the period of firm ice cover
Original
the Volga is closed to boat traffic and its frozen river sur-
face is used as a solid surface highway. Break-up of the
ice lasts from 3 to 17 days at the northern border of the
subregion but only from 2 to 5 days at Astrakhan'.
For the Volga as a whole, throughout the Volga Valley
subregion, the mean duration of navigation is scarcely
seven months, from April to mid-November. The river is
navigable 50 days longer at Astrakhan' than at the north-
ern border of the subregion, as the upper half opens much
later and freezes much earlier than the lower half. Warm
weather at times follows the first freeze and again opens
the river to navigation by river boats. Even in these un-
usual warm years, however, the river is closed for boat
traffic by mid-December.
The river Volga constitutes the main obstacle within the
subregion for cross-country traffic and movement of all
types of motor vehicles and motorized units. Except when
it is frozen it is a major obstacle to east - west traffic for
all types of vehicles, for no bridges span the river, and bridge
construction is extremely difficult. The best crossings
"reported" by the Germans were located between Ka-
mennyy Yar and Pologoye Zaymishche and in the vicinity
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FIGURE 11-160. Aerial view of the Volga flood plain.
A typical view of the Akhtuba river in the Volga flood plain, about 15 miles northeast of Kamennyy Yar. Note the numerous aban-
doned channels, lakes, marshes, islets, and islands. A considerable portion of the area is inundated during the spring floods. Scat-
tered woods cover parts of flood plain, particularly along the water courses. August 1942.
of Astrakhan', where a road and railroad cross the delta
(PLAN 11). Ferries serve both road and railroad at the
main channel.
During the spring flood season and ensuing muddy pe-
riod, movement is impossible even with tracked vehicles in
the low-lying areas. The delta is passable only along a few
roads, but even these are not passable during the spring
floods. Normally the marshy areas are passable for all
types of vehicles only by road or along narrow strips of
drier terrain, such as natural levees and old sand bars. In
subfreezing weather, light vehicles can move across the
frozen surfaces of the rivers, lakes, and marshes.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-Abundant ground water
supports a vegetation which is luxuriant in comparison to
the barren desert-steppe vegetation in the Caspian Lowland
(subregion G-2). Grassy meadows partly cover the islands
and the low northeastern bank. During the spring flood
period most of the meadows are completely inundated but
when the flood water subside, the meadows emerge as green
oases.
Discontinuous patches of dense thickets of poplar and
willow trees, particularly along the edge of the main river
channel, mark the water course (FIGURE 11-160). Still, the
entire wooded area is said to cover less than 5 '/( of the valley
land, and the largest individual wooded tracts are less than
three miles wide. These woods have little effect on cross-
country movement because they can be avoided easily.
The woods provide some concealment and could be utilized
as a local, limited source of construction material and fuel,
both of which are lacking in the desert-steppe to the south-
west and northeast.
In addition, dense thickets of reeds and rushes (in some
places 10 to 20 feet high), oak, and such bushes as willow
and mulberry are densely entwined with hops and bindweed
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FIGURE 11-161. A typical view of the northern section of the Caspian Lowland near Zhitkur.
Dark areas in the view are salt marshes. The one in the right half of the photograph occupies an old salt lake bed.
roads extend in all directions across the level surface, but avoid the marshes. October 1942.
and cover many of the delta and flood-plain islands. These
thickets provide local concealment. Reed-bordered, wind-
ing channels around partly wooded islands are navigable
by small boats.
Parts of many islands are devoted to agriculture; hay,
which grows luxuriantly, covers a considerable area. On
well-drained soils there are orchards, melon patches, vege-
table gardens, and recently introduced plants such as soy
and castor oil bean, kenaf (a fiber-producing plant similar
to hemp), and cotton. Black Astrakhan' grapes are also
grown here.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLANS 6 to
10).-From December through March the Volga Valley is
trafficable for heavy vehicles over soils which range from
fine-textured silts and clays to coarse gravels. Open water
and marshes are frozen at this season, and will support
light equipment. Reconnaissance is recommended before
heavy vehicles are driven onto the ice. Spring thaws set
in during the last half of February in the extreme southern
portion and in March in the north. Then, as well as during
and following a flood period in May and June, muddy con-
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Page 11-101
ditions completely stop movement of both tracked and
wheeled vehicles. Similar conditions exist for a longer
period in a narrow 20-mile belt along the delta coast where
soils drain slowly.
Inland from this narrow belt the surface is dry and dusty
in the summer, except for short periods after local rains in
the well-drained areas and for longer periods in poorly
drained sections. Dry surface conditions in summer favor
movement of all types of equipment. Only minor difficul-
ties are encountered by wheeled vehicles. Severe dust
storms originating on the Caspian Lowlands often greatly
reduce visibility in the Volga Valley.
Alluvial soils ranging from sands to silty clays cover thcc
subregion, and may be trafficable throughout the year
where locally well drained, such as the sandy natural levees
near streams. These areas supplement roads as possible
routes for movement. Flats adjacent to these levees in-
clude both well-drained and poorly drained areas.
Dunes of loose sand which drain rapidly cover parts of
the islands in the part of the Volga Valley above Mikhay-
lovka and restrict movement of wheeled vehicles and foot
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FIGURE 11-162. The Caspian Lowland near the Yergeni hills.
This typical midwinter view of Peschanoye in the Caspian Lowland near the Yergeni hills shows salt marshes in poorly drained areas.
Peschanoye is located on the road which connects Astrakhan' and Stepnoy. The road avoids a large salt marsh, part of which is shown
in upper part of view. January 1943.
troops. Footing is best when these sand areas are wet or
frozen.
River banks along the Volga consist almost exclusively of
clay and sand, and they frequently cave in. These banks
are local impediments to movement. A rocky bank exists
only at Kamennyy Yar.
Throughout the subregion the surface materials are suit-
able construction materials. There is abundant clay for
adobe brick, and some clay suitable for standard brick is
available. In places there is excellent sand for fine aggre-
gate. Sand for coarse concrete aggregate occurs along the
Volga. Abundant gravel is suitable for road metal and
ballast.
(3) Subregion G-2, the Caspian Lowland
The Caspian Lowland is divided into two unequal sections
by the Volga Valley. In general, the surface of both sec-
tions of the Caspian Lowland is a low, nearly flat plain.
Flatness, however, is modified by local, minor relief features
which assume importance in such level and open areas
(FIGURES 11-161 through 11-163).
