INTELLIGENCE HANDBOOK FOR SPCIAL OPERATIONS SOMALI REPUBLIC

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 143
• Document Creation Date: December 20, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 21, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: July 1, 1966
• Content Type: CH

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~LI-IG~
h r.
INTELLIGENCE ;HANDBOOK.
FOR
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
SOMALI REPUBLIC
DIRECTORATE OF INTELLIGENCE
GROUP 1
Excluded from automatic
downgrading and
declassification
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This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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SOMALI REPUBLIC
LOCATION AND COMPARATIVE AREAS
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INTELLIGENCE HANDBOOK
FOR
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
SOMALI REPUBLIC
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CONTENTS PAGE
Foreword. .......................................... ix
1. Introduction .................................. 1
II. Historical Background 3
A. Chronology ................................
B. History ...................................
Reading List ..................................
III. Physical Geography
A. General ...................................
B. Terrain ...................................
1. Northern Somalia ......................
2. Southern Somalia ......................
9
11
11
12
C. Climate ..... .... 16
D. Drainage and, Water Resources .............. 19
1. Tugs ..................................
2. Rivers ................................
3. Dams and Reservoirs ...................
4. Wells and Boreholes ...................
5. Catchment Basins.........., .........
6. Springs ... .......................
7. Swamps and Marshes ....................
19
19
21
21
21
24
24
E. Vegetation ...., . ? . .....,. ....... 24
F. Factors Affecting Land, Air, and Sea
Operations ................................ 25
Reading List .................................. 29
IV. Population .................................... 31
A. General ................................... 31
B. Somalis ................................... 33
1. Social Organization ................... 33
a. Lineage System,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 33
b. Social Classes .................... 43
c. Leadership... 43
2. Pastoral Clan Families ................ 43
a. Settlement ...................... 47
b. Camel Husbandry ................... 50
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c. Cattle Husbandry .................. 50
d.. Sheep, Goats, and Other
Livestock.... .................. 52
e. Seasonal Migration ................ 52
f. Diet .............................. 53
3. Agricultural Clan Families ............ 54
a. Settlement ................... 54
b. Cultivation Practices ............. 54
c. Seasonal Grazing .................. 56
d.. Diet .............................. 56
C. Other Groups .............................. 56
1. Negroes ............................... 56
a. Cultivators and Hunters ........... 56
b. Outcasts .......................... 59
2. Coastal Peoples ....................... 59
3. Foreigners ............................ 60
D. Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft ........... 60
E. Education and Language .................... 63
1. Education ............................. 63
2. Language .............................. 64
F. Health Conditions and Medical Facilities.. 65
G. Attitudes and Loyalties ................... 66
H. Paramilitary Potential .................... 67
Reading List .................................. 68
A. General ................ . ........ 69
B. Major Domestic Problems and. Policies ...... 70
C. Structure of the Government ............... 71
D. Political Dynamics ........................ 73
E. Political Parties ......................... 75
F. Foreign Policy ............................ 77
G. Subversion ................................ 80
Reading List .................................. 83
VI. Economy ....................................... 85
A. General ................................... 85
B. Natural Resources ......................... 86
m
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C. Agriculture and Fisheries ................. 86
D. Livestock Raising ... ................... 87
E. Industry and Electric Power ............... 87
F. Employment and Labor .................... 87
G. Budget, Money, and Banking ................ 88
H. Foreign Trade and Aid ..................... 89
Reading List .................................. 90
VII. Transportation ................................ 91
A. General ................................... 91
B. Roads ..................................... 91
1. Road Network .......................... 91
a. Paved Roads ....................... 91
b. Gravel Roads ........ ......... ... 93
c. Natural-Surface Roads and. Tracks.. 93
d. Trails ............................ 95
e. Traffic ........................... 95
2. Road Structures ....................... 95
3. Operational Factors ................... 97
C. Air Transport ............................. 99
D. Water Transport ........................... 101
1. Ocean Shipping ........................ 101
2. Ports... .. ......................... 102
a. Mogadiscio ........................ 102
b. Berbera ........................... 105
C. Chisimaio ......................... 105
d. Other Ports ....................... 105
3. Inland. Waterways ...................... 106
Reading List .................................. 107
VIII. Telecommunications ............................ 109
A. General ..... ........ ... ............. 109
B. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities
and Services .............................. 109
1. Domestic .............................. 109
2. International ......................... 109
C. Broadcasting .............................. 109
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D. Specialized Communications Networks....... 110
1. Army .................................. 110
2. Police ............................ 110
3. Aeronautical .......................... 110
4. Maritime .............................. 110
5. Other ................................. 110
E. Prime Telecommunications Targets .......... 110
Reading List .................................. 115
IX. Military and Internal Security Forces ......... 117
A. General ................................... 117
B. Army ...................................... 118
C. Police .................................... 119
D. Air Force ................................. 119
E. Navy ...................................... 120
Reading List .................................. 121
X. Survival Factors .............................. 123
A. General. 123
B. Water and.People .......................... 123
C. Food .. ................................. 124
D. Natural Dangers ........................... 125
E. Medical Factors ........................... 125
F. Diseases of Importance in the Somali
Republic .................................. 127
Reading List .................................. 130
Appendix -- Recommended Maps ...................... 131
Maps Following
Page
53020: Airfields .106
53019: Telecommunications ........................ 114
53018: Terrain and. Transportation,
Population and. Administrative
Divisions,
Economic Activities,
Peoples ................................... 132
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Photographs
(Abbreviated Titles) PAGE
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
F igure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
Figure 29.
Figure 30.
Figure 31.
Figure 32.
Figure 33.
Figure 34.
Figure 35.
Figure 36.
Figure 37,
Figure 38.
Figure 39.
Figure 40.
Figure 41.
Figure 42.
Figure 43.
Figure 44.
Figure 45.
Mudflat on northern coastal plain .......... 10
Slopes of Northern Mountains ............... 10
View northward from Sheikh Pass ............ 13
Eastern edge of Sol Plateau ................ 13
Edge of Haud Plateau ....................... 14
Coastal plain north of Mogadiscio .......... 14
Scebeli-Giuba Plateau ...................... 15
Dry tug near Bur Acaba ...15
Eastern side of Scebeli Valley ............. 17
Bur near Bur Acaba ......................... 17
crest bordering Giuba River ............... 20
Dam on Lach Dera ........................... 22
Well on Mudugh Plain ....................... 22
Windmill near Brava ........................ 23
Ogaden Plateau .. .................. 23
Durra on Scebeli-Giuba Plateau ............ 26
Terrain near Chisimaio ..................... 26
Somali police .............................. 34
Rahanwein Somalis .......................... 35
Rahanwein Somali ............................ 36
Somali tribesman ........................... 37
Somali youth ............................... 38
Gosha women ................................ 39
Gosha children ............................. 40
Muslim holy man, ..........., 44
Rahanwein elder... ...................... 45
Sultan of pastoral clan .................... 46
Burden camel., ......... . 48
Collapsible and permanent huts ............. 49
Temporary huts of nomads ................... 49
Grazing camels ........................ 51
Cattle on road near Chisimaio .............. 51
Temporary huts of nomads ................... 55
Pit for storing durra ...................... 57
Modern silos at Afgoi ...................... 57
Muslim festival at Merca ................... 61
Paved road near Merca ...................... 92
Narrow road in Sheikh Pass ................. 92
Sandy track near north coast ............... 94
Flooded road near Ainabo ................... 94
Bridge across Giuba River .................. 96
Ferry crossing Giuba River ................. 96
Airfield at Hargeisa South ................. 100
Ocean-going dhow ........................... 100
Mogadiscio port facilities ................. 103
uE PR
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Figure
46.
Dhows in Chisimaio harbor ...............
104
Figure
47.
Ship in roadstead at Merca ..............
104
Figure
48.
Airport radio station., Mogadiscio .......
111
Figure
49.
Telegraph office, Mogadiscio............
113
Figure
50.
Open wirelines near Mogadiscio..........
113
Figure
51.
Radio Somali, Hargeisa ..................
114
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This Handbook, prepared by area and topical specialists,
is concerned specifically with those elements of the Somali
environment which must be considered in planning counter-
insurgency, civic action, and allied activities. The emphasis
throughout is on information needed for such special operations;
it is not an all-inclusive basic intelligence document. The
NIS General Survey, Somali Republic, July 1966 and other NIS
chapters may be referred to for additional background informa-
tion.
The Handbook is not geared to support any specific operation
or any particular type of special operation. Rather, it
emphasizes operational essentials to which current details
must be added immediately prior to any operation.
The cutoff date for material contained in this Handbook
is 31 May 1966.
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The material contained in this chapter is
essentially a condensation of material to be
found in the NIS General Survey, Somali Republic,
July 1966.
The Somali Republic, located in the remote, largely barren
Horn of Africa, is a fairly stable but still underdeveloped
nation. The territory, which as the Somali Republic won inde-
pendence in 1960, was formed by the union of the former British
and Italian Somalilands. It gave little promise of early success
as a national entity. Somali politicians, however, have com-
bined a native political acumen with traditional egalitarian
and democratic ways to balance internal divisive factors.
The homogeneity of the inhabitants, who share the same language,
the same Muslim religion, and a strong sense of ethnic identity
contributes to the sense of national unity.
Somalia's outward homogeneity is one of its strengths but
is also one of its major ills. The fact that not all Somalis
were united under one flag at independence is Somalia's single
greatest problem today. The goal of the unification of all
Somalis dominates the country's foreign policy, and pursuit of
it provokes hostilities with Somalia's neighbors, diverts the
resources and energies of its leaders, and slows the economic
and social development of the country.
Somalia is one of the poorest of African countries, and
receives much foreign assistance. Between 1960 and 1965 Somalia
received over US $200 million in loans and grants from non-
Communist and Communist countries. The Soviet Union plays the
lead role among the Communist nations represented in Somalia
and has offered substantial economic and defense assistance.
Somali claims to a "Greater Somalia" that would include
the Somali-inhabited territory in Ethiopia, French Somaliland,
and Kenya, and the strong presence of the Soviet Union in
Somalia through its economic and military aid programs are
factors which tend to keep the Horn of Africa a tense and
troubled area. Further, the limited impact modern ways have
made on Somali life makes the development of Somalia
more difficult. The modern Western type of government, with
its hierarchy of political authority, is basically alien to the
traditional Somali way of life that emphasizes egalitarianism
and individualism. A solution to the problem of transferring
primary, traditional allegiances and loyalties from the clan
to the nation is indispensable to future growth and develop-
ment.
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II. Historical Background
A. Chronology
This chronology is essentially the chron-
ology to be found in the NIS General Survey,
Somali Republic, July 1966.
1827 - Britain signs treaties with the Somalis to acquire
1840 unrestricted harbouring facilities for ships of the
East India Company.
1884 - The British occupy the northern Somali ports of Zeila,
1887 Berbera, and Bulhar and conclude a series of treaties
with various Somali tribes guaranteeing British pro-
tection.
1884, Britain, France, Italy, and Ethiopia define the inland
1894, boundaries of the British Protectorate.
1897
1889 The Sultan of Zanzibar places his domains along the
Indian Ocean coast of Somalia under the protection
of Italy.
1927 Italians complete their occupation.
1940 British Somaliland is invaded and occupied by Italian
forces from Ethiopia.
1941 British recapture British Somaliland and occupy
Italian Somaliland.
1947 Italy renounces all rights and title to Italian
Somaliland.
1949 The United Nations General Assembly agrees to permit
Italy to administer former Italian Somaliland as a
UN Trust Territory and prepare it for independence
in ten years.
1956 The first elected Legislative Assembly is established
in the UN Trust Territory of Somalia.
1957 The first Legislative Council is established in
British Somaliland.
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1960 On 1 July, British Somaliland and the Italian admin-
istered UN Trust Territory unite and become independ-
ent as the Somali Republic.
1961 In June the Somali constitution approved in a nation-
wide referendum. Aden Abdulla Osman elected first
president of the Somali Republic by the National
Assembly in July.
Somalia signs $52 million economic aid agreement
with the Soviet Union.
An attempted military coup d'etat by junior army
officers is crushed in Hargeisa in December.
1963 In March the Somali Government breaks diplomatic
relations with the UK over the UK's refusal to
recognized Somali claims to Kenya's Somali-inhabited
Northeastern Province.
During the summer of 1963, insurgent Somali tribes-
men in the eastern quarter of Ethiopia stage the most
serious uprising against Ethiopia since World War II.
On 10 October the Somali Council of Ministers rejects
an offer of military aid from the US, Italy, and West
Germany and approves a US $35 million arms program
with the Soviet Union.
1964 Continued Somali guerrilla activity in Ethiopia leads
to clashes in February between regular Somali and
Ethiopian troops.
The Somali Youth League continues to dominate Somali
politics by winning the national elections in March.
Abdirazak Hagi Hussen is appointed prime minister by
President Aden but fails to get a vote of confidence
from parliament. He heads a caretaker government
until finally approved by parliament in September.
1965 President Aden visits Communist China in July.
B. History
The Somali Republic became a political entity in
July 1960 when the British Protectorate of Somaliland was
united with the UN Trust Territory of Somalia under Italian
administration (formerly Italian Somaliland). The original
inhabitants of the Somali Republic were members of various
nomadic Hamitic groups, who mingled, particularly in the
coastal regions, with Arab migrants from the Arabian peninsula.
In the 7th century A.D. an Arab Sultanate was founded at the
northern coastal town of Zeila. During the 16th century the
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Portuguese landed in the Somali territories to carry out
trading activities. They ruled some of the towns on the coast
but were driven out in the 17th century. Later, the Sultan of
Zanzibar came to control most of the region. As a result of
their extensive historic contacts with the Arabs, the Somalis
are Muslims.
Extensive European contacts with the Horn of Africa began
in the late 19th century, when the opening of the Suez Canal
focused attention upon the area's strategic importance, and
various European powers began to seek trade and otherwise
establish themselves in the Horn. By the end of the century
the Horn had been partitioned among Britain, France, Italy,
and Ethiopia. Britain and Italy were established as the two
dominant powers in the region that now comprises the Somali
Republic.
British interest stemmed largely from the desire of the
East India Company for a place to harbor their vessels without
restriction. For this purpose, treaties were concluded with
the Sultan of Tadjoura as early as 1840. The'Egyptians also
claimed jurisdiction over the northern Somali coast, and it
was not until 1884, when Egyptian garrisons were withdrawn from
the area, that the British initiated treaties with other Somali
chiefs guaranteeing British protection. The boundary between
Ethiopia and British Somaliland was established by treaty in
1897, an arrangement that was deeply resented by the Somalis
since it cut across traditional Somali grazing grounds. This
situation remains an irritant to this day.
British interest in their Somali Protectorate was purely
strategic. The Protectorate was viewed as an area to be con-
trolled in order to safeguard the Suez Canal and other British
Middle East interests. As a result, the British Government
made no attempt to colonize their Somali territory, and under-
took only minimal economic and social changes. Consequently,
the traditional life of the Protectorate's nomadic population
was relatively undistrubed. Such development projects as
were started by the British were not introduced until the
1950's, when the territory began to experience a slow political
awakening.
In 1885 Italy obtained commercial rights in the Horn from
the Sultan of Zanzibar. In 1889 the Sultans of Obbia and the
Miguirtinian Somalis concluded agreements placing their ter-
ritories under Italy's protection. In the same year the
Italians extended their protection to parts of what is now
Benadir Region -- mainly around the towns of Uarsciech,
Mogadiscio, Merca and Brava -- then held by the Sultan of
Zanzibar.
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Italian influence predominated along the coast of the Horn
of Africa from the Gulf of Aden in the north to Chisimaio
in the south.
A year after an Italian occupation of the coast in 1891,
the Sultan of Zanzibar and the British Government on the one
hand, and Italy on the other, concluded an agreement whereby
the Somali port cities, with a hinterland having a radius of
from 6 to 10 miles from the coast, were leased to Italy for
fifty years. In 1905, by agreement with the British, Italy
purchased the coast from Uarsciech to Brava. Administration
was assumed directly by the Italian Government, which gave the
territory colonial status. From then on, the Italians grad-
ually extended their control inland, completing their occupa-
tion in 1927. In 1924 the town and port of Chisimaio, which
was then part of Kenya, was ceded to Italy by the British.
Italian control lasted until World War II. Two months
after the Italian declaration of war on Britain in June 1940,
Italian forces occupied British Somaliland. British forces
began operations against the Italians shortly thereafter,
and by February 1941 the greater part of Italian Somaliland
was under British control. British administration of the
ex-Italian colony lasted from 1941 to 1950.
Unlike the British, the Italians viewed their Somali
colony as a territory to be settled and developed. Italian
colonization and economic activity produced some social change
among the indigenous population. The local Somalis were more
exposed to Western ways than the inhabitants of British Somali-
land. Resentment of Italian rule was a contributing factor
to the awakening of Somali nationalism and to the earlier
development of political movements in Italian Somaliland after
World War II.
In the Peace Treaty of 1947 Italy renounced all claim
to Italian Somaliland, and in September 1948 the major powers
referred the question of its disposition to the General Assembly
of the United Nations. On 21 November 1949 the General Assembly
recommended that Italian Somaliland be placed under the Inter-
national Trusteeship system for a period of ten years with
Italy as the administering authority, after which the territory
was to become independent.
During the 1950's British Somaliland was also making
progress toward self-government. Elections were held in
February 1960, and one of the first acts of the newly elected
Somaliland legislature was to request the UK for independence
so that it could unite with the Trust Territory when the latter
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became independent. The UK agreed and the Protectorate became
independent on June 26, 1960. Four days later, on 1 July 1960,
the two areas joined to form the Somali Republic.
Many observers doubted that the new Somali Republic
could survive the numerous problems it faced. A paucity of
natural resources, a population lacking in education and
technical skills, perennial deficits in the budget, inexpe-
rience with a modern governmental system, and an unresolved
boundary dispute with its traditional enemy Ethiopia all
contributed to an image of instability. Antagonisms, rivalry,
and jealousy arose between the two parts of the country,
stemming from their different colonial pasts. After five
years of independence most of these problems still await
solution, although some progress has been made. The government
has remained generally stable, and the country has been success-
ful in securing foreign financial, military, and technical
assistance with Italy, the United States, and the Soviet Union
as the most important contributors. The five-year period has
also been marked by Somalia's poor external relations with its
immediate neighbors Kenya and Ethiopia over Somali efforts to
unite Somali inhabitants of the two countries with the Somali
Republic. Clashes between Somali and Ethiopian forces along
their common border have taken place, and the Somali Govern-
ment continues to encourage subversion among Kenyan and
Ethiopian Somalis.
-7-
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1. CIA. "Somalia Bibliography", BIB 64-29 (Mimeographed),
6 May 1964. U.
2. Jardine, D., The Mad Mullah of Somaliland., London:
N. Jenkins, Ltd., U.
3. Lewis, I. M., The Modern History of Somaliland, New York:
Frederick A. Praeger, 1963. U.
4. "The Somali Conquest of the Horn of Africa,"
Journal of African History, 1960, pp 213-30. U.
5. Oliver, Roland A. and Gervase Mathew, eds., History of
East Africa, Vol I, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963. U.
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z+ m
III. Physical Geography
Somalia, the easternmost country of the Horn of Africa,
occupies an area of 246,000 square miles, about the size of
Texas. It has a long (1,800 mile) coastline bounded by the
Gulf of Aden on the north and the Indian Ocean on the east.
On the west Somalia has a common frontier with French Somali-
land., Ethiopia, and. Kenya.
The landscape of Somalia is remarkably uniform. Broad,
rolling plains covered with grass and thornbush extend almost
continuously from one end of the country to the other. The
barren, rocky Northern Mountains present the only rugged,
terrain. The plains are covered, by a maze of shallow stream-
beds, which usually are dry except during infrequent rainstorms.
