(SANITIZED)UNCLASSIFIED SOVIET PAPER BY K M BYKOV ON 'NEW DATA ON THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX'(SANITIZED)

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Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): 
CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4
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RIPPUB
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C
Document Page Count: 
86
Document Creation Date: 
December 27, 2016
Document Release Date: 
December 7, 2012
Sequence Number: 
3
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Publication Date: 
September 30, 1953
Content Type: 
REPORT
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PDF icon CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4.pdf5.19 MB
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 50X1-HUM Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 ARallemuN H. M. B ft 0 13 HOBLIE ,TIAHHLIE HO 4)1131I0JOIIIII F0.40B1I0I10 mo3rit K. M. BYKOV Member, Academy of Sciences of the USSR NEW DATA ON THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX C. M. BYKOV Membre de l'Acadentie cies Sciences de PURSS NOUVELLES DONNEES SUR LI PHYSIOLOGIE ET LA PATHOLOGIE DE L'ECORCE CEREBRALE H3HATEHIXTBO ARAAEMHH HAYR CCCP Moe R 13 a ?1953 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 QUA] -11 U IVI R Next 1 Page(s) In Document Denied Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 HOBbIE AAIIIILIE HO OH3110J10111414 H HATO.TIOr,HH ROPb1 roaomoro mo3rA LBITbACCHT JIOT Ha3an BeRama pyceRaii 4m3noaor H. H. IIHBOLOB He Tram Ha HOBIA HyT1, H3)7,10111111 ACHTOJIbIIOCTI1 IAMOCTIIOTO opraHH3ma MHBOTIILIX H 1:10J10BOIta, 11OBOAOHHH 2EHBOTHLIX wtieo- BCHa B oupymammak cpene. H. H. HarmoH aemenua Ham nogxcgt H HormmaHruo )1OHTOHL- HOCTH opraHaema meaoseHa 11 7HH3OTIMIX He B menbmeii mepe, gem H.onepaynt, HmoTon, JI0M0110C013, Tiaflya31e, MennegeeH, ao6amencita1i, apmiii, MaaypTim 113MOIHIJIH ii HepecTpouna Hama 3Hanaa no HocmoroHaa, dk143HRO, xamaa, maTemaTFute H &too-Lorna. TBOT1OCTBO IlaBJI0Ba 11BHJTOCh Homam DTanom pamarraa Hayam H IlpeACTaBJIHOT C060171 py6em, 3a Horropum HOBO3M03010 OCTaBaTbCH Iia Hp07IMaX, yme Hcxomemulx HyTHX. B CBOOM TkoiciaTke ii xomy OCTHHOBIITLCH JIHIIIL Ha OCHOBHLIX npaliannax accaencataimil Hammea IT Ha TOM maTepaaae, HoTophiii 6.bin noaymeu Ha 00110130 Jana Hamero ymarena yme 110650 ero cmepTli. (Damaged-ale me Ho'aomenna, yeTaHoHaemmie paHee camam HaHaoHum, fl paccmaTpaHaTh 110IITH He6yAy, Tait Halt OHH, 603 COMHOH1411, xopomo H3BOCTIILI upacyTcTammam 3A0Ch yHama- OXIMM Roaaeram. llPIIHIllHhI HABaoBaioro 1/13YITEIRM 110BEAEIIIIR plIBOTHIAX Cam Harmon c npeneammil FICHOCTI,I0 II apaTuocamo onpeneaaa Baaufeiimaii pe3ymyraT cuodi noayrseHoHoil pa6ona, Horna on B 1934 rony Hacaa: H pan, ?ITO BMOCTO C 14BallOM MHXBAJI0B1111011/1 (CaLIOHOBIAM.? K. B.) H HOJIHOM MOHX 10p0l'HX coTpyAmmoH MLI 11p17106peaH ;WA morymeii BjlaCTII 013/1011OPH,IOCHOPO HCCJIMOBallHa BMOCTO noao- BHIIMaTOTO MCI) Hepa3neabno milBoTirbIM oprana3m. H DTO ? 5 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 HeimRom Hama pyccRan HeocHopHmaa 3acayra B mimosa HayRe; B o6uTeii nwposenecuoik MbICHYD). ilaBBOBCW4n MOTOR XPOMPIOCRITX 011131TOB B 11)113H01101,111 HO- 3B0JI113I nepefirti OT allaaarwrecRoro H3rTemia oTaem.max (DyHurklio- HaabHIAX ornpaHaeHliii R cHHTeTnHecuomy 143rICHWO BCOX Hp01(0e- COB, npoHcxoikaamx n TOTIO, Haim-rag OT IlpHMHTYIBHMX peaRgHti, RoffgaH Heaonegecuoil peumo H mr,nnaenHem. He o,RHH traHaos cTarnm nepeA co6oii 3agagy H3p1HTI, Hopmaab- HMO oTripaHaetiHR HenocTuoro opraHH3ma. EiireAo Hero o 3HatieHH114 tyroff 324-katm BROXHOBOIIHO ulica..1 BW1HK1Ii Rro BepHap. HeHee Apyrilx HpexolleCTBOHTIFIROB IlaHamm yDnge.11 ymosoi,i Hymn' /10311a1IMI ROBTOJII3HOCTH Heaoro opramuma OT011 pyccuoil 11)143110- .110111H reHHant.HrA CegeHoH. BO TORbRO HaHaoH cymea upeHpa- TIffb HccueaouaHme Been COBORyllHOCTE HpoiTeccon B HopmaJmnom opramume Hpu CPO OCTOCTBOHMAX B3aHMOOTTIOBTOMISIX C oRpyiRalo- uwii cpegoii Frs 3agatill, Hoax?HaBradi camme emeame ymm, B meT Totmoro 061,01ITIITHOr0 Haymioro meToTta. CHOCI`O ROCTHH-COMITI 14 B 143BOOTHOM cmLicae 3arteprueHHH HccaeAoHaHHe oprarn43ma uaR geaoro Hoaytmao B yileHHH I-law-form o6 ycaorumx pettoeucax. YgenHe o6 ycaommx pecilaeRcax 3armmacT B eeTeeTBO3Hal11111 coHepraerum oco6oe mecTo: c (Huta' croponm, OHO Awl? HM 0110- 006b/ /1 BO3M0AMOCTL 11337110IIH5I BCOX FIBReHiln B 0praH113me B 3a- HHCIIMOCTH OT ycaoHnii ero ey/HOCTBOBaH1111 B oRpyamouleii cpeTke. 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Cygb6a Ramgoil poaRTFHH oupogemleTca conocTaBaenHom B Rope mo3ra gByx rulibopmarmii ? OT BHOBIIMX H OT BHyrpefiniax allaanua- TOp0B. B nacTonmee Bpemn HaranmH coTpygminiamH U ApyrHmFr 043110- aoramu noRaaallo, TITO /I cReaeTnan, Tall Haabumeman 11p0H3B0AT3- mycuyaaTypa Taume cH113ana B CBOOR HOFITORLHOCTH HO TOHM10 C oncTeponeuTHBnumn, HO H C HIITOpOHOHTHBHLIM121 cHrnaaamH. rtNO 0311HHHOT, 11TO TO cHrHaam, noTopme Hop' OT HuTepoperkenTopon, pocimeRTopHo 01?0,3MBHIOT BAHFIFIHO HO T0Rb1T0 opacTnTexibnyio* cTopony 1411131111, HO 11 wropraioTco B ynpaimenHe CHWIOTHal mycity- 20 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 noro pecbaenTopnoro nenTpa, npno6peTaeT, "mom,'.TOT eAnnbrii nouTp, BC/MAO CBOaCTBa, noTopme Be moryT 6mTb BLI1IBROHLI OHM- TamH na cinmanbumx, Aonepe6pliponannmx, Tanamlinocnnx )E11- BOTHLIX. Hopa ro.nonnoro mo3ra 3artmonaoT B ce6e nan6onee, no nmpanzonmo Halt Lona, peannumble IMOTHPI IlOpBH0f1 ClICTCMLI, 11 (ma noaTomy oonee ncero onpenonneT csoeh AC1ITOJILHOCTIA0 cnoiicTna IMMO pacnononzemmx nenTpanbmux o6pa3onannfi. Ran nucan Hannon, ?nem Tame oprannaonana rzopa, TOM 6onbme it 6omune cam CT8BOBITTCH ynpannTenem 11 pacnpeAeanTenem BCCX (Dynnindi oprann.sma?. Hpnmepm aTOrt) 11 Aanm BLIUICARA pecImenTopnmx aRTOB Topmo- peryannun, monencnycnamm, Ann pectinenTopnoii peryannlin yp001111 o6mena neinecTn; MH0r01111CJICHHLIC npnmepm TaHoro ie poAa IIMOIOTCH pecbaenTopnon poryannnn o6pa3onanna mann, yponna coAepnzannn caxapa nponn, Tan nammaemoro cnenmim necnn-Aunamnnecnoro AeficTnun mum, peryannkm Auxanna nponoo6parummn npn pa6ore, npn anoncim Ii T. A. MIA upermonmaii noaTomy 060311at111rb Ran c Ti 0 nt Hope q.nenT opnme ani, lice HOpMaJlbHLIO poimenTopnrue anTm, nnamonmeca nTorom r.11141nInfl CllaHHIIWC MOAB HO ycnonnmx IT 603yC1IOBHLIX perD- nenC013. 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BMOCTO C 'rex, mm na6moAaem monnionnTenbnoe mnoroo6pa3no arm:17os, upenpanmemmx 6naro- Aapn nmpa6oTne apemennmx GBH 3011 (ycnonnbrx pe4moncon) B areHTEI, plaCTBy1011114e B pa3.1111,1H1,1X CJIMEHOpO4)VIOHT0p1ILIX aHTaX. IIIITEPOIVIITHBHME YCJIOBIIME PECIJIEICCM YAanocn nona3aTb, tlTO II Up11 pa3ApaatellnI1 BByTpCHFInX pe- HOHT0p013 MO)1{HO Bblpa60TaTh yCJIOBH110 pNIVIOHCM (EbutoB, Alipa- m-rbmiA). 06pammamibie miTepouelmnillhie ye:loan-me peOencm 19 2* Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 ealy whole animal organism instead of its halves. And this. is completely our Russian indisputable contribution to world science, to common human thought. Pavlov's method of chronic experiments in physiology made it possible to pass from an analytic study of separate functional performances to a synthetic study of all processes taking place in the body, beginning with primitive reactions and ending with human speech and thought. Pavlov was not the only one to set himself the task of studying the normal performances of a whole organism. Already before him the great Claude Bernard wrote inspiringly of the importance of this problem. I. M. Sechenov, the brilliant scientist and father of Russian physiology, saw the main point of gaining a knowledge of the activity of the whole organism clearer than other prede- cessors of Pavlov. l3uL it was only Pavlov who succeeded in con- verting investigations of the whole complex of processes in a nor- mal organism during its natural interrelations with its surround- ings from a task that worried the boldest minds into a subject of a precise objective scientific method. Investigations of the organism as a whole attained their cul- minating point and, in a certain sense, perfection in Pavlov's teachings on conditioned reflexes. The Leaching on conditioned reflexes occupies a special place in natural sciences. On the one hand, it provided us with the means and possibility of studying all phenomena in the organism depending on the conditions of the organism's existence in its surroundings. On the other, the teaching on conditioned reflexes represented a crossing over from the study of purely physiological processes to a natural-scientific understanding of phenomena specified as psychical. The teaching of conditioned reflexes, as must be distinctly emphasized, is a farther development of the supreme principle of determinism ? that there is no action without cause ? to absolutely all phenomena of life. Pavlov inserted into the very conception of the reflex primarily the determination of each reflex act by stimuli producing it and by properties acquired by the nervous system as it reacts to various agents of external and internal media. This must be pointed out, as certain of our foreign colleagues, who have amassed many important facts on separate sides of the activity of the central nervous system, for instance, Professor Fulton, Professor Liddell and others, repeat- edly strove to prove that conditioned reflexes are not reflexes and that the psychical activity of humans is not reflectory act- ivity (this was asserted., for instance, by the late professor Sher- rington). 3 E, M. DT,111013 33 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Conditioned reflexes have, of course, a number of featurds distinguishing them from the reflex reactions of spinal and decerebrated animals. Indeed, if conditioned reflexes possessed only the property of unconditioned reflexes (or were only copies of the latter), as was maintained by Professor Konorsky in his interpretation of facts established by Pavlov, then the activity of the cerebral cortex would not have been different to the act- ivity of the spinal cord. But conditioned reflexes are reflexes because they are responses of the organism to the stimulation of receptors and, moreover, are reactions (like everything else in the organism) of a strictly determinated character. Those who refuse to view the activity of the higher part of the central ner- vous system as a reflex activity, must, wittingly take up (as they usually do) a dualistic position. As a matter of fact, a condi- tioned stimulus is a signal stimulus, and, moreover, this signal may be connected either directly with a definite phenomenon, of the external world, or witila another already existing condi- tioned stimulus. Thus, the superstructure over unconditioned sti- muli may reach high degrees and, as I will point out further, may abstract from the real subject or phenomenon that is inevitably linked to it. A GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF CONDITIONED REFLEXES In creating a conception of new cortical reflexes, Pavlov based himself on strictly physiological facts and ideas, rejecting the admission that mental phenomena are sui generis and that they are inaccessible for objective investigation. Investigators, basing themselves on the unstable foundation of a subjective ap- praisal of psychical phenomena, recognized that it is only the activity of the lower parts of the brain that is reflectory, and that it is only this that is subordinate to the principle of determin:- ism. According to these investigators, the higher nervous activity and, consequently, all interrelations of the organism with the sur- rounding medium, must inevitably be recognized as non-determina- ted, as dependent on the action of ?particular? forces that are not subject to a physiological analysis. From this, it follows. that the entire behaviour of humans and the higher animals de- pends not on properties naturally acquired by the cerebral cor- tex during various interactions of the organism with surrounding nature, but on its inherent qualities, on the set of ?goods and ?bad? genes (Alvarez), on the immutable properties of a ?third personality (Freud), on a ?vital force >> (Dunbar), and so on. There have been quite a variety of attempts to refute and criticize the main theses of Pavlov's teaching, but the overwhelm- 34 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 ing majority of these attempts are based on a failure to give due consideration to and an arbitrary interpretation of the theses advanced by him and of facts amassed in his laboratories. For instance, there are assertions that, the behaviour of an animal be fully studied under conditions of so-called free behaviour only and not under allegedly artificial conditions, which are created when the animal is Lied in a stand. However, such an objection supplants the question of principles that lies at the ba- sis of the study of conditioned reflexes, the question of the suit- ability of one particular method or another chosen during the solving of various concrete tasks. The groundlessness of such a misinterpretation of the method of conditioned reflex becomes apparent if one takes into consideration the wealth of data ob- tained under conditions of Pavlov's classical experiments ? data that are much more valuable than that received during the study of ?free behaviour. We also hear reproaches that Pavlov studied processes taking place in the cerebral cortex on the basis of a consideration of the magnitude and character of conditioned reflexes carried out by effectors in response to stimulation of the receptors. It is surpris- ing that the authors of such an argument pass unnoticed the fact that it has a general bearing on all investigations of reflex processes (for instance, on the investigations carried out by Mag- nus, Sherrington, Fulton), and that ?this argument could be ad- vanced with the same logic against investigations revealing the structure of the atom. It is true that we are still hardly able to study the chemical, physico-chemical, electrical and structural changes taking place in the cerebral cortex during various forms of conditioned reflex activity. However, there can be no doubt of the dependence of all conditioned reflexes on processes taking place in the cerebral cortex. It may be contended that it is namely data obtained by investigating conditioned reflexes that will lead to the creation of methods revealing to an increasing degree the inner mechanism of processes taking place in the cortex. Who at present can refute the ability of the cerebral cortex of higher animals and humans to continuously accumulate new temporary connections ? conditioned reflexes, beginning with the first days of the life of the organism? It may be considered as a fact that all reactions of the organism are permeated with con- ditioned reflexes, that all reactions include a component of a conditioned reflex character, as, during the repetition of one and the same unconditioned reflex, various receptors are at the same time inevitably influenced by different stimuli coming from external and internal media. Actually, under normal 35 3* Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 conditions of the vital activity of an organism there are no ?purelY,? unconditioned reflexes, with the exception, perhaps, of the case when the cerebral cortex is completely in a profound inhibited state. Thus, it is clear that the so-called spontaneous activity is by nature a reflex activity. Once formed, conditioned reflexes leave enduring traces, while an increasing number of new con- nections form on t hese traces from stimulations coming both from exteroreceptors and interoreceptors, signalizing processes of the ?internal organ i zation? of the organism and reflecting in- ternal so-called organic sensations such as hunger, thirst, urges to various physiological functions. The receiving apparatus of the cerebral cortex changes contin- uously during its action. One cannot represent the process of excitation in synaptic Structures and in the nerve cells