(a) Relief (PLANS 2 and 3).-The part of the subregion
bordering the Caspian lies below sea level (PLAN 11). Ele-
vation gradually increases inland from 85 feet below sea
level along the shores of the Caspian Sea to about 100 or
150 feet above sea level in the northern and western parts
of subregion G-2.
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FIGURE II-163. Ozero Sarpa, one of the Sarpinskiye Ozera.
Ozero Sarpa is one of the long, narrow, and shallow Sarpinskiye Ozera which occupy a former channel
view was taken during the low-water period. Note the dirt roads and trails crossing the drier portions
August 1942.
On the western border of subregion G-2, the Yergeni hills
and the southern tip of the Pre-Volga Hills rise abruptly
above the general plain surface and reach heights of 500
to 600 feet above sea level. Their steep, straight eastern
slope trends north - south and rises 150 to 300 feet above
the adjacent plain (FIGURE II-164) . This east-facing slope
is marked by many steep-walled valleys and gullies. All
the major valleys trend east - west and are a mile or two
wide at their eastern ends, where they open onto the plain.
The tops of the Yergeni hills are nearly flat and slope gradu-
ally toward the west (FIGURE 11-165).
The Volga river formerly flowed along the east foot of the
Yergeni hills in a southerly and southeasterly direction and
formed a delta in the area of the present lower Kuma river.
Later, the lower course of the Volga shifted northward and
a new delta with channels trending east - west (PLAN 11)
formed to the west of the present delta. Dry washes sepa-
rated by narrow, parallel ridges and hillocks ("Baer Hills"),
about 30 to 50 feet high, mark the former courses of the
Original
of the Volga river. This
of the marshy lake bed.
FIGURE 11-164. The steep, eastern slope of the Pre-Volga Hills at
Krasnoar?teysk.
Looking west toward the steep, eastern slope and level-topped
Pre-Volga Hills. These hills extend southward as the Yergeni
hills. The town of Krasnoarmeysk (Sarepta), in the foreground,
is about 12 miles south of Stalingrad. Before 1941.
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FIGURE II-165. The Yergeni hills near Stepnoy.
A typical view of the almost flat tops of the Yergeni hills at Elista, cut by gullies, ravines, and east - west trending valleys. The dirt
roads and trails are mostly on the smoother intervalley areas. The surface appears to be snow covered and streams frozen.
January 1943.
river and are well preserved in the present relief of the sub-
region. Locally the ridges are not always parallel and
form an irregular network. The low coast of the Caspian
Sea is made very irregular by numerous bays, peninsulas,
islets, and islands where the ridges disappear under the
water (PLAN 11). Sand dunes of various sizes cover a large
part of the Caspian Sea borderland (FIGURE 11-166).
The lower Kuma river valley forms the southern border
of the subregion and the eastern part of the Kumo-
Manychskaya Vpadina (sink), a northwest - southeast
trending depression which extends between the Sea of Azov
and the Caspian Sea. The sink cuts through the southern
end of the Yergeni hills near the southwest corner of Re-
gion G.
In general, the nearly flat relief of the Caspian Lowland
(Subregion G-2) and the top of the Yergeni hills (FIGURE
11-165) is favorable for cross-country movement. The
nearly flat surface of the plain favors the hasty construc-
tion of roads and airfields. The small hillocks and burial
mounds are suitable for observation points. Only in the
valleys, gullies, and along the eastern edge of the Yergeni
hills is movement limited by steep slopes. Main dirt roads,
trails, and railroads avoid the Volga Valley flood plain
(PLAN 11). Most of the roads follow a straight line from
well to well and are located in the Caspian Lowland sub-
region. In the vicinity of the Volga river roads run paral-
lel to the edge of the Volga Valley (Subregion G-1) on the
surface of the Caspian Lowland. They cross the valley
flood plain more or less at right angles by the shortest prac-
ticable routes leading to ferry landings.
(b) Drainage (PLAN 4).-Streams in the subregion
G-2 are few, and for the most part relatively small; all drain
toward the Caspian Sea. Before they reach it, however,
they disappear into shallow marshes, sand, or the alluvial
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FIGURE 11-166. Sand dunes on the Caspian Lowland northwest of Astrakhan'.
View is five miles west of Nizhneye Lebyazh'ye. Sand dunes with scant shrubs and grass such as shown in the photograph cover
large areas of the Caspian Lowland near the Volga delta. Note how the roads and trails avoid the shifting sand dune areas in center of
view. August 1942.
fans in basins where the water evaporates and leaves a crust
of alkali or salt. Spring thaws cause flooding of basins and
flats. Even the few fairly large and sluggish streams which
flow from the Yergeni hills do not reach the Caspian Sea
at all times. They are intermittent in their lower courses
and in some cases disappear into the sand.
The Kuma river (PLAN 11), at the southern border, is the
largest river in the Caspian Lowland subregion. In Au-
gust and September the channel usually is a series of stag-
nant pools. Only during rare years of exceptionally abun-
dant water does the river reach the Caspian Sea. More
Original
often the Kuma river disappears into sands and marshes
about 20 miles from the sea. Because of the shallow depth
of the Kuma, there are probably many fords, so the river
may constitute only a minor barrier to movement.
The Caspian Lowland has numerous small lakes and
ponds, particularly after spring showers, when hundreds
of temporary lakes dot the surface of the subregion. This
lake water is moderate-to-poor in quality, as intense evapo-
ration causes surface water to be salty. Such shallow lakes
dry up quickly and completely in summer. The south-
western and northeastern parts contain most of the salt
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FIGURE 11-167. Salt lakes and salt marshes of the Caspian Lowland.
View is about four miles southwest of Utta. The dirt roads and trails are very rutty where they cross the salt lake beds and the salt
marshes, which are probably frozen. The main trails which parallel the main dirt road indicate ease of off-road movement when
main roads may be rutty. January 1943.
FIGURE 11-168. Ozero Baskunchak, a salt lake.
Ozero Baskunchak is the largest lake in the Caspian Lowland. In
the foreground a muddy surface is indicated by the planked
road over which the camel-drawn carts travel. Large quantities
of salt are secured from this lake. A railroad connects the lake
with the Volga river at Akhtuba. Before 1941.
lakes and marshes (FIGURES 11-161, 11-162, and I1-167).