Only the Giuba River and part of the Scebeli River flow per-
ennially, and most of the country's cultivated, land, is con-
centrated. along the banks of these rivers and in the area between
them (referred, to in this chapter as the interriver area).
Throughout this part of Somalia, permanent settlements are
numerous and many nomadic herdsmen encamp during the dry
periods when water and forage are not available elsewhere.
In the rest of Somalia, where widely separated wells, springs,
and waterholes provide the only permanent sources of water, the
population is sparse and. largely nomadic; permanent settlements
are few and, widely scattered.
The climate of Somalia is hot and dry most of the year.
Generally two short rainy periods are separated, by long
droughts. During the rainy seasons the plains are lush and
green, and. wild game is abundant. Roads become quagmires,
and streams may be choked with floodwaters. In these periods
the nomadic Somalis with their large herds of camels, goats,
sheep, or cattle (chiefly in the south) are found in the most
remote areas. The drought seasons are periods of inactivity.
Vegetation becomes dormant, grasses dry up, and thornbush loses
its foliage. All seasonal streams and. most waterholes and
wells dry out. Wild animals migrate to wetter areas outside
the country or to the few widely scattered permanent sources
of water within the country. The Somali nomads with their
herds retreat to the two large rivers or the widely scattered.
wells elsewhere in the country.
The main physical factors affecting operations in Somalia
are the general lack of water throughout much of the year, the
high temperatures, and the scanty vegetation that offers only
poor concealment.
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Figure 1. Barren mudflat backed by a line of low
sand dunes on coastal plain 31 miles southeast of
Zeila (10?59'N 43?38'E). Occasional stretches of
sand dunes and lack of water preclude easy move-
ment in this part of Somalia.
Figure 2. Steep slopes of Northern Mountains tower-
ing over Gulf of Aden west of Candala (11?28'N
49 4l'E).
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Because of the general uniformity of the Somali landscape,
the delineation of regions on a map gives an erroneous impression.
Even the concept of a boundary as a broad, transitional zone does
not fit the true nature of the country. The terrain of Northern
Somalia and Southern Somalia is discussed. separately, however,
because more of the land. is in steep slope north of about 8?N
than in the area to the south.
1. Northern Somalia
The terrain north of Eil is characterized by a narrow,
discontinuous coastal plain separated from vast interior plains
by high, rugged. mountains and sheer escarpments. From the border
of French Somaliland, eastward. to Berbera most of the coastal
plain is relatively wide, extending inland. nearly 40 miles at
Zeila. This section, known as the Guban, consists of alternating
stretches of sand., gravel, and. mud,flat (see Figure 1), often
backed by low sand, dunes. From Berbera eastward to Cape Guard.-
afui (Ras Aser), isolated. patches of coastal plain alternate with
much longer stretches of hills and, mountains that extend, to the
sea (see Figure 2). From Cape Guardafui southward, to Eil the
coastal plain averages 10 to 15 miles in width and, is essentially
a strip of shifting sand dunes, salt flats, and, occasional gravel
plains. Coral reefs 2 to 10 miles offshore parallel much of
the northern coastline.
Steep, rocky slopes and, vertical cliffs mark the high,
north-facing escarpment formed. by the Northern Mountains (see
Figure 3). This mountainous zone is relatively broken and subdued.
west of Hargeisa but presents a nearly continuous barrier from
Hargeisa eastward. to Cape Guardafui. Crests along the escarp-
ment range from 5,500 feet near Hargeisa to 7,900 feet at Shimber
Berris. The only major gaps in the escarpment are Asseh Gap
(2,500 feet), Carin Gap (1,000 feet), and. El Gal Saddle (1,000
feet). The southern, less rugged, slopes of the mountains merge
gradually with the high plains of the interior.
Vast flat to rolling plains dotted. with numerous
termite mounds (some 20 feet high) extend from the base of the
Northern Mountains southward and southeastward across the
Altopiano del Sol (Sol Plateau), the Nogal Valley, and, the
Haud, (Haud. Plateau) to the Ogaden (Ogaden Plateau) in Ethiopia
and the high escarpments overlooking the Indian Ocean. Surfaces
of the Sol Plateau and, the Haud, as well as the Nogal Valley are
sandy, with occasional stretches of gravel. The Sol Plateau is
flanked on the north by the Vallata del Daror (Daror Valley) --
actually a broad plain, about 50 miles wide in the west narrowing
-11-
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to about 10 miles near the coast, ending in a series of escarp-
ments that descend to the narrow coastal plain -- and on the
east the plateau reaches to within a few miles of the Indian
Ocean. Its northern and eastern edges are delineated by lime-
stone hills and, escarpments (some 150 feet high) incised by
numerous deep, narrow tugs, or seasonally dry stream courses
(see Figure 4). The Noga Valley is a broad, depression that
is ill defined except near its mouth, where occasional steep
escarpments mark the valley sides (see Figure 5). The Haud
Plateau extends southward. into Ethiopia and, merges on the east
with the Nogal Valley.
2. Southern Somalia
The terrain south of the latitude of Eil consists
of a broad, flat to undulating coastal plain, which rises and,
merges with a higher rolling surface that extends into Ethiopia.
The coastal plain, which rises to approximately 650
feet on its interior margin, extends inland less than 15 miles
at Eil but widens to some 150 miles in the south. In southern
Somalia the coastal plain is neither well defined nor uniformly
flat but instead includes the Mudugh (Mudugh Plain), which
extends from Eil to the Scebeli River; the Scebeli - Giuba
Lowlands, between the Scebeli and. Giuba Rivers; and the Trans-
Giuba Plain in the southwest. The surfaces of these areas are
nearly featureless (see Figure 6); for the most part they are
sandy, but on the Trans-Giuba Plain heavy clay soils are also
common. A few steep, short slopes border the shallow tugs that
cross the coastal plain at wide, irregular intervals.
A zone of sand dunes, sandy hills, and. low cliffs
extends along the coast. This zone varies in width from 1 to
18 miles, and, the hills vary in height from 200 to more than
500 feet. Narrow, steep, sandy beaches fringe the coast for
many miles. As in northern Somalia, coral reefs 2 to 10 miles
offshore parallel the entire coastline. Southwest of Chisimaio
these reefs emerge and form the low, sandy Isole Giuba (Bajun
Islands).
A series of plateaus extends along the interior margin
of the coastal plain. It includes the part of the Haud Plateau
that is east of 48?E; the Ogaden Plateau, most of which lies in
Ethiopia; the Scebeli - Giuba Plateau; and, the Trans-Giuba Plateau.
The surfaces of these plateaus resemble high plains, generally
flat to undulating (see Figure 7), and consist mainly of alter-
nating stretches of clayey, stony, and. most often sandy soils.
Occasional stretches along some of the tugs, however, have steep
banks 5 to 10 feet high (see Figure 8), anct the valleys of the
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Figure 3. View northward from summit of high escarp-
ment at Sheikh Pass (09?58'N 45?13'E). The low,
rolling coastal plain south of Berbera extends
across the background.
Figure 4. lugged eastern edge of Sol Plateau
(10 30'N 49 40'E). Most of the sparse vegetation
grows along the tugs.
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Figure 5. Low, rocky escarpments marking no6th-
eastern edge of the Hauid Plateau (08?17'N 49 18'E).
The southern edge of the Nogal Valley lies at the
base of these slopes.
Figure 6. Coastal plain 12 miles north of Mogadiscio.
Concealment is generally poor here but cross-country
movement by foot and vehicle is fairly easy.
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Figure 7. Flat, scrub-covered plain near southern
edge of Scebeli - Giuba Plateau (03000'N 43?45'E).
Figure 8.Ford acdross dry tug northeast of Bur
Acaba (02050'N 44 07'E). During the rainy seasons
this crossing may be closed by floodwaters for
several hours or days.
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Scebeli and Giuba Rivers are marked by low hills and occasional
steep escarpments (see Figure 9). For the most part, these
plateaus merge imperceptibly with the coastal plain; but in
the interriver area, a zone of burs, or isolated granite hills
(see Figure 10), marks the d.iviUing line.
Most of Somalia is hot to very hot throughout the year.
Seasonal variations are relatively slight -- generally less
than 10 Fahrenheit degrees -- especially in the south. Average
daily high temperatures usually exceed. 93?F and in some areas
exceed 100?F. Sea breezes modify temperatures somewhat along
the Indian Ocean, where temperatures are near 90?F during the
day and near 75 F at night. Only in the Guban is there a marked,
contrast in temperature from the warmest to the coldest month.
Here daily high temperatures average nearly 105?F in July but
are in the mid.-80's by January.
Most of Somalia is also dry, except during two short rainy
seasons that are associated with the shifting of the monsoon
winds. Precipitation is unreliable, especially in the drier
sections of the country. Many places have experienced, total
drought for 2 or 3 years and then in one storm received more
than the annual average. An almost continuous zone of very
low rainfall (less than 10 inches a year) extends southward
and, southwestward from the Gulf of Aden to the Scebeli River.
Annual rainfall at the following places is representative of
this section: Burao, 8 inches; El Bur, 4 inches; Berbera,
2 inches; Eil, 2 inches; and. Alula, 1 inch. Interruptions
in this zone of low rainfall occur in the highest parts
(above 4,000 feet) of the northern plateaus and mountains:
Upper Sheikh, 22 inches; and Hargeisa, 15 inches. The area
west of the Scebeli River receives the highest rainfall,
generally between 15 and 20 inches annually. Mogad.iscio,
for example, has 17 inches, and Lugh Ganana has 14 inches.
The seasonal pattern of rainfall in Somalia is closely
related, to the monsoon winds, which blow from northeast
in December through March and from southwest in June through
September. The shifting of the monsoons results in four
distinct seasons.
Jilal (December through March)
Jilal is the period in which winds blow from the
nor east (Northeast Monsoon). This is southern
Somalia's main dry season, when temperatures are
high, rainfall minimal, and visibility is generally
unlimited, by cloud cover. In northern Somalia
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Figure 9. Low, steep escarpment marking eastern side
of Scebeli Valley. This blacktop road, just east of
Belet Uen, is one of the better stretches of the high-
way connecting Mogadiscio with Ferfer (04?45'N 45?12'E).
Figure 10. Bur (isolated granite hill) a short distance
northwest of Bur Acaba (approximately 02?47'N 44? 05'E).
Burs are the only major surface irregularities on the
otherwise continuous expanse of rolling plains that
dominates most of southern Somalia.
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this season is dry and, windy but not as hot as in
the south. Occasional rainstorms occur along the
northern coast during Jilal.
Gu (April through May)
Gu is the transitional period when the prevailing
winds shift from northeast to southwest. For
nearly all of Somalia except the northern coastal
fringe, this is the main rainy season. Short,
heavy showers and. thunderstorms are characteristic.
Temperatures rise rapidly in the north and, remain
very hot in the south.
Haga (June through September)
During Haga the Southwest Monsoon prevails. The
wind, iss?rong, often reaching gale force in many
areas. In southern Somalia temperatures fall a
few degrees, and the skys are quite cloudy. In
northern Somalia Haga is the hottest season.
Humidity is especially high, and. "sticky" con-
ditions prevail along the coast. Occasional
heavy showers occur, but this is generally the
dry period along the coast. The windward (south-
facing) slopes of the high mountain range receive
their maximum precipitation in this season. The
higher slopes are often enshrouded in clouds. Much
of the plateau area south of the mountains is hot,
dry, and windy, and blowing dust and. haze are common.
Along the Gulf of Aden a local wind phenomenon called
the Kharif occurs during the Southwest Monsoon. The
Khar an offshore night wind, that usually attains
its maximum velocity at dawn and. dies out during the
day. It is a hot, dry, sand-and-dust-blowing wind..
Night temperatures of 100?F often accompany the Kharif.
Dhair (October through November)
Dhair is the transitional period when the prevailing
southwest winds shift to the northeast. This is the
second rainy season for much of Somalia. In the south
temperatures rise and. cloud cover decreases. In the
north maximum temperatures fall rapidly.
Local winds along the coasts commonly blow offshore at
night and. onshore during the afternoon throughout the year.
The onset of either land. or sea breezes may be violent and
squally.
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D. Drainage and Water Resources
The broad rolling plains of Somalia are drained by many
tugs (called, bohols or luggas in the south) and the Scebeli
an, Giuba Rivers. Away from these two rivers, sources of
water for human and, livestock consumption are meager and,
widely scattered.
1. Tugs
Most tugs are shallow and narrow and. have sandy,
rocky bottoms. In the Northern Mountains and, along the eastern
edge of the Sol Plateau, however, they are mainly deep, rocky
gorges. Tugs are relatively numerous and, close together in
the Northern Mountains, in the Daror and Nogal Valleys, and
on the Scebeli - Giuba Plateau and. Lowland, but they are few
and widely spaced throughout the rest of the country.
Tugs are dry for much of the year (see Figure 8),
as they generally flow only during rainstorms and, a few hours
or days thereafter. Flow usually commences with a flash flood,
when in a matter of minutes the dry tug is transformed, into
a raging torrent. Some tugs in the Northern Mountains have
flooded. to a depth exceeding 15 feet. The water often over-
flows tug banks and forms ponds and, lakes in nearby depressions,
where =t ay remain long after the tug has dried out. Frequently
after a tug has dried out on the surface, water can be obtained,
by digging a few feet into the gravel or sand bottom.
The Scebeli and Giuba Rivers have their sources in
the highlands of Ethiopia to the north. The part of the Scebeli
above Mahaddei Uen and all of the Giuba (see Figure 11) flow
perennially. Fluctuations in streamflow reflect the seasonal
pattern of rainfall at the sources of the rivers. Both rivers
overflow their banks during flood periods, turning local depress-
ions and basins into long-lasting swamps and marshes called.
d.esheks (also desech and descec). The larger desheks carry
water throughout the year, but the smaller ones usually dry
out during low-water periods.
The Scebeli is in maximum flood from March through
May, reaching depths of 3.5 feet to 6 feet between Avai and.
Bulo Burti and more than 6 feet above Bulo Burti. Water levels
recede in June and. July, rise again to secondary flood, levels
from August through November, and decline to minimum depth from
December through February. During the low-water period the
flow decreases to such an extent that below Mahaddei Uen the
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Figure 11. Dense forest bordering Giuba River near
Dugiuma (01?15'N 42?34'E). Concealment possibilities
offered by the riverine forest are offset by the
relatively high population density near the river.
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river becomes a strip of intermittent pools and waterholes
and, in the very lowest reaches, swamps and marshes. On the
Giuba River the main flood, season is from April through October,
when average stream depth exceeds 6 feet. Flood levels recede
in November and rise again in December, the second flood, season.
The depth of the Giuba declines rapidly thereafter to minimum
depths (3.5 feet) in March.
Numerous dams and water-storage reservoirs have been
constructed along the two rivers and on some of the larger tugs
(see Figure 12). Between 1953 and 1958 four large storage
reservoirs were constructed. at Coriole and Farkiero on the lower
Scebeli and at Anole and Hela Redidi on the Giuba. These reser-
voirs provide water for livestock and irrigation during Jilal.
Wells (el or eil) are the main sources of water for
much of Somalia. _TlthougFi they are found, throughout the country,
they are fairly numerous in the Daror and Nogal Valleys and. in
the area between the Giuba and Scebeli Rivers. In contrast
there are few on the Mudugh Plain and on the plains west of
the Giuba River.
Many wells are dug in the dry tug beds where water
may be only a few feet beneath the surface. Usually these
must be redug every year because they are destroyed by flood-
waters. Most wells are less than 60 feet deep, hand dug,
unlined, uncovered., and seasonally dry. Very few have pumps
or other lifting devices (see Figure 13). Many are saline,
brackish, or fouled, by animals. Even some of the permanent
wells have water that is very high in mineral content.
Boreholes (deep wells) are reliable sources of water
in only a few localities, mainly in the south. Many were
drilled, by the government in recent years, and. most of them
produce fairly large quantities of clean water (see Figure 14).
The water in some of the boreholes is highly mineral.
Catchment Basins
Other major sources of water are the numerous
catchment basins, natural and artificial, called balleh in
the north and uar in the south. These basins col ectsurface
runoff during the rainy seasons and provide water for live-
stock well into the dry seasons. They range from small ponds
to large lakes; the smaller ones generally dry out before the
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Figure 12. Irrigation dam on lower reaches of Lach
Dera at Descec Uama (00?01'N 42?27'E).
Figure 13. Well at El Coholle on flat Mudugh Plain
north of El Bur (04?51'N 46?31'E). Poor covering
exposes the water to contamination. This is typical
of the unimproved wells throughout Somalia.
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Figure 14. Well near Brava (O1?08'N 44?03'E)
pumped by wind power. This is one of several
boreholes drilled since 1950.
Figure 15. Thornbush-covered plain near southern
edge of Ogaden Plateau (05?06'N 45?09'E). This
sparse vegetation offers very limited concealment.
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end of the dry season. The water is sweet but usually polluted,
and muddy. Catchment basins are the main sources of water in
the dry seasons over much of the Sol, Haud, and Ogaden Plateaus,
the Mudugh Plain, and, the plains west of the Giuba River.
6. Springs
Springs are locally important in the Northern Mountains
and in the upper reaches of the Daror Valley. Most of them have
sweet water, but a few are hot springs and, have highly miner-
alized water. In southern Somalia there are a number of springs
along the sides of the Scebeli River Valley north of Bulo Burti
and on the eastern side of the Giuba River, up to 50 miles
north of Bardera.
Swamps and Marshes
Swamps and marshes are generally near the coasts,
along the two large rivers, and. along the lower reaches of
some of the larger tugs. Swamp areas are most extensive along
the lower reaches of he Scebeli River from Coriole to Gelib
and, along the lower reaches of Lach Dera from the Kenya border
to Afmadu. Most of the inland swamps and, marshes are seasonal.
They are largest during and after the rainy seasons, when they
are impassable quagmires and highly infested with insects, but
usually they dry up during Jilal, the major drought period.
Vegetation
Throughout most of Somalia vegetation is sparse, reflecting
the meager rainfall. On the broad, rolling plains it consists
mainly of stretches of low thornbush and dry grass alternating
with large areas of bare ground. Forests are limited, almost
entirely to the banks of the Scebeli and, Giuba Rivers. During
the long droughts the landscape is a dull brown and gray, but
the rains make it relatively lush.
Low, drought-resistant thornbush covers a large proportion
of the country. This thornbush is relatively dense on the
Scebeli - Giuba Lowlands and the Trans-Giuba Plain (see Figure
6). In drier sections of the country such as the interior
plateaus (see Figures 5, 7, and, 15) it is sparser and, often
interspersed, with low shrubs and, grass. In the driest sections
the narrow, broken coastal plain of northern Somalia, the Sol
Plateau, and the Mudugh Plain -- individual thornbush trees are
widely scattered, on open, often bare, ground. More often than
not, the sparse brush and tree growth is concentrated. near wells
or tug beds (see Figure 4).
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Grass cover is extensive on the interior plateaus of
northern Somalia, especially on the Haud Plateau. Fairly
large tracts of grass also alternate with the thickets and.
dense thornbush west of the Scebeli River. Many areas that
formerly were grassy, however, are now cultivated, especially
in the area between the Scebeli and Giuba Rivers (see Figure 16).
A relatively dense growth of trees and. brush occurs along
the banks of the Scebeli and, Giuba Rivers (see Figure 11).
Elsewhere, trees grow in isolated, clumps near the permanent
wells and strung out sparsely along the larger tugs. The
remnants of a once extensive juniper forest are found, on the
highest slopes of the Northern Mountains.