themselves as a physical process, once and for all One-minded conditioned, because excitation and the process of inhibition opposing it con- stantly replace one another. That. is why the latent period of a conditioned reflex may be extremely variable. It is well known that as soon as we begin to increase the interval between an uncon- ditioned reflex and a conditioned one, the latent period begins to lengthen. I a other cases the latent period of a motor conditioned reflex can be very short, even shorter than the reflex passing through the brain stem. From our investigations we know that cortical impulses can accelerate the reflex reaction. The conditioned reflex, using inherent reflex ways, changes the former adequate reactions, adapt- ing them to the new conditions and tasks of the actual surrounding. Under the influence of a conditioned stimulus, a cortical impulse can completely change or inhibit an unconditioned re- flex. A reflex reaction of an unconditioned character cannot be regarded as being independent of conditioned reflex influences as well as vice versa. As we know, Pavlov established two main mechanisms of cortical dynamics -- the mechanism of closing of new -connec- tions, i. e., the formation of a .conditioned reflex and an an.alyti- co-syntheti zi rig mechanism which permits the analyzation and simultaneous synthelization of stimulations entering the cortex. All neuro-dynamics rests on two processes, well known in the physiology of the nervous system?excitation and inhibition. The complex interaction of these main processes gave Pavlov the possibility of establishing new peculiar relations of two sides of one stimulative process, manifesting itself in the active form of excitation and in the form of inhibition that opposes it. The unity of excitation and inhibition, as well as the transitionary phases between them, were studied on simplest nervous forma- Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 ? Lions long ago by Soviet physiologists of the Wedensky school; this was also established by Pavlov and his pupils in the case of cellular structures of the cerebral cortex. Tho detection of transitionary (hypnotic) phases between excitation and inhibi- tion, has, as we know, become the basis of Pavlov's discovery of the nature of neuroses. - Temporary connections are always extensive, and often they can occupy a considerable part of the receptory area of the cere- bral cortex. It is possible to form a new conditioned stimulus with the help of an already worked out conditioned stimulus. 'fen years ago in Pavlov's laboratory it was convincingly demon- strated on a dog that ?Lwo indifferent stimulations?, repeated one after another also connect between themselves and provoke each other. As Pavlov said: ?The conditioned reflex has become the central phenomenon in physiology and its use made possible a fuller and precise study of both the normal and pathologic activities of the cerebral hemispheres?. SYSTEMIC PRINCIPLE IN THE FUNCTION OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX AND THE CONCEPT OF STEREOTYPE On the basis of a large number of experimental data Pavlov created the idea of the existence of a systemic principle in the function of the cerebral cortex. This idea represents an impor- tant generalization and comprises a substantial part of our under- standing of Pavlov's reflex theory. Many critics of Pavlov's teaching on the higher nervous activity ignore this important aspect of his physiological conception. In the USSR, Pavlov's principle of systemic function is at present being successfully elaborated in physiological exper- iments on animals and in observations on humans. Thus, recently, a collaborator of our Institute, Schastny, established new facts on the selective systemic principle in the work of the cerebral cortex of dogs. Experiments on conditioned reflexes were carried out in the following way. A system (A) of conditioned food reflexes was worked out and stabilized in dogs. Then, for a certain period, this food system was dropped and another system (B) of conditioned electro-defensive reflexes was worked out and stabilized. After thi, a return was made to the food system (A) and together with food stimuli application was made of one of the electro-defensive stimuli M (the sound of a metronome) from system (B), accompanying it with a food rein- forcement. When this former electro-defensive stimulus M lost its defensive action, and acquired a stable food action, some other 37 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 stimulus from the electro-defensive system (B) was sometimes applied at the start of an experiment with the food system (A). The additional conditioned elec,tro-defensive stimulus was not accompanied either by a food reinforcement or by current. It turned out that this additional defensive stimulus did not have an inhibitory effect on the conditioned reflexes of the food system (A). Its inhibitory action revealed itself only on the conditioned food refleN in response to a stimulus M that had formerly been an electranlefensive stimulus. ' Thus, I he inhibitory action of a substituted conditioned elec- tro-defensi ye stimulus was of a Clearly selective character. These experim.ents not only established the fact of the exis- tence of a selective systemic principle, but also brought to light its nervous (cortical) mechanism, the latter lying in the action of a negative induction from the defensive centre to the food centre. Mayoroy's observations OR humans established that a condi- tioned reflex, and the unconditioned reflex following it, are links of a single functional system. It turned out that the verbal response of the persons under observation regarding the charac- ter of the acting stimuli changed in dependence on the distur- bance in. the system: conditioned stimulation ? unconditioned stimulation. The observations were carried on. in the following way. Use was made of a frequent beat of a metronome (120 beats per minute) which was always reinforced by a slight stream of air directed onto the eye. In the beginning this produced a con- ditioned winking reflex, followed by an unconditioned winking reflex and a verbal account of the observed person that the beat was ?frequent?. In these observations use was made also of a rare rhythm. of the metronome (60 beats per minute), which, however, was never accompanied by a stream of air. This produces an inhibitiXe effect (check of winking movements) and a verbal account that the beat was ?rare?. Such was the usual order of tests. If the observer sometimes used a frequent M-120, but did not give the unconditioned stimulus (reinforcement by a stream of air), then the verbal account of the person under observation changed: he said that, the beat -was ?rare? or ?seemed to be rare?. If the observer sometimes applied a rare M-60 and accompan- ied it with a stream of air, then the verbal account of the ob- served person changed: he said that the beat was ?frequent? or ?seemed to be frequent?. This meal's that the Verbal account of the observed person, being the result of the systemic activity of the second signal 38 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 ? system (according to Pavlov), reflects the formed neurodynamic system. A study of complex conditioned reflexes (Voronin) on dogs and the working out of differentiations to separate complex sti- muli showed that this complicated neurodynamic system is rein- forced by the interrelations between excitation and inhibition of whole complexes arising as a result of the synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex. We picture the work of the cerebral cortex as systemic and dynami c, and this fully conforms with Pavlov's views. However, in this question there is evidently an insufficient understanding among certain investigators in the USA (for instance, Pro- fessor Lashley). I do not have here the possibility to discuss specially a number of critical pronouncements regarding Pavlov's thesis on cortical dynamics, for instance, the attempts to deny the peculiar features of cortical conditioned inhibition, and the exaggerated impor- tance assigned to separate (and often insufficiently strict) obser- vations interpreted as proof of the possibility of the formation of conditioned reflexes without the participation of the cerebral cortex. A detailed analysis of these and other critical remarks directed against the theory of conditioned reflexes have been published in our country by Mayorov. On my part, I will gladly answer questions that may arise here on this point. However, I think the most effective way of showing all the significance of Pavlov's physiological teaching is to set forth new facts and conclusions that were obtained on the basis of this teaching. Besides, I shall dwell chiefly on the facts obtained by a group of 'investigators working under my direction. I am doing this by no means because other scientific workers of the country I represent gave less valuable data, but because I am naturally better acquainted with and analyzed in detail the facts obtained in my laboratories. THE FUNCTIONAL CONNECTION OF THE CORTEX WITH INNER ORGANS In the course of two decades our attention was focussed on the study of the connections between all the organs of the bocl.: and the cerebral cortex. These connections are always two-sided: on the one hand, the cerebral cortex influences the activity of all the organs of the body, and, on the other, in its own activity the cortex constantly reflects the influence produced by impulses arising in the receptors of all the organs of the body. 89 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 The question of the functional connection of the inner organs with the higher parts of the central nervous system was not deci- ded either b) physicians or by physiologists. The material basis of inner organic sensations was not revealed. The subjective con- ceptions of various types of feelings, sensations, moods and si- milar subjectively appraised states of human beings, are based on scientifically unsubstantiated ideas of the ?soul? and the ?psy- chical world? offered as uncognizable essences to which the meth- ods of a strictly objective investigation are inapplicable. The very engender of the ideas about something unconscious, deep-seated, guiding the inclinations and behaviour of humans, preached with especial insistence by Freud, and now supported by Alexander, distracted the thinking of psychologists, led them away from the path that would have brought them to a genuinely scientific knowledge of intricate psychological phenomena of the inner sensations of humans; this resulted in the appearance of reactionary and mystical ideas about psychical processes. The general principle of investigations which established the influence of the cerebral cortex on all functions of the body, is based on the fact that a stimulation known beforehand to be indifferent in relation to a given function of the organism, is sev- eral times (from 3-5 to 10-50) combined with an agent that changes the corresponding process carrying out an unconditioned, i. e. inherent reflex. In such a way conditioned reflexes are worked out on the activity of various organs of the body. The method of conditioned reflexes gave us the possibility of proving that the most varied functions of the organism depend on cortical influences arising as a result of the working out of conditioned reflexes. This thesis has established itself so firmly that I shall limit myself to an incomplete listing of processes which, as we have established, are easily reproduced as a result of the working out of conditioned reflexes. This includes: 1) the formation of urine by the kidneys; 2) the formation of gall by the liver and the contraction of the gall bladder; 3) the contrac- tion of the spleen; 4) deep changes in the work of the cardiac muscle; 5) heat exchange; 6) various changes in metabolism. It turned out that in absolutely similar conditions of heat. exchange of the organism with the surrounding medium, obser- vations may he made of various reactions of a physical and chem- ical thermoregulation, depending on conditioned reflexes worked out earlier, in response to stimuli that always accompany either cooling or warming (experiments carried on by Slonim, Olnyan- skaya and others). Thus, for instance, people who by the character of their pro- fessions are constantly exposed to the action of cold (conductors 40 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 on freight trains, workers in refrigerator plants), display in con- dition of their professional work, even during a complete absence. of any muscle movements, a considerable increase in heat pro- duction. A completely different picture is observed in those people under the action of cold but when they are not influenced by their professional surroundings, i.e., during the exclusion of stimuli of the external medium, which for the given people are constant signals of cooling. In this case, the chemical mecha- nism of heat regulation comes in only a long time after cold be- gins to exert its influence, while the rise of metabolism (chemical heat regulation) does not reach magnitudes which are observed during the same physical influence connected with the partici- pation of natural conditioned reflexes. This shows the tremendous. difference between the intensity of chemical heat regulation in professional conditions (field conditions for animals) and in cham- ber-laboratory conditions, a phenomenon constantly observed in our investigations. By the way, I would be very interested to know how these facts will be regarded by professors Fulton and Liddell. . Here is still one more example showing the importance of. signal stimuli of heat regulation, i. e., stimuli ?that change heat production and heat loss as a result of the formation of condi- tioned reflexes. If the organism will be influenced by moving air (wind) in such a manner that this wind will produce only a tactile stimulation of the surface of the body without increas- ing heat loss (by raising the temperature of the external medium in accordance to necessary ,calculations) then a rise of metabo- lism may be observed despite the unchanged heat loss under conditions of such an experiment. A tactile stimulation of a large surface of the skin by moving air is, in this case, a conditioned stimulus of the processes of heat regulation, as it is namely the. receptors of the skin under usual conditions that are constantly stimulated by the wind, which, at the same time, produces a considerable cooling as well. It must be pointed out that condi- tioned reflexes formed in this way are distinguished by great stability, and i t is with difficulty that they are extinguished. The mechanism of the stimulative action of wind on the metabolism of animals and humans also becomes understandable. Let us take another group of facts. We studied gaseous ex- change in sheep standing calmly in a pen and, with absolutely the same meteorological condition, in the field. Gaseous ex- change under conditions of an open space always turned out to be higher. These phenomena may be observed in the most varied con- ditions of surroundings, during the chewing of end and without, at different times of the day. Thus, for these animals, to whom 41 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 an open space is a signal for the performance of an intensive Muscle activity (connected, first of all, with feeding in the field), signals of an open space ? lead to a rising of oxidative processes. The further study of this question (carried on by Slonim and his col- laborators), showed that distance and the space around. the orga- nism can become conditioned stimuli for various physiological processes, and comprise an important aspect of the influence of the external medium on the organism. In our opinion, this opens perspective paths for the study also of the medium of existence of humans tinder conditions of labour and rest, i. e., new paths For many hygienic investigations. But