The largest salt lakes are Ozero Baskunchak (FIGURE
11-168) and Ozero El'ton. Ozero Baskunchak is 66 feet be-
low sea level and is 12 miles long and 4 miles wide. Ozero
El'ton is 12 miles long and 3 miles wide; it is 59 feet below
sea level. Salt from these lakes is exploited and brought
to the Volga by railroad and then is moved by boat or rail
to Stalingrad and Astrakhan'. In addition, there are nu-
merous long, narrow brackish lakes west of the Volga delta.
The abandoned stream channel of the Volga along the
foot of the Yergeni hills is now occupied by numerous
marshes and lakes such as the chain of long, narrow Sar-
pinskiye Ozera (lakes) (FIGURE 11-163). The longest of
these lakes is 26 miles long and averages about one mile in
width. These lakes are shallow and probably can be forded
at many places; they may constitute only local obstacles to
east - west movement. Water bodies may be covered by
ice from 100 to 110 days during December to March and
Qriginal
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probably can be crossed by light vehicles during this pe-
riod (FIGURES 11-162 and 11-165).
Numerous marshes, many of which are salt, are located
along the Caspian shore, near the river Kuma in the south-
ern part of the region, and in the abandoned channels of
the Volga. Some marshes are four to eight miles long. In
the spring they may expand in area but contract again dur-
ing the summer. Similar seasonal characteristics prevail
in the partially submerged and marshy portions of the old
Volga delta just west of the present one.
Marshes are impassable much of the year for all types of
vehicles, except along roads and narrow strips of slightly
elevated dry land. In addition, light vehicles can travel
across the marshes in any direction whenever the marshes
are frozen firmly. The numerous salt lakes and salt
marshes near the Caspian Sea are subject to seasonal
change and must be reconnoitered before making any large-
scale movements in their vicinity.
Potable water is scarce in the Caspian Lowland (Sub-
region G-2). Much of the water in streams, lakes, and
ponds, when available, is too brackish or salty to be used
for drinking water or in engines, consequently underground
water from wells is the principal source of supply.
Good underground water in most places is located at
depths of 150 to 500 feet (PLAN 11). Frequently, water ob-
tained from even deep artesian wells is undrinkable. Water
from shallow wells (6 to 40 feet deep) is highly mineralized
and undrinkable, although reports indicate that potable
water may be had from shallow wells drilled between sand
dunes or in the vicinity of the river Kuma. The yield of
the shallow wells varies considerably with the season and
some may dry up in summer. Some of these shallow wells
are reported to yield from one to 10 gallons a minute. How-
ever, it is doubtful whether these wells could supply heavy
demands. In addition to water from wells, rain and melt
water is stored in reservoirs near villages and it is used
by the inhabitants to carry them over long periods of
drought.
It would be advisable, especially in late summer, to obtain
information from natives regarding availability of water.
Roads, for the most part, run directly from well to well.
(c) Vegetation (PLAN 5).-The subregion as a whole
is a comparatively barren and dry desert. In general, vege-
tation is not tall enough or dense enough to impede move-
ment or to provide concealment. Some areas with sand
dunes or salty soils are bare; others are covered with patches
of tufty, and frequently saline, grasses and widely spaced,
low-growing wormwood shrubs (FIGURE 11-166). The driest
and most barren area is a wormwood desert section which
borders the Caspian Sea. It has a width of 24 to 80 miles
southwest of the Volga Valley and widens to 120 miles
northeast of the Volga Valley. Vegetation consists of iso-
lated stands of various species of wormwood, a hard, many-
branched shrub which grows from one to three feet high
and is similar to sagebrush in appearance. The wormwood
generally imparts a grayish-green hue to the landscape.
If the wormwood is white, it signifies a clay soil; and if
black, a salty soil. These subdued hues change tempo-
rarily following a short moist period in the spring, when
bright colored flowers spring up over the sand and among
Original
the patches of grass and create a landscape of varied and
brilliant color.
The scattered wormwood is used locally as a fuel and
also is a source of oil used in absinthe. As in all and and
semiarid regions, dried dung of grazing animals is another
source of fuel.
Numerous marshy places are covered with a low marsh
grass vegetation; the periodically flooded Caspian shore is
partly covered with thickets of reeds and canes similar to
those on the Volga delta. Elsewhere feathergrasses, a few
inches high, predominate in the moister areas inland and
in the many depressions. In such grassy areas nomadic
peoples are engaged in grazing of sheep, horses, goats, and
camels (FIGURE 11-169). Lack of fodder, however, becomes
serious by the beginning of August, when lack of rainfall
causes vegetation to dry. Opportunities for pasturing live-
stock exist even in winter. Grasses in this dry climate
retain their value as fodder in the winter better than in
moister climates.
FIGURE 11-169. Desert-steppe vegetation on the Caspian Lowland.
Exact location unknown. The plain surface is covered by sparse
grass which provides a scanty pasture for the livestock of the no-
madic Kalmyk herdsmen. The trees in the background are prob-
ably planted. The Kalmyk hut (yurt) is a typical dwelling of the
herdsmen. Wherever possible, individual nomadism has been re-
placed by collective farming or grazing. Before 1941.
Individual nomadism has been replaced by collective
farming, in the Yergeni hills and along the northern border
of the area where the rainfall is slightly heavier, as well as
in a narrow belt along the border of the Volga Valley.
(d) Trafficability of surface materials (PLAN 6 to
11) .-The surface material of the Caspian Lowland is char-
acterized by clay and sand (with some gravel), which im-
part a reddish-brown or gray color to the landscape.
Sticky plastic clays, salty clays, and silts are found in a
narrow belt approximately 10 to 20 miles wide along the
Caspian coast, around the Sarpinskiye and other lakes, and
in inland marsh areas. These soils are dominantly poorly
drained. Some low-lying areas or depressions become
ponds during rainy weather but have a hard salt crust when
dry.
Inland, from a coastal belt of poorly drained salt marsh
and salty soils, there is a broad belt of well-drained, fine-
to-medium textured sands and loamy sands, 120 miles wide
in the south and 160 miles wide in the north.
From this belt inland to the Yergeni hills, and to the
northern border of the area northeast of the Volga Valley,
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 Page 11-108
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is a belt of soils ranging from silty to heavy clay. This belt
is 20 miles wide in the south and broadens to 95 miles in
the north in the vicinity of the Volga Valley. These clays
and silts absorb water slowly and dry slowly. The surface
of the Yergeni hills is covered with deep loamy and clayey
soils and is well drained.