Some of the slopes of the Northern Mountains are practically
bare of vegetation (see Figure 2), but on others thinly scattered,
thornbush and, brush are common (see Figure 3). Included. with
the brush are the trees (Commiphora and Boswellia) from which
incense and. myrrh are produce..
Marsh and. seasonal swamp vegetation, consisting of reeds
and. grass 4 to 6 feet high, is especially dense along the
lower course of the Scebeli River from Coriole to the mouth
of the river near Gelib, as well as along the course of Lach
Dera from the Kenya border to Afmadu. Dense, nearly impen-
etrable mangrove fringes much of the coast south of Chisimaio.
Cultivated, land. comprises only a very minor part of
Somalia, mostly near the Scebeli and Giuba Rivers and in
the area between them (see Figure 17). A small area of
cultivation extends west of Hargeisa to Borama in northern
Somalia. In the rest of Somalia small patches of land near
some of the larger permanent wells and springs are cultivated.
Durra (grain sorghum) and. maize are the main crops. Sesame,
dry beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and various vegetables
are generally grown in conjunction with durra and. maize.
Farms operated. by Italians, mainly along the banks of the
Scebeli and. Giuba Rivers, grow irrigated, cash crops such
as bananas, cotton, sugarcane, and, citrus fruits. A few
date palm groves are located. in northeastern Somalia near
permanent wells and springs.
F. Factors Affecting Land, Air, and, Sea Operations
Throughout most of Somalia terrain presents few obstacles
to cross-country movement, but the sparse vegetation offers
limited possibilities for concealment. In the parts of
southern Somalia where the thornbush is relatively dense,
however, cross-country movement on foot or in vehicles is
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Figure 16. Field of durrg near Sciaule on Scebeli-
Giuba Plateau (03?08'N 43 06'E). Platforms are erected
near many of these fields so that the crops can be
observed and guarded against birds and other crop
marauders.
Figure 17. Cultivated land near Chisimaio (00?27'S
42'32'E). Concealment is limited and movement is
hampered by the thornbush fences that separate the
cultivated plots from pastureland.
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generally difficult and advantages of moderately good. conceal-
ment are offset by the relatively large concentrations of
natives, especially between the Scebeli and Giuba Rivers.
The aridity of most of the country and the pollution of much
of the available water are major operational considerations.
Most of the flat to rolling, barren plains can be crossed
relatively easily in a light vehicle, and the few widely
scattered, hills and, escarpments can usually be circumvented.
The high, rugged, mountains of northern Somalia, however,
present a major barrier, and any vehicular movement across
them is limited. to the few passes. Crossing these mountains
on foot would. be especially difficult. Throughout the remainder
of Somalia, vehicles moving cross-country may be held. up for
short periods during rainy seasons when the numerous tugs are
in flood, and. roads and, off-road, areas become nearly impassable
quagmires. On the Trans-Giuba Plain and the Scebeli - Giuba
Lowland the relatively dense thornbush limits most movement
to existing roads and trails. Hedgerowlike fences made of
dense thornbush surround. the small cultivated fields that
occupy most of the open land, between the Scebeli and Giuba
Rivers (see Figure 17). These areas are most difficult to
cross in vehicles. The dense forest and, swamp growth paral-
leling the two large rivers and the numerous stretches of
seasonal marsh growth on the Trans-Giuba Plain -- mainly the
large marshy zone marking the course of Lach Dera -- are major
barriers to cross-country movement, especially during the
rainy periods.
The sparse vegetation of most of Somalia offers very
little concealment. During dry periods dust raised by vehicles
can be seen for miles. Opportunities for concealment are best
during and shortly after rainy periods when grass and shrub
growth are densest. Small groups could be somewhat better
concealed from air observation in the relatively dense scrub
areas and, forest zones south and. west of the Scebeli River
than elsewhere in Somalia, but they probably could, not move
any distance without being observed. by natives. Even in the
remotest areas people appear as if from nowhere, more so in
the rainy seasons.
Living off the land in most of Somalia would be extremely
difficult. Vast tracts of land are completely waterless during
the dry periods, and the little available water is often pol-
luted.. Most natives gather near the permanent wells, springs,
and, streams in the dry seasons and, would be practically impossible
to avoid. while trying to get water. In the rainy seasons water
is generally available over large areas, grazing areas are less
restricted, and, the herdsmen begin moving their herds to the
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remotest pasturelands. Thus the chances of moving any distance
undetected, are somewhat worse in the wet seasons than in the
dry seasons. Tug beds should be avoided, during wet periods,
since they may flood, without warning.
Food is generally scarce, except in small cultivated
(and more populous) areas. In grazing areas, milk and. meat from
the native herds and, wild game are the only food. sources. Even
in cultivated areas it would be difficult to live off the land,
and. not be detected by the natives, since the fields, gardens,
and food-storage areas are closely watched.
Numerous natural landing sites for light aircraft and,
drop zones for airdrops are available throughout most of
Somalia except the rugged, mountain zone in the north. The
many high termite mounds on the Sol and, Haud Plateaus present
landing hazards, especially in the rainy periods when they may
be obscured by tall grass. Landing sites are scarcest in the
dense scrub areas of southern Somalia. Stretches of open grass-
land can be used, for landing during dry periods, and, most'grass-
land. can be used as drop zones. Any air operation runs a high
risk of compromise, especially in the interriver area, which
is the most densely populated, part of Somalia. During the dry
seasons visibility is limited by haze and blowing dust, and in
the southern plains there are few landmarks.
The many long sandy beaches along Somalia's 1,800-mile coast-
line offer numerous landing sites. Only light landing craft
are recommended, however, and in most areas they can be used,
only during high tide, because the entire coast is fringed by
offshore coral reefs.
On the Gulf of Aden landing sites are numerous, but access
to the interior is severely limited by the high, steep escarp-
ments of the Northern Mountains. Heavy surfs accompany the
Northeast Monsoon winds from December through March. The best
conditions for landing operations in Somalia are along the
Indian Ocean between Brava and. Obbia, where long sandy beaches
are numerous and, terrain and vegetation barriers to movement
inland are relatively few. Elsewhere along the Indian Ocean,
steep coral cliffs back many of the beaches. North of Eil
the high escarpments marking the edges of the Sol Plateau
block easy vehicular access to the interior. South of
Chisimaio, long stretches of nearly impenetrable mangrove
swamp fringe the coast. Where there is no mangrove cover
the relatively dense scrub offers good concealment but hampers
vehicular movement inland. The entire Indian Ocean coast is
subject to heavy swells accompanying both the Southwest and,
Northeast Monsoons. Heavy surfs (four feet or more) occur
most frequently on the Indian Ocean coast from June thru August,
the height of the Southwest Monsoon, and, least frequently during
the Northeast Monsoon.
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1. CIA. NIS 55, Sec 21, Military and Geographic Regions,
May 1960. C. NO FOREIGN DISSEM.
2. NIS 55, Sec 23, Weather and Climate, May 1965. C.
NO FOREIGN DISSEM.
3. NIS 55, Sec 24, Topography, Feb 1960. C.
NN FOREIGN DISSEM.
6. Hunt, John A., A General Survey of the Somaliland.
Protectorate 1944-1959 Colonial Development an. Welfare
Scheme D.484), London: Crown Agents for the Colonies,
1951. U.
7. Lewis, I.M., Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali,
Afar and Saho, Ethnographic Survey of Africa, North
Eastern Africa, Pt I, International African Institute,
London, 1955. U.
8. A Pastoral Democracy, London: Oxford, University
Press, 1961. U.
9. Pichi-Sermolli, R.E.G., "Tropical East Africa," Plant
Ecology: Review of Research, Paris: UNESCO, Arid, Z-one
Research, 1955, pp 302-360. U.
10. Thompson, A. Beeby, "The Water Supply of British Somaliland.,"
The Geographical Journal, London: The Royal Geographical
Society, Vol CI, 1943, pp 154-160. U.
C R T
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IV. Population
Most of Somalia is sparsely populated.. There has never
been an official census of the country, but according to a
UN estimate the total population in 1962 was approximately
2,250,000.
The distribution of population in 1962, by administrative
region from north to south, is estimated, as follows:
Region
Population
Hargeisa
300,000
Burao
361,000
Migiurtinia
104,000
Mudugh
177,000
Hiran
223,000
Benadir
488,000
Alto Giuba
455,000
Basso Giuba
142,000
Population distribution on the arid, plains varies with the
seasons. During the dry seasons most people are concentrated
near the two main rivers -- the Scebeli and, the Giuba -- and,
the widely scattered, permanent wells. During the rainy seasons
and. shortly thereafter, however, large numbers of people move
their herds into the remotest areas in search of fresh pasture.
Town dwellers in Somalia are distinctly in the minority.
Population in most towns, like that in rural areas, fluctuates
sharply with the seasons. During a drought many herdsmen
retreat to the towns, where water is generally available, but
with the first rain after the drought they leave. The estimated.
1964 populations of the principal cities and, towns are listed.
below:
Town
Population
Mogad.iscio
121,000
Merca
569000
Hargeisa
40,000
Giamama
22,000
Coriole
21,000
Baid.oa
18,000
Afgoi
17,000
Giohar
17,000
Belet Uen
14,500
Burao
13,000
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Population
Berbera
12 , 000
Chisimaio
12,000
Bur Acaba
11,000
Gelib
10, 500
Somalia is inhabited, predominantly by Somalis but also
by small numbers of Negroes and. other peoples. The popula-
tion of the various groups is estimated as follows:
Group
Population
Somalis
2,111,000
Negroes
100,000
Arabs
30,000
Foreigners
5, 000
Bajuni
3,000
Amarani
1,000
The Somalis are generally believed to be an eastern
Hamitic (Cushite) people who entered northern Somalia from
Ethiopia about 1000 AD. The Somalis themselves, however,
do not accept this theory about their origins. They proudly
trace their ancestry through an elaborately fabricated, line-
age system to Arab noblemen who migrated, to northern Somalia
in about the 14th century. As the number of Somalis in the
north increased,, so did. the size of their herds, and the
people began migrating southwestward.. They displaced, most
of the Galla and Bantu peoples in the area, but they assimilated
some into Somali society. By 1500 the Somalis had, reached,
the Giuba River, and, for the next 300 years the southwest-
ward, movement stagnated. Many Somali.pastoralists switched
to growing crops in the relatively moist areas between the
Scebeli and Giuba Rivers. In about 1850 the Somalis
resumed their migration. They crossed the Giuba River and
by 1900 had reached the Tana River in Kenya, which marks
the limit of their southwest expansion. The Somalis now
occupy the entire Horn of Africa, from the Tana River in
Kenya to the Golfe d,e Tadjoura in French Somaliland (see
Map 53018). Pastoral Somalis live in all but a small part
of this area. Somalis engaged, in cultivation are located.
near the Scebeli and, Giuba Rivers and on the plains between
these rivers.
The Somalis have distinctly Caucasoid. characteristics,
as do the Eastern Hamites. Physically, they are closely
related. to the Afar, Saho, Galla, and, Beja peoples who
occupy many of the arid and. semiarid, areas north and, west
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of Somalia. The Somalis are of relatively tall stature
(averaging 5 feet 6 inches) and. medium to slight build,
(see Figures 18 and 19). Skin color ranges from light to
very dark brown. Most Somalis have long, angular faces,
comparatively long, thin noses, and, curly or wavy black
hair (see Figures 20 through 22). Some of the southern
Somalis display some Negro characteristics, resulting from
the long periods of contact with these groups.
The Somalis have been described, variously as intelligent,
sophisticated., inordinately proud, and extremely individualistic.
As a group, they are warlike; intercian fighting for survival,
sport, or prestige takes place constantly. Their common ethnic
origin and several other unifying factors, however, tend to
draw them together. All Somalis adhere, in varying degrees,
to the tenets of Islam. All speak the same language, and. in
spite of dialectal differences most Somalis understand, each
other.
For purposes of this Handbook the Somalis are divided.
into two cultural groups, the numerically superior nomadic
pastoralists and the sedentary cultivators. The dividing
line between these groups is often hazy, as many Somalis
fit into both categories.
The Negroes of Somalia are descendants of pre-Somali
cultivators and hunters and, of slaves freed, in the last
century. The majority are concentrated along the Scebeli
and. Giuba Rivers, but some are scattered between these rivers.
Most of them are cultivators, but they often hunt and, fish
on the side. Very few purely hunting groups remain in Somalia.
For the most part these people have typical Negro features --
stocky build, kinky hair, broad. nose, thick lips, and. black
skin (see Figures 23 and, 24).
A small number of people known as "outcasts" -- apparently
remnants of the pre-Somali hunters -- are attached, as serfs to
the pastoral clans in the north. This group includes the Tumal,
Midgan, and Yibir tribes. Physically many outcasts are indis-
tinguishable from the Somalis. They engage in metalcraft,
leatherwork, and, hunting.
B. Somalis
1. Social Organization
a. Lineage System
The foundation of Somali society is its complex,
segmented, patrilineal system of lineages within lineages. The
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Figure 18. Somali police near the Ethiopian border
south of Hargeisa (09?07'N 43?54'E).
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Figure 19. Rahanwein
Somalis at Baidoa (03?07'N
43?38'E). The bands on
the girls' heads indicate
single status.
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Figure 20. Somali of the Rahanwein clan
family, near Baidoa.
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Figure 21. Somali near Iscia. The spear, quiver,
and headrest are always handy.
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Figure 22. Somali youth at Baidoa.
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Figure 23. Gosha women in a small village on the
Guiba River. The garb shown here is typical of
that worn by Negro peoples in that area.
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Figure 24. Gosha children along the Guiba River.
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basic lineage is the clan family, which is subdivided,
sucessively into lineages known as clans, subclans, primary
lineages, and dia-paying groups (see page 42 ). Each of
these lineages generally has a common ancestor and, is named
after this ancestor. Some lineages of the agricultural clan
families, however, are organized, in federations of peoples
with no common ancestor. Such a lineage may adopt the name
of its locality.
There are six clan families in Somalia. Three
are pastoral -- the Darod, Is'hak, and, Dir -- and, trace their
ancestry to a common founder, Samaale. Two are agricultural
or semipastoral -- the Rahanwein and Digil -- and, likewise
have a traditional founder, Sab. The sixth -- the Hawiya --
is mostly pastoral and, was founded. by Samaale, but a few
members of this group in the south are agriculturalists.
The agriculturalists are not pure Somalis, since they are
descendants of the Somalis who migrated into southern Somalia
and. intermixed with the Galla and Negroes who were there first.
Within each clan family are many clans, the
largest of which are divided, into subclans. Land is owned
by the clans and subclans rather than by the individual
clansmen. Land is of fundamental importance to the agri-
culturalists, who hold it on a permanent basis, but is of
less significance to the nomads.
Probably the most distinct descent group is
the primary lineage, and, a Somali normally identifies him-
self as a member of his primary lineage. Primary lineages
are linked through marriage, but stock theft and feud. are
constantly carried, on among them.
The lowest unit of the fixed hierarchy is
called the dia-paying group because it is responsible for
paying the 1a, or bloodwite -- a penalty for shedding
blood during The almost constant feuding between the many
lineages. This group is also responsible for imposing the
d.ia that must be paid to it by offending groups. Within each
primary lineage the dia-paying groups are numerous. A man
is born, lives, ands Is as a member of one dia-paying group
and his day-by-day living is controlled. by its laws. Indi-
vidual members of the group have specific rights and. duties,
mostly relating to collective defense. Collectively, all
members are responsible for the actions of all other members
as well as themselves. Offenses or crimes inflicted upon a
member of the group by an outsid.er require retribution not
to the individual offended. but to his group. Conversely,
most of the retribution for a crime committed, by a member is
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CLAN FAMILY
CLAN
SUBCLAN
PRI MARY
LI NEAGE
DIA-PAYING
GROUP
SUBCLAN
PRIMARY
LI NEAGE
DIA-PAYING
GROUP
SUBCLAN
PRI MARY
LI NEAGE
DIA-PAYING
GROU P
CLAN
SUBCLAN
DIA-PAYING
GROUP
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paid by his dia-paying group.
In addition to the fixed, hierarchies, groups
of four or five families, generally closely related, within
a dia-paying group reside together in camel camps or hamlets.
These residential groups are called rer. They are quite
mobile, as families are constantly leaving or joining the
camps and. many rer are organized. on a temporary basis only.
Social classes are practically nonexistent
in Somali society. All men are either waranleh (warriors)
or wadaad (men of religion). Regardless o how he gains
his livelihood, anyone who practices as a religious expert
is a wadaad (see Figure 25).
Women occupy an inferior status. Officially
they have no voice in clan matters, and, much of the heavy
labor such as setting up and. dismantling the nomadic camps
is relegated to them. Compensation for a woman's life is
only 50 camels, whereas it is 100 camels for the life of
a man.
c. Leadership
Leadership within most lineages is vested,
in the elders (see Figure 26) and in a chief. The elders
exercise their power through the consent of the male members
of the clan, and the chief usually is chosen by the elders.
In many clans and in the subclans of some of the larger clans
such as the Dulbahante (Darod. clan family) the chief is known
as a sultan (see Figure 27). The power of the chief depends
greatly upon his personality and leadership ability. He is
often assisted, by a committee of elders, which deals with
communal matters such as migration, grazing, and watering.
A court of elders settles most civil, criminal, and. social
problems according to traditional customs. Sharia (Islamic
Law) is followed. in some areas, but in most areas away from
the coast (where orthodox Islam is well established) Sharia
defers to Somali custom if the two differ.
The four widely dispersed. pastoral clan families
(including the Hawiya) number more than 2 million, counting
members who live in parts of the Horn of Africa other than
Somalia. The Darod exceed. 1 million, and the Hawiya exceed
500,000. Together the Dir and Is'hak total about 500,000.
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Figure 25. Muslim holy man, wadaad, at
Genale, on the Scebeli River 01 4 'N
44 ?42'E). Holy men move from hamlet to
hamlet imparting the essentials of Islam,
the Koran, and some elementary Arabic to
the children of the encampments.
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Figure 26. Elder of the Rahanwein clan family,
near Baidoa.
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Figure 27. Sultan of one of the
northern pastoral clans. The short
goatee (occasionally dyed bright red)
is usually worn by senior elders of
the pastoral clans.
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Life for the pastoralist entails a continuous search
for new pasture and, water for his herds. Water and. pasture
vary in availability from season to season as well as from
year to year, and more often than not there is not enough of
either to go around.. Competition for these limited. resources
leads directly to interclan clashes while in pursuit of
water or pasture and. indirectly to stock raiding to replace
losses due to inadequate water or grazing. Raids may be
between clans, subclans, or primary lineages. Raiding may
also stem from factors of prestige or from the need, for
raising funds to pay either the blood.-price incurred in feuds or
the bride-price for a wife.
The pastoralists live in nomadic hamlets called,
guris, which are enclosed within large circular compounds
called zaribas. The zariba is enclosed by a dense thorn fence,
and within each zariba are numerous thorn-fenced, pens designed.
to protect the livestock from marauding animals at night.
Also within the zariba are the huts of the wife or wives and
the young children of the eldest male (patriarch), those of
his married, sons and. their families, those of his unwed.
daughters of marriageable age, and. those of other close kin.
If he has more than one wife, each owns her own hut and the
husband, divides his time between them.
Each wife is allotted, two or three burden
camels, which provide milk as well as a means of transport
(see Figure 28), and, number of sheep and goats. A woman
with three children can subsist on a flock of 50 sheep and,
goats and live reasonably well on 100. The animals are
tended. by the unwed, daughters and boys too young to care for
the main herds of camels.
The nomadic hut is a collapsible, beehive-
shaped structure 5 to 8 feet high (see Figures 29 and 30).