let, its return to our sheep, or as our French friends would -say ?revencris a nos moutons?. In our country we showed that .sheep, acclimatized in the mountains of Central Asia to a height of 2000-4000 metres, spend 20-30 per cent less energy than sheep living in plains on a height of 600-1000 metres above sea level. This 4acclimatization of metabolism? develops very slowly; in breeds living on the plains, it begins only after several genera- tions of sheep had lived under conditions of a high mountain climate. But the remarkable thing is that in lambs, even in moult- Lain breeds, there is no difference in the first weeks of life in. the level of metabolism in comparison with its magnitude in lambs living on small heights. That is why we must admit that, acclimatization is conditioned by influences exerted on tissue metabolism by the cerebral cortex (possibly one'of the obligatory links in the carrying out of these changes comprises changes in the activity of the thyroid gland conditioned by cortical stimuli). Let us skip to discuss the significance of these facts. They show that the most general function of each organism ? the Metabolism constantly influenced by the cerebral cortex. These influences, arising as a result of the working out of tempo- rary connections, determine the level of metabolism in accor- dance with the entire complex of stimulations, reaching the or- ganism both through exteroroceptors and interoreceptors. The importance of the dynamic stereotype of stimulations, which we have mentioned above, manifested itself very clearly in these -experiments. I shall add now that the dynamic stereotype is a definite combination and a definite consecutiveness in the cortex of excitative and inhibitive states arising under the influence of external and i nternal stimulations in a monotonously repeating situation. Every constantly repeating reaction of the animal and human organism, for instance, food, defensive (protective), a reaction ensuring herneostasis (particularly heat regulation) must neces- sarily include natural conditioned reflexes in response to stimu- 42 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 lations entering the stereotype of agents under whose influence the given reaction is constantly carried out. In following the carrying out of various reflex acts under natural conditions, we endeavoured to analyze the importance of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes that are included in these acts, and normally always fused together. Besides, despite the widespread opinion that the magnitude of the effects of con- ditioned reflexes is always smaller than the effects of an uncon- ditioned reflex, we regularly observed the opposite in a number of cases: the action of cortical stimuli arising under the influence of conditioned stimuli, often turns out to be considerably strong- er than the effect of a relatively isolated action of an uncondi- tioned stimulus. Moreover, the effect produced by a conditioned stimulus can bring about the complete suppression of the effect which would have taken place during the simultaneous action of an unconditioned stimulus, if the latter had acted alone. I shall illustrate this with two examples which I purposely selected from the highest form of the conditioned reflex activity ? the con- ditioned reflexes of humans to signals of the second signal system, i. e. to verbal signals. In a person under observation the action of a bell was accom- panied by the application to a skin area of a coil pipe with water warmed to a temperature of 43? (?warmth* stimulation) (Bogov). Meantime, a pletismogram was recorded, registering the dilation of vessels both during the action of warmth as well as during the action of the bell alone (after 20-50 combinations with the application of warmth). When the conditioned reflex to a bell was formed then it was sufficient to tell the patient ?I am going to ring the bells to start a vessel reaction similar to the one observed during warmth stimulation; in this case, a word acts as an agent of the second signal system. The application to the skin of a coil pipe with water warmed not to 43? but to 65? produces on its own account not a ?warmth? reaction, but, to a certain degree, a ?pain? reaction that is cha- racterized not by the dilation of vessels, but their contraction. Now give a verbal command: ?I am going to apply warmth?, but instead of doing so we act with a weak pain stimulation (tem- perature of 65?). It turned out that, in this case, the usual effect of a conditioned reflex (in the given case the response to a verbal signal) was completely preserved, though there was in reality a pain stimulation and not a warmth stimulation; the vessels, despite the action of an agent producing an unpleasant sensation (temperature 65?) did not contract but dilated and the person under observation later testified that he felt a sensation of warmth corresponding to the verbal signal and not to the really acting 48 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 ?pain? stimulation. The sensation here is completely conditioned. by the cortical (worked out) reaction to an agent of the second . signal system*. Here is another example. A study was made in humans of the reflex of urination in response to the introduction through a catheter of warm (37') water into the bladder (these observations were carried on by Airapetyants and his collaborators). Prcssure changes in the bladder were registered graphically.At the same time, in front of the person under observation there was a manometer, showing the pressure created in the bladder; it was possible to disconnect this manometer from the bladder cavity. Usually the urge to urinate is felt at a definite value of pressure in the bladder, a pressure whose value the person under observation sees on the manometer. After several similar combinations it turned out that. an in- tense urge to urinate is felt just by the calling out (through a microphone placed in the room) the reading of the manometer that usually corresponded to the value of pressure producing the urge to urinate and a contraction of the walls of the bladder. This urge to urinate (and correspondingly changes of the skin- galvanic reflex) under the influence of a verbal signal can start. even when there is virtually an absence of fluid in the bladder. Conversely, if the manometer indicated zero pressure and the cortical signals of tension of the bladder worked out in given - conditions is absent, then it was possible without the appearance of the urge to urinate to introduce into the bladder far greater quantities of fluid than those which usually produce urination. Numerous similar facts convinced us that the very concep- tion of unconditioned reflexes should be broadened. Under usual conditions every unconditioned reflex becomes ?covered?, as it were, with conditioned reflexes of various complexity. it may be supposed that at early phases of the ontogenetic formation of each reflex, the impulses entering the cortex from the receptors of organs carrying out some inherent reflex, pro- duce in the cortex the appearance of focuses of excitation that are still not united by temporary connections. However, the impulsation from the receptors, laid in corres- ponding effectors, is converted i nto a signal of the given reflex * It is understood, of course, that here the rupture between the real reinforcement, of the second signal system agent (verbal stimulation) and the usual meaning of this agent is possible only because always or almost always before this the word (ovarnith? was in one way or another, directly or indirectly combined with a real warmth stimulation. The second signal. system is linked with the first; schematically speaking, this connection is approximately the same as the connections of each conditioned reflex of the first signal system with an unconditioned reflex on which it is formed. 44 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 very rapidly, possibly during the first performances of the given reflex acts. Then the latter is carried out already under the influence of cortical stimuli, arising as a result of the compulsory ? interweaving of natural conditioned reflexes into every uncon- ditioned reflex. Thus, the cortical response to the stimulation of various interoreceptors must necessarily include itself in the performance of each reflex act. It goes without saying that this act is joined by the effect of the stimulation of one exteroreceptor or another whose excitation coincides with the carrying out of the given reflex act. The facts I have set forth here so cursorily and incompletely, and which comprise only a small portion of the data we amassed, commit us to conclusions in which we strive to follow the spirit and essence of the ideas of our incomparable teacher, I. P. Pavlov. We see that the teaching on conditioned reflexes is not an addition, or a superstructure, or a development of the teaching on reflexes in the form, that, beginning with Descartes, it was developed by Prohaslca, M. Gall, J. Muller, Freisberg, Philipp- son, Sherrington and Magnus. The disclosure of the mechanism, properties and significance of conditioned reflexes will inevitably lead to a new conception of the reflex. In this new conception facts relating to the reflex activity of spinal or decerebrated animals, as well as of whole but anaestheLisized animals, cut off from nor- mal connections with the external world, must occupy approx- imately the same place as data amassed by astrologers on the heavenly bodies occupy in modern astronomy. Reflexes such as are produced in animals deprived of the cerebral hemispheres are non-existent in the normal organism. Impulses entering efferent neurons and transmitted during every reflex act to effectors along the ultimate common path ? are not an algebraic sum of impulses arising in spinal, bulbar, mesencephalic, diencephalic, and cortical neurons, but are the result of the activity of a functionally indivisible formation, oven though it includes various morphologic substrates. Every group of cells, entering a united coherent complex of an undi- vided reflex centre, acquires upon entering this united centre new properties which cannot be revealed by experiments on spi- nal, decerebrated or thalamic animals. The cerebral cortex in- clues, as Pavlov expressed it, the most reactive cells of the nervous system, and that is why it primarily determines by its acti- vity the properties of central formations located below it. Pavlov wrote that ?the higher the organization of the cortex the more will it become the manager and distributor of all the functions of the organism?., 7 ye, 45 A ,1; ? tr? Fiz tHi ,A,17 7 1 A/ VS* .D A /:.; Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07 : CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Examples illustrating this have been given above for reflex' acts of thermoregulation, urination, for the reflex regulation of the level of metabolism; there are also numerous similar examples Showing the refiex regulation of the formation of urine, of the level of blood sugar content, of the so-called specific-dynamic action of food, of the regulation of respiration and blood circula- tion during work, during anoxy, etc. We have, therefore, sugges- ted to call comple x--r eflex acts all normal reflex acts. that are the result of the fusion of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes knit together. It must be emphasized that complex-reflex acts are never limited by the activity of any one organ. The expressions ?reflex of salivation?, ?reflex of bending?, ?reflex of urination? and so on are only practically convenient designations of the, reflex cha- racter of the process on which we fix our attention. In reality, however, the reflex salivation for instance, is a component of itie undivided food complex-reflex act that includes also gastric juice secretion, swallowing, chewing and changes in the blood supply to organs of the digestive tract, with correspondent changes of the activity of the heart, and tone of blood vessels, and so on. No matter what reflex on what organ we studied, we always came across one and the same Pavlov mechanism of the formation of -temporary connection. In addition to this, we observed an exceptionally great variety of agents converted, due to the work- ing out of temporary connections (conditioned reflexes) into agents participating in different complex-reflex acts. INTEROCEPTIVE CONDITIONED REFLEXES Success was achieved in showing that during the stimulation of internal receptors, it is possible to work out conditioned reflexes as well (Bykov, Airapetyants). The formed interoceptive conditioned reflexes have, on the whole, the same properties as exteroceptive conditioned reflexes. Airapetyan1 s, Rikkl and others of our collaborators have obtained a differentiation of two stimuli applied to the receptors. of the intestines and other organs. At the present, it must be admitted on good grounds that the interoceptive signalization in the cerebral cortex is assured by the presence of receptors in the internal organs. In analogy with external analyzers, they may be called internal analyzers. Their peripheric part is, of course, different to the peripheric parts of exteroreceptors. These are not the five sense organs which are known to us a long time.Sub jec- Lively, it may not be possible to detect what takes place during 415 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 'the normal run of processes in the bowels and other organs, but their objective reflex influence and participation in the higher nervous activity has been revealed. In a famous piece of Voltaire's satire, an inhabitant of Saturn? asks a traveller from Sirius: ?II ow many senses do you have??, ?Seventy-two,?the latter replied,?but every time we are sorry we have so few?. We can ask how many senses has a human being? Have we vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste only? In addition to this we have many other ?obscure? senses. They influence us and their impulses reach the cerebral cortex. Therefore, they may be called ?senses? too, but these senses are special, particular. Thus, it is not only signals from the outside world that enter the cerebral cortex, but signals from the organism's ?internal organization ? as well. Further, the signals that pass through the interoreceptors are far from indifferent for ?the activity of the cerebral cortex. Very complicated interrelations arise during the collision of two signals passing through the external and internal analy- zers. Some impulses may reinforce others, and, inversely, some ma_y inhibit others and even suppress them completely. The fate of each reaction is determined by the juxtaposition in the cerebral cortex of two informations, one from the external analyzers and the other from the internal one. Our collaborators, as well as other physiologists, have proved now that the striated, so-called voluntary muscles, are always linked in their activity not only with exteroceptive signals, but with interoceptive signals as well. This means that the signals passing from interoreceptors reflectorily influence not only the ?vegetative? side of life, but also control the striated muscles, e.; the so-called ?animal? side of life (Merkulova). AFFERENTATION AND TROPHIES OF 1HE NERVOUS SYSTEM Our investigations are examples of a physiological analysis of the activity of the cerebral cortex in relation to the influence of impulses emanating from the ?internal world? of the animal organism. Nervous impulses from the receptors of the internal organs are always polyvalent. In a posthumously-published paper, our brilliant histologist Lavrentyev described the receptory apparatus in the bowels which consists of three parts: an afferent single fibre has three branches ? one to a blood-vessel, the second to a peripheric nervous cell, and the third to a group of smooth-muscle fibres. 