In addition, large areas along the Caspian shore, north
and south of the delta, are covered with almost bare sand,
which drains rapidly when not frozen. In places there are
dunes of shifting sand (FIGURE 11-165). When wet, the
loose sands of the dunes provide better footing than when
dry. Trafficability of motor vehicles is restricted in these
areas of loose or shifting sand. Rapid deterioration of
motor vehicles is likely in such areas.
Salty soils are a widespread phenomenon, for intense
evaporation has caused much salt to be precipitated into
the soil. These soils are indicated by small areas in which
the salt is at the surface during the dry season and which
are free from vegetation. There are also many salt pans
of various sizes and shapes (FIGURE 11-166). During rainy
weather these depressions rapidly become muddy.
In summer, the surface materials are extremely dry and
dusty. Saline dust storms often occur and may last for
weeks at a time, are extremely disagreeable, and render
outdoor activity more or less impossible. During such
storms, visibility is reduced greatly. Otherwise the dry
surface materials in summer favor cross-country movement
and offer no difficulties to tracked vehicles but local trouble
to wheeled vehicles. It is not necessary to follow the roads
in summer.
The ground is frozen from early December to February
in the extreme southern section and as late as March in
the extreme northern section. Whenever the surface ma-
terials, streams, lakes and swamps are frozen, cross-country
movement is possible.
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The surface of a belt along the shore of the Caspian Sea,
extending about 20 miles inland, is muddy for a few weeks
during the February thaw; elsewhere the surface is muddy
for two or three weeks during the March thaw. This mud
period in spring prevents all traffic by wheeled vehicles and
limits movement of tracked vehicles (PLAN 10). Move-
ment of mechanized vehicles can be made only on local
strips of higher, better-drained land or on the few unim-
proved roads. These roads rapidly become muddy and
rutty in the spring and require excessive maintenance.
After local spring or summer showers, mud conditions
will be encountered for short periods in the areas of well-
drained sandy soils but for longer periods in areas of mod-
erately drained clay and silt soils, such as those found on
muddy and flooded flats. Cross-country movement after
showers will be confined to the unimproved dirt roads and
will prove difficult or even impossible.
In most places the surface materials can be used for con-
struction. For example, clay is available for adobe bricks,
for standard bricks, or for burning to produce artificial
clinkers for road metal or ballast. Plentiful sand is avail-
able to use as a fine aggregate. In places, sand for coarse
aggregate also is available. Gravel is available locally.
No building stone is available except in the Yergeni hills,
where limestone and marl probably suitable for making
cement, are abundant.
23. REGIONAL SUMMARY
The relief, drainage, vegetation, and trafficability of
surface materials of each terrain region of European
USSR are summarized in TABLE II-1. Terrain regions are
shown on PLAN 2.
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Page II-111
24. PRINCIPAL SOURCES
A. Evaluation
Terrain data on European USSR are inadequate for the
preparation of a completely reliable study on the military
geography of the country. A moderate amount of textual
material on the JANIS 40 area is available in Russian and
German, but much of it pertains to political or economic
matters. Scientific studies of terrain features of the coun-
try, for the most part, cover only small scattered areas.
Dobrynin's Physical Geography of the USSR is the most
extensive treatise on the country but even this study does
not contain the detail required for a JANIS. There are also
some French and English publications devoted to the physi-
cal nature of the country. In common with the Russian
and German works, they lack the detail needed. The most
important single French publication is Berg's The Natural
Regions of the USSR; the most important English one is
Gregory and Shave's, The USSR, a Geographical Survey.
Insofar as has been determined, the publications cited
above are reliable.
Various maps were used in the compilation of Chapter
II. A detailed appraisal of these maps is given in Chapter
XIII, Topic 131.
Air-photo coverage available in Washington is fair for
that part of European USSR which was occupied by the
Germans. This photo coverage consists mainly of cap-
tured German materials. Air-photo coverage for other
parts of the country is spotty or lacking.
Most ground photos are close-ups of buildings or people
and are of little value for terrain information. Of those
which do show terrain features, few are located specifically.
Ground photos are most abundant for the German-occupied
zones and for the most popular tourist areas before World
War I.
Sources, many of which proved invaluable for data on
small areas, are listed in Topic 24, B. A detailed study of
this list will indicate innumerable gaps in our information
that can be filled only when adequate, suitable textual
materials, maps, air and ground photographs become avail-
able for the entire country.
B. List of references
(1) Documents
1. Andreyev, V. N.
0 RASTITEL'NOM POKROVE YUGOVOSTOCHNOGO KANINA (On
the Vegetation Cover of the Southeastern Part of Kanin
Peninsula). Trudy Polyarnoy Komissi, vypusk (issue)
20, pp. 35-40. Moscow. 1935.
RASTITEL'NOST' I PRIRODNYYE RAYONY VOSTOCHNOY CHASTI
BOL'SHEZEMEL'SKOY TUNDRY (The Vegetation and the
Natural Districts of the Eastern Part of the Bol'shezem-
el'skaya Tundra). Trudy Polyarnoy Komissii, vypusk
(issue) 22, 97 pp. Leningrad. 1935.
3. Berg, Leo.
GEOGRAPHICAL ZONES OF THE USSR, PART 1, INTRODUCTION,
TUNDRA, THE FOREST ZONE. Leningrad. 1930.
LES REGIONS NATURELLES DE L'URSS (The Natural Regions
of the USSR). 382 pp. Paris. 1941.
5. Blair, Thomas A.
CLIMATOLOGY, GENERAL AND REGIONAL. 484 pp., Prentice-
Hall, Inc., New York. 1942.
6. Bogardus, J. F.
EUROPE; A GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 713 pp., Harper and
Brothers, New York and London. 1943.
7. Bonmariage, A.
LA RusSIE D'EUROPE (European Russia). 551 pp. illus.
Brussels and Paris. 1903.
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 Page 11-112
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8. Brandt, B.
DIE SUMPFE WESTRUSSLANDS (The Swamps of Western Rus-
sia). Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde zu Ber-
lin, vol. for 1917, pp. 310-321 and 359-388, illus. Berlin.
1917.
9. Camena d'Almeida, P.
ETATS DE LA BALTIQUE, RUSSIE (Baltic States, Russia) . Geo-
graphic Universelle. vol. V, 356 pp., illus. Librairie Ar-
mand Colin, Paris. 1932.