It consists of a skeletal framework of branches bound. to-
gether into a more or less elliptical form and, covered
with mats of hide or of tightly woven grass or straw. The
frame is easily erected. and, dismantled., and, the branches
are used, as a pack platform on the camel's back -- or,
occasionally, on a donkey's back -- when the nomads are on
the move. Women load and unload. the animals and erect and
dismantle the huts.
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Figure 28. Burden camel laden with the collapsible
hut and other belongings of a nomad family near
Ferfer, on the Ethiopian boundary (05?06'N 45?09'E).
Although the camel is rarely ridden, it provides the
principal means of transport for the pastoralist.
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Figure 29. Scene at El Bur on the Mudugh Plain
(04?40'N 46037'E). The small, dome-shaped structures
is the typical collapsible hut used by the nomadic
pastoralists. The round and rectangular structures
in the background are common in the permanent villages
of southern Somalia.
Figure 30. Nowadic huts in the Somali sector of
Mogadiscio (02 04'N 45 22'E).
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b. Camel Husbandry
The camel is the most important animal in north-
ern Somalia and in many parts of the south (see Figure 31).
Its milk, milk products, and. meat are the principal foods, and,
its hides are used domestically as well as for trade. A rich
nomad may have 100 camels, but a herd of 10 to 20 camels
supports an average family well. The camel is also the
principal means of transport when the nomads move their ham-
lets. The nomad caravan consists of the wives' few burden
camels, well laden and. led. by men on foot or riding horses
or mules and followed. by flocks of sheep and goats driven by
the women and children.
During the rainy seasons and shortly there-
after, practically all the camels are out in green pastures
in the care of camel boys 7 to 20 years of age. These
herders set up camel camps, which are generally a consid-
erable distance from the home camp. The camps have no huts
but do have thorny brush enclosures within which the herd, is
penned at night. The boys sleep on mats around a fire at
the center of the enclosure. While grazing on green pastures
camels can go without water as long as 3 months. During the
drought periods, when the camels graze on dry brush, the long-
est they can go without water is 14 days, and when browsing
on saltbush they need. water every day.
c. Cattle Husbandry
Cattle, mainly of the zebu type (see Figure
32), are of primary importance in the pastoral economy of
most of southern Somalia. A few also are raised, in the areas
of northern Somalia where the water supply is greatest, mainly
west of Hargeisa. Two of the pastoral clan families (the
Hawiya and the southern Darod) as well as the two agricultural
clan families (the Rahanwein and the Digil) raise cattle in
considerable numbers. Many of the cattle-owning clans also
own camels.
With 20 head. of cattle, a family of four can live
comfortably, and. even with fewer it can subsist. Like camels,
cattle are a source of meat, milk, butter, and, leather; they
also are used for plowing. Unlike camels, however, cattle
are rarely used. as pack animals. Also unlike camels, they
can go unwatered for only 2 or 3 days, and, droughts generally
take a heavy toll. Nevertheless, zebu cattle are generally
hardy and are protected. against insects and thorny vegetation
by unusually thick hides.
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Figure 31. Grazing camels in southern Somalia.
Camels are raised mainly for transportation.
Figure 32. Cattle blocking traffic on road near
Chisimaio (00?22'S 42?32'E). These humpbacked
zebu cattle are raised throughout southern Somalia.
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d.. Sheep, Goats, and. Other Livestock
Sheep and, goats are raised by the wives in
both the camel and cattle clans. Most of the sheep are of
a hardy, fat-tailed, black-face type. Both sheep and goats
are raised for their milk, meat, and, hides, but neither is
shorn. While grazing on green pastures both can go without
water as long as the camel, but neither can go more than
3 or 4 days without water in drought periods. Goats, however,
can browse on much coarser and, thornier brush than sheep.
A few small, rugged, ponies of the Arabian type
are raised for riding and, for transporting water, chiefly by
the wealthiest of the northern pastoralists. Their number
has been dwindling in recent years, partly because of the
increasing use of motor vehicles to carry water. The Habr
Awal (Is'hak clan family), Warsangeli (Darod. clan family),
and Dulbahante (Darod clan family) have the largest herds.
These ponies can be ridden for long distances but must be
watered, almost every day.
Donkeys are kept mainly by cattle raisers, in
the proportion of about 1 per 50 head of cattle. At night
they are grazed, outside the zariba, for their loud, braying
warns of animals and other marauders. Donkeys are rugged.
animals, going 2 or 3 days without water, and are used, as
beasts of burden. When the rer is on the move, some donkeys
are loaded with the d.ismantle-d -huts and. other family belong-
ings while others are ridden by old women and small children.
Mules serve the same purpose as donkeys and are just as hardy,
but there are very few in Somalia. Most of them come from
Ethiopia.
e. Seasonal Migration
In their quest for water and green pasture
the nomadic pastoralists are constantly on the move. Their
movements have a definite seasonal rhythm. During the dry
seasons -- called. Jilal (December through March) and, Haga
(June through Septem er) -- most of the northern clans
gather around the home wells and most of the southern Somalis
concentrate near the Scebeli and Giuba Rivers. During these
seasons life is difficult. Large numbers of livestock die
for lack of water and pasture, and many humans suffer from
malnutrition caused by the shortage of water and, food.
Once the long rains of Gu (April through May)
and the shorter rains of Dhair (October through November)
commence, vegetation comes to life and, the pastoralists
T
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gradually lead their herds from the home wells and, rivers
far into the bush. A nomad does not wander aimlessly but
instead covers territory traditionally pastured by his line-
age, even though he may not go to the same place every year.
The movement to traditional pastures often involves crossing
international boundaries, mainly the Somalia - Ethiopia bound-
ary but also the Somalia - Kenya boundary. Vast numbers of
Somalis, chiefly in the Is'hak clans, migrate annually to
the Haud and to the Ogaden, which extend. into Ethiopia.
Approximately 200,000 Is'hak clansmen and members of several
Darod and Dir clans migrate to the Haud, each year.
The rainy seasons, especially Gu, are times
of plenty. Grass, water, milk, and food are pTentiful.
During these periods of grazing on green pastures the camels,
sheep, and, goats are not watered.. The stock bring forth their
young, and. the general level of the people's health improves.
Social activities increase, debts are settled., marriages are
contracted, religious activities increase, and. old, feuds may
be renewed. When the rains fail, however, and, the Gu rains
do occasionally fail, life becomes extremely precarious,
famines occur, disease and, pestilence are rife, and the herds
are decimated.
Nomads subsist mainly on the products of their
herd's. Their diet consists of milk, butter, ghee, and occasion-
ally meat from their herds and, game. The wives and, children
live on the products of the herds of sheep, goats, and the
few camels allotted, to them. In many areas meat is eaten
only at feasts or weddings, or when a sick beast must be
slaughtered. While in the bush, nomads often subsist on
three meals of milk a day. The milk diet is augmented by
a porridge made from durra (grain sorghum) flour as well as by
tea and coffee when these products are available. The coffee
beans are usually roasted, in butter. Camel boys away from the
main hamlets live almost entirely on milk and occasional game.
On very rare occasions they may slaughter a camel for meat.
Bloodletting -- as practiced by the Galla of
Ethiopia and the Masai of Kenya and Tanzania -- is also prac-
ticed. by the Somali pastoralists west of the Giuba River. The
blood of the live cow is usually mixed. with milk or honey.
During the cool, rainy seasons the blood is occasionally drunk
directly from the beast's neck.
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3. Agricultural Clan Families
The agricultural clan families, which number bet-
ween 500,000 and 700,000 people, include the Rahanwein (see
Figures 19, 20, and 26), Digil, and, some of the southern
Hawiya clans. These clans occupy the land between the Scebeli
and. Giuba Rivers in southern Somalia.
People of the agricultural clan families are
engaged, primarily in the cultivation of crops, but practically
every family also raises some livestock. The traditional crops
include durra, maize, beans, eleusine, sesame, cotton, manioc,
sweet potatoes, papaya, bananas, and, other fruits. Crops cul-
tivated. on the plains between the two rivers depend solely
upon local rainfall, whereas those cultivated. near the rivers
are also watered. by flood irrigation. The livestock are main-
ly cattle, sheep, and goats and, in lesser number, camels.
Settlements of the agricultural clans are
similar to those of the nomadic pastoral clans, but they
are permanent. Enclosed in a zariba are the huts of the
patriarch's wives, those of his married sons and, other rela-
tions, and those of attached. Negro families. Within the
zariba also are usually several stock pens and numerous
grain- torage pits.
Huts of the cultivator differ considerably from
the temporary huts of the nomads (see Figures 30 and, 33).
The cultivator's hut usually is round but occasionally is
rectangular. It is constructed, of tightly woven wattle
branches daubed., or plastered, with a mixture of mud,, cinders,
and, dung. Generally, roofs are also wattle and daub, but
some are covered. with bundles of grass.
b. Cultivation Practices
Among all agricultural clan families except
the Hawiya, agriculture is organized on a system of mutual-
help work parties composed, of 20 to 30 men and women. The
people not only work individually in their own fields but
also as teams in the fields of others. Sometimes nearby
Negro cultivators are employed, and are paid in food..
The brush is cleared, by fire where necessary,
and the earth is worked, with digging sticks having metal
blades as well as with primitive plows pulled by cows. Sowing
commences immediately after the rains begin or, in areas of
flood irrigation, soon after the floodwaters subside. Durra,
R. T
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Figure 33. Round huts at Dinsor on the southern
edge of the Scebeli - Giuba Plateau (02?24'N 42 58'E).
This type of hut is used by both Somali and Negro
cultivators.
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the main crop, is harvested by cutting off the grain cluster
at the head of each plant. The cultivator's livestock browse
on the stalks left in the field.. Grain is stored, in covered
pits (see Figure 34) or, in a few areas, in large silos
(see Figure 35). As needed, it is thrashed, winnowed, and,
ground into flour. Drought is a major threat to the crops,
and. birds ruin many crops as soon as the seed, is sown; later,
rodents and other animals attack the harvest. High plat-
forms are often erected at strategic points for observing
the fields so that marauders can be driven off.
c. Seasonal Grazing
The cultivators move their livestock herds
from the permanent villages to the pastures during the rainy
seasons. Near the coast, herds are moved, to the zone of
sand. hills and dunes as soon as rains break the near drought
of the Jilal dry season. As these pastures dry up the herds
are returneU to the privately owned. pastures and fields at
the home village.
The diet of the cultivators is similar to that
of the pastoralists in that milk, milk products, and meat are
very important and d.urra and tea are used occasionally. To
this high-protein diet, however, are added maize or beans,
fruit, and from time to time sugar.
C. Other Groups
1. Negroes
The approximately 100,000 Negroes who live in Somalia
are divided, into two groups: (1) the cultivators and hunters
and (2) the outcasts attached to the nomadic clans.
The Negro cultivators and, hunters are mainly
people of mixed. origin (see Figures 23 and 24). The cult-
ivators, who are more numerous than the hunters, are d.escend.-
ants of the pre-Somali cultivators and slaves who either
escaped, or were released, by their Somali masters. The
hunters are remnants of the hunting groups that first inhabited
Somalia. Some Negroes are both cultivators and, hunters. For
the most part, the Negroes are settled along the two main rivers,
but three small groups are found in the interriver area and. a
very small number of purely hunting tribes (known collectively
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Figure 34. Pit f8r stori8g durra (grain sorghum) at
Bulo Scevelo (04 41'N 45 16'E). The forked posts are
designed to support a roof covered with earth. The
durra heads look like a pile of stones at the base of
the pit.
Figure 35. Grain
silos at Afgoi
(02?09'N 45 07'E).
These new storage
facilities are a
marked improvement
over traditional
storage methods in
Somalia.
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as the Waribi) are scattered, across the plains west of the
Giuba River.
The village is the basic element of the Negro
social organization. The village is governed democratically
by a group of elders, one of whom is chosen as chief. Although
highly respected., the chief is regarded as no more than a first
among equals. Several adjacent villages inhabited by members
of the same tribe may be loosely tied together.
Most of the Negro tribes are closely federated,
with the Somali clan or subclan in whose territory they reside.
Some have been adopted by Somali clans, and, several have fab-
ricated. lineage systems linking themselves with their Somali
patrons. Nevertheless, the Somali looks down on the adopted.
Negro and relegates him to an inferior social level. The
following table lists the Negro tribes in each of the three
areas where they are most numerous and, where relevent, names
the Somali clan family and subclan to which the tribe is
attached.
Area Negro Tribe
Makanne
Scebeli Kabole
River Shidle
Somali Clan Family
Hawiya
Hawiya
Hawiya
Badi-Aldo
Mocal
Mobilen
Interriver Helai
Area Eile
Tunni Torre
Gobawein
Giuba River Gosha
Boni
Rahanwein
None
Digil
Rahanwein
None
None
Helai of Hakaba
None
Tunni
Gassar Gudda
None
None
The Negroes live in wattle-and-daub huts that
are indistinguishable from those of the Somali cultivators.
They are mostly engaged in crop cultivation, and Negroes along
the two rivers also fish. Agricultural work is done by mutual-
help parties similar to those of the Somali agricultural clan
families. Besides cultivating their own crops, the Negroes
often cultivate the fields of the Somalis while the owners
tend their herds. Many Negroes also work for wages as laborers
on plantations owned. and operated by Italians. The Eile cult-
ivate crops during the rainy season and, hunt with dogs during
the dry seasons. The Gobawein are primarily hunters. The
Boni, who are widely distributed across the Trans-Giuba Plain,
are essentially a hunting and, fishing group but are gradually
becoming cultivators and settling along the Giuba River between
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The Negro diet includes durra, maize, beans,
sugar, vegetable oil, butter, milk, tea, coffee, bananas,
dates, mangoes, eggs, poultry, fish, and occasionally rice,
goat meat, and game.
A few descendants of the original Negro
hunters in Somalia live among the Somali nomadic clans but
are considered to be outcasts and are treated as serfs or
bondsmen. Although they are closely integrated into Somali
society and. pursue the Somali way of life, traditionally they
have been despised by their masters. In recent years, how-
ever, many of the social barriers between the Somalis and,
the outcasts have fallen. Intermarriage between the two
groups, which once was absolutely forbidden, takes place
occasionally. Many of the bondsmen have left their Somali
patrons to practice their skills in the towns.
The outcasts perform specific duties for their
masters, in return for which they are paid and allowed, to
remain in the territory of the clans to which they are attached.
Outcasts are found mainly among the Is'hak, Hawiya, and north-
ern Darod clan families. Like other Negroes, the outcasts have
a tribal organization. The outcast Tumal, who number about
2,250, are traditionally blacksmiths; they make spears, knives,
arrowheads, swords, horse bits, and other metal objects, as
well as amulets and charms for protection against disease and
sickness. The outcast Yibir, who number about 1,300, and
Midgan, who total nearly 10,000, are hunters and, leatherworkers
who make a variety of ornaments, straps, amulets, prayer mats,
saddles, and sandals.
Coastal Peoples
A few (about 3,000 in 1948) Bajuni people are
settled, along the southern coast of Somalia and the nearby
offshore islands from Chisimaio to Pate Island, off the coast
of Kenya. These are a people of obscure origin who closely
resemble Yemenite Arabs. The Bajuni are mainly fishermen
and sea traders and often serve as crewmembers on the dhows
that ply the Indian Ocean coast. Seafood, is their staple
diet, supplemented by durra, coconuts, and a few animals.
A small number (less than 1,000) of Amarani, mainly merchants
and. sailors, live in Brava, Merca, Mogadiscio, and, Afgoi.
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3. Foreigners
In 1964 the foreign population in Somalia numbered.
approximately 35,000, of which about 30,000 were Arabs. Arabs
have intermarried, very little with Somalis, and, many are descend.-
ants of Arab settlers. They are found. mainly in the coastal
towns and make a living as merchants, traders, urban landlords,
teachers, and civil servants. Much of the coastal dhow trade
is controlled, by Arabs, and a large number are engaged, in com-
mercial fishing along the northern coasts. The Arabs generally
form a tightly knit community within each town. Houses of one
to three stories with whitewashed. mud.-brick walls, minarets,
and, high-walled, inner courtyards, are typical of Arab areas
(see Figure 36). One or more mosques are locatedin each Arab
section.
The Italians in Somalia,
play a very important role in the
who
numbered.
3,400
in
1964,
cash
economy
and in
the
gov-
ernment. Many own and./or operate plantations in irrigated
sections along the lower courses of the Scebeli and. Giuba
Rivers. Many others are skilled laborers or technicians
for small industries or are high-level government officials.
Practically all the Italians live in southern Somalia, and,
three-fourths of these are in the Mogad.iscio area.
The majority of the remaining Europeans and, Americans
are in Somalia temporarily and. are employed. chiefly by foreign
governments, oil prospecting companies, and. UN organizations.
Approximately 1,200 Indians and Pakistanis also
resided in Somalia in 1964, employed, mainly as retail clerks
for Italian and. Somali merchants. Most of the goldsmiths
and. silversmiths in Mogad.iscio are Indians.
D. Religion, Magic, and. Witchcraft
More than 95 percent of the population of Somalia is
Sunni Muslim. The penetration of Islam into Somali life
varies considerably within the country. In general, orthodox
Islam is strongest in the coastal towns; among the nomadic
pastoralists it often appears to be little more than a thin
veneer over Somali tradition and. custom. Most of the Negroes
are animists.
The Somali prays three to five times a day -- generally
before dawn, at noon, in midafternoon, after sunset, and. after
dark. When praying in the open, a man places his shoes, spear,
or rifle before him as the boundary of his place of prayer, and.
no one should, pass between him and. it or even close to it.
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Figure 36. growd gathered for a Muslim festival
at Merca (01 43'N 44 53'E). The whitewashed building
and. walled courtyard are typical of the Arab sections
of coastal cities.
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The Somali does not eat meat that has not been slaughtered by
a Muslim, and, the animal must have died by having its throat
cut. Pork, wild, boar, and warthog are forbidden foods, as
they are considered unclean by all Muslims. It is a sin even
to touch one of these animals. It is also a sin to touch a
dog, because it, too, is considered. unclean. Consumption of
alcoholic beverages is uncommon, partly because it is contrary
to Islamic Law.
Ramadan, the Muslim month of dawn-to-dusk fasting, is
most closely observed, in the towns, where the most devout
spend. the daylight hours in prayer, sleep, and fasting. Over-
eating after nightfall is common during Ramadan. In the
interior of Somalia the rigors of pastoral life generally limit
strict adherence to Ramadan.
Somali women are free from many of the religious restric-
tions placed. on women in other parts of the Islamic world.
After marriage they do not go into seclusion or wear the veil
so typical elsewhere. Islam allows each man four wives, but
only the very wealthy Somalis can afford, the bride-price for,
more than one. Bride-prices range from 3 to 50 camels or
other livestock of equivalent value.
Numerous tari as (religious training centers for the wadaad)
are scattered tout Somalia. Each has its mosque or tom
of the settlement founder. The land, around, the tariga is held,
and. cultivated, collectively by the residents. Upon completion
of the training period, the wadaad (see Figure 25) leave the
tariqa and, wander among the nomadic camps and settlements,
stopping occasionally to set up schools for teaching the
rudiments of the Koran to the children. This training gen-
erally entails little more than memorizing a few verses from
the Koran and perhaps learning to read a bit of Arabic. The
main tarigas in northern Somalia are at Zeila, Berbera, Hargeisa,
and. Berato; those in southern Somalia are at Mogadiscio, Merca,
Brava, and Bardera.