47 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 We are justified to suppose that in the central nervous system' and, especially, in the cerebral cortex there are similar connections between the nerve cells and the apparatus supplying -(speaking in broad terms) them. Whereas it has still not been exactly .estab- lished whether there are specialized receptors in the nerve cells of the cerebral cortex, at any rate the large quantity of neurons, reacting to i allowing impulses, function like the receiving for- mations, as the central endings of analyzers. An electrophysiological investigation of the potentials of affer- ent impulses from the stomach and bowels, reveals the depen- dence of the afferent impulses on the functional condition of the digestive apparatus. The greatest amplitude and frequency of affer- mit impulses is observed during the digestive activity of the gast- rointestinal apparatus. The presence of afferent impulses connect- ed both both with, circulatory as well :as with motor and secretory processes in the stomach and bowels has been established. The appearance of afferent impulses at definite stages of fasting gives rise to the thought that these impulses may participate in the formation of the so-called feeling of hunger. It is important to note that the influence of afferent impulses from the gastro- -intestinal apparatus (during its mechanical or electrical stimu- lation) may; be traced. up to the cerebral cortex and finds its reflection in definite Changes on the electroencephalogram (Delov ? and others). Thus, the cerebral cortex receives impulses that reflect the state of several functional formations, comprising an integral system. The :Afferent part of the reflex arc is not simply a conduct- or of only one group of receptory elements in some organ or tissue, but of a whole united receptory system. The mechanistic conception that the reflei arc connects the peripheric part of the analyzer with the nerve centre, like a- wire in an electric chain, must be essentially changed. Impulses of a polyvalent character pass to the centre and unite not only the nerve cells or group of cells, but also the nerve formations which are connect- ed with changes in blood circulation and metabolism of the nerve tissue. Pavlov's concept on the nerve trophies must be legitimately applied to the nerve tissue as well. In so far as each reflex arc is intricately constructed, the nerve trophies must be imagined as a complex reflex process supporting not only a specific activ- ity, but also metabolism at the same time. Due to the intricate structure of the peripheric part, of the analyzer and the complex character of impulses passing to the central nervous system, excitation in the centre Arises consecutively in a whole group of neurons. Simultaneously with this, there is an activization 48 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 of the supply to the nerve tissue of nutritive substances and oxy- gen. Thus, we must add to our concept of a centre not only a com- plicated spatial configuration, but also a temporary inclusion of separate points comprising a ?centre* for the carrying out of a multiple function. The study of the chemical dynamics of functioning cerebral nerve cells by Vladimirov in our Institute in Leningrad and by Palladin in Kiev, showed that certain components of the intri- cate metabolism of the nerve tissue can serve as good indicators of the functional state of the brain. Investigations by Vladimirov and his collaborators showed that the excited state of the brain, brought about both by uncon- ditioned and conditioned' stimuli, leads to a rise of carbohydrate metabolism and an increased rate of renewal of certain phos- phorus compounds and to a rise in the ammonia content. A dif- fused inhibition of the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease of am- monia content in the brain tissue, the ammonia being bound by glutamic acid with the formation of glutamine. Thus, we have full grounds for considering that during the carrying out of each motor or secretory act there are also reflex changes in the whole neuron apparatus, ensuring changes in blood supply ? the supply to the nerve cells of nutritive sub- stances and oxygen. Consequently, reflex acts that ultimately ensure metabolism in the organism, originate themselves during the constant reflex ensurance of nutrition to the central nerve apparatus. We consider the further elaboration of this question as impor- tant for the development of the concept on the intimate mecha- nisms of the origin and spreading of excitative and inhibitive processes in the countless number of nerve units of the cortex. Prior to the creation of Pavlov's teaching on the higher ner- vous activity, reflexes were thought to be only changes of isola- ted physiological functions produced every time by one and the same special stimulus. In this case, there could not be a real understanding the unification by the nervous system of all func- tion of the organism, which was only abstractedly designated as integrative activity of the nervous system. It is the theory of conditioned reflexes only that allows us to understand the mechanism of the unification of physiological functions in various complicated reflex acts, determining both the behaviour of the organism in the surrounding medium and the activity of all internal organs that is indissolubly connected with this. During the last years of his activity Pavlov wrote: ?Thus, in our opinion, the cerbral hemispheres comprise a collection of analyzers: of the eye, -ear, skin, nose and mouth. 4 R. M. BLIII0B 49 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 An investigation of these analyzers brought us to the conclusion that their number should be increased, that, in addition to the above-mentioned analyzers which have a relation to external phenomena, to the external world, we must recognize the exist- ence in the cerebral hemispheres of a number of special analy- zers whose purpose is to disintegrate the huge complex of pheno- mena taking place in the organism itself. There is no doubt that it is not only the analysis of the outside world that is important for organism, it also stands in need of signalization upwards as. well as analyzation of what takes place inside itself. In short, in addition to the above external analyzers, there must he inter- nal analyze ro?. ME REMARKS ON THE REFLEX MECHANISM We cannot agree with the assertion of certain American in- vestigators that Pavlov studied the first and last moments of reflex reactions only:, The scientific system, created by Pavlov is distinguished from ?objective psychology? or the ?psychology of behaviourism?, namely, by the fact that it stands on a stable physiological basis, revealing the mechanism of the dynamics. of the main_ nervous processes ? excitation and inhibition? and their interrelations. In this connection it must be said that Pavlov did not create anew a concept of ?excitation? and ?inhi- bition?, but took them from the physiology of the nervous system in which they were established before him. The same concerns. the concept of ?induction?. Pavlov was the first to see how these processes in the higher parts of the central nervous system ensure new qualitative differences between cortical reflexes and reflex- es of other levels of the .central nervoirs syStem. Pavlov did not have to step aside from the strictly objective natural-scientific path, a path that had tested in physiology, in order to study complex natural phenomena ? the psychical processes. The approach of many Western. including American inves- tigators (they call it themselves a ?psychological aspects) to this. question, is permeated with the ideological survivals of dualism and leads Co different psychological ?supplements? to Pavlov's physiological theory and to its distortion. These ?supplements? are sometimes of a clearly subjective-psychological and clearly antropomorphic character. Some investigators do not observe a methodical accuracy in their experiments, an accuracy that is characteristic of the Pavlov school, and this often leads them to false ?denials? or endeavours to destroy the rupture between 60 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 the teaching of Pavlov and the ideas of Sherrington and other scientists who lapsed into mysticism and even fideism. The study of the neuro-dynamics of cortical processes by Pavlov, his pupils and followers, was always carried on from the standpoint of the theory of evolution. The fruitfulness and neces- sity of such a standpoint are obvious because, without an his- torical aspect, it is impossible to understand the conversion of the energy of an external stimulation into a fact of consciousness. The solution of problems of sensations as the most elementary psychical process, reflecting the properties of the objective world existing outside us and independently of our consciousness, is possible only in an historical aspect. As regards human psychics, account should be taken of the new qualities forming in humans in their interrelations with a social environment. The physiology of the organs of feeling, beginning with J. Muller, considered the problem of sensation metaphysically, without taking into account the process of evolution, disregarding all the long phylogenetic path of the adaptation of the animal to the external medium under whose influence the function of the organs of senses is formed. According to Pavlov, we cannot consider the process of the formation of functions with a consi- deration of only the peripheric part (eye, ear, etc.), but we must bear in mind the participation in this process of the central part of the analyzer ? the cells of the cerebral cortex. The investigations of one of our collaborators, Rogov, showed that it is during a sufficiently high state of excitability of the cerebral cortex only that the vascular reactions attain great intensity and high mobility. Changes in the properties of both conditioned and unconditioned vascular reactions take place in all cases when processes of internal inhibition 'originate in the cerebral cortex. Moreover, vascular reactions acquire a ste- reotype character, become inert and insignificant in magni- tude. We found similarly weak vascular? reactions during investi- Vations of patients with syringomyelia and hemiplegia. It waa shown that the vascular reactions of patients with syringomyelia are distinguished for its automatic character, negligable magni- tude and sluggishness of development. Meanwhile the vascular reactions of patients with hemiplegia, as distinct from the vas- cular reactions of patients with syringomyelia, are less stereo- typical, have a considerably greater magnitude and are more varied in their manifestation. ? Apparently, the inclusion in the reflex reaction of nerve cen- tres, located at a higher level of the central nervous system, 51 4*? - Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 as has been seen in the case of the patient with hemiplegia, leads to a further perfection of the vascular reactions. The character of vascular reactions is conditioned by various levels of their innervation, this explaining the various vascular reactions in hemiplegia and syringomyelia. 'IRE SECOND SIGNAL SYSTEM IN HUMANS On the basis of his clinical observations Pavlov gave in a clear, though concise form a new conception of the second signal system that is specific for the higher nervous activity of humans. As Pavlov said: ?For an animal, reality signalizes itself almost solely through stimulations and their traces in the cerebral hemi- spheres, directly passing into special cells of the visual, acoustic and other receptors of the organism. This is exactly what also we have in ourselves as feelings, impressions and thoughts pro- duced by the surrounding external medium, both general-natural and social, excluding the word, what we can hear and see. This is a first signal system of reality that we share with animals. But word comprises the second, our special signal system of reality, this being a signal of the first signals. The direct action of various objects and phenomena of the surrounding world through the stimulation of receptors on the cerebral cortex is always a concrete signal of reality. Meanwhile, speech, as l'avloy wrote, ?is primarily kinesthetit.. stimula- tions passing into the cortex from speech organs and these are, the second signals; they aye an abstraction from realily and _per- mit generalization. This is namely what comprises our additional specially human higher thinking. The second signal system rep- resents all verbal denotations of objects, and this system of sig- nals is taken in by our brain thanks to nervous impulses that arise during the stimulation of receptors during speech, spoken, auditory and visible, i. e., in the receptors of the organs of speech (muscles of the tongue, lips, cheeks, soft palate, larynx), in acoustic receptors and in visual receptors (during reading). The process of the working out from various words of signals of real stimulations is achieved by mechanisms of working out of conditioned reflexes. This has been precisely established by observations on the formation of speech in babies beginning to talk. That is the reason why Pavlov pointed out that for man a word is a real conditioned stimulus like all the others. But here he added that, as a conditioned stimulus, word, at the same time, is much more manifold than any of the others and, in this re- spect, cannot be either qualitatively or quantitaivly compared with conditioned stimuli of animals. 52 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Differences between the activity of the second signal system and the first were revealed, for instance, in observations during which in cliiid,Len _of 8-10 years the ringing of a bell was accom- panied several times by a slight electric stimulation of the fin- ger. After this, a withdrawing of the finger was produced not only by the real sound of the hell, but also by the utterance of the word ?bell? or by the showing of the word ?bell? written out, proceedings that were never connected with the action of the electric stimulation. At the same time, neither the showing of other words or the utterance of other words produced the reaction that followed the utterance of the word ?bell?. Due to the formation at one time of a cortical connection between verbal stimulation and the concrete phenomenon ft; fleets (in the given case, a definite sound ? ringing of a bell), the verbal stimulation has become a signal of a. concrete event in the surrounding world. At the same time, this testifies to the ?abstractipn from reality?, spoken of by Pavlov, characterizing the second signal system. A verbal stimulation produces the same reaction as the one produced by the absent real stimulation caused by the bell. Pavlov said that ?due to the entire preceding life of an adult, word is connected with all external and internal stimulations entering the cerebral hemispheres, signalizes all of them, repla- ces all of them, and for this reason can produce all the reactions of the organism, which condition these stimulations?. A characteristic feature of the second signal system is that an abstraction from reality is attained because the verbal image of objects and actions replaces their concrete effect on the orga- nism. An abstraction of verbal stimuli from concrete agents is attained with especial clarity due to the fact that the second signal system permits the formation of ver_y eomplicated chains of combinations built up one over the other of one verbal stimu- lus with other verbal-stimuli. A considerable number of speech designations is attained by an adult not through a combination of verbal stimulations with the direct influence on us of concrete objects of the outside world,' but through their combination_with already_ worked out verbal signals of the action of concrete Objects. These chains can be very intricate and include a great number of links, each of which may be based on combinations of one verbal signal with another. However, the starting link is based on the combination of a verbal stimulus with