10. Chefranov, S. V.
FIZICHESKAYA GEOGRAFIYA SSSR (Physical Geography of
the USSR). 200 pp., illus. and maps. Gosudarstven-
noye Uchebno-Pedagogicheskoye Izdatel'stvo Minis-
terstva Prosveshcheniya RSFSR, Moscow. 1946.
11. Cressey, George B.
ASIA'S LANDS AND PEOPLES. 608 pp., McGraw-Hill, New
York. 1944.
THE BASIS OF SOVIET STRENGTH. 287 pp., McGraw-Hill, New
York. 1945.
13. Daa, Ludvig Kr.
SKISSER FRA LAPLAND, KARELSTRANDEN OG FINLAND (Sketches
from Lapland, the Karelian Coast and Finland). Kris-
tiania (Oslo). 1870.
14. Dami, Aldo.
LA RUTHENIE SUBCARPATHIQUE (Subcarpathian Ruthenia).
375 pp. Editions du Mont-Blanc. Geneva-Annemasse,
Switzerland. 1943.
15. Danilovskiy, I. V.
GEOLOGICHESKIYE I GEOMORFOLOGICHESKIYE NABLYUDENIYA
PO VOSTOCHNOMU I ZAPADNOMU BEREGU ONEZHSKOGO OZERA
(Geologic and geomorphologic observations along the
eastern and western shores of Lake Onega). Izvestiya
Gos. Geogr. Obshchestva, vol. 69, pp. 205-227, Moscow.
1937.
16. de la Garennie, Captain Dalmay.
LA RUTHENIE TCHECOSLOVAQUE, RUSSIE SUBCARPATHIQUE
(Czechoslovak Ruthenia, Subcarpathian Russia). 443
pp. Annales de geographic. 15 September 1924.
17. Dmitriyev, N. I.
GEOMORFOLOGICHESKOYE RASCHLENENIYE UKRAINY (Geo-
morphologic Regions of the Ukraine). Izvestiya Gosu-
darstvennogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva, vol. 66, pp.
9-25, 2 sketch maps. Moscow. 1934.
18. Dobrynin, B. F.
FIZICHESKAYA GEOGRAFIYA SSSR. YEVROPEYSKAYA CHAST'I
KAVKAZ (Physical Geography of the USSR. European
Part and the Caucasus), 327 pp., 12 colored maps and
numerous illustrations. Moscow. 1941.
19. Dokturovskiy, V. S.
PO REKE UMBE I REKE VORON'YEY (Along the Umba and
Voron'ya Rivers). Zemlevedeniye, vol. 36. no. 3, pp. 289-
301. Moscow. 1934.
20. Friis, J. Andreas.
FINMARKEN, RUSSISK LAPLAND OG NORDKARELEN (Finmark,
Russian Lapland and Northern Karelia). Christiania
(Oslo). 1871.
21. Gerasimov, I. P.
REL'YEF I POVERKHNOSTNYYE OTLOZHENIYA YEVROPEYSKOY
CHASTI SSSR (The Relief and Surface Deposits of the
European Part of the USSR). Pochvy SSSR, Yevropey-
skaya Chast' SSSR (Soils of the USSR, European Part
of the USSR), vol. I, pp. 27-100. Moscow. 1939.
22. Germany, der Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe, Generaistab,
7. Abteilung (The Supreme Commander of the Air Arm,
General Staff, 7th Section).
ANLEITUNG FUR DEN LUFTGEOGRAPHISCHEN UNTERRICHT UBER
EUROPAISCH-RUSSLAND (Guide for aerial geographic in-
struction on European Russia). Berlin. 1943.
23. Germany, der Reichsminister der Luftfahrt and Oberbefehls-
haber der Luftwaffe, Generalstab, 1. Abteilung, Gruppe
Kart (The Reich Minister for Aeronautics and Supreme
Commander of the Air Arm, General Staff, 1st Section,
Group for Cartography).
LUFTGEOGRAPHISCHE BESCHRIEBUNG. EUROPAISCHES Russ-
LAND (Aerial Geographic Description. European Rus-
sia). 240 pp., numerous photos and colored maps in
envelopes. Berlin. 1941.
24. Germany, Generalstab der Luftwaffe (General Staff of the Air
Arm).
LUFTGEOGRAPHISCHES EINZELHEFT. MITTEL-UND OSTRUSSLAND
(Aerial Geographic Monograph. Central and Eastern
Russia). Numerous photos and maps. Berlin. 1942.
25. Germany, Generalstab der Luftwaffe (General Staff of the Air
Arm).
LUFTGEOGRAPHISCHES EINZELHEFT DER RUSSISCHEN SCHWARZ-
MEER- UND KAUKASUSLANDER (Aerial Geographic Mono-
graph on the Black Sea and Caucasus Lands). Many
photos and maps. Berlin. 1941.
26. Germany, Generalstab des Heeres, Abteilung fur Kriegskarten
and Vermessungswesen (General Staff of the Army, Section
for Military Maps and Surveying).
ERSTER ENTWURF ZU EINER MILITARGEOGRAPHISCHEN STUDIE
UBER DAS EUROPAISCHE RUSSLAND (First Draft of a Military
Geographic Study of European Russia). 90 pp., photos
and maps. Berlin. 1940.
27. Germany, Generaistab des Heeres, Abteilung fur Kriegskarten
and Vermessungswesen (General Staff of the Army, Section
for Military Maps and Surveying).
MILITARGEOGRAPHISCHE ANGABEN UBER DAS EUROPAISCHE Russ-
LAND (Military Data on European Russia). A collection
of 12 regional surveys, with numerous large, loose maps
and separate booklets of photographs, contained in 12
folders (Mappen A-M). Berlin. 1941.
28. Germany, Luftgau-Moskau IW. (Moscow Air District).
DER WINTER IN MITTELRUSSLAND (The Winter in Central
Russia). 11 pp., charts.
29. Germany, Publikationsstelle fur den Dienstgebrauch (Place of
Publication for the Use of Service Men).
WIRTSCHAFTSGEOGRAPHIE DER UDSSR (Economic Geography
of the USSR), vol. 6 (Volgaland), vol. 8 (Lower Don
Land and North Caucasia), vol. 14 (White Russian SSR),
vol. 15 (The Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR and Cri-
mean ASSR) and vol. 16 (The Soviet Republics Lithu-
ania, Latvia and Esthonia). Berlin. 1942-43.
30. Germany, Reichsamt fur Wetterdienst (Luftwaffe), Klima-
Institut Minsk (Reich Office for Weather Service, Climate
Institute at Minsk).