Although Islam is the state religion, freedom of religion
is guaranteed. As of 1959, there were two Protestant missions --
the Sudanese Interior Mission and the Mennonite Mission --
which carried on social and educational activities. Roman
Catholic missions have operated. in Somalia since the early
1900's. Neither Catholics nor Protestants, however, attempt
to proselytize.
Magic, sorcery, and, witchcraft play much smaller roles in
Somalia than in most of Negro Africa. They are probably most
important to the Negro minority in the south. Some clan elders
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are considered to possess the powers to bless or curse their
followers. The elder's glance is the "evil or burning eye,"
which is so powerful that it is dangerous for rival elders
to look directly at each other. Many clans are considered.
by legend to be related to particular animals. The Abgal
Matin (Hawiya clan family) believe that one of their ancestors
was reared, by a lioness and consequently that their people
are invulnerable to attack by lions, whom they address by a
secret name. Rainmaking ceremonies of pre-Islamic origin,
with a heavy Islamic overgloss, are common.
The Somalis consider certain foods taboo for mystical
reasons. To eat the head, tripe, claw, or hoof of an animal
is regarded as ignoble and. debasing. The eating of fish,
snakes, or the hippopotamus is generally despised.. The Somali
also do not eat horse or donkey meat, ducks, pigeons, turtle-
doves, quail, and small birds, but they express no special
aversion to these animals.
The outcast tribes attached. to the pastoral clans are
regarded by the Somalis as skilled, in witchcraft and magic.
Women of the Midgan tribe of outcasts perform the operation
of infibulation, which all Somali women undergo in childhood.
Amulets and. charms of the despised Yibir tribesmen are sought
to bless each newborn Somali child, and, they are also considered,
desirable at marriage ceremonies.
E. Education and Language
Very few inhabitants of Somalia receive a modern
education. The literacy rate is estimated. to be between 5
and 10 percent. The only form of indigenous education entails
the memorization and. recitation of parts or all of the Koran.
The table below shows the number of schools at various levels
and their enrollment. Figures for the first three levels are
dated June 1964; the dates of those for the vocational and. tech-
nical schools are unknown; and. the enrollment given for the
university represents the total number of students for the
period. 1954-60.
Number of
Enrollment
School Level
Schools
Males
Fema es
Total
Elementary
269
16,376
4,472
20,848
Intermediate
33
3,412
705
4,115
Secondary
12
1,055
32
1,085
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Number of
Enrollment
School Level
Schools
Ma es Females
Tota
Intermediate
7
na
na
13,000
vocational
(adult)
Other technical
7
na
na
na
University
1
na
na
336
English is used, in the northern schools and Italian
in the southern. Less than 25 percent of those beginning
elementary school reach the fourth grade, and the dropout
rate is even greater in the secondary schools. A major
problem is the acute shortage of well-trained. Somali instruc-
tors.
The only training at university level in Somalia is
provided by the University Institute in Mogadiscio. Of the
336 students enrolled, at the university from 1954 to 1960, 58
received, diplomas. The Institute offers advanced training
only in law, history, economics, and political science.
Instruction is in Italian.
An extensive fellowship program has made it possible
for many Somalis to obtain secondary, university, and profes-
sional or vocational education in foreign countries, mainly in
Italy and Egypt. In 1959-60, there were 290 students in Italy,
232 in Egypt, 30 in the United States, 15 in the USSR, 8 in
the United Kingdom, and 4 at the United. Nations in New York.
Most of these students were in secondary and vocational schools.
Between 1959 and 1962 approximately 175 Somalis received, univ-
ersity degrees in Italy and 40 in all other countries.
Somalia's first Five-Year Plan (1963 through 1967)
calls for the construction of new schools and the standardiza-
tion of the entire educational system. Arabic will be used,
as the medium of instruction in all elementary schools until
it can be replaced, by the Somali language. At the inter-
mediate and secondary levels English will be used until the
Somali language is developed sufficiently to replace it, at
which time English will remain a compulsory second language.
Standardization also calls for the emphasis on Somali culture
in the curriculum. It will be many years before the goals
of this Five-Year Plan are achieved.
2. Language
For the most part the Somali language is mutually
intelligible to all Somalis, and it is spoken and understood
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by many of the Bantu-speaking Negro cultivators in the south.
Nevertheless, dialectal differences do occur. Somali is not
a written language, and. although several attempts at estab-
lishing a script have been made, none have been accepted.
The administrative languages are English in the north
and. Italian in the south. The Bajuni speak Swahili, and, the
Amarani speak Hamarani, a Swahili dialect. Many Somalis, espec-
ially those on the coast, understand Arabic.
The general level of health in Somalia is quite poor.
Statistical data are not available on the incidence of
diseases, as most afflicted. people never receive medical treat-
ment, but numerous diseases are known to be widespread and,
endemic. The main diseases throughout the country include
malaria, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, dysentery, ancylostomiasis
(hookworm), trachoma, and yaws, as well as respiratory, venereal,
and intestinal diseases. Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis) is com-
monly carried. in the waters of the Scebeli and, Giuba Rivers and
in the irrigation waters nearby. Leprosy occurs occasionally.
Except in some of the populated centers, even the most
elementary sanitary precautions are not practiced.. In the
larger towns the bucket and deep-pit latrine system is used,
with disposal to the sea by barge where possible. Septic
tanks have been installed, in a few places, mainly hospitals,
government buildings, and European homes. Other areas have
no sanitary facilities.
Malnutrition and, vitamin deficiencies are widespread,
among the Somalis. The diet of the nomads is particularly
poorly balanced, and lacking in green vegetables and. fruits,
but deficiencies are less pronounced. among the cultivators.
Except in a few isolated, places, drinking water from wells,
streams, and. ponds is polluted, and. often too salty to drink.
Serious famine occurs when the rains fail and the normally
wet season becomes another dry season. Waterholes, wells,
and. springs dry up, livestock die, crops fail, and. the Somalis
go hungry and thirsty. Desert locusts are a periodic scourge
to crops in the south. The incidence of diseases increases
sharply during and after especially harsh droughts and famines,
when the people are undernourished: and, lose much of their
resistance to disease.
The availability of medical facilities and well-trained.
physicians and, technicians varies considerably. In all of
Somalia there were 19 hospitals with 2,375 beds in 1964.
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The capacity of most hospitals ranges from 20 to 100 beds. The
best medical service is at Hargeisa and Mogad.iscio, and away
from these towns it is generally poor. Hargeisa has a general
hospital with 192 beds and a tuberculosis hospital with 175
beds. Four of the largest hospitals are in Mogad.iscio, with
a combined, bed, capacity of 1,122. A fifth hospital, with 600
beds, was under construction in Mogadiscio in 1964. Several
dispensaries and. infirmaries, with a total of 2,257 beds, are
scattered widely throughout the country. A leper settlement
on Alessandra Island in the Giuba River has 150 beds. In 1962
the entire country was served by 85 physicians (mainly Italian),
56 medical assistants, and 392 nurses, mostly concentrated in
a few of the larger towns.
Attitudes and Loyalties
A variety of factors, both unifying and, disruptive,
influence the attitudes and, loyalties of the Somalis both
as a group and, as individuals. Common ties of culture,
religion, and, language foster the appeal of national unity
and form the basis for the movement to unify all ethnic Somalis
into a "Greater Somalia." The emotional appeal for unification
is tempered. somewhat by several disruptive factors. The indi-
vidual Somali nomad or cultivator struggling to maintain his
meager existence in a harsh environment may find, it most dif-
ficult to give more than moral support to any venture aiming
to unify all Somalis politically. National unity is hampered.
also by the lack of a script for the Somali language, the
cultural cleavage between the pastoralists and, the cultivators,
local feuds and rivalries, and poor communications. Northern
Somalis, who were under British colonial administration and.
who use English as an administrative language, resent the polit-
ical dominance and, neglect they feel they have experienced at
the hands of the numerically superior southern Somalis, who use
Italian as an administrative language. Students from northern
Somalia, who have learned, English as a second, language, are
not qualified to enter the University Institute in Mogadiscio
until they learn Italian.
The loyalties of the individual Somali are influenced.
greatly by the lineage system into which he is born and in
which he lives and dies. His loyalty is to his dia-paying
group, his primary lineage, his subclan, his clan, his clan
family, and, finally to the Somali nation in that order. The
Somali is strongly individualistic and independent in all his
relationships, both within and. outside the clan. As an indi-
vidual he feels superior to all others regardless of his cir-
cumstances, and he strongly believes that he is subject to no
authority except that of Allah.
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A stranger in a pastoral hamlet or agricultural village
is treated with customary Islamic hospitality but also is
eyed with mistrust. Italians are generally regarded well,
especially in the south. The British, on the other hand.,
formerly were highly esteemed, mainly in the north, but have
lost much popularity because of the break in diplomatic
relations between Somalia and. the United Kingdom in 1963,
occasioned, by the dispute over the northeastern part of
Kenya. Although the Somalis proudly claim Arab ancestry and
practice the Islamic faith, they -- especially the nomads --
generally look on the Arabs with disdain. They also show
considerable distaste toward the Negroes. Somalis, including
those in Ethiopia, are especially hostile to their long-
standing enemy, the Ethiopian Government.
H. Paramilitary Potential
The paramilitary potential of the various peoples in
Somalia is difficult to evaluate. No group has a significant
potential. It is doubtful that either the Somalis or the
Negro tribes associated with them would work against the
central government at this time. Somalis along the Ethiopian
and Kenyan boundaries might possibly have some potential for
paramilitary operations, as they have long been involved, in
dissident action against the Ethiopian Government and, against
the British and Kenyan Governments in Kenya. The Somali is
not averse to a good fight and is usually skilled, in desert
guerrilla tactics. It should be remembered, however, that
the individualistic Somali is his own boss and normally
takes poorly to discipline. In general, dissident activity
is easiest to promote during the rainy seasons. During
drought periods the Somali's overriding concern is for the
welfare of his herds and family, and no Somali is likely to
be induced to leave his herds. Also, dissident activity can
be controlled easily in the drought periods by patrolling the
few permanent waterholes and. wells.
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1. Gibbs, James L. (ed.), Peoples of Africa, New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965. U.
2. Gilliland, H. B.,? "An Approach to the Problem of the
Government of Nomadic Peoples," South African Geographical
Journal, 1947, pp 43-58. U.
4. Joint Publication Research Service, The Peoples, Religions
and Customs of Somalia, Translations on Africa No. 191,
JPRS 29,827, 30 pr 1965. U.
5. Kitchen, Helen A. (ed.), The Educated African A Country-by-
Country Surve of Educational Development in Africa, New York:
Frederick Praeger, 1962. U.
6. Laurence, Margaret, The Prophet's Camel Bell, London:
MacMillan and Co., 1963. U.
7. Lewis, I. M., Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar
and Saho, Ethnographic Survey o frica, North Eastern
Africa, Pt I, International African Institute, London,
1955. U.
8. A Pastoral Democracy, London: Oxford University Press,
3i . U.
9. "The Northern Pastoral Somali of the Horn," Peoples
of-Africa, James L. Gibbs, Jr., ed., New York: Holt,
Ri'nehardt and'Winston, Inc., 1965. U.
10. Military Government of British Somaliland, British
Somaliland and Its Tribes, Jan 1945. U.
11. Silberman, Leo, "Somali Nomads," Nomads and Nomadism in
the Arid Zone, International Socia cience Journal, UNESCO,
Vol I , No 4, 1959, pp 559-571. U.
12. Somali Republic, Planning Directorate, Department of
Statistics. Statistical Abstract for Somalia, No 1,
Mogadiscio, Dec 1 U.
13. Trimingham, J. Spencer, Islam in Ethiopia, London: Oxford
University Press, 1952. U.
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The material contained in this chapter is
essentially a condensation of material to be
found in the NIS General Survey, Somali Republic,
July 1966.
A. General
The Somali Republic (Somalia), which became independent in
mid-1960, has a paucity of natural resources, a population
lacking in education and technical skills, and little expe-
rience with a modern governmental system. About 75 percent
of the approximately 2,400,000 inhabitants are nomads, who
are warlike, fiercely individualistic, and unused to any
political authority higher than that of their clan elders.
Clan rivalries are rife and form the basis for political
allegiance. Antagonisms also exist between the two parts
of the country, which as a result of their colonial experience
have different educational and administrative systems.
The inhabitants share a common language, a thousand year
old cultural heritage based on Islam, and their traditional
society is characterized by well-evolved and generally accepted
arrangements for composing differences among rival clan groups.
The leaders of the independent Somali Republic have paid care-
ful attention to conciliating opposition politicians and factions
and to balancing the government on a tribal, clan basis.
The current Government of the Somali Republic is led by
a small group of western-educated Somali politicians. Head of
State and President of the Republic is Aden Abdulla Osman.
Prime Minister Abdirazak Hagi Hussen is the government leader
and head of the major political party, the Somali Youth League.
The government led by these individuals since late 1964, with
strong support from the Minister of Interior, Abdulcadir Mohamed
Aden, and the Commandant of Police, Mohamed Abscir, has proved
to be the more capable and more moderate of the two governments
the Somali Republic has had since it became independent.
The domestic objectives of the leaders of the Somali
Republic are to build a modern, democratic state and to
modernize the country's primitive economy. These objectives
have been impeded by the country's preoccupation with another
goal: the creation, of a greater Somalia by annexing French
Somaliland and the Somali-inhabited parts of Ethiopia and
Kenya. This irredentist issue underlies the Somalis' deter-
mination to maintain large armed forces, which constitute an
enormous drain on the country's limited budget and on its tiny
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reservior of literate, technically trained persons. In turn,
the desire to keep large armed forces caused the first Somali
governments to draw closer to the USSR, which offered military
aid in substantially larger quantities than did the Western
countries. By early 1966 the USSR had established a sub-
stantial economic aid program as well, and the Communist
Chinese a more modest one. Partly as a result of such aid
programs the Communist countries exert substantial influence
on Somali politicians. Since the Abdirazak government came
to power in 1964, however, it has tended to follow a more
genuinely nonaligned policy on international questions, has
sought to reduce tensions in the neighboring countries, and
has given priority to the country's internal economic and
social problems.
B. Major Domestic Problems and Policies
Prime Minister Abdirazak places emphasis on internal social
and economic development. One of the major goals is to establish
a modern, efficient governmental mechanism and to extend its
control over the country's outlying areas. He has repeatedly
emphasized that the selection of both high and low-ranking
governmental officials was to be based on ability and has
repeatedly described and extolled the work habits he expects
of officials in a modern state. Prime Minister Abdirazak also
advocates the continued use of foreign experts and consultants.
The objective of improving the effectiveness of the
governmental mechanism includes improvement of the police,
as the police are in many rural areas the major part of the
government's presence. The Somali Government, with US assis-
tance, is engaged in an extensive program to improve the
training and equipment of the Somali police.
A second major goal of the Abdirazak government is to
raise living standards and to modernize Somali society. This
goal faces formidable obstacles. Somalia is poor in natural
resources and most of its population are pastoral nomads living
on a subsistence level. In October 1965 Prime Minister Abdirazak
discussed his programs with personnel of the US Embassy. He
stressed that primary emphasis should be placed on increasing
productivity. He plans to establish a rural development agency
with foreign experts to improve agricultural productivity and
to develop an "ever-normal granary" under which the government
would buy and store grain. The Prime Minister plans also to
improve cattle and livestock production. In late 1965 the Prime
Minister solicited US support for a program to assist nomads in
parts of Somalia adjacent to Kenya in adopting sedentary ways.
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A third major domestic objective of the Abdirazak govern-
ment is to supplant clan and parochial loyalties with a sense
of national loyalty. The government is attempting, with US
Government and other foreign assistance, to improve its informa-
tion services, especially among persons living under traditional
conditions. The government is also trying in various ways to
break down the distinction between the two parts of the country.
Abdirazak and Aden wish to conciliate the Somalis in the former
UK-administered northern part of the country who have various
grievances against the central government.
All Somali governments have stressed the fourth goal,
that of preserving the vigor of Somalia's Islamic heritage.
This requires little governmental effort, as virtually all
Somali are Muslims, most of them deeply devout.
There is little opposition to the major domestic goals
of the Abdirazak government outside of the ordinary political
contest for power. The Communist-oriented Somali Democratic
Union (SDU) is the one exception. It favors policies similar
to those in Communist countries and has called for the nation-
alization of foreign-owned firms in Somalia. There is no indi-
cation, however, of any broad popular understanding or acceptance
of SDU domestic policies.
C. Structure of the Government
Somalia is, according to its constitution, a "represent-
ative, democratic, unitary republic" in which executive, leg-
islative, and judicial powers are separated and for which the
main source of law is Islamic doctrine. The present constitu-
tion of Somalia was the provisional constitution of the Italian
territory, which the representatives of the former UK protec-
torate accepted and approved by national referendum in June 1961.
A large part of the constitution is devoted to enumeration
of individual rights, but these are balanced by qualifying
provisions by which the government can exercise tight control
over the citizenry. Amendments may be proposed by one-fifth
of the members of the National Assembly or by 10,000 electors.
To become valid they must be approved by the National Assembly
in two separate votes -- first by a simple then by a two-thirds
majority -- at intervals of at least three months.
The president is elected by the National Assembly by
secret ballot for a six-year term. He may be re-elected con-
secutively only once. The president must be a Muslim, his
parents and his wife must be ethnic Somali native-born citizens,
and he must be at least 45 years old.
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The president appoints and dismisses the prime minister
and appoints, upon the prime minister's recommendation,
ministers, under secretaries of state, high officials, and
military commanders, and he is the commander of the armed
forces. He authorizes the presentation of draft laws to the
National Assembly. He may dissolve the assembly "whenever
it cannot discharge its functions," although he may not
dissolve it during its first year in office nor during his
last year in office. The president also has power to issue
decrees under certain conditions.
Another power of the Somali president which is not
normally found under a parliamentary system is that of vetoing
legislation. The president has 60 days in which to promulgate
a law. He may return a measure to the assembly for "new
discussion and decision." If the assembly approves it for
a second time by a two-thirds majority, the president must
promulgate the law.
Ministers and under secretaries -- who are also presiden-
tial appointees -- need not be parliamentary deputies, although
they must possess the same qualification.
A new government must gain a vote of confidence from
the National Assembly within 30 days of its formation.
Confidence or no-confidence is shown by a simple majority
in an open vote. A motion of no-confidence may be proposed
at any time by 10 deputies, but may not be brought up until
five days after its presentation.
The National Assembly is made up of deputies elected
to a five-year term by universal, free, direct, and secret
suffrage. There are 123 deputies -- 90 from the South and
33 from the North. All citizens 25 years of age are eligible
to be deputies.
If the president dissolves the assembly, he must hold
new elections within 60 days. The assembly holds two sessions
a year, starting in April and in October. It may be convened
in extraordinary session upon the initiative of its president
or at the request of the President of the Republic, of the
government, or of one-fourth of the deputies.
The central government has administrative authority over
the 8 regional governors and through them over the 47 district
commissioners.
A government-sponsored law designed to decentralize the
government by setting up a system of elected local councils
for both urban and rural areas was passed in July 1963, but
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had not been implemented in early 1966. Some elected municipal
councils set up prior to independence still exist in the larger
towns of the South, and local government councils in those of
the North.
Islamic doctrine is the main source of Somali law. Laws
must conform to the general principles of Islam as well as
to the constitution. The Sharia, or Muslim law, remains in
force on the local level in regard to social and religious
matters. A uniform Somali penal code is being devised by a
commission established in 1960.
The constitution provides for a Supreme Court and a
Constitutional Court. The Supreme Court at Mogadiscio has
jurisdiction over the whole territory of the state in civil,
penal, administrative, financial, and other matters as spec-
ified by law. The Supreme Court has a president and five other
judges, two of whom must be Qadis--specialists in Muslim law.