the effect, on us of concrete agents of the ? outside world acting on the first signal system. The activity of the second signal system obeys the same basic laws that Pavlov established for the first signal system, .53 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 and which he considered characteristic of the entire teaching on reflexes. The very close and indissoluble connection between function and structure will doubtlessly be applied to the activity of the second signal system, though, as we have already pointed out, the concept of the presence in the human cerebral cortex of special #eentresi> of higher intellectual functions is erroneous. Tbe pm lormance of the actions of analysis and synthesis is also very clearly expressed in the activity of the second signal system. The synthetization of separate words in whole phrases, characterisi ic of our entire speech, leads to an exact reflection in the activity of the second signal system of objects and pheno- mena of tim surrounding world. Finally, Pavlov's principle of determinism, characterizing the whole teaching on reflexes, can be said to have received the highest development in conceptions on the second signal system, this being the first step in the natural-scientific study of the high- er sides of brain activity which are connected with phenomena of consciousfleSS. This major problem goes far beyond the boundaries of phy- siology. It concerns a number of other sciences, namely, psych- ology, linguistics, pedagogics, neuropathology, psychiatry, and, finally, phi I osophy. PHYSIOLOGY AND MED HINE I cannot refrain from speaking even if briefly on the impor- tance to pathology of the material examined here. I have already pointed out the importance of a definite stereotype of stimuli in the carrying out of each complex-reflectory act they produce. The more complicated the forms of interaction of the organism with the medium around it and, in connection with this, the more complicated and differentiated the cerebral cortex, the more often will there take place a complete or partial change of agents included in one stereotype of stimuli or another. Pavlov established that this replacement of one stereotype by another oiten represents a difficult task for the nervous sys- tem. The result may not only be a change in the course of the reflex act, which after a change in the condition of its fulfilment, is at first accomplished outside the stereotype of agents on which there have been worked out natural-Conditioned reflexes, correct- ing, intensifying, speeding Up- the given act and uniting it with other reflex processes. The breaking up of the stereotype often also results in a disturbance of the normal balance of the exci- 54 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 tative and inhibitive _processes in the cerebral cortex. This leads to a more or less essential (depending on the degree of change of the normal cortical dynamics) disturbance in carrying out also of those reflex acts whose stereotype of performance has not been changed directly. We have observed that in dogs the offering of food unusual to them (though it was eagerly eaten) like honey, leads to pro- longed and very sharp changes in the secretion of gastric juice. Exceptionally acute consequences were observed in cats, it is true, ?after a very considerable disturbance of the stereotype of the food- getting, complex-reflex act. The experiment consisted of passing during one second a weak electric current, that did not produce any visible reaction of the animal, through the head of the cat at the moment it was seizing a mouse. This single sharp distur- bance of the stereotype of the food complex-reflex act brought about profound pathological disturbances of the heart activity; moreover, the changes registered on an electrocardiogram resem- bled those which usually set in during grave heart diseases and were eliminated very slowly, in the course of several weeks. These investigations, demonstrating the appearance of path- ological processes as a result of the disturbance of the normal activity of the:cerebral cortex,, provide us with facts which had attracted the attention of -Pavlov himself (these investigations were carried out by his collaborator Petrova). The method desig- nated as ?collision ? between the excitative and inhibitive pro- cesses and producing characteristic, depending on the type of the nervous system, changes of the higher nervous activity, turns out to be a method permitting the experimental creation of mod- els, as it were, of various pathological processes, for instance, hypertonic disease, ulcerous disease, etc. These experiments allow us to expect that purposeful influen- ces on the activity of the cerebral cortex can be essentially impor- tant also in the treatment of a number of diseases. Substantial results in this connection have been achieved in our country (for instance, in the form of application of the so-called sleep therapy and certain inedicamental treatments of some form of diseases). The conclusion on the role of changes of the normal activity of the cerebral cortex in the origination of a number of patholo- gical processes (here we must mention the investigations carried on in the laboratory directed by Speransky), based on the teach- ing on conditioned reflexes is principally different to the inter- pretation of these questions in so-called ?psychosomatic medi- cines. In our conception of cortical-visceral connections we use, as our starting point, the fact that the activity of the cerebral 55 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 cortex (the higher nervous activity) is determined by external and internal influences experienced by a human organism in its very complicated interrelations with the surrounding, chiefly social, medium. Furthermore, we emphasize the fact that the disturbance of normal cortical activity can produce pathological changes ?on the periphery?, as a result of disturbances of the nor- mal course of cortical-visceral regulations. A purposeful influence on pathological processes must there- fore be built up with an account taken of the necessity of restor- ing normal functions in the higher parts of tfie brain. But ?psy- chosomatic medieine?, permeated with Freud's dualistic and idealistic conceptions, regards pathological changes as being dependent on genuine properties of the given person. Sometimes it explains pathological syndroms as the result of ?anal*, ?erotical? complexes, sometimes it tries to apply the laws of thermodynamics to the understanding of the most complex forms of human activity, or manipulates with the conception of ?vital? forces, and in this way inevitably closes for itself the path leading to a real understanding of the mechanism of the origin of patho- logical processes. It goes without saying that I cannot stop here to discuss in detail all the achievements and perspectives of the application in clinical practice of Pavlov's physiological teaching. t XINCLUSION I think that Pavlov's teaching on the higher nervous activity, based on tho method of conditioned reflexes elaborated by him, represents a new epoch not only in the history of natural scien- ces, but in the history of the humanities as well. Through the entire history of science there have been attempts to understand psychic activity from the viewpoint of common laws of nature connecting the material and the ideal worlds. We cannot forget the fact that consciousness developed in depen- dence on definite external conditions. Pavlov's monism in regard to two forms of a single and indivisible nature is expressed by him in the following words: on ?semblait eLre lent. Si l'observateur se serval I parfois d'un M-60 lent et le faisait accompaguer par un ja d'air, le rapport verbal du sujet cbangeait: ii disait quo le tic-tac haft ?rapide? on semblait iltre rapide?. Cola vont dlre quo le rapport verbal du sujet qui exprime le rosultat do E'aclivit?ystematique du deuxieme system? de signalisatiou (scion Pavlov) refletait nu systOme neuro-dynami- quo forme. L' Clink des reflexes conditionnels complexes (Voronine) sur des chions et la formation des differeaciations pour les stimu- lants complexes separes out mon tre quo cc systeme neuro-dynamique complex? Malt plaint:emu par les rapports reciproques entre "'excitation et l'inhibilion des ensembles tout ontiers qui se produi seat la suit to de Vactivite synthetique do l'Ocorce cebre- brale. Nous nous representions le travail de l'ecOree c,erebrale comme syst matiq e et dynamiqu e. Ceci correspond eutliTemein aux conceptions de Pavlov. Cependant, dans colic question, it exist? Un manque evident de comprehension chez cortains savants dos Etats-Units (par exemple, chez le professeur Lashley). le no poux pas m'arreter id i specialement stir Loute uric seri? de remarques critiques au sujet des principes de Pavlov concernant la dynamiquo cortical?, par exemple, sur les tenlatives de .nier les particularit4s c,aracteristiques do l'inhibition condition- none corticalo el sur nue valour exageree qu'on attribuo a certaines bse rva n (souven t insuffi sammenI ri goureuses) interpretecs Gomm? prenves de la Tossibilite de formation des reflexes condi- tionnels sans la participation de l'Ocorc,e c,erebrale. Une analyse detainee de ces critiques et d'autres dirigees mitre la theorie des reflexes ionditionnels a ete publiee chez nous par Mayorov. Mei, de mon ceto, je repandrai trOs volontlers aux questions qui pourront posees ici a cc sujet. Je pens? cependant CIUC le moyen le pins effic,ace pour montrer tante l'importanco de la theorie physiologique do Pavlov consiste it exposer de nouveaux faits et conclusions obternis sur la base do cello theorio. Err fai- sant ceci, je in'arreterai principalement sur les faits obtenus par l'ensemble des travailleurs quo jo dingo. Jo le fais non pas pare? (pie d 'autres travailleurs du pays quo je represent? out fourth 66 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 des donnees moiliS 'node-uses. Mai s ii est tout urel que les faits constatos dans los laboratoires quo je dingo me solent plus connus et oat ete minutiousement analyses par moi. LIAAON FONCTIONNELLE ENTRE L'ECORCE ET LES ORGANES INTERNES Noire attention, pendant deux dizaines d'aunees, a 60 fixe? sur Fetude des relations entre tous les organes du corps et l'ecorce des grands hemispheres corobraux. Ces liaisons soul; tonjours bilaterales: d'une part, 1' 6corce cerebral? influe sar Factivite de tons les organes? du corps, d'aulre part, dans son activite propre, l'ecorce reflete constamment l'influence des impulsions qui naissent dans les recepteurs de tous les organes du corps. Le problem? do la liaison fonctionnelle eutre les organes internos et les segments superieurs du system? uerveux central n'a ?t? resolu ni par les cliniciens, ni par los physiologist:es. Le fondement materiel des sensations interims, organiques, n'a pas eL6 docouvert. A la base des conceptions sabjectivistes sur los differents sentiments, sensations, Otals d'osprit et autres elats analogues de l'homme subjectivement apprecies on Irony? dos conceptions non fondees scientifiquement ? de 1' ?ame?, du ?monde psychique?, on taut quo des essences quelconques non reconnaissables et auxquelles on ne pout pas appliquer les r6g,1es d'art examen strictement scientifique, objectif. Les memos idees de l'inconscient, de quelque chose de profond qui dirigent les passions et la conduit? de l'homme, propagoes obstinement par Freud et, aduellement par Alexander, out detour- no la pensoe dos psychologues dune connaissanc,o re:dimwit scientifique des phenomones psychiques complexes, dos sensations interieures de l'homme et out angendre iino idee react:ion:naive et mystique sur les processus psychiques. Le principe general des recherches qui out Otabli l'influonce de l'ecorce cerebral? sur toutes les fondions du corps consist? en ceci: Imo stimulation queloonque, manifestement indifferent? par rapport a tine fonction donnee de Forganisme se combine plusieurs reprises (de 3 a 5, jusqu'a 10-50) dans le temps avec nil facteur qui modal? le processus correspondant, par voie dun reflex? non conditionnel, cost-a-dire lime. De cette facon on a pa former des reflexes conditionnels pour radii:rite des organes du corps les plus varies. La method? des reflexes c,ondi Li onnels nous a permis de demon- tier quo les fouctions les plus varioes de Porganisme dependaient 67 5* Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 des influences corticales qui se forment, la suite de la creation des reflexes conditionnels. Co principe a he prouve d'une facon tenement evtdente quo je me contente lei d'enumeror d'une Iacoii incomplete los processus qui, comme nous l'avons Mahn, se re- produisent facilement par suite de la formation des reflexes conditionnels. On pent y citer: (I) production de Purine par les reins, (2) production de la bile par le foie et contractions do la vesicuk biliaire, (3) contraction de la rate, (4) changements profonds dans le travail du muscle cardiaque, (5) dopenses calori- ques, (6) modifications variees du metabolisme. On a vu lue, dans des conditions parfaitement identiques d'ochanges caloriques de l'organisme avec le milieu qui l'entoure, on pent observer des reactions differentos de la therm.oregula- tion p.hysiquo et chimique en rapport avec les reflexes condition- Reis elabores prealablement ?flyers les stimulants qui accompagnent, constamment to refroidissement ou l'echauffement (experien- ces de Slonim, d'Oluiansky et d'autres). Ainsi, par exempl.e, les personnes qui, par le genre do lour profession, sont consta.mment exposees aim11. refroidissement con.si- derable (conducteurs de trains do marchandises, ouvriers des refri.gerateurs) presentent, dans les conditions de leur travail professionnel., Wine en l'absence de tout monvement re, un.e au.grnoutation consid.erable de la production do chaleur. Un tout autre tableau est observe chez ces porsonnes lors de Faction du froid exercoe on dehors de lour milieu de travail c'est-a-dire on l'absence des stimulants du mi lieu exterieur qui, pour ces person- nes, sont des signaux constants de refroidissement. Dans cc cas, la thermoregulation chimique n'eni re en jeu que longtemps apres le debut, de Faction du froid, et les augmentations du me- tabolisme (tbormoregulation cbimique) n'atteignent jamais les valeurs qu'on observe fors d'une action physique analogue mais nee avec la participation des reflexes conditionnels naturels. De la, tine di fferenNt enorme dans l'intensite de la thermoregu- lation chimique dans les conditions prolessionnelles (et pour les animaux, dans les conditions des champs) et dans cellos de labora- Wire quo nous avons toujours observees dans 1105 recherches. 'aural ete heureux, a cc propos, de savoir comment seron.t consideros ces faits par les professeurs Fulton et Liddell. Encore an exemple montrant l'importance des stimulants de signal de la thermoregulaton, c,'est-a-dire des stimulants qui changent la production et la depense de chaleur par suite de la formation des reflexes conditionnels. Si on agit sur Forga- nisme par un courant d'air (le vent) d'tme fawn telle que co vent no provoque qu'une excitation tactile de la surface du corps sans augmenter la depense de chaleur (en elevant scion un calcul cor- 68 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 respondant la temperature du milieu exterieur), on pout observer tine augmentation du metabolism?, nonobstant quo Pinten.site de la pert? de chaleur n'ait pas change dans les conditions de cette experience. La stimulation tactile d'une grande surface de la peau par un courant d'air apparait id i comme un stimulant con- ditionnel des processus de thermoregulation, car, dans les condi- tions habituelles, cc sent justement les recepteurs de la peau qui sont constamment stimuli& par le vent qui provoque en memo temps un refroidissement considerable. Ii faut Ogalement y noter que les reflexes conditionnels formes de cette facon se distinguent par leur grande stabilite et no son.t quo difficilement extinctibles. Cori explique aussi -le moranismo de Faction stimulant? du vent sur le metabolism? chez les animaux et chez l'homme. Prenon.s un autre groupe de faits. Nous avons etudie le meta- bolism? gazeux chez les moutons qui se tenaient tranquillement debout dans lour enclos, et, dans des conditions moteorologiques exactement pareilles, lorsqu'lls se .trouvaient aux champs. Le metabolism.? gazeux dans les conditions d'espace libre se trouvait toujours plus Cleve. On pouvait observer cos phenomenes dans les conditions d.e milieu les plus variees, pendant la rumination on sans elle, a differents moments do la journee. Ainsi, pour cos animaux pour lesquels Fespace libre est le signal dune acti- vit6 musculaire intense (116e avant tout aver rallmentation aux. champs) les signaux de l' ?espace libre? conduisont aun.e inten- sification des processus d'oxydation. En continuant l'etude de re problem? (travaux de Slonim et de s( s collaborateurs), on a vu quo la distance et l'espare qui. s'etend autour de Forganisme peuvent devenir stimulants conditionnels pour la march? des differents processus physiologiquesTet representent un cote important do l'action du milieu extorieur sur l'organisme. 