(Climate in the Region of Minsk). 49 pp. Minsk. De-
cember, 1943.
31. Germany, Reichskommissariat Ukraine.
DER DNJEPR UND SEINE WICHTIGSTEN NEBENFLUSSE VON DER
BERESINAMUNDUNG BIS CHERSON. FINEEINFUHRUNG IN DIE
WICHTIGSTEN GEWASSERKUNDLICHEN UND VERKEHRSWIRT-
SCHAFTLICHEN FRANGE (The Dnepr and its most Impor-
tant Tributaries from the Mouth of the Berezina to
Kherson. An introduction to the most important hy-
drologic and communication problems). Hauptab-
teilung IV. Der Reichskommisar fur die Ukraine, 30
June 1942.
32. Gidrograficheskoye Upravleniye Morskogo Ministerstva (Hy-
drographic Administration of the Ministry of the Navy).
OPISANIYE MURMANSKAGO POBEREZH'YA (Description of the
Murman Coast). 270 pp., illus. St. Petersburg. 1909.
33. Goodall, George.
SOVIET RUSSIA IN MAPS. 32 pp., George Philip and Son,
Ltd., London. 1944.
34. Gorbatskiy, G. V.
POSTPLIOTSENOVYYE OTLOZHENIYA I REL'YEF YUGO-VOSTOCH-
NOGO POBEREZH'YA POLUOSTROVA KANINA (Post-Pliocene
Deposits and Relief of the Southeast Coast of the Kanin
Peninsula). Izvestiya Geograficheskogo Obshchestva,
vol. 64, pp. 447-480. 1932.
35. Gregory, J. S. and Shave, D. W.
THE USSR: A GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 636 pp. George G.
Harrap and Co., Ltd., London. 1944.
36. Grigor'yev (Grigoriev), A. A.
DER NORDOSTEN DER HALBINSEL KOLA (The Northeast of the
Kola Peninsula). Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erd-
kunde zu Berlin. Pp. 122-145. 1933.
SUBARKTIKA ("Subarctic"). Academy of Sciences of the
USSR. 170 pp. Moscow, 1946.
38. Grigor'yev, S. V.
REKA TULOMA - ISTOCHNIK ENERGOSNABZHENIYA KOL'SKOGO
POLUOSTROVA (The Tuloma River - a source of power
supply of the Kola Peninsula). Karelo-Murmanskiy
Kray, no. 3-4, pp. 37-41. 1934.
Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010002-7
 Coil 4 %I Approved For Release 2003/0#1tf,i 4IRE&-oA$4A000200010002-7
39. Hardy, Marcel E.
GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 327 pp., Clarendon Press, Oxford.
1920.
40. Homen, Theodor.
EAST CARELIA AND KOLA LAPMARK. 252 pp. Maps and illus.
London. 1921.
41. Kairalno, A. O.
KUOLAN 1887 VUODEN RETKIKUNTA JA SUOMEN MAANTIE-
TEELLINEN SEURA (The Expedition to the Kola Peninsula
in 1887 and the Finnish Geographic Society), Terra, vol.
50, Helsinki. 1938.
42. Kamanin, L. G.
GEOMORFOLOGICHESKIYE USLOVIYA RAYONA RASPROSTRAN-
ENIYA PERMSKIKH OTLOZHENIY V OKRESTNOSTYAKH G.
KIRILLOVA (The Geomorphologic Conditions of the Dis-
trict of Distribution of Permian Deposits in the En-
virons of the Town of Kirillov). Trudy Geomorfolo-
gischeskogo Instituta (Studies of the Geomorphologic
Institute), vypusk (issue) 7, pp. 75-84. Leningrad.
1933.
43. Kashin, Z. M.
DNIPROVI LUKI POLISSYA UKRAINI (The Dnepr Meadows
of Ukrainian Polessia). Kiyev. 1936.
44. Keller, Boris.
DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION ON THE PLAINS OF SOUTHERN
RUSSIA. Journal of Ecology, vol. XV, pp. 189-233.
1927.
45. Kendrew, Wilfred G.
THE CLIMATES OF THE CONTINENTS. 473 pp., Oxford Uni-
versity Press. 1942.
46. Kihlman, A. O.
BERICHT EINER NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHEN REISE DURCH
RUSSISCHES LAPPLAND IN JAHRE 1887 (Report on a nat-
ural science journey through Russian Lappland in
1887). Fennia, vol. III, no. 6. Helsinki. 1890.
47. Kihlman, A. O. and Palmen, J. A.
DIE EXPEDITION NACH DER HALBINSEL KOLA IM JAHRE 1887
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Fennia, vol. III, no. 3. Helsinki. 1890.
48. Komov, A. A.
REL'YEF I POLEZNYYE ISKOPAYEMYYE VDOL' MURMANSKOY
ZHELEZNOY DOROGI V YUZHNOY KARELII (Relief and Min-
erals along the Murmansk Railroad in Southern
Karelia). Izvestiya Gos. Georgr. Obshchestva, vol. 64,
pp. 390-406. Moscow. 1932.
49. Korduba, Miron.
PIVNICHNO-ZAKHIDNA UKRAINA (The Northwestern Uk-
raine). Vienna. 1917.
50. Krebs, Norbert.
DIE KARPATHEN ALS KRIEGSSCHAUPLATZ (The Carpathians
as a Theater of War). Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft
fur Erdkunde zu Berlin, No. 4, pp. 201-212. 1915.
51. Lichkov, B. L.
NEKOTORYYE CHERTY GEOMORFOLOGII YEVROPEYSKOY
CHASTI SSSR (Some Traits of the Geomorphology of
the European Part of the USSR). Trudy Geomor-
folgischeskogo Instituta Akademii Nauk SSSR, vypusk
(issue) 1, pp. 7-96, sketch map. Leningrad. 1931.
52. Liverovskiy, Yu. A.
GEOMORFOLOGIYA I CHETVERTICHNYYE OTLOZHENIYA SEV-
ERNYKH CHASTEY PECHORSKOGO BASSEYNA (Geomor-
phology and Quaternary Deposits of the Northern Parts
of the Pechora Basin). Trudy Geomorfologischeskogo
Instituta (Studies of the Geomorphologic Institute),
vypusk (issue) 7, pp. 4-73. Leningrad. 1933.
POCHVY TUNDR SEVERNOGO KRAYA (Soils of the Tundras
of the Northern Territory). Trudy Polyarnoy
Komissii, vypusk (issue) 19, 112 pp. Leningrad. 1934.