The Constitutional Court is made up of the Supreme Court
justices plus two members appointed for three years by the
President of the Republic and two elected for three years by
the assembly. It determines the constitutionality of leg-
islative enactments.
The court system below the Supreme Court comprises two
Courts of Appeal with three sections: general, assize, and
military; eight Regional Courts with two sections: general
and assize; and 47 District Courts with two sections: civil
and criminal.
In each district there is also a Qadi, whose competence
is limited to civil matters among Moslems -- including marriages,
divorces, and inheritance. These matters are handled under
Sharia law and customary law. Each region has a tribunal of
three Qadis which receives appeals from the district Qadis.
All cases, including civil cases between Moslems, may be
appealed to the Regional Courts, the Courts of Appeal, and
to the Supreme Court.
D. Political Dynamics
Despite the brevity of their experience, the Somalis by
early 1966 had achieved a stable, workable government char-
acterized by substantial popular interest and had resolved
many of the internal rivalries and antagonisms peacefully.
The inhabitants, sharing a common language, religion, and
heritage have the foundations for a sense of national identity.
For centuries Somali clan groupings, clans, and lineages have
engaged in continuous and often violent competition for water
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and grazing areas for their flocks, but in the process they
evolved a political system based upon well-established proce-
dures designed to maintain peace among rival ethnic elements.
In the mid-1960's the major contending political forces are
still the various clan groups, clans, and lineages.
European rule from the closing decades of the 19th
century until independence in 1960 resulted in few changes
in the countryside and generally buttressed the influence
of traditional leaders. Colonial rule also was little felt
in the two urban areas, Mogadiscio and Hargeisa. Today
Somalia's tiny urbanized political elite still have strong
ties with their respective ethnic groups. It is these ties
that are the basis for political power.
There is a cleavage between the former UK-governed and
the former Italian-governed parts of the country. The north-
ern portion enjoyed superior educational services and longer
and more systematic preparation for self-government. Some
educated northerners consider that less qualified southerners
have been given preference in government jobs, that the north
has not received its share of public works programs, and
have chafed over the restrictions on commerce by the central
government.
Ethnic and regional competition -- compounded by personal
rivalries among the leaders -- underlies the workings of the
government. Cabinets and government posts are usually par-
celled out in accordance with clan groups and clans. In mid-
1964 the National Assembly rejected the first Abdirazak cabinet,
which had been selected on the basis of individual ability,
largely because it did not contain the proper balance of ethnic
elements.
Similarly a convention is developing that the three top
offices -- Presidency of the Republic, Presidency of the
National Assembly, and Prime Ministry -- should be divided
among the three major clan families, the Darod, the Is'hak,
and the Hawiya.
Politics tends to be highly personal, and the country's
politicians, who draw support from various ethnic and regional
elements, continually combine and recombine into temporary
alliances and coalitions.
In contrast to the situation in many African countries,
the bulk of the Somali are not apathetic about politics. For
the highly individualistic and competitive Somali nomads, the
rough and tumble of national and local politics is an exciting
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spectator sport -- partly because each person is interested
in having leaders of his own ethnic group gain positions
of influence and partly because he may receive hospitality
or small sums of money from candidates at election times.
Political parties in Somalia are loose and temporary
groupings of leading political figures and ethnically-based
interest groups. In general there are few differences in
the programs of the parties and party discipline is difficult.
Factions of clan or lineage groups often shift party allegiance
frequently.
Some 18 parties participated in the March 1964 legislative
elections, but only four were of any consequence. The Somali
Youth League (SYL), which has governed Somalia since independ-
ence, dwarfs the other three. The SYL grew out of an under-
ground independence movement which was formed in the former
Italian colony in 1943. The SYL stresses the incorporation
into Somalia of all Somali-inhabited territories, full inte-
gration of the former UK and Italian administered parts of
Somalia, and the economic modernization of the country. The
SYL is dominated by the top executive officials of the Govern-
ment of the Somali Republic. Prime Minister Abdirazak is
Secretary General. As Secretary General, Abdirazak appointed
the 23-man central committee of the SYL, and he serves as its
chairman. An informal governing body in the party consists
of the party central committee plus the cabinet and other
members of the National Assembly who belong to the SYL --
about 75 persons in all.
Much of the opposition to Somali governments has come
from within the ranks of the SYL itself. Party leaders
can never be sure of the support of their own deputies,
who sometimes vote against the government. The current major
anti-government faction within the SYL is a radical, more
anti-Western group headed by former Prime Minister Abdirascid.
In 1964 the SYL won 69 of the 123 seats in the National As-
sembly, but has added to its strength since by crossovers.
The Socialist National Congress (SNC) attempts to draw
its main support from the inhabitants of the former UK
Protectorate, especially the Is'hak clan grouping. It also
seeks support among the Hawiya of the South. The programs of
the SNC differ little from those of the SYL. It won 22 seats
in 1964. The leading SNC figure is Scek All Giumale.
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The Hizbia Dastuur Muusticuil Somaliyad (The Somali
National Constitutional Party -- HDMS) draws 'support from the
semi-settled agricultural population of the southernmost
parts of the country. It aims to combat discrimination
against its supporters, the Digil and Rahanwein clan families,
who traditionally have had status inferior to that of the nomads
who are the dominant element in Somali society. It plays a
limited political role. It occupies 9 seats. Leaders of the
HDMS include Scek Mohammad Ahmed ("Boffo") and Hami Muctar
Malak.
The Somali Democratic Union (SDU) is an exception to the
general uniformity of programs of Somali political parties.
The SDU, formed in early 1962 from three smaller parties, is
a loose, poorly disciplined grouping of opportunist politicians
who are spokesman for a combination of clan groupings. It is
the political home of persons with a radical, virulently anti-
Western outlook. The SDU is socilaist in outlook and favors
confiscation of foreign-owned property. Most SDU members do
not regard themsleves as Communists, but certain of their leaders
have regularly been paid subventions from local Soviet and
Chinese Communist sources, and some of these leaders have
travelled extensively to the Communist countries. The leaders
of the SDU are Yusuf Osman Samantar ("Berdaad") and Haji Mohamad
Hussein. The SDU in the past has drawn much of its support
from the Darod, one of the larger of the clan groupings. it
won 15 seats in the 1964 elections. Eight other parties
received only one seat each, and six parties elected no
candidates at all.
Elections to the National Assembly were held in March
1964. Because there is no census of population, the out-
going Assembly set up constituencies on the basis of negotia-
tions among its own members dividing the legislature's 123
seats among 45 electoral districts. Individuals could run
for office only as candidates of a political party, not as
independents.
The voter could choose between party lists for his
district, not between individual candidates. After the
results were tallied, the election officials in each district
divided the district's seats among the candidates on the basis
of the party's share of the district's total vote.
The official vote total (908,000) and the percentage won
by the SYL (52 percent) are credible, and the election appears
to have been a reasonably accurate expression of voter pre-
ference, even though some irregularities did occur. Imme-
diately after election some of the new duputies elected from
other parties defected to the SYL.
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F. Foreign Policy
The Somali Republic is almost totally concerned with the
union of the Somali territories, by which the Somalis mean
the eventual annexation of the Somali-inhabited portions of
the three territories which border Somalia. The union of
the former British and Italian Somalilands in 1960 brought
most of the Somalis under self rule but left a substantial
number -- perhaps 600,000 to 1,000,000 -- in either Ethiopia,
Kenya, or French Somaliland. All three countries refuse to
cede any territory or to grant any special status for their
Somali population. Secondary goals have been to enhance
Somalia's prestige and influence in both the African and the
Arab worlds, and to obtain military, economic, and technical
assistance from a variety of donors while maintaining a policy
of nonalignment in dealings with the great powers.
Former Prime Minister Abdirascid All Shermarke, in power
from 1960 to March of 1964 and now the leading opposition
politician, favored vigorous pressure on Ethiopia and Kenya
by arming and inciting Somalis in these countries; close ties
with the United Arab Republic, Algeria, and other radical
African countries; the acceptance of substantial amounts of
military and economic aid from the USSR and other Communist
countries; and an increasingly hostile and critical attitude
toward the United States and Western European countries.
The current government, that of Prime Minister Abdirazak
Hagi Hussen, has followed more moderate foreign policies in
accordance with its preoccupation with Somalia's internal
economic problems. Abdirazak has curtailed somewhat the
arming of Somali tribesmen in Ethiopia and Kenya, has tried
to reduce tensions with these countries, has made efforts to
reduce Somalia's isolation from the other newly independent
nations of Africa, and has taken a more genuinely nonaligned
position on East-West issues.
The border between Ethiopia and the Somali Republic is
in dispute. Ethnic Somalis are the principal inhabitants of
the eastern quarter of Ethiopia known as the Ogaden. Each
year nomads, who are citizens of the Somali Republic, spend
several months of the year in Ethiopia. These migrants have
compounded Ethiopia's already substantial problems in main-
taining order among the Ogaden Somalis. The Ethiopians claim
that the migrants incite the Ogaden Somalis to violence; the
Somalis charge that the Ethiopians are excessively tough on
the migrants and that Ethiopia has incited Ogaden Somalis to
cross into Somalia and provoke disorders.
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In 1959 the Ogaden Somalis, aroused by the impending union
of the two Somalilands, formed a small underground political
organization, Nazrullah, and organized a guerrilla force known
as the Ogaden Liberation Army. Mogadiscio apparently did not
instigate this activity but has provided the guerrillas with
safehaven, weapons, and funds. It has never been able to
completely control the zealots.
In February and March 1964, disorders in the Ogaden
precipitated open clashes between the Ethiopian and Somali
regular forces until a ceasefire was arranged at Khartoum in
March 1964.
In Kenya, the Somalis make up less than 2 percent of Kenya's
population, but they inhabit a substantial part of Kenya's total
area. Contention over this area has contributed to serious
instability in northeastern Kenya and has precluded any but
minimal contacts between the two governments.
In mid-1963 the Abdirascid government intensified press
and radio propaganda directed at the Kenyan Somalis, and later
permitted the Kenyan Somali guerrillas -- known as shifta --
who were raiding Kenyan police posts to use the Somali Republic
as a sanctuary. The Abdirazak government has attempted to
curtail this activity, but the Kenyan Somalis continue to
receive arms and money from opposition politicians in Somalia
and possibly from the Soviets and Communist Chinese.
In December 1965, Abdirazak and President Aden met Kenyan
President Jomo Kenyatta in Arusha, Tanzania to try to persuade
him to acknowledge Mogadiscio's special interest in the Kenyan
Somalis. Their views were far apart and the talks fails.
Somalis make up just under half of the population of
French Somaliland. They appear to have very little enthusiasm
for union with Somalia, however, largely because they are
better off economically than their cousins across the border.
The French, who have substantial military forces in the
area, have given no indication that they are willing to loosen
their hold on the territory, which is both profitable and of
strategic interest.
The Abdirazak government has turned part of its propaganda
and diplomatic efforts for a greater Somalia against French
Somaliland. These propaganda and diplomatic moves seem directed
largely at demonstrating to his own countrymen that Abdirazak
is as militant as anyone in pushing for a greater Somalia.
Indeed, gestures toward French Somaliland may be designed to
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distract attention from his more conciliatory policies toward
Ethiopia and Kenya.
The Somalis are ethnically distinct and geographically
remote from most of the rest of Africa. Under the best of
circumstances they would probably play a limited role in
relations with the rest of the continent. Under the former
Abdirascid government, moreover, Somalia's single-minded pur-
suit of its Greater Somalia objectives left it largely isolated
in African affairs. The major targets of Somalia's irridentist
claims -- Kenya and Ethiopia -- both enjoyed substantially more
influence than did Somalia, and their leaders enjoyed con-
tinent-wide prestige. Also, most African countries are con-
cerned with holding together their own disparate collections
of ethnic elements and are loath to set a precedent by advocating
dismemberment of Kenya or Ethiopia.
The Abdirizak government, in order to increase its support,
has taken an interest in wider African matters, such as the
Congo and Rhodesia problems, and has indicated an interest in
closer ties with other East African countries. Somalia, a
Muslim state, has also looked to the Arab states -- primarily
the Sudan and UAR -- for support in its anti-Ethiopian policies.
It has, however, had no notable success in winning either African
or Arab friends.
The USSR has gained a strong position in Somalia because
of its $35 million military aid program and its $52 million
economic development program. Under a military aid agreement
made in November 1963 the USSR has supplied substantial arms
and equipment, has some 175-250 Soviets training the army, and
is training Somali officers in the Soviet Union. Although the
Soviet economic program is having trouble, the military program
appears to be going well.
The Chinese Communists have a considerably more modest aid
program than that of the Soviets. Under an aid agreement made
in 1963, the Chinese Communists were to establish collective
farms, a road, and a textile plant. As of early 1966 none of
these projects was in progress. Communist Chinese activity
to date has been greatest in the field of cultural affairs and
propaganda. The Abdirazak government's 1964 program strongly
reiterated Somalia's position that Communist China (People's
Republic of China) whould be admitted to the UN.
The Abdirazak government has moved away from the blatantly
pro-Communist line followed under Abdirascid and follows a more
neutral course.
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The close relationship between the United States and
Ethiopia, including extensive military support and arrange-
ments for the large Kagnew communications facility at Asmara,
has been a persistent irritant to US relations with Somalia.
US influence declined under the Abdirascid regime, but more
recently US-Somali relations have been gradually improving.
The United States is engaged in a substantial program to
equip and train the Somali Police Force. It also has an
economic and technical aid program geared largely to such
long range programs as the development of a modern port at
Chisimaio. In 1965 the United States provided emergency
relief, and in 1966 there were a substantial number of Peace
Corps Volunteers at work in Somalia.
Italy and West Germany were active in Somalia in early
1966. Italy provides a budgetary subsidy and pays Somalia an
artifically high price for bananas, the country's main export.
In 1965 about 2,500 Italians were still working in the Republic,
most of them in supervisory and technical positions in the
government or in agriculture. West Germany has a modest aid
program for the Somali police, but Somali appreciation of this
is diminished by their annoyance at the larger West German
aid program for the Ethiopian police.
The influence of the non-Communist countries in Somalia
is restricted by the absence of the United Kingdom and France --
the result of the pervasive importance of the Greater Somalia
question in Somali foreign affairs. The Somalis broke rela-
tions with the UK in March 1963 over the handling of Kenya's
independence, and France's influence is minimal because of
the impasse over French Somaliland.
The Somali Republic joined the United Nations on 3
September 1960, two months after it became independent.
During its first two years of UN membership Somalia
became a member of the Food and Agriculture Organization,
the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization, the International Labor Organization, the
Council for Technical Cooperation in Africa, the United
Nations Children's Fund, the International Monetary Fund,
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
and in 1964 it joined the International Civil Aviation
Organization. The Republic is also associated with the
Organization for European Economic Cooperation.
Except for endemic tribal and regional antagonisms,
the Somali Republic has few discontented elements. The
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overwhelming majority of its inhabitants are insulated from
modern economic and social developments since about 75 per-
cent are nomads. Most of the rest are sedentary cultiva-
tors and herdsmen who also live largely outside the money
economy.
Some disruption of traditional living patterns is taking
place in Somalia as the government attempts to modernize the
country's primitive economy, but social dislocation has not
yet produced any sizable dissatisfied minority groups vul-
nerable to subversive manipulation, or created social pressures
capable of contributing to instability and unrest. Most urban
dwellers still identify themselves with their particular clan
or lineage groups and have not yet become a separate, politi-
cally influential group. Organized labor has little political
leverage for there are only about 35,000 Somalis.engaged in
paid employment and no more than 6,000 union members. The labor
organizations are closely supervised by the government. Students
make up only a small fraction of the population, and are not
a major source of dissidence.
Except for a coup attempt in 1961, led by a UK-trained
junior army officer from the northern part of the country who
resented being subordinated to less well-qualified officers
from the former Italian part of the country, all indications
have been that the armed forces are loyal to the civilian
authorities. As of early 1966 nearly 600 army'officers and
several air force officers had been trained in the USSR and
some of them have shown pro-Soviet attitudes.
A major stabilizing influence in Somalia is the political
system which has thus far offered rival ethnic groups --
about which political activity centers -- an opportunity to
pursue their interests peacefully and constitutionally.
Persons and ethnically based political factions in opposition
to the government have rarely been subject to repressive
measures.
The competition for political power does, however,
create openings for foreign influences and exploitation.
Most Somali politicians will accept help from any quarter,
corruption and venality are widespread, and Somali politicians
frequently shift allegiance and generally do not consider the
acceptance of bribes or favors as a permanent commitment.
Hagi Mohamad Hussein and Yusuf Osman Samantar ("Berdaad"),
the two principal leaders of the SDU, have had extensive personal
contacts with Communists both in Somalia and abroad and the
Communists reportedly rely on them to help select students to
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be sent to Communist countries. Prior to the formation of
the SDU in 1962, Hagi Mohamed and "Berdaad" were receiving
money from the Communists. Since 1962, the Communists are
reported to have given the SDU about US $70,000, most of it
coming from the Chinese.
The efforts of the Soviet Union and the Chinese Com-
munists to establish a foothold in the Somali Republic and
expand their influence within the country have met with
considerable success. Shortly after independence, the
Somali Government recognized the USSR and the People's
Republic of China, and both countries quickly established
diplomatic missions in Mogadiscio. The Soviets soon in-
augurated an ambitious trade and aid program, and at the end
of 1964 it was estimated that there were 250 Soviet civilian
technical experts and 100 military specialists and instruc-
tors in Somalia. In mid-1965 there were only about 40 Com-
munist Chinese in Somalia, consisting of about 25 persons with
diplomatic or press status and a medical relief team of 15
persons. During the same period some 850 students -- a high
proportion of the total number of Somali students overseas --
were in the USSR and in Eastern Europe. A very few were in
Communist China.
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1. Bayne, E. A., "From Clan to Nation," American Universities
Field Staff, Vol X, No 2, 1963. U.
2. Castagno, Alphonso A., "The Somali Republic in Transition,"
Africa Report, Dec 1962. U.
3. Contini, Jeanne, "Somalia Walks the Tightrope," New York
Times Magazine, Aug 8, 1965. U.
4. Drysdale, John, The Somali Dispute, London: Pall Mall Press,
1964. U.
5. Touval, Saadia, Somali Nationalism, Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1963. T.
Q. 3M
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VI. Economy
A. General
By any standard., Somalia is a poor country. Its economy
is based, largely on primitive agriculture and, livestock raising.
In fact, bananas and livestock are the only important exports.
While a few minerals have been discovered., they are relatively
unimportant. Manufacturing hardly exists at all. Indians,
Pakistanis and. Europeans -- only one-tenth of one percent of
total population -- control most of the country's economic
and, commercial life, particularly international trade.
Some 100 Italian-owned plantations dominate commerical
agriculture. They produce bananas as the primary cash crop
and sugar as the second, most important crop. Bananas have
traditionally been Somalia's main export crop, but it costs
more to produce bananas in Somalia than in most other African
countries. As a result of high prices, Somali bananas have
not been sold, worldwide but have depended on the protected.
Italian market. However, these Italian subsidies may be
reduced shortly. The Somalis hope the modern port facilities
being built at Chisimaio will reduce banana marketing and
distribution costs thereby allowing Somali bananas to compete
in other markets.
Local industry processes foodstuffs -- meat, sugar, etc. --
and. is protected. from foreign competition by import taxes and
quotas. The total Somali labor force is quite small, and skilled,
labor is very scarce.
Most Somali are nomadic herdsmen and are only slowly being
drawn into the market economy. These nomads sell their surplus
cattle and, smaller animals which in turn provide about half of
the country's total exports. Much of the rest of the popula-
tion live on subsistence farms. Even though most Somalis are
agriculturists of one kind. of another, the country does not
produce enough food to cover needs. As a result, foodstuffs
have annually accounted, for 25 percent of total imports.