11 nous semble qu'ici on voit s'ouvrir des horizons pour etudier aussi le milieu d'exisiettre de l'homme dans les conditions de travail et de repos, Cost-?ire .des voles nouvelles pour de nom- breuses recherches hygioniques. Mai.s, ?rovenons a nos moutons?, comme disent nos arais francuis.Nous avons demontre quo chez les moutons acclimates dans les montagnes do l'Asie Centrale a l'altitude de 2.000- 4_000 m6tres la dopense de Fonergio est de 20%-30% plus basso quo chez les moutons qui vivent dans les plaines, a une altitude de 600-1.000 metres. Cott? ?acolimatation metabolique? s'ins- talle tres lentement; chez les races do plain.es elle no survient qu'apres que plusieu.rs generations de moutons aient vecti dans - les conditions d'un climat de haute montagne. 'Vials re qui est remarquable, c'est quo chez les agneaux, memo appartonant aux races de montagne, pendant les premieres semaines de la 69 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 vie, ii try a pas de difference de nivean du metabolism? par rap- port h co qu'on voit chez les agneaux qui vivent a de petites altitudes. II faut done conelt ire quo Facclimatation est d etermi- nee par des influences exercees par recorce cerebrale sur le metabolism() tissulaire (ii est possible qu'un des liens obligatoires dans la production de cos changements soil represent:6 par les impulsions corticales des cbangemonts d'activite de la gland? thyroide). Arretons-nous quelque pen sur la signification do ces faits. us moarem. quo la fouolion la plus generale do tout organism? -- le metabolism? so trouve sous une influence permanent? do l'Ocorco corehrale. Cate influence qui se prod.uit, a, la suite de la formation des liaisons temporaires determine le niveau du metabolisme en rapport, avec tout, rensomblo des stimulations qui vie-a-new a l'organisme aussi hien du cote, des extero- quo dos interorecepteurs. Dans ces experiences, so fait setair avec tout? evidence l'imporlance du stereotype dynamique des sLimulatioiw dont nous avons deja pane. J'y ajouterai mainte- nant quo le stereotype dynamique est Imo combinaison et suc- cession determinees el selon un ordre deli ni des hats d'excitation et d'inhibition qui se prodasent dans &ore? sous rinfluence des stimulai ions exterieures ot interieures dans one situation. qui so repot? tonjonrs de la memo fagot!. Tonto rood ion do l 'organism? animal on humai 11, par eXeMple, alimentai re, defensive, cellos qui assurent l'homeostase (on parti- culler la thermoregniation) Si elle se repote constamment Goin proud obligatoirement los reflexes conditionnels naturels pour les stimulations qui font pantie du stereotype de facteurs dont ii ntervontion est neCessaire pour hi production de cat? reaction. Ea observant la production de differents axles reflexes dans los conditions .naturelles, nous avons essaye d'analyser la signi- fication des reflexes conditionnels et, non condition:11?1s qui sont compris dans ces aelos, 61,ant a l'etat normal toujours fusionnes ensemble. En faisant cod:, a l'encontre de l'opinion largement repanduo que los effets des reflexes conditionnels sont toujours plus foibles quo los elle' s du reflexe non couditionnel, nous avons regulierement observe dans nombre de cas on phenomene inverse: Faction des impulsions corticaux qui apiwraissent, sous Faction dos stir-nu-lams conditionuels est, souvent considerablement plus forte quo Fella d'une action relativement isolee du stimulant non conditionnol. Bien plus, reffet d'un stimulant conditionnel pout i;ondaire suppression complete de l'effet qui aurait, pu avoirlieu sur in stimuli:antilop oiiditionnel agissant simultanement Si cc d.ornior igissait out soul. Je vais l'illustrer par deux exem- pies quo je choisis expres.pormi les formes snpori cures de l'activite Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 reflex? condi tionnelle ? les reflexes conditionnels de l'homme aux signaux du deuxieme system? da sigitalisation, soit les signaux verb aux Chez l'h.omme on accompagn.c l'action de la sonnerie par Papplication a la peau d'un tube serpentin contenant de Peau chauffoe a 43? ( ?stimulation thermique?) (Rogov). En memo temps, on fait enregistrer un pletismogramme qui montre qua la dila- tation des vaisseaux a li eit aussi biall pendant l'action de la sonnerie quo pendant l'action de la chaleu.r (apres 20-50 combinaisons de Faction de la sonnerie avec application da la chaleur). Quand le reflex? conditionnel a la sonnerie est forme, il suffit de dire an sujet: ?jc sonne?, pour qu'il y alt une reaction vasculaire exactement pareille a cello qu'on a lors d'une stimulation ther- mique; id i la parole agit comma agent du deuxi? sys- t eme de sign.alisation. Ayant constate cool et ayant demontre au proalable quo l'application a la peau d'un tube serpentin contenant de l'eau chauff Co non pas a 43?, mais a 65? provoque par soi-meme non pas une reaction ?thermique? mais, dans une certaine mesure, ?don- 1611re-use?, caracterisee non pas par une dilatation, mais par une constriction des vaisseaux, nous donnons l'ordre verbal: ?j'appli- qua la chaleur?. Si nous agissous ensuite lion pas par un excitant thermique, mais par un excitant douloureux faible (temperature (35?), on volt qua l'effet habitual du reflexe conditionnel (id i pour un signal verbal) y est entieremeni, conserve bien qu'il s'y agisse d'u.ne stimulation reelle non pas thermique mais douloureuse. Les vaisseaux, malgre l'action d'un agent qui provoque une sensation desagr Cable (temperature 65?) se dilatant et le sujet affix- me apres q-u'il a oprouve une sensation de chaleur c,orrespondant an signal verbal et non pas au ?stimulant douloureux? qui a agi en realite. La sensation, ici , est entierement determinee par la reaction cortical? ? (furmee) a l'agent du deuxieme system? de si gnali salon *. Un autre example: on a OLudie sur l'homme le reflex? de mixtion qui survienl, en reponse a l'introduction, au moyen d'un catheter, de l'eau tiede (a 37?) dans la vessie (observation de Nirapetiantz et ses collaborateurs). Les changements de pression dans la vessie * On comprend evidemment, qu'ici la rupture entre un renforcement reel de ragout do deuxieme system? de signalisation (stimulation verbale) et la signification habi Lucile de cot agent n est possible quo parce quo jusque- Loujours on presque Loujours, le mot ?chaleuN, d'une fawn on dune autre, directement ou indirectement, so combinait avec nue excitation thee- mique reelle. Le denxiorne systeme de stimulation est 110 avec le premier; en parlant schernatiquement, ()ate liaison est a pen pros la 1118010 quo cellos qui existent entre lout reflex() conditionnel du premier syst erne de signalisation et le reflex? non condi lion.nel sur loqiiel il est forme. 71 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 etaient e registres graphiquement. En memo temps, devant re sujet, se I rouvait un manometre dont l'aiguille montrait le chiffre de pression creee dans la vessie; ce manometre pouvait etre separe de la cavite vosicale. Ordinal roment, le besoin d'uriner surgi ssait oujours qi land la pression vesi cal? atteignai t une valour del inie. Cel Le valour de la pression le sujel, la voit sur le manometre. Apres quelques combinaisons de ce genre, on a vu qu'un bosom violent d'uriner survenait dela quand on pronongait seule- ment (par le microphone pose dans la piece on se trouvait le sujet) le chiffre des indications du manometre qui, habituellement, correspond:lit a la valour de la pression qui determinait le besoin d'uritter et la contraction des parois vesicales. Cc besoin d'uriner (et le changement de reflexe cutaneo-galvanique correspondant), sous l'influence du signal verbal, pouvait survenir memo quand 11 n'y avail pratiquement pas de liquide dans la vessie. Par contre, Si la pression au manometre se trouvait a zero et les signaux corticaux de distension de la vessie formes dans des conditions donnees el aient absents, on pouvait introduire dans la vessie one quantite de liquid? beaucoup plus grande quo cello qui, ltabituellement, determinait la mixtion sans qu'il y ait lo besoin d'uriner. Les nom breux faits pareils a ceux-ci nous ont convaincu quo la notion meme des reflexes conditionnels devait etre elargie. Dans les cqnditions lhabituelles, tout reflexe non conditionnel se couvre, pour ainsi dire, de reflexes conditionnels de complexite yariee qui sont enfiles sur lui. On pout supposer qu'aux phases precoces de la formation ontogonetiq tie de tout reflexe des impulsions qui parviennent Fecorce provenant des recepteurs des organes qui effectuent un reflexe lane quelconque provoquent dans cette ecorce l'appa- rition des foyers d'excitation qui no sant pas encore unis par des liaisons temporaires. Cependant, tres rapidement, probablement des les prenliers accomplissements de l'ac te reflexe donne, l'impul- sion venant des recepteurs qui existent dans les effecteurs corres- pondants sc transform? justement on un signal de ce reflexe donne. Alors ce dernier s'effectue d? sous l'influence des implusions corticales qui se forment a la suite d'une incorporation obligatoire des reflexes conditionnels naturels dans tout reflexe non condition- nel. Ainsi In reponse cortical? a la stimulation des interorecep- teurs varies se fait inclure obligatoirement dans tout acte reflexe. II s'y ajoute, bien entendu, l'effet de la stimulation des exterore- cepteurs quolconques qui coincide dans le temps avec l'accomplis- sement de I 'acte reflexe donne. Les faits que nous avons exposes ici d'une facon breve et incomplete et qui no representent qu'une petite partie du materiel 72 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 clue nous avons accumule nous arnenent a toute une serie de con- clusions dans lesquelles nous cberchons a nous inspirer de l'esprit et du fond des idees do notre maitre incomparable ? I. P. Pavlov. Nous voyons que la theorie des reflexes conclitionnels n'est ni complement, ni une superstructure, ni un developpement de la theorie du reflex? telle qu'elle a ete developpee, en partant de Descartes, par Prohaska, M. Gall, J. Muller, Freisberg, Philipp- son, Sherrington, Magnus. L'explication du mecanisme, des proprietes et de la signification des reflexes conditionnels conduit inevitablement a une nouvelle conception du reflexe. Dans cette nouvelle conception, les faits qui se rapportent a Factivite reflexe des animaux spinaux, decorebres et des animaux integres mais narcotises, exclus des relations normales avec le monde exterieur, doivent prendre une place a peu pres pareille a cello quo les donnees recueillies par les astrologues sur les mondes celestes ont pris dans l'astronomie moderne. Les reflexes tels qu'ils se produisent chez les animaux dont les grands hemispheres sant enleves n 'existent pas dans un organisme normal. Les impulsions qui arrivent aux neurons efferents et qui se transmettent lors do tout auto reflex? aux effecteurs par la vole terminale commune tie rout pas une somme algebrique des impul- sions qui naissent dans les neurons spinaux, bulbaires, mesencepha- liques, diencephaliques et corlicaux,? c'est un total de l'acti- vite d'un ensemble fonctionnellement unique Men qu'il comprenne des substrats morphologiques varies. Chaque groupe de cellules qui entre dans un ensemble unique lie du centre reflex? integre acquiert, en entrant dans cc centre unique, des proprietes nouvelles qui tie peuvent pas etre decelees par des experiences sur animaux spinaux, decerobres, thalamiques. L' ecorce cerebral? comprend, scion tine expression de Pavlov, les cellules les plus reactives du systeme nerveux et, pour cette raison avant tout, elle conditionne par son activito les propriotes des formations centrales situees plus bas. Comme l'Ocrivait Pavlov, ?plus l'orga- nisation de l'Ocorce est elevee, plus elle devient gerant et repar- titeur de toutes les fonctions de l'organisme?. C'ost cc' qui est illustre par les exemples cites plus haut et portant stir les autos reflexes de thermoregulation, de mixtion, de regulation reflex? du niveau du inCtabolisme;il existe de nom- breux examples du memo genre pour la regulation reflex? de la production de l'urine, de la teneur en sucre sanguin, de Faction specifique dynamique des aliments, de in regulation de la respi- ration et de la circulation sanguine pendant lo travail, l'anoxie, etc. Fleur cotte raison, nous avons propose de designer coname autos r 6 fl e xes co mpli qu es tons les actes reflexes 6 H, M. ELII1013 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 normaux qui resultent d'une fusion des reflexes conditionnelg' et non conditionnels reunis. 