54. Lyde, Lionel W.
THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 456 pp. Macmillan and Co.,
Ltd. London. 1930.
55. Makeyev, P. S.
MATERIALY K GEOMORFOLOGII BASSEYNA R. IZHMY (Materials
on the geomorphology of the basin of the Izhma
River). Trudy Instituta Fizicheskoy Geografii, vypusk
(issue) no. 16, 111 pp. Moscow-Leningrad. 1935.
56. Makhov, G.
GRUNTI UKRAINI (Soils of the Ukraine). Khar'kov.
1930.
" l
Page 11-113
57. Martonne, E. de
EUROPE CENTRALE. Geographie Universelle, vol. IV, 379 pp.
Paris. 1931.
58. Morozova, V. G.
GEOMORFOLOGICHESKIY OCHERK OLONETSKOGO RAYONA
KAREL'SKOY ASSR (Geomorphologic sketch of the
Olonets Rayon of the Karelian Autonomous S. S. Re-
public). Izvestiya Gos. Georgr. Obshchestva, vol. 69,
pp. 639-655. Moscow. 1937.
59. Nikolayev, V. I.
NA SOLYANYKH OZERAKH NIZHNEY VOLGI I KALMYKII (On
the Salt Lakes of the Lower Volga and Kalmykia).
Ekspeditsii Akademii Nauk SSSR 1934 (Expeditions of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR 1934), pp. 112-
116. Moscow. 1936.
60. Novosil'tsov, A. N.
NA NIZOV'YAKH PECHORY (On the Lower Course of the
Pechora). Izvestiya Imperatorsk Russk. Geogr. Obsh-
chestva, vol. 37, pp. 132-155. St. Petersburg. 1901.
61. Panov, D. I.
GEOMORFOLOGICHESKIY OBZOR POBEREZH'IY BARENTSOVA
MORYA (A Geomorphologic Survey of the Coasts of the
Barents Sea.) Izvestiya Gosud. Geogr. Obshchestva,
vol. 69, pp. 878-894. 1937.
62. Pavlov, M. Ya. and Goroshchenko, V. P.
GEOGRAFIYA SSSR (Geography of the USSR). 248 pp.,
illustrations and maps. Gosudarstvennoye Uchebno-
Pedagogicheskoye Izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Prosvesh-
cheniya RSFSR. Moscow. 1946.
63. Petrov, M. P.
K GEOMORFOLOGICHESKOY KHARAKTERISTIKE VERKHNEGO
TECHENIYA R. VYATKI (On the geomorphologic charac-
terization of the upper course of the Vyatka River).
Izvestiya Gos. Geogr. Obshchestva, vol. 64, pp. 360-371.
Moscow. 1932.
PODKARPATSKAYA Rus' ZA GODY 1919-1936 (Subcarpa-
thian Ruthenia during the years 1919-1936). 196 pp.
Uzhgorod (Carpatho-ruthenia). 1936.
65. Prasolov, L. I.
GENETICHESKIYE TYPY POCHV I POCHVENNYYE OBLASTI
YEVROPEYSKOY CHASTI SSSR (Genetic Types of Soils
and the Soil Regions of the European Part of the
USSR). Pochvyy SSSR (Soils of the USSR), pp. 9-26.
Moscow. 1939.
66. Prikhot'ko, G. F., and Timofeyev, V. T.
NEKOTORYYE VOPROSY GIDROMETEOROLOGII BARENTSOVA
MORYA (Some Problems of the Hydrometeorology of
the Barents Sea). 85 pp. Gidrometeoizdat, Moscow.
1946.
67. Rikhter, G. D.
OROGRAFICHESKIYE RAYONY KOL'SKOGO POLUOSTROVA (Oro-
graphic Districts of the Kola Peninsula). Trudy In-
stituta Fizicheskoy Geografli, vypusk (issue) no. 19,
pp. 4-47. Moscow. 1936.
REZUL'TATY GEOMORFOLOGICHESKOY REKOGNOSTSIROVKI V
BASSEYNAKH RR. VARZUGI I PONOYA (Results of a geo-
morphologic reconnaissance in the basins of the Var-
zuga and Ponoy Rivers). Trudy Instituta Fizicheskoy
Geografli, vypusk (issue) no. 19, pp. 49-120. Moscow.
1936.
69. Rodin, L. Ye., and Smirov, L. A.
V POLUPUSTYNE VOSTOCHNOGO ZAVOLZH'YA (In the semi-
desert of the Eastern Transvolga). Ekspeditsii
Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1934 (Expeditions of the Acad-
emy of Sciences of the USSR, 1934), pp. 106-111. Mos-
cow. 1936.
70. Schou, Axel.
VOLGAS MELLEM-LOB. FORS?G PAA EN TERRAIN-MORFOLOGISK
ANALYSE VED HJAELP AF BLOKDIAGRAMMER (The Middle
Course of the Volga. An attempt at a terrain- mor-
phologic analysis with the aid of block diagrams).
Geograflks Tidsskrift, vol. 42, pp. 87-106, illus, Copen-
hagen. 1939.
71. Skachkov, B. I. (editor).
SPRAVOCHNIK PO VODNYM RESURSAM SSSR (Handbook on
the Water Resources of the USSR). vol. II, Severnyy
Kray (Northern Territory). 666 pp. Gosudarstvennyy
Gidrologicheskiy Institut (State Hydrologic Institute)
and Tsentral'noye Byruro Vodnogo Kadastra (Central
Bureau of the Water Registry). Leningrad. 1934.
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 Page 11-114 Approved For Release 2003(f 1440 CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010002-7 Corr"""ial
72. Shackleton, M. R.
EUROPE: A. REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 430 pp. Longmans,
Green and Co. London.
73. Tutkovskiy, P.
PRIRODNYA RAYONIZATSIYA UKRAINI (Natural Regionali-
zation of the Ukraine). Kiyev. 1922.
74. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Ad-
ministration, Division of Soil Survey.
A STUDY OF SOILS AND SOII. TRAFFICABILITY OF EUROPEAN
USSR. 2 maps and charts. Washington. 1946.
75. U. S. War Department, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, M. I. S.,
Intelligence Group, Eastern European Section.
SPECIAL STUDY OF THE CAUCASUS, USSR. Washington
15 September 1942. (Secret.)
76. U. S. War Department, Office, Chief of Engineers, Strategic
Studies Unit of the Intelligence Branch.