Cereals, fruits, vegetables, and. sugar are the most important
food, products imported.
Somali Government investment in the post-war period has
concentrated, on improving transportation, health, and, educa-
tion facilities. The government has also built wells and,
irrigation units. Private investment -- mainly by resident
Italians -- has been channelled, largely into agricultural
expansion and modernization. Private interests have also
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built food processing plants.
Somalia receives foreign aid from the Communist countries
and. from the West. Almost 70 percent of the $196 million
needed for the current Five-Year Plan (1963-67) has been
pledged by foreign governments and international organizations.
Approximately half of the pledged, amount is to come from the
USSR and Communist China.
Most of the country is desert. No more than half the
total area can be used, as seasonal pasture and only an estimated,
13 percent (20 million acres) may be cultivable. Less than
1 percent of the country's total surface is actually cultiva-
ted and cropped, areas vary substantially from year to year
depending on the amount and, timing of rainfall and, floods.
There are few known mineral resources in Somalia and,
none is commercially exploited. A substantial deposit of iron
ore has been located, near Bur Acaba, but its low quality makes
commercial exploitation unlikely. Gypsum deposits, estimated,
at some 6 million tons of 80 percent gypsum content, are
conveniently located near the port of Berbera. These deposits
offer probably the best mineral prospects for commercial exploi-
tation. Intensive oil exploration efforts have so far been
futile. Forests are non-existent.
C. Agriculture and Fisheries
Somalis, most of them in the subsistence sector, practice
dryland, farming sometimes supplemented by rudimentary irriga-
tion. Output of major crops (sorghum and. maize) is about
100,000 tons annually. Minor crops include sesame, peanuts,
beans, and cotton. Primitive methods and. uncertain rainfall
render Somali agriculture unable to meet internal food. need.s.
The government plans to establish state farms and give technical
aid, to local farmers under the current Five-Year Plan.
Irrigated lands suitable for plantation agriculture
occupy only one-third of one percent of cultivable land, but
crops produced. on this land, provide an estimated. 45 percent
of the country's exports, employ the bulk of wage laborers,
and directly or indirectly supply a large share of the country's
revenue. Bananas are the single most important cash crop for
export. Production has been increasing and, totaled. about
125,000 metric tons in 1964. Sugar is the only other crop of
commercial importance and, is the main crop in the Uebi Scebeli
area. It is grown on both rain-fed, and irrigated, farms.
S r& C R
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However, Somali sugar can be sold, only in the domestic market
because of high production costs. The sugar sales tax is an
important source of government revenue.
Fish -- especially tuna and, sardines -- are plentiful
along the Somali coasts but little is consumed locally.
Some 15,000 Somalis depend, on fishing for a livelihood,;
most of their catch is exported. to neighboring countries.
Several international fishing firms have expressed interest
in starting operations along the Somali coasts.
D. Livestock Raising
About 70 percent of the population are herders, and
exports of livestock and animal products are as important
as bananas. There are about 7 or 8 million sheep and, goats,
2 to 3 million camels, and, 1.5 million head of cattle.
Approximately 20 percent of the total stock of sheep and
goats and 8 percent of the cattle are marketed annually.
Commercial exploitation of livestock has been increasing
since independence.
Industry and. Electric Power
Industry is confined, to handicrafts and, processing
agricultural products. Processed. items include refined
sugar, canned meat and tuna, and prepared. hides and. skins.
Industry and, handicrafts employ about 30,000 people, of
which about 25,000 are engaged. in handicrafts, producing
leather and. household. goods and clothing, Italians own or
manage most of the industrial enterprises, which are con-
centrated. in southern Somalia. The lack of raw materials,
management personnel, skilled. labor, and. a sizeable domestic
market have all hampered industrial development. The gov-
ernment is currently constructing several small plants for
the manufacture of garments, aluminum utensils, paint, and,
razor blades and, plans to build. more.
Electric power in Somalia is entirely dependent upon
diesel units and is limited, to some ten towns. Capacity
is estimated. at 7,000 kilowatts and, production at 15 million
kilowatt-hours in 1963. The Public Works Department produces
and distributes power in northern Somalia and, private con-
cession companies in southern Somalia. Some of the larger
banana firms produce their own electricity.
F. Employment and. Labor
Nearly all the population, roughly estimated at 2 1/4
million, live within the subsistence area of the economy;
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most of them are nomadic herdsmen. Very few Somalis participate
in the money economy. The small minority-of non-Somalis dominate
the money sector and are responsible for most domestic and.
foreign commerce.
Traditional Somali prejudice against manual labor hampers
the growth of a labor force. Although unions abound, the
labor movement is too weak and, too disorganized to have much
economic or political power. There are no outstanding labor
leaders. The only large employers are the government and.
agricultural enterprises, and, the government has consistently
opposed. wage increases. Soviet efforts to infiltrate the
Somali labor movement have failed thus far.
G. Budget, Money, and Banking
The ordinary budget expenditures for Somalia were about
$27 million for calendar year 1965. The two major revenue
sources are customs duties (81 percent) and, income tax
(7.3 percent). Somalia still relies on Italian subsidies to
balance the ordinary budget. In the 1964 ordinary budget,
expenditures for general administration, including internal
security and defense, accounted for approximately 57 percent
of current expenditures, social services 23 percent, and,
economic services 20 percent. Police and armed forces alone
are allocated about 35 percent.
A developmental budget covers expenditures under the
Five Year Development Plan which began in 1963. The gov-
ernment intends to spend $196 million during the plan period.
In 1965 the Somali Government allocated. $5.5 million for
development projects, largely financed by Soviet credits.
These credits are mainly for importing Soviet commodities
to be sold by the Somali Government and thus raise funds
to meet the local costs of Soviet projects.
The Ministry of Industry and. Commerce in 1965 received
the largest appropriation (43 percent approximately). Most
of these funds were spent for Soviet projects which include
a milk processing plant at Mogadiscio, a fish cannery at
Las Khoreh, and a canned meat factory at Chisimaio. The
Ministry of Agriculture and Husbandry was allocated the
second largest appropriation (estimated. 18 percent).
Again, Soviet projects -- the state oil seed and. cotton
farms in the Giuba area and the state food, grain farm at
Tug Wajale -- accounted. for most of the expenditure.
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In 1964 Somalia had. $40.5 million in outstanding external
public debt for which agreements had been signed and, under-
standing on use had been reached. Interest payments due before
these debts reach maturity will total $34.8 million. These
payments will place a considerable burden on the Somali economy
and may increase the difficulties in obtaining additional loans.
Somalia has a central bank (the Somali National Bank) and.
five commercial banks, four of which are branches of foreign
banks. The Somali National Bank has gold, silver, and foreign
exchange reserves equal to 100 percent of its outstanding
currency. The currency used, throughout Somalia is the Somali
shilling worth about $0.14.
H. Foreign Trade and Aid
Somalia is heavily dependent on foreign markets to sell
its agricultural products and to supply needed, consumer goods
and. machinery. Bananas, livestock, and, livestock products
represent 90 percent of total exports. Food, manufactured
goods, machinery, and transportation equipment account for
nearly 75 percent of all imports. In 1964, imports were
valued at $54.7 million and, exports at $36.1 million. Italy
remains Somalia's most important customer, purchasing nearly
50 percent of total exports. Saudi Arabia and Aden are
important markets for the export of live animals. Italy
provides an estimated 30 percent of Somali imports, the
USSR 14 percent, and the UK 8 percent.
Italy, the largest source of foreign loans and grants,
has committed about $6 million each year since 1959. Italy
also subsidizes Somali bananas to the extent of about $4
million a year. Between 1954 and July 1965, the US obligated,
a total of $44 million. Of this, $27 million has been actually
spent. The partially completed Chisimaio Port Project being
built and financed, by the US has begun limited operations.
Since 1961, West German loans and grants have amounted,
to approximately $11.2 million. The European Economic
Community (EEC) committed, $6.8 million from 1959 to 1964.
In the same period, UN aid totaled $6.5 million. Communist
aid -- Soviet, Chinese and Czech -- began in 1961. The USSR
is the single most important donor (nearly $55 million
extended), but Communist China has offered nearly $22 million
and Czechoslovakia over $5 million. Less than $25 million
in Bloc aid had been spent by mid-1965, most of it coming
from Soviet credits. An estimated 54 percent of the foreign aid
promised for Somalia's Five-Year Plan is to come from these
Communist countries. West Germany, Italy, the US,and the EEC
will provide the remainder.
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1.
Hance, W.A., The Geography of Modern Africa, New York:
Columbia University Press, 1964.
U.
2.
Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
Somaliland 1958 and 1959,
London, 1960. U.
3.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
The Economy of Somalia, May 1964. U.
4.
International Monetary Fund. Somalia, Dec 1964. U.
5.
Lewis, I.M., The Modern History of Somaliland, New York:
Frederick A. Praeger, 1965. U.
6.
Somali Republic. Bollettino Trimestrale d.i Statistica,
No 1, 2, Mogadiscio, 1965. U.
7.
First Five Year Plan (1963-1967), Jul 1963. U.
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VII. Transportation
The core of surface transportation in Somalia is a
sparse network of dirt roads and tracks. Only in the area
between the Scebeli and Giuba Rivers and, on the coastal
plain in the southern part of the country are roads fairly
numerous. The few paved, roads in Somalia are in the south
and., though in very poor repair, most of them are passable
all year (see Map 53018). Gravel-surfaced roads, generally
classified, as "all weather" but occasionally impassable,
are mostly in northern and, southern Somalia. Natural-
surface roads and, tracks are common in most of the plains
areas. Although such tracks frequently are impassable for
motor vehicles, they offer many opportunities for choice
of route. All of the vehicle ferries and, large bridges,
as well as most of the vehicles and traffic, are in the
southern part of the country. Mogadiscio is the traffic
hub. Few parts of the road. net are suited to ambush or
interdiction, and these are. concentrated. in the area west of
the Scebeli River and in the Northern Mountains.
Domestic air service is provided. by Somali Airlines,
which is managed, by Alitalia. In ad.d.ition, three foreign
airlines stop at Mogadiscio. Ocean shipping is carried, on
largely by foreign firms, but a significant tonnage is
carried by Somali and foreign dhows that call at the many small
ports between India and Zanzibar. At present only Berbera has
alongside accommodations for deep-draft vessels, but the new
port of Chisimaio, now under construction, will be the best
in the country when it is completed.
B. Roads
1. Road. Network
a. Paved Roads
Paved, roads in Somalia total about 400 miles in
length. Generally, they are 18 feet wide and, accommodate two
lanes of traffic. The principal ones are the Ferfer - Mogadiscio -
Afgoi, the Dolo - Baidoa, and. the Merca - Scialambod. (Vittorio d'
Africa) routes (see Figure 37) in the southern part of the
country. Most of these roads are old, and,, aside from occasional
hand repairs on the more heavily traveled sections, have not
been maintained since the early part of World. War II. Pro-
longed. weathering and, increased. traffic have so deteriorated,
large segments of the tarmac surfaces that the going is sometimes
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Figure 37. Paved road between Merca a8d Scialebod
(Vittorio d.'Africa). Approximately 01 40'N-44 52'E.
Figure 38. Narrow road near summit of Sheikh Pass
and village of Upper Sheikh (09?56'N-45?13'E). This
is one of the few routes across the Northern Mountains.
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smoother and. faster off the road.. Nevertheless, even the
roughest parts of these roads are passable in wet weather when
natural-surface roads are closed, to traffic.
As of August 1965 the gravel roads from Chisimaio to
Gelib and. from Afgoi to Scialambod were also being paved..
The 1,400 miles of gravel roads are divided
about equally between northern and. southern Somalia, but there
are few in Migiurtinia and Mudugh Provinces in northeastern
and central Somalia. Most gravel roads are designed for one
lane of traffic. The more traveled ones, however, are two
lanes wide except where the roughness of the terrain restricts
them .to.a single lane, as across the Northern Mountains, where
road, widths are usually 12 feet or less (see Figure 38). Main-
tenance has been sporadic and generally consists of no more
than filling potholes and, occasional grading, all by hand..
Most of the gravel-surfaced. roads are open
to four-wheel-drive vehicles throughout the year. During
the rainy periods, however, traffic is often held up for
several hours or even days until fords and. washed out roads
become passable.
A few roads, chiefly those on steep grades in
the Northern Mountains, are surfaced only with large rough
stones and are open most of the time.
c. Natural-Surface Roads and, Tracks
One-lane dirt or sand. roads and tracks in
Somalia total about 6,200 miles in length. They may have
been graded, at one time, but many are now no more than a
pair of deep ruts with numerous rough sections (see Figure
39). In the d.ry seasons, dust is heavy and the cloud. raised
by a vehicle can be seen for miles. In the wet seasons,
practically all natural-surface roads and tracks become
impassable for at least a few hours after rainstorms
(see Figure 40), but vehicles can generally avoid, most of
the washouts. The roads and. tracks most affected, by rain
are in the south, where rainfall is heaviest and areas of
clay are large, and in the north on the rolling surfaces
of the Altopiano del Sol and, the Haud. Roads in these
sectors may take several days to dry out. In contrast,
many of the roads and, tracks on the sandy soils paralleling
the Indian Ocean are passable except during the heaviest-rains
because they compact to a smooth, hard, surface when wet and.
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Figure 39. Sandy track near 8oast between Zeila
and Berbera (approximately 10 42'N-43 54'E).
Drifted sand often obscures the road.
Figure 40. Flooded road between Burao and Ainabo
after a heavy downpour. Approximately 09?08'N -
45?57'E .
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then they dry out rapidly.
Trails are numerous throughout the country,
especially around, waterholes, wells, and. springs and along
the Scebeli and Giuba Rivers. They are used. mainly by the
nomads and. their herds but also by caravans of pack camels
traveling between the coastal towns and the interior and, by
wild game.
Foot trails and, the desert tracks that have
been used. by vehicles are often difficult to differentiate.
Many travelers have taken unplanned, detours when they inad-
vertently mistook trails for the roads or tracks they were
following. Few of the trails are mapped, and. many of the
trail alignments shown on maps are inaccurate.
Fewer than 10,000 vehicles were registered. in
the country in 1963, nearly all of them trucks and. passenger
cars. Most vehicles are in the southern part of the country,
with the greatest number in and near Mogadiscio. Traffic is
generally very light over most of the road. system. It is
lightest in the wet seasons and. in the north and, is heaviest
in the dry seasons and in the south. Roads connecting the
southern agricultural areas with the port towns are especially
well traveled.. The most heavily traveled roads in the north
are those that connect Berbera with Hargeisa and with Burao.
Few bridges are need.ed. in Somalia because the
road network is sparse and there are only two perennial
rivers. Only 20 bridges in the entire country exceed,
150 feet in length (1963), and. all are in southern Somalia.
Eleven are concentrated. on the road between Ferfer and.
Mogadiscio, two of them across the Scebeli River. Five
other bridges also cross the Scebeli River. Only one bridge
crosses the Giuba River, near Giamama (see Figure 41).
Natural fords cross most of the tugs but are likely
to be impassable when the tugs are in flood. Some fords,
especially in the north, have been improved. with concrete
bottoms.
In 1963, five ferries were in operation in Somalia --
four across the Giuba River and, one across the Daua Parma River
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Figure 41. Steel bridge across Giuba River at
Giamama on main road between Mogadiscio and Chisimaio.
This is the only bridge spanning the Giuba River.
Figure 42. Small ferry crossing Giuba River at
Lugh Ganana.
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on the Ethiopian boundary in southwestern Somalia. All of
the ferries have steel pontoons and probably are hand powered.
Those at Giumbo and Bard.era have counterpoise steel ramps.
Except at Giumbo, where the ferry crosses 720 feet of water,
the width of the rivers at the ferry crossings is unknown.
The location and capacity of the ferries are given below.
Location
Over Giuba River
At Dolo on Dolo -
Lugh Ganana road
Capacity
Two Land-Rovers or one
3-ton truck
At Lugh Ganana on
Dolo-Lugh Ganana
road (see Figure 42)
At Bardera on Bardera -
Wajir (Kenya) road
At Giumbo on Gelib -
Giamama - Chisimaio
road
Two Land-Rovers or one
3-ton truck
Over Daua Parma River
At Dolo on Dolo -
Filtu (Ethiopia)
road
Two Land-Rovers or one
3-ton truck
The only road tunnel in Somalia is through the
Tabah Pass on the little-traveled road between Mait and
Erigavo in northern Somalia. This tunnel is 225 feet long,
8 feet wide, and 20 feet high.
3. Operational Factors
The highway system is not generally vulnerable to
interdiction because most of the major bridges can be cir-
cumvented if they are put out of commission and roads can
be cut effectively in only a few places. Even where traffic
can be delayed, the economic impact from the loss of truck
service for short periods would not be great. Many settle-
ments, especially in the south, are normally isolated, for
as much as 2 months each year when heavy rains make the roads
impassable.
During the dry seasons all bridges can be bypassed
except the one across the Giuba River at Giamama (see Figure 41)
C L O T E m
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and, the seven across the Scebeli River, which are prime tar-
gets. Loss of the one bridge and, five ferries on the Giuba
and, Daua Parma Rivers would, sever surface transportation
between the area west of the Giuba River and. the rest of the
country. Local people, however, would, probably be able to
restore limited, ferry service for small vehicles in a matter
of hours or days.
In the northern three-fourths of the country the
sparseness of the vegetation and, the preponderance of flat
or nearly flat land greatly limit the selection of ambush
points. On the plains west and, southwest of Mogadiscio,
however, vegetation is more dense and ambush sites are
much more numerous. In these areas many roads are flanked
by dense thickets of thorny brush, which offer excellent
concealment and, confine traffic to the roadway. Roads
across the Northern Mountains also offer good. opportunity
for interdiction, as alternate routes are few and steep
grades, sharp curves, and, narrow rocky roadways slow
traffic to a crawl. The road over Sheikh Pass between
Berbera and Burao is especially narrow and, circuitous; it
is customarily open to one-way traffic only -- southbound
in the morning and northbound in the afternoon (January 1965).
Although the vegetation is sparse in the Northern Mountains,
the rough topography provides numerous vantage points for
surveillance and ambush.
Many sections of the borders of Somalia can be
crossed by light vehicles, particularly during the dry
seasons. Dry-weather roads, trails, and animal tracks
that cross or lie near the borders are too numerous to be
monitored, effectively. The portion of the Somalia -
Ethiopia boundary between its easternmost point and. Tug
Wajale and, the entire Somalia - Kenya boundary are paralleled,
by dry-weather tracks.
While a visible cloud. of dust is likely to be raised.
by a single vehicle, even occasionally in the rainy seasons,
the likelihood of being observed, by nomads changes with the
season and the nearness to water. During the two dry seasons
many nomads in the north are drawn southward, where more
water is available, and, those who remain in the north are
concentrated. near the few wells that still have water. In
the short rainy seasons nomads are widely distributed among
the more remote pastures and, water sources.
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C. Air Transport
Commercial air service is provided. by one Somali airline
under foreign management and by three foreign airlines. Somali
Airlines serves Hargeisa, Berbera, Burao, Erigavo, Bender
Cassim (Bosaso), Candala, Alula, Gardo, Galcaio, Mogadiscio,
and, Chisimaio and, also flies the Hargeisa - Aden route. This
airline has three DC-3s, a gift from the US Government. Its
pilots and other technical personnel are Italians employed, by
Alitalia, which manages the company. In 1964 the company sent
some 54 Somali youths to Germany for pilot and, other technical
training by Lufthansa and the German Government. It hopes to
have only Somali personnel by 1970.