11 faut souligner que les actes reflexes compliques ne se limi- tent jamais a l'activite d'un soul organ? quelconque. Les expres- sions ?reflexe de salivation, ?reflexe de flechissement?, ?reflex? de mixtionA, etc.,ne sont que des designations pratiquement commo- des du caractere reflexe du processus sur lequel nous fixons notre attention. Or, en realite, une salivation reflexe prise eomme exemple nest qu'un composant d'un acte alimentaire reflexe. complique et integral qui comprend aussi la secretion du sue gastrique, la deglutition, la mastication, la modification de la circulation sanguine des organes du tractus gastro-intestinal avec un changement correspondent du travail du cceur et du tonus des vaisseaux, etc. Quel quo soit le reflexe conditionnel que nous etudions, nous y trouvons partout le meme mecanisme pavlovien de formation de liaison temporaire. En rneme temps nous y observons une variete exl raordinaire des agents qui se transforment, grace a la formation des liaisons temporaires (reflexes conditionnels) en agents qui participent aux differents actes reflexes compliques. REFLEXES CONDITIONNELS INTA'ROCEPTIFS ' On a pu demontrer qu'en stimulant los recepteurs interieurs on ponvait egalement former des reflexes conditionnels (Bykov, Mrapetiantz). Les reflexes conditionnels interoceptifs ainsi forth& ont eii general les memos proprietes que les reflexes condi- tiorinels exteroceptifs. Nos collaborateurs Mrapetiantz, Rick! et d'autres ont elabore la differenciation des deux stimulants appliques aux recepteurs do l'intestin et d'autres organes. On pout actuellement reconnoitre en toute raison que Ia signalisation interoceptive dans l' ecorce cerebrate est assure? par la presence des recepteurs dans les organes internes. Par analogie avec les analyseurs externes on pout les appeler analyseurs internes. Leur partie peripherique est, bien entondu, differente de la partie peripherique des extero- recepteurs. Co ne sont pas les organes des cinq sons que nous connaissons depuis longtemps. Subjectivement on pent no pas s'apereevoir de ce qui se passe au cours normal des processus dans Fintesti et dans d'autres organes, mais leur influence reflexe objective et lour participation a Factivite nerveuso est. decelee. Dens une satire c?bre de Voltaire un habitant de Saturne demand? h. no voyageur de Sirius: ?Combien avez-vous de sens?,) 74 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 ?'72, repond celui-ci, mais chaque lois nous regrettons d'en avoir si peu?. Nous pouvons nous demander: combien dc Sens possedo l'homme? Avons-nous seulement la vue, l'ouie, l'odorat, le toucher et le gout? En dehors de cela nous avons beaucoup d'autres sons obscurs?. Et us ont une influence sur nous, leurs impulsions parviennent jusqu'a l'ecorce corebrale. Done, on pent les appeler ogalement ?sons*, mais ce sont des sons speciaux, particuliers. Ainsi, Pecorce corebrale recoit non seulement les signaux du monde exterieur, mais egalement des signaux du gmenage in- terieur? de Porganisme. Et co qui est signal() par les interore- cepteurs est loin d'?e indifferent pour l'activite de l'ecorce cer Obrale. Lors ile la collision des deux informations provenant des analyseurs externes et internes, on voit se produire dans Pecorce cerebrale des interrelations tres complexes. Parmi les impulsions, les .unes peuvent renforcer les autres, et, inversement, les unes peuvent inhiber les stares et memo les opprimer completement. Le sort de chaque reaction est determine par la confrontation dans l'ecorce cerobrale des deux informations,? provenant des alialy- sours externes et internes. Actuellement, nos collaborateurs et d'autres physiologistes ont demontre quo la musculature squelettique, dite volontaire, est egalement hoe dans son activite non seulement avec les si- gnaux exteroceptifs, mais aussi interoceptifs. Cela vent dike que les signaux qui vont des interorecepteurs non seulement exereent facon reflexe une influence sur le cote ?vegetatif? de la vie, ma's font irruption dans le commandement de la musculature squelettique, c'est-a-dire dans le ate ?aninaal? de la vie (MerIcOu- lova), AFFERENTATION ET TROPHIQUE DU SYSTEME NERVEUX Nos recherches sont des exemples d'une analyse physiologique du travail de l'ecorce corebrale portant sur l'influence des impul- sions qui proviennent du ?monde interieur? de Porganisme animal. Les impulsions nerveuses provenant des recepteurs des organes internes sont toujours polyvalentes. Notro eminent histologiste, Lavrentiev, a decrit, dans un travail publio apres sa mort, un appareil recepteur dans l'intestin qui se compose de trois parties: une fibre solitaire afferente donne trois ramifications ? l'une vers le vaisseau sanguin, l'autre vers la cellule nerveuse peripherique, la troisieme vers le groupe de fibres musculaires lisses. Il est legitime de supposer'qu'll existe 75 6* Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 dans le system? nerveux central et surtout dans l' ecorce cerebrale des traits analogues de liaisons entre les cellules nerveuses et l'appareil qui les approvisionne dans le sens le plus large de cc mot. Si pour les cellules nerveuses de l' ecorce cerebrale on n'a pas encore Otabli la presence des recepteurs specialises, en tout cas un grand nombre de neurones, en reagissant aux impulsions qui leur parviennent, fonctionnent comme des formations receptri- ces, comme les bouts centraux des analyseurs. L'examen electrophysiologique des potentiels des impulsions afferentes venant de l'estomac et de l'intestin montre quo ces impulsions dependent de l' ?t fonctionnel de l'appareil digestif. Les plus grandes amplitudes et frequences des impulsions all ? routes s'observent pendant la period? de Factivite digestive de l'appareil gastro-intestinal. On a etabli la presence des impul- sions afferentes liees aussi hien avec les processus circulatoires quo moteurs et secretoires qui se passent dans l'estomac et l'intes- tin. L'apparition de l'impulsion afferente a certains stades de l'etat de jean permet de supposer quo cette impulsion pout prendre part a la formation de cc qu'on appelle la sensation de faim. 11 est important de noter quo l'influence de rimpulsion afferente venant de l'appareil gastro-intestinal (lors de sa stimulation mecanique on electrique) pout etre tracee jusqu'a l'ecorce are- brale et trouve son expression dans des changements determines de reneephalogramme (Delov et autres). Ainsi les impulsions qui traduisent les etats de plusieurs for- mations fonctionnelles qui composent un Systeme integral par- -viennent au cerveau. La partie afferente de l'arc reflexe n'est Pas. seulement un simple conducteur servant un soul groupe d'elements recepteurs dans un organ? ou un tissu queleonque, mais desservant tout un systeme reeepteur complexe. La concep- tion mecaniste de l'are reflex? qui reunit la partie peripherique de l'analyseur avec le centre nerveux comme un fil dans un cir- cuit electrique dolt etre radicalement modifiee. Les impulsions qui ont un caractere polyvalent arrivent au centre et reunissent non seulemen,t les cellules nerveuses ou les groupes de cellules, mais egalement les formations nerveuses qui sent liees avec les chan- gements de circulation sanguine et le metabolisme du tissu nerveux. L'idee navlovionne de la trophique nervous? doit en toute justice etre appliquee aussi au tissu nerveux. Etant donne que tut arc ref lexe a UTIO architecture composee, la trophique nerveuse doit etre consideree comme un processus reflexe complexe qui sentient non seulement le travail specifique mais ogalement le metabolisnie. ,Grace a la complexite de la structure de la partie peripherique de l'analyeur et le caractere combine des impulsions 76 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 qui se dirigent vers le system? nerveux central, rexcitation an centre apparait successivement dans un group? entier de neurones'. En meme temps on voit se prodaire une activation du transport des substances alimentaires et do roxygene an tissu nerveux. Ainsi on inclut dans la notion du centre non seulement une configuration on espace complexe, mais egalement, a titre temporaire, les differents points qui composent ce (centre? pour l'accomplissement d'une fonction L'etude de la dynamique chimique des cellules nerveuseS de Pecorce en ?t d'activite, fait? dans notre Institut par Vla- dimirov et a Kiev par Palladino, a montre quo cerlains composantS du metabolisme complex? du tissu nerveux peuvent servir de bons indicateurs de l'etat fonctionnel du cerveau. Les recherches de Vladimirov et de ses collaborateurs ont montre que l'etat d'excitation du cerveau provoque aussi Men par les stimulants non conditionnels quo conditionnels, conduit a one intensification du metabolisme des glucides, a une augmen- tation de vitesse de renouvellement de certains composes phospho- r& et a une augmentation du taux d'ammoniaque. Une inhibition diffuse de 1' ec or c e des grands hemispheres conduit a un abais- sement du taux d'ammoniaque dans le Lissa cerebral par suite de sa fixation par l'aci?de gluLamique avec formation de glu- tamine. Ainsi nous avons assez de raisons de croire quo lois de Fac- complissement de tout act? moteur ou secretoire il so produit des changements egalement reflexes dans tout l'appareil de neurones qui assurent les changements de rapprovisionnement Sanguin et la fournituro du materiel alimentaire et do Foxygene aux cel- lules nerveuses. Par consequent, les actes reflexes qui assurent,en fin de compte, le metabolisme de Porganisme, se produisent eux-mernes par une alimentation assuree et constant?, egalement reflexe, des appareils nerveux centraux. Nous envisageons une etude ulterie-ure de co problem? comme une partie importante de developpement des idees sur les me- canismes intimes de production et de propagation des processus d'excitation et d'inhibition dans le nombre incalculable des unites nerveuses de l'Ocorce. Avant la creation do la theorie de Pavlov sur Pactivite ner- vous? supOrieure los reflexes furent consider& seulement comme des changements de fonctions physiologiques se:pare& provoques chaque lois par un stimulant special, toujours le memo, 11 no pouvait mem? pas y etre question d'une vrale comprehen- sion de cette unification par le systeme nerveux de tontes les fonctions do l'organisme qui n'etaient designees quo d'une facon abstraite comme activite integrant? du system? nerveux. Soule 77 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 la theorie des reflexes conditionnels permet de comprendre le mecanisme do reunion des differentes fonctions physiologiques en des actes reflexes extremement complexes qui determinent aussi Men le comportement de l'organisme dans le milieu exterieur quo Vaal vito de tous les organes internes indissolublement liee avec le comportement de l'organisme. Pavlov dans les dernieres annees de son travail ecrivait: ?Ainsi, les grands hemispheres, a notre avis, se composent d'un ensemble d 'analyseurs: oculaire, auriculaire, cutane, nasal et oral. L'e,xatnen de cos analyseurs nous a amen& a la conclusion que lour nombre dolt etre augmente, qu'en plus des analyseurs ci-dessus &flamer& qui se rapportent aux phenomenes exterieurs, an monde exterieur, ii faut encore reconnaitre l'existence dans les grands hemispheres des analyseurs speciaux dont le but est d'ana- lyser tenorme ensemble de phenomenes qui se passent dans l'organisme n'est, pas douteux que pour l'organisme non settlement, une analyse du monde ext orieur est importante, ii lui, faut egalement une signalisation en haut et une analyse de co qui se passe en lui-mente. En un mot, en plus des analyseurs externes en um 'eres ii doit exister des analyseurs !internes?. QUELQUES REMARQUES SUR LE MECANISME REFLEXE On ne saurait accepter l'affirmation de certains savants americains que Pavlov n'etudiait que le moment initial et le moment terminal des reactions reflexes. Le systeme scientifique, (Tee par Pavlov, so distinguo justement de la ?psychologie objective? ou de la ?psychologie du behaviourism.e? en ceci sur line base physiologique solide en expliquant le mecanisme ,de la dynamique des processus nerveux fondamen- taux ? excitation et inhibition ? et lours rapports reciproves. A. ce propos U. faut faire remarquer que Pavlov n'avait pas cree les notions. d" ?excitation? et d' ?inhibition?, mais los a empruntees a la physiologic du systeme nerveux on elles ont ete etablies avant lui., Ii en est de memo en cc qui concerne la notion ?ind-uc- tion?. Pavlov a su le premier voir comment ces processus dans les segments superieurs du systeme nerveux central assurent les nouvelles differences qualitatives entre des reflexes corticaux et .des reflexes des autres niveaux de cc systeme. Pavlov n'avait pas besoin d'abandonner la voie scientifique biologique, rigoureusement objective, eprouvee par la science physiologique, pour l'etude des phenomenes aussi complexes de la nature que les processus psychiques. La conception (ou, comme ils le disent eux-mOmes, ?aspect psychologique?) repandue chez 75 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 tions vasculaires chez les malades atteints de syringomyelie so distinguent par lour caractare automatique, lour intensite insi- gnifiante et par l'inertie de lour evolution. Quant aux reactions. vasculaires chez les malades atteints d'hemiplegie, elles out une intensite beaucoup plus grand?, Odes sont moms sterootypiques, et lours manifestations sont ties variees. 11 est evident quo l'inclusion des centres nerveux situes un niveau plus eleve du system? nerveux central dans la reaction reflex?, comme cola s'observe chez les hemiplegiques, conduit un perfectionnement ulterieur des reactions vasculaires. Le caractere des reactions vasculaires est determine par la difference de niveau de leny innervation, ce qui explique la dif- ference de cos reactions chez les hemiplegiques et chez les mala- des atteints de syringomyelie. DEUXIEME SYSTEME DE SIGNALISATION DE L'HOMME Pavlov, on se basant sur ses recherches cliniques, a donne sous une forme claire mais breve la notion nouvelle du deuxieme system? de signalisation specifique do l'activite nerveuse supe- rieure de l'homme ?Pour l'animal, la realite est signalee pros- quo exclusivement par des stimulations et par lours traces dans. les grands hemispheres, irritations venant directement dans les. cellules speciales des recepteurs visuels, auditifs et autres de l'organisme. C'est ce que, nous aussi, nous avons en nous en taut quo sensations, impressions et representations du milieu exte- rieur qui nous entoure, celui de la nature en general comme celui du milieu social, excepte la parole audible et visible. C'est le premier system? de signalisation qui nous est commun avec les aniraaux. Mais la parole a constitue le deuxieme, specialement Bare, systeme de signalisation de la realite, etant signal des premiers signaux? (Pavlov). L'action direct? des differents objets et phenomenes du monde qui nous entoure par l'intermediaire de la stimulation des recep- tours sur ecorce cerebral? est toujours un signal concret de la realite. Or, lo langage, scion Pavlov, ?represente specialement avant tout des stimulations kinesthesiques allant l'ecorce des organes du langage, ce sont des signaux secondaires, us represen- tent une abstraction de la realite et admettent une generalisa- tion, cc qui est une facon de penser suplementaire, specialement humaine et superieure?. Le deuxieme system? de signalisation comprend toutes les designations verbales des objets, ce systeme de signaux est percu par notre ecorce cerebral? grace aux impul- sions nerveuses qui naissent lors de la stimulation de recepteur pendant le langage prononce, audible et visible, c'est-a-dim 80 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 plusieurs savants occidentaux, y compris les savants americains, penetree de survivances ideologiques de dualisme, conduit a toutes sortes do ?supplements? a la theorie physiologique de Pavlov. Ces ?supplements? ont quelquefois un caractere mani- festement subjectif psychologique. Chez certains savants la net- tet ?ethodologique caracteristique de 1' Ocole pavlovienne manque dans les experiences, cc qui les conduit souvent a de faux ?dementis? ou a des tendances a combler respace entre la theorie de Pavlov et les idees de Sherrington et d'autres savants qui tombent dans le mysticisme ou memo le fideisme. L'etude de la neurodynamique des processus corticaux a ote falto par Pavlov et par FOS eleves et adeptes toujours du point de vue de la th(iorie evolutionniste. La fecondite et la necessite de cc point do vue etaient evidents, car, sans aspect historique, on no pout pas comprendre la transformation de l'energie d'une stimulation exterieure on un fait de conscience. La solution du probleme de la sensation en tant que processus psychique le plus 61ementaire qui reflete les proprietes du monde objectif existant on dehors de nous et independamment de notre conscience n'est possible que dans l'aspect historique. Quant a la mentalite humaine, II faut y tenir compte des qualites nouvellos qui se lorment chez les hommes dans leurs rapports avec to milieu social. La physiologic des organes des sons, depuis J. Muller, envisa- geait le problem? des sensations Inetaphysiquement, sans tenir compte du processus d'evolution, et en ignorant toute la longue voie phylognetique d'adaptation de l'animal au milieu exterieur sous l'influence duquel se formaient les fonctions des organes des sens. Solon Pavlov, on no pout pas etudier les processus de la formation des fonctions on tenant compte seulement de la partie peripherique (coil, oreillo, etc.), mais ii y est indispensable d'y avoir en vue la participation a cc processus de la partie central? de l'analyseur les cellules de l' ecorce cerebrale. Les recherches de notre collaborateur Rogov ont montre que seulement dans in ?t assez eleve d'excitabilite de l' ecorce eerebrale les reactions vasculaires atteignent une grande inten- site et une haute mobilite. Dans tous les cas de production de processus d'inhibition interieure dans l' ecorce des grands hemis- pheres il se produit un changement de proprietes aussi Men des reactions vasculaires conditionnelles que non conditionnelles. Ces reactions prennent un caractere stereotypique, deviennent inertes et quantitativement negligeables. Nous avons decouvert des reactions vasculaires sembla- lilement faibles lors de l'examen des malades atteints de syringomyelie et d'homiplegle. Ii a ete demontre que les reac- 79 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 dans les recepteurs des organes du langage (musculature do la ?langue, des levres, des joucs, du palais mou et du larynx), les recepteurs auditifs et les recepteurs visuels (pendant la lecture). Le processus de formation des signaux des stimulations reelles A l'aide des mots difforents se fait scion les mecanismes de for- mation des reflexes conditionnels. Ceci a Ote oxactement etabli par les observations sur la formation du 'engage chez les enfants qui commencent a parlor. C'est pour cola quo Pavlov disait que la parole pour Phomme est in stimulant conditionnel aussi reel quo tons les autres. Mais 11 y ajoutait quo la parole en taut quo stimulant conditionnel est en memo temps tenement vast? quo, sous cc rapport aucun autre stimulant chez les animaux no pent aller en aucune comparaison avec elle ni an point do vie qualita- tif ni au point de vue quantitatif. Les differences entre l'activite du premier et cello du deuxie- me systeme de signalisation apparaissent, par exemple, d'apres les observations sur les enfants de 8 a 10 ans, chez lesquels un bruit do sonnette se combinait plusieurs fois avec une legere sti- mulation electrique des doigts. Apr.