ARALO-CASPIAN REGION, USSR. S. E. S. No. 32. (Pre-
pared by the Department of the Interior, Geological
Survey, Section of Military Geology). Washington.
November 1942.
THE CAUCASUS, LOWER DON AND VOLGA REGIONS, USSR.
S. E. S. No. 33. (Prepared by the Department of the
Interior, Geological Survey, Section of Military
Geology). Washington. November 1942.
78. USSR, Akademiya Nauk (Academy of Sciences),
EKSPEDITSII AKADEMII NAUK SSSR (Expeditions of the
Academy of Sciences.) (Vol. for 1934 contains 6
articles on the Kola Peninsula, pp. 25-75; vol. for 1935
contains 9 articles on the Kola Peninsula and 4 on
Karelia.) Moscow. 1935-36.
79. Varsanof'yeva, V. A.
GEOMORFOLOGICHESKIYE NABLYUDENIYA NA SEVERNOM
URALE (Geomorphologic Observations in the Northern
Urals). Izvestiya Gos. Geogr. Obshchestva, vol. 64, pp.
105-171. Moscow. 1932.
80. Volkov, S. N.
GEOLOGICHESKIY OCHERK TIMANA (Geologic Sketch of the
Timan). Trudy Arkticheskogo Instituta, vol. 87, pp.
119-139. Leningrad. 1937.
81. Walter, Heinrich.
DIE VEGETATION DES EUROPAISCHEN RUSSLANDS (The Vege-
tation of European Russia). Heft (part) 9, Deutsche
Forscherarbeit in Kolonie and Ausland, 134 pp.
Berlin. 1942.
82. Zekkel', Ya. D.
K ISTORII RECHNOY SETI PECHORSKOGO BASSEYNA (On the
history of the river net of the Pechora Basin). Izves-
tiya Vsesoyuz. Geogr. Obshchestva, vol. 72, pp. 781-
786. Moscow. 1940.
(2) Maps and charts
83. Germany, Generalstab des Reeres, Abteilung fur Kreigs-
karten and Vermessungswesen (General Staff of the Army,
Section for Military Maps and Surveying).
EUROPAISCHES RUSSLAND. GEWASSER (European Russia
Waters). Shows widths all along streams, swamps,
steepness of valley sides, flood plains, bridges, ice
conditions, lines of equal duration of freeze. Includes
Eastern Poland, Baltic Countries, Transcaucasia, and
Central and Northern Urals. Scale 1:2,500,000. Ber-
lin. 1941.
GEOLOGISCHE KARTE DER UDSSR (Geologic Map of the
USSR).
Maps of the Soviet Union on file in the Army Map Serv-
ice Library. Various scales and dates.
MILITARGEOGRAPHISCHE ANGABEN UBER DAS EUROPAISCHE
RUSSLAND (Military Data on European Russia). A col-
lection of 12 regional surveys, with numerous large,
loose maps and separate booklets of photographs, con-
tained in 12 folders (Mappen A-M). Berlin. 1941.
UBERSICHTSKARTE DER WASSERVERSORGUNG WEISERUSSLANDS
(Over-view map of the water supply of White Russia).
Scale 1:500,000. Berlin. 1942.
88. Germany, Institute Ost, Abteilung Geologie (Eastern Insti-
tute Section on Geology).
WEHRGEOLOGISCHE UBERSICHTSKARTE VON WEST-RUSSLAND
(Military Geologic Over-View Map of West Russia).
Shows soil textures in black and white. April 1941.
89. Germany, Reichsamt fur Landesaufnahme (Reich Survey-
ing Office).
KARTE DES EUROPAISCHEN RUSSLAND (Map of European
Russia), Sheets Nos. 94-96, covering the lower Volga
and Kuma Rivers. Scale 1:300,000. Berlin. 1918-
1940.
90. Germany, Reichskommissar fur das Ostland (Reich's Com-
missar for the Eastland).
OSTLAND-ATLAS (Eastland Atlas). Large collection of
maps, including maps on soil, geology, climate, and veg-
etation. Scale 1: 1,500,000. Riga. 1942.
91, Germany, Reichsministerium Speer (Reich's Ministry Speer).
STEINE UND ERDEN (UNMITTELBAR NUTZBAR FUR DAS BAU-
WESEN, INSBESONDERE STRASSENBAU) (Stones and
Earths (directly usable for construction, especially
building of roads)). Colored map of European Rus-
sia in 2 large sheets includes the Baltic Countries.
Scale 1:2,500,000. June 1943.
92. Germany, Wehrgeologenstelle II (Military Geologist Office
II).
LUFTBILD-ATLAS (Air Photo Atlas). A large folio-sized
collection of air photos of the region around Lake
Peipus.
93. Kuznetsov, N. I.
KARTA RASTITEL'NOSTI YEVROPEVSKOY CHASTI SSSR (Map
of the Vegetation of the European Part of the USSR).
Institute of Applied Botany and New Culture. Lenin-
grad. 1928.
94. USSR, Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii pri SNK
SSSR (Head Administration of Geodesy and Cartography
under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR).
BOL'SHOY SOVETSKIY ATLAS MIRA (Great Soviet Atlas
of the World). Volumes I and II. Moscow. 1937 and
1939.
95. USSR, Akademiya Nauk SSSR, Botanicheskiy Institut (Acad-
emy of Sciences of the USSR, Botanical Institute).
KARTA RASTITL'NOSTI SOYUZA SOVETSKIKH SOTSIALIS-
TICHESKIKH RESPUBLIK (Map of the Vegetation of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). 8 sheets. Scale
1:5,000,000. Moscow. 1939.
96. USSR, General'nyy Shtab Krasnoy Armii (General Staff of
the Red Army). Various maps of the Soviet Union. Scale
1: 50,000.
97. USSR, Komitet po Delam Geologii pri SNK SSSR (Commit-
tee on geologic affairs under the Council of People's Com-
missars of the USSR).
A geologic map of the USSR. Scale 1:2,500,000, in 28
colored sheets. Leningrad. 1940.
98. U. S. Army Air Forces.
WORLD AERONAUTICAL CHARTS. Scale 1:1,000,000. Wash-
ington.
99. U. S. War Department, Army Map Service.
INTERNATIONAL MAP OF THE WORLD (AMS 1301), Scale
1:1,000,000. Washington.
Original
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Published by
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WASHINGTON, D. C.
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