& cette seri? de combinaisons in brusque mouvement de doigt est provoque non seulement par un bruit reel de sonnette, mais memo par la prononciation du mot ?sonnette ? qui auparavant n'etait jamais associee avec l'action d'un stimulant electrique, ou bienlorsqu'on montre Pins- cription ?sonnette?. En memo temps, si on montre des inscrip- tions avec d'autres mots ou si on prononce d'autres paroles, ceci no provoque pas la memo reaction quo cello qui survient lorsqu'on prononce le mot ?sonnette?. Grace a la formation d'une liaison cortical? qui a eu lieu jadis entre tine stimulation verbal? et un phenomene concret quo cette stimulation refletait (le cas echeant ? in son determine, celui de sonnette), la stimulation verbale est devenue signal d'un evenement concret dans le monde exterieur. En memo temps on y voit cette ?abstraction de la realite? dont avait parle Pav- lov en definissant le deuxieme systeme de signalisation. La sti- mulation -verbal? provoquait la memo reaction quo cello qui otait provoquee par me stimulation reelle, absente, par la son- nette. ?La parole, disalL Pavlov, grace a toute la vie anterieure de Flaomme adulte, est nee avec toutes les stimulations interieures et exterieures qui parviennent aux grands hemispheres, elle les signal? toutes, elle les remplace et, pour cette raison, pout pro- voquer toutes les actions, les reactions de l'organisme qui sent provoquees par cos stimulations)). L'abstraction de la roalite caracteristique du deuxieme sys- tem? de signalisation est obtenue grace a cc quo l'image verbal? 81 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 des objets et des act es remplace lour action directe sur l'organisme. Cette abstraction des stimulations verbales partant des agents concrets est obtenue d'une facon particulierement nett? grace a cc quo le deuxieme systeme de signalisation admet la formation de chains extrhnement compliquees faites de corabinaisons d'un stimulant verbal avec un autre, ogalement verbal, et eta- ges les tins sur les autres. Un nombre considerable de designations verbales chez l'hom- me adulte est obtenu non pas grace a une combinaison de stimu- lants verbaux avec tine action directe sur nous d'objets concrets du monde exterieur, Dials grace a leur combinaison avec les si- gnauxverbaux d'acti on des objets concrets, signaux anterieurement formes. Ces chaines peuvent etre tres complexes et comprendre in tres grand nombre de chainons dont chacun se compose d'une combinaisoo des signaux verbaux entre eux. Cependant, le chai- non initial a pour sa base une combinaison d'une stimulation verbale avec Faction sur nous des agents concrets du monde ex- terieur agissant sur le premier systeme do signalisation. L'activi te du deuxi eine sys1 eme de signalisation est soumise aux memos rapports reciproques fondamentaux que Pavlov avait etablis pour le premier system? de signalisation et qu'il consi- derait comme caracteristiques de toute la theorie des reflexes. line liaison intim? et indissoluble entre la fonction et la structure, c'est-a-dire le principe de la structuralite, est, sans nul doute, ap- plicable au fonctionnement dii deuxieme system? de signalisation, bion quo In conception de l'existence dans Fecorce cerebrale de l'horame des ?centres? speciaux des fonctions intellectuelles sup erieures comnae nous avons d? dit soit erronee. Dans Factivite du deuxieme system? de signalisation on voit se manif ester avec une tres grande nettete la realisation de l'ana- lyse et de la synthese. La synthese des differents mots en des phrases entieres caracteristiques de notre langage conduit a un relict exact des objets et des phenomenes du monde exterieur dans le font tionnement du deuxierae systeme de signalisation. Enfin, le principe pavlovien de determinisme qui caracterise toute la theerie des reflexes, a eu, on pent le dire, son point cul- minant dans la conception du deuxieme system? de signalisation qui constitue le premier pas vers 1' etude naturalistique scienti- fique des aspects superieurs de l'activite cerebral?, aspects lies avec les pheuomenes de conscience. Ce problem immense depasse de beaucoup le cadre de la science physiologique. 11 concerne egalement toute une serie d'autres sciences: psychologie, philologie, pedagogic, neuropa- thologie, psychiatric et, enf in, philosophic. 82 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 PHYSIOLOGIE ET MEDECINE Jo ne puis, no sorait-ce quo brievement, no pas m'arreter sur la signification pour la pathologic du materiel quo nous avons exa- mine ici, J'ai d? indique l'importance du stereotype determine des stimulations dans la production de tout acte reflex? complique qu'elles provoquent. Plus los formes d'action reciproque entre Forganisme et le milieu qui l'entoure sont compliquoes, et plus, en consequence, est compliquee et differenciee l'ecorce cerebral?, plus souvent ii so produit un changement complet ou partici d'agents qui s'incorporent dans tel ou tel stereotype de stimula- tions. Pavlov avait etabli quo cc remplacement d'un stereotype par un autre est souvent une Cache difficile pour le system? nor- veux. Il pout en resulter non seulement un ehangement du cours de l'acte reflexe qui, apres le ehangement des conditions do son accomplissement, se fait au debut- en dehors du stereotype des agents pour lesquels out ete formes les reflexes eonditionnels naturels qui corrigent, renforcent et accelerent cot acte et l'unis- sent a d'autres processus reflexes. Comme consequence d'un trouble du stereotype on volt souvent aussi un trouble de 1' &mi.- libre normal entre le processus d'excitation et de celui d'inhi- bition dans l'ecorce cerebral?. Ceci conduit a un trouble plus ou ,moms important dans Paccomplissement des actes reflexes memos dont le stereotype d'accomplissement n'a pas ?ete direc- tement modifie. Nous avons observe quo chez les chiens l'administration d'un produit aussi inhabituel pour OUX quo le mid (bien quo devore avec avidite) conduit a des troubles durables et tres prononces de la secretion du sue' gastriquo. Des arriere-actions exeeptionnellement marquees out ete observees chez les chats dans les troubles il est vrai tres considerables du stereotype d'un acte reflex? cornplique, colui de recherche do la nourriture. L'ex- perience etait pratiquee d'une facon toile qu'on faisait passer par la tete du chat, au moment on il saisissait UTIO souris, un courant electrique faibIe qui no provoquait pas de reactions visibles de la part do l'animal. Co trouble unique mais brusque du stereotype d'un acte reflex? alimentaire complique ?condui- sait a des troubles pathologiques profonds de l'activite cardia- quo; les modifications do l' electrocardiogramme y rappelaient les modifications qui survenaient dans les affections graves du cur et no disparaissaient quo tres lentement, en plusieurs so- maines. Dans cos recherches qui demontrent la naissanco des proces- sus pathologiques a la suite d'un trouble de ractivite normale 83 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 de l' ocorce cerebrale nous voyons des faits qui out d? attire' l'attention de Pavlov lui-meme (recherches de son collaborateur Petrova). Le procede designe comme ?collision? des processus d'excitation et d'inhibition qui provoque des changements carac- teristiques de Pactivite nerveuse superieure dependant du type du systeme nerveux est celui qui permet de creer experimentale- ment des modeles pour ainsi dire de processus pathologiques varies, par exemple, celui de la maladie hypertonique, de l'ulcere gastro-duodenal, etc. Ces experiences permettent de penser quo les actions inten- tionnelles sur le fonctionnement de Fecorce cerebrale peuvent avoir une gralide importance pour le traitement de toute une serie d'affections. A cet egard, dans notre pays, on a d? obtenu des resultats importants (par exemple, dans l'application de cc qu'on appelle le traitement par le sommeil, ou la therapie medicamenteuse speciale de certaines forrnes de maladies). Les conclusions sur le r'Ole des changements de Factivite normale de Pecorce cerebrale dans la production de plusieurs processus pathologiques (ici, rant rappeler les recherches du laboratoire de Speranslcy) reposees sur la theorie de reflexes con- ditionnels, different par leur principe memo de la fagon dont sont trait& ces problemes par la soi-disante ?medecine psycho- somatique?. Dans notre conception des liaisons cortico-viscoraleS nous partons de l'idee que l'activite de l' ecorce cerebrale, l'acti- vite nerveuse superieure, est determinee par les influences exte- rieures et interieures eprouvees par l'organisme humain dans ses relations extramement compliquees avec le milieu qui Fen- toure et, surtout, avec le milieu social. En disant ceci, nous soulignons cc fait qu'un trouble de l'activite corticale normale pout provoquer des changements pathologiques ??a peripherie? par suite d'un trouble de la marche normale des regulations cortico-viscerales. Une action raisonnee sur les processus pathologiques done se faire en tenant c,ompte de la necessite de retablissernent, des fonctions normales des segments superieurs du cerveau. Or ?la medecine psychosomatique? penetree de conceptions dualis- tes et idealistes de Freud considere les troubles pathologiques comme dependant des proprietes innees de l'homme. Elle inter- prete les syndromes pathologiques tantot comme resultat des complexes ?anaux?, ?erotiques?, tantOt cherche a etendre les lois de la thilrmodynamique sur l'explication des formes les plus compliquees de lactivite humaine, tantot opere avec la notion de la ?force vitale?, par cola memo en fermant la vole vers une comprehension reelle du m.etanisnae de production des processus pathologiques. 84 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Bien entendu, je no puis pas eclairer id i on detail toutes les realisations et toutes los perspectives der application do la theo- rie physiologique de Pavlov en clinique. CONCLUSION La theorie de Pavlov sur Factivite nerveuse superieure basee sur la methode des reflexes conditionnels qu'il a imagine? re- prosente une epoque nouvelle dans l'histoire des sciences naturel- los, et memo dans cello des sciences humanitaires. A traverS toute l'histoire de la science nous voyons des tenta- Lives do comprendre l'activite psychique du point de vue des lois communes a toute la nature, lois qui relient le monde reel au monde ideal. On no pout pas oublier que la raison s'est dove- loppee en rapport avec les conditions exterieures determinees. to monisme de Pavlov par rapport aux deux formes de la nature une et indivisible a ete formule par lui comme suit: ?L'homme est, bien entendu, un system?, comme tout autre system? dans la nature, soumis aux lois inevitables et communes pour toute la nature: mais c'est un systeme, a l'horizon de notre vue, unique par son auto-regulation superieure?. Pavlov a fait entrer dans le cercle de ses observations et recher- dies experimentales Forganisme animal et humain ?indis- solublement integral?. Pour los physiologistes et psychologues de la periode d'avant Pavlov, le reflex? est un mocanisme tout pret en partant duquel on dolt pouvoir expliquer l'action courant? de Porganisrne. Or, Pavlov a pose un autre probleme, a savoir: comment s'accomplit un acte reflex? aussi hien sous sa forme simple et primitive quo sous forme de reflexes extremement complexes du deuxieme system? de signalisation de l'homme, reflexes qui assurent la base materielle de la pensee exprimee par le langage et par l' ocriture. Pavlov s'est love au-dessus des principes de la pensee cartesienne dominant les sciences naturel- les, il a pass? la method? historique dans cos sciences, se rap- prochant des conceptions du materialism? dialecaque. En traitant les manifestations les plus complexes do l'acti- vite cerobrale de l'homme, les pensees, les sentiments, les pas- sions comme les manifestations de l'acaviLe de l'organisme hu- main, Pavlov a su saisir, dans toute la multiplicite du compor- Lemont humain, des traits generaux. Il a compris en memo temps les manifestations les plus complexes des processus psychiques de l'homme comme une organisation parfait? Hee reciproque- ment avec le milieu exterieur et la societe humaine. Tout on restant physiologiste lors de l'eLude de l'activite nerveuse sup ? 85 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 rieure, Pavlov ne se servait pas du terme de ?reflexologie? pour designer le fond de sa theorie basee sur des notions nouvelles des processus reflexes. En examinant l'activite reflexe du segment superieur dit. systeme nerveux central, Pavlov n'employait pas, les termes artificiels et n 'ayant pas de sens concret, comme par exemple, cella de ?contre-conditionnement? (phenomenes inver- ses a la formation des reflexes conditionnels), ?oubli?, ?distrac- tion?, ?principe d'expectation?, etc. La theoric de l'activite nerveuse suporieure se sert de tout, l'arsenal de methodes actuelles raffinees d'electrophysiologie et de biochimie, mais elle considere qu'en faisant des analogies entre Factivite cerebrale et le servo-mecanisme et la theorie de liaison de retour on serait revenu an materialisme du XVIII si?e qui conduisait a une representation mecaniste grossiere tous ceux qui faisaiont des tentatives aussi malheureuses quo' cellos que fail la kibernetique. Le radar et les armes automati- ques qui sow des exemples de servo-mecanismes ne nous feront pas decouvrir les lois de l'activite de la creation supreme de la nature ? ecorce cerebrale -- et no pourront pas expliquer les lois de pensee et de conduite humaines. Pavlov sui vait des voies nouvelles, ii partait du principe evolutionniste en biologie et a revele les bases materielles con- cretes de l'activite psychique. Les recherches dans un domaine aussi complex? quo l'etude de l'activite nerveuse superieure ne peuvent naturellement pas etre considerecs comme terminees. Pavlov lui-meme ecrivait a la fin de son traite c?bre: 'dei, la montagne do l'inconnu evidemment restcra pendant longtemps infiniment plus grando quo les fragments de ce qu'on a pu mi arracher, connaitre.? II n'est pas facile de creer en principe et en methode une science nouvelle sur l'activite d'un organe que la pensee humaine a fade de son etude ii y a vingt-trois siecles. Jo no douto pas quo, en suivant la voie tracee par I. P. Pav- lov, nous tous en comrnun avec des investigate-ars puissants et pleins de talent qui se sont consacres dans tous les pays du monde l'etude de cos problemes nous pourrons penotrer les lois de la pensee, de la conduit? et de l'enseignement. Et ce sera un hien, supreme de la connaissance de soi-meme. Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4 50X1-HUM Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/12/07: CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4