Aden Airways flies Vickers Viscounts between Mogadiscio,
Aden, and, Nairobi. The Mogadiscio - Aden run also is served,
by Alitalia with DC-8s and, by United Arab Airlines with Comet
IV-Cs.
Somalia has 30 active airfields, of which the two most
important are Mogadiscio and. Hargeisa South. None of the
airports are well equipped by modern standards. Most have
no facilities whatsoever, and. others have only simple radio
aids, fuel in drums, and, small buildings or huts.
The runway at Mogadiscio was recently resurfaced, and,
extended, to a length of 8,200 feet and, can now accommodate
DC-8 aircraft. The airport has a few navigation aids and,
temporary lighting for night landing. There are seven
hangars and. limited, passenger facilities. Facilities are
available for storing 28,000 gallons of aviation gasoline
and. 11,000 gallons of jet fuel.
Hargeisa South has a 7,500-foot surfaced, runway and
has handled. DC-6 aircraft. Facilties include limited,
navigational aids, temporary night lighting, one hangar,
and, a small terminal building with an air-traffic control
room on the upper floor (see Figure 43). Hargeisa South
has underground, facilities for storing 14,000 gallons of
aviation gasoline.
The other 28 active airfields have natural-surface
runways, mostly 1,800 to 3,600 feet in length, that have
accommodated. DC-3 aircraft. Heavy rains during April and,
May and. again in October and. November make many of them
unusable. Those with sand. and, gravel surfaces generally
dry rapidly after storms, but clay airstrips may remain
muddy and. unusable for several days. Although most air-
strips can be used the rest of the year -- December through
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Figure 43. Air terminal and control tower at Hargeisa
South. 1959.
Figure 44. Large ocean-going dhow, typical
of those that ply Somali coast.
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March and, June through September -- flying may be restricted
for brief periods because of haze and blowing dust.
About 80 former landing grounds are scattered through-
out the country. Most are less than 3,000 feet long, and all
have natural surfaces. Some may be used by light aircraft in
emergencies, but the surface conditions of most are unknown.
D. Water Transport
1. Ocean Shipping
The foreign trade of the Somali Republic is carried,
on largely by foreign shipping firms. Most of the foreign
ships calling at Somali ports fly the Italian flag, but
British, Dutch, and Soviet ships also call frequently. Only
one coastal motor ship, the SS Dalmar, flies the Somali flag
(1965). It plies the coastal waters of the Indian Ocean, the
Red. Sea, and the Persian Gulf.
Dhows (Arab-type sailing vessels) sail between the
numerous settlements on Somalia's long coastline and ports
along the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Aden, the Red, Sea, and,
the Indian Ocean as far south as Zanzibar and. as far east
as India (see Figure 44). They range between 30 and. 100
tons in size, have very shallow drafts, and can be beached
almost anywhere regardless of the port facilities available.
Sailings are closely associated, with the winds -- northward
during the Southwest Monsoon (June through September) and
southward, during the Northeast Monsoon (December through
March). Small dhows sail the open sea near the beginning
and end of the monsoons. At the heights of these seasons
the seas are too rough for any but the most seaworthy vessels,
and, the smaller ships hug the coast or use some of the narrow
channels between the beach and. offshore reefs and, shoals south
of Mogadiscio.
Many of the dhows that serve Somalia are registered, in
other countries, particularly in Aden and Kenya. In 1959
only 118 were registered in Italian Somaliland. Most dhow
owners and, masters are local Arabs. Crews in southern Somalia
are made up of local Bajuns, whereas dhows on the Gulf of
Aden are manned, by Arabs. The dhow master and mate, who
also double as merchants, have little knowledge of scientific
navigation but have an intimate knowledge of the local coastal
areas, ports, and. trading practices.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
Although Somalia has 1,800 miles of coastline, the
country has but two protected harbors, Berbera in the north
and. Chisimaio in the south. Only Berbera has alongside
accommodations, and these are only for coasters. Mogadiscio,
the country's largest port, has no natural protection, and
all deep-draft vessels must anchor in the open road.stead..
a. Mogad.iscio
Mogadiscio, the commercial center of southern
Somalia, is the busiest port. Of the 300 vessels that call
at Mogad.iscio in an average year almost half fly the Italian
flag and about a third, are dhows. Most of the Italian-regist-
ered. ships are banana carriers which also stop at the banana
ports of Merca and Chisimaio.
The harbor is approximately southeast of the
center of town (see Figure 45). It is protected on the east
and. southeast by a breakwater but is exposed, to the southwest.
At low water the shoal at the entrance is only 6 feet below
the surface and access to the harbor is limited, to lighters
and. small craft, chiefly dhows, with maximum draft of 7 feet
and length of 100 feet. All larger craft must anchor in the
open roadstead, in depths of 30 to 60 feet, approximately
half a mile to the south, where cargo and passengers are
transferred, between them and lighters. Lightering is often
suspended during the height of the monsoons, particularly
during the Southwest Monsoon, when winds may reach gale
force and, swells may crest up to 15 feet.
In 1964, port equipment included 4 lighter
piers and, a breakwater quay with alongside depths of 3 to
6 feet, 4 tugs, 2 motor launches, 13 lighters, and a dredger.
The storage area includes six covered, sheds and. an unpaved
stacking ground, which becomes muddy in the rainy seasons.
A petroleum tank farm storing gasoline,
kerosene, diesel oil, and. fuel oil is located. at Ras Sif,
1-1/4 miles southwest of the breakwater. The total storage
capacity of this facility was about 225,000 gallons in 1964.
Bulk products are discharged, from tankers (maximum draft
25 feet) through a double floating pipeline at a point 500
feet offshore. Vessels generally are off-loaded, only during
calm periods, which are most frequent in April and. October.
In the spring of 1964 the Shell Oil Company was constructing
three tanks for the storage of aviation fuel (capacity 3,000
tons).
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Figure 45. Part of port facilities at Mogadiscio.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
Figure 46. Dhows at anchor in Chisimaio harbor.
1962.
Figure 47. Italian ship anchored in open roadstead
at Merca. Bananas are being transferred from shallow-
draft lighters.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
Berbera is primarily a livestock-exporting
port. Each year it ships about 40,000 head, of sheep, goats,
camels, and. cattle to ports on the Red Sea, the South Arabian
coast, and, the Persian Gulf. Jid.d.a receives nearly half of
all livestock shipped, from Berbera.
Berbera harbor is an elongated. inlet -- 1-1/2
miles long by 1/4 mile wide -- that is protected. on the north
by a sandy spit. Because of its southwest exposure, port
activities are reduced to a minimum during the Southwest Mon-
soon. Harbor anchorage is limited. to three vessels with max-
imum lengths of 420 feet and. drafts of 30 feet, except during
the Southwest Monsoon when most ships anchor outside the
harbor in the open roadstead,. Vessels of 16-foot draft and.
150-foot length can berth alongside the 400-foot jetty.
Besides this jetty, there are three small quays which can
accommodate lighters and, dhows at high tide.
A petroleum tank farm with a capacity of
1.5 million gallons is located. between the beach and, the
airfield on the southwestern edge of town. It is fed, from
tankers through an 8-inch pipe, 3,200 feet long, with a
flexible connection attached. to buoys. Petroleum stock is
generally replenished, in April and, in August.
The port of Chisimaio serves mainly as an out-
let for bananas and other agricultural products raised, nearby.
Only vessels of very shallow draft can be accommodated. here
(see Figure 46); deep-water ships are served by lighters from
the open roadstead. As in other ports of Somalia, lighters
become less active at the height of the Southwest Monsoon.
The port is being expand.ed to provide four protected berths
for 10,000-ton vessels with drafts of 31 feet. A power-
plant, water system, and, handling equipment are to be
completed. by 1967.
The only other important ports are Brava and.
Merca. Their facilities include little more than piers for
the lighters that serve deep draft vessels in the open road,-
steads (see Figure 47). The other settlements along the
Somali coasts have practically no port facilities and, are
served mainly by dhows that are beached. The few larger
vessels that service them must anchor in unprotected waters.
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3. Inland Waterways
The only navigable waterway in Somalia is the
portion of the Giuba River between Giumbo at the mouth and.
Serenli, 345 miles upstream. Even in this section of the
river, however, navigation is limited to the high-water
period., April through October. In dry years, vessels cannot
go beyond. Giamama, 70 miles upstream. A few flat-bottomed.
barges, with a maximum draft of 3 feet, slowly ply the dif-
ficult, meandering course of the river which is plagued with
a shifting channel and, numerous sandbars. The journey between
Giumbo and Serenli generally takes 20 days upstream and as
many as 7 days downstream.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
YEMEN PROTECTORATE OF
SOUTH ARABIA
%
ADEN
PERIM I.
(U.K.)
A lute
Bender Filuch ? ?Alulo 6-T
2-U
Diredawa
O DJIBOUTI
Suede Din Island
2-N
/? 4*Zeila 2-N
?Gardo 5-T
8.P.27 -Garcia
I-No
Bender
Cassim
Banda Zeda
1-N 00, Bender
Cassim
Las Khoreh (Bosaso)
1-N 6-T
. aran 2-N Darin 5-N
Roman
.-
Buran
Duruksi 2N Borbarad 3-N
2-N Collis -
Zmored Wadr ?
? i
2-N Babbagnb 2-N
E, T H I O P I A
x--I-
+.6Ato 7-N
J +/
ca+/
aa~/ Dusa Moreb 3-N
.Halin 2-N
Oddur I-NO gddur
i
Lugh Gonana
4-T ?Uegil 2-N
Lugh Ganana
(Lugh Ferrand0
Bulo Burh? BulO Burtl
2-N
Gialalassi ?-U?
Gollili 4-N
?.
Afmodu
? 4-N
Baldoa
8aidoo 6-T0
Dinsor 3-N
+Bardera ~
Bardera 2-N
ugiuma 2-N
Gehl
.4T
Gelib
Giamama
(Margherifa)
2-N
Tug Laferug 3-N OEl Our Elan 1-N
Argon OSuksodi I-N
2-N
Sheplkh ? El Afweina
Hargeis
p
O 3-N Arareh 1-N 2-U
4-N Adadle
AIDFN
(U.K.)
't Berbera
rBerbera
4-T
?Biyo Dader
?-U
- e?Burao 3-T
Burao
0
Odweina I-N
Sohodle2-N Bihen0o
Las Arad
?.~` - 1-N Mogiamacarscio
Duncu Coc 2-N? (Garde)
4-N
Bur Acaba 3-N
Brave
Brava
1-N
QMahoddei Uen I-N
Giahar 3-U'
Uanle Uen 2-U4
Balad 6-N
Q-Baled ,. ?
Afgoi ?-U?
Q
Mogodiscio 6-P
Hudin I-N
Ainebo 0
Wadamago 2-N . N Badwein
O I-N
Gerrero OAinabo Old 7_U yagore 3-U
?
/ 1a 3-U
?
+ aln
(Rocc ca Lit Lillrio)
/
3-T
+ Gelcalo
El Bur 4-N
Moroi Ascia Musso
5-N
?Meregh 2-U
Gobuen 3-U
Chisimaio 3-Th
r Chisimaio
Chisimaio
SOURCES:
Airfields and Seaplane Stations of the World,
Vol. 18, Jonuory 1966.
ASSOTW Special Listing, AC/C,
St. Louis, Missouri, August 1965.
Candela 3-T
ghedami
I-N
Bender Bella
Bender Bella 3-N
SOMALI REPUBLIC
AIRFIELDS
AND
SEAPLANE STATIONS
? Airfield (6,000 ft. or more in length)
? Airfield (2,000 to 5,999 ft. in length)
O Airfield (less than 2,000 ft. in length)
? Airfield (status unknown)
t Seaplane station
8 Length of longest runway in thousands of feet
? Length unknown
P Permanent surface
T Temporary surface
N Natural surface
U Surface unknown
0-Eil
Ed 3-N
Statute Miles
50 100
-C CRFT
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Mogadiscio
Hordio New Hordio East
3-N M 2-N
Hafun Norlh Boy
Scusciuban Danle
? 6-T Ha up (Hafun)
f
-Scusciuben South 2-U
Y
c -GROUP 1 - eO1
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Adadle
0947N
4440E
Garrero
0853N
4610E
Afgoi
0208N
4506E
Gelib
0030N
4247E
Afmadu
0030N
4205E
Ghor
0941N
4507E
Ainabo
0859N
4627E
Gialalassi
0324N
4536E
Ainabo (old)
0857N
4626E
Giamama
0004N
4245E
Alula
1158N
5045E
Giglei
0423N
4520E
Arareh
0940N
4549E
Giohar
0247N
4530E
Arfa
0722N
4742E
Gire
0522N
4802E
Ato
0438N
4321E
Gobuen
0014S
4236E
Babbagob
0909N
4434E
Gobwen (See Gobuen)
Badwein
0900N
4640E
Gollili
0316N
4531E
Baidoa
0307N
4338E
Gumared Wadr
0907N
4354E
Balad
0222N
4524E
Hafun (See Dante)
Banda Ziada
Baran
1114N
1047N
4859E
4812E
Hafun North Bay SS
Hafun South Bay SS
1031N
1025N
5115E
5114E
N
Barbarad
0832N
4928E
Halin
0906N
4839E
Bardera
0220N
4218E
Hanghei
1004N
4900E
Bargal
1117N
5105E
Hargeisa North
0933N
4403E
KENYA
Belese Cogani
0017N
4142E
Hargeisa South
0929N
4406E
Belet Uen
0442N
4513E
Hodur (See Oddur)
Bender Beila
0924N
5039E
Hordio East
1034N
5106E
Bender Cassim
1117N
4910E
Hordio New
1034N
5105E
Bender Filuch
1156N
5038E
Hudin
0910N
4729E
Berbera
1026N
4501E
Iredami
1025N
4920E
El Uach 3-N
Berbera SS
1027N
4501E
Iscia Baidoa (See Baidoa)
Bihen
0825N
4823E
Itala
0246N
4620E
Bircao
01135
4151E
Jire
1038N
4256E
Biyo Dader
(approx)
1026N
4529E
Jirreh (See Jire)
Bohodle
0819N
4620E
Kismayu (See Chisimaio)
Borama
0957N
4311E
Laferug
1001N
4449E
Bosaso (see Bender Cassim)
Las Anod
0830N
4721E
B. P. 27
0926N
4900E
Las Khoreh
1110N
4814E
Brava
0106N
4402E
Lugh Ferrandi (See Lugh Ganana)
Bulo Burti
0351N
4530E
Lugh Ganana
0349N
4233E
Bur Acaba
0247N
4405E
Magiamacarscio
0823N
4829E
Buran
1016N
4854E
Mahaddei Uen
0257N
4532E
Burao
0931N
4535E
Marai Ascia Mussa
0436N
4709E
Callis
0823N
4905E
Margherita (See Glamama)
Candala
Chisimaio
1130N
O016S
4955E
4234E
Meregh
Mogadiscio
0347N
0201N
4719E
4519E
Kif 2-U
Chisimaio SS
00225
4233E
Mogadiscio SS
0202N
4521E
Colbio
0108S
4115E
Mogadishu (See Mogadiscio)
Dante
1026N
5116E
Nabadid
0941N
4329E
Dante North Bay (See Hafun North Bay)
Obbia
0521N
4832E
Dante South Bay (See Hafun South Bay)
Oddur
0407N
4352E
Darin
1039N
4944E
Odweina
0924N
4503E
B
l
C
Dick's Head (See Ras Chiambone)
Ras Chiambone
0139S
4135E
e
esc
oga
3-U
Dinsor
0225N
4259E
Saada Din Island
1127N
4328E
Dugiuma
0115N
4235E
Scusciuban
1020N
5012E
Duncu Coe
0808N
4810E
Sheikh (See Upper
Duruksi
0833N
4528E
Silil
1056N
4323E
Dusa Mareb
0532N
4623E
Suksodi
0957N
4522E
Eik
0858N
4520E
Tigieglo
0402N
4430E
Eil
0800N
4948E
Tug Argan
0950N
4430E
El Afweina
0955N
4715E
Tug Wajale
0936N
4318E
El Bur
0440N
4636E
Uanle Uen
0237N
4454E
El Dur Elan
101ON
4622E
Uarsciech
0216N
4545E
.Colbio
El Uach
0250N
4103E
Uegit
0350N
4315E
2U
El Wak (See El Uach)
Upper Sheikh
0956N
4512E
Erigavo
1039N
4723E
Wadamago
0855N
4616E
Galcaio
0647N
4726E
Yagare
0844N
4702E
Gardo
0933N
4907E
Zeila
1121N
4329E
Garoe (See Magiamacarscio)
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
2.
READING LIST
1. AID, Mogadiscio. Airgram AID A-166, 29 Oct 1964. U.
7. Somali Republic, Planning and. Coordinating Committee for
Economic and Social Development. First Five-Year Plan
(1963-1967), Jul 1963. U.
8. State, Mogad.iscio. Airgram A-279, 7 Nov 1964. U.
*+ E m
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
The telecommunications system of the Somali Republic
is poorly developed and is barely adequate to meet the. needs
of the country. Such facilities as exist are owned and admin-
istered by the government. Civil telephone and telegraph service
is controlled by the Ministry of Public Works and Communications,
and the broadcasting system is directed by the Council of
Ministers.
B. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities and Services
1. Domestic
In 1965 there were only 3,000 telephones in use,
2,000 of which were in Mogadiscio. All were connected to manual
exchanges. The quality of telephone service in Mogadiscio was
upgraded late in 1965 with the opening of a 2,000-line automatic
exchange. In its initial operating stage in 1966 this new
exchange will provide 1,200 additional subscriber connections.
Interurban telephone service is available only in three areas
of the Somali Republic on open wireline systems connecting
Hargeisa-Berbera-Burao; Chisimaio-Margherita-Gelib; and
Mogadiscio with several surrounding towns. (see Map 53019).
Although several towns outside of these areas have local
telephone service, no interurban connections are available.
Telegraph service is the principal means of
interurban communications throughout the Somali Republic.
Service is provided by a national telegraph network of more.
than 30 high-frequency (HF) radiotelegraph stations that serve
most major population centers.
2. International
Mogadiscio is the center for most international
communications. From Mogadiscio HF radiotelephone service is
available to Italy and Kenya and HF radiotelegraph service is
available to. Italy and Tanzania. In addition, international
radio facilities at Hargeisa and Berbera provide radiotelegraph
service to Aden.
C. Broadcasting
Radiobroadcasting service is provided to most of the
country by government operated short-wave radiobroadcasting
stations at Mogadiscio and Hargeisa. The National Broad-
casting Service at Mogadiscio operates a 50-kilowatt (kw)
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
and two 5kw transmitters; Radio Somali at Hargeisa operates
a 10kw and a 5kw transmitter. The 50kw transmitter, supplied
by the USSR in 1965, is used for both domestic and international
broadcasting. The radiobroadcasting reception base in the
Somali Republic was limited to about 35,000 radio receivers in
1965. There is no television service in the country.
D. Specialized Communications Networks
1. Army
Th army uses HF radio equipment in its main
military communications network that connects the main control
station at Mogadiscio with outstations located in the capital
cities of the other seven regions.
The police operate an extensive HF radio com-
munications network of 81 stations located throughout the
country. The main control station is located at Mogadiscio,
with regional control stations at Belet Uen, Bender Cassim,
Chisimaio, Hargeisa, Baidoa, Lugh Ganana, Oddur, and Galcaio.
3. Aeronautical
Aeronautical Aeradeo Limited, a privately owned
company, operates HF and very-high-frequency radio facilities
at the Mogadiscio and Hargeisa airports. Figure 48 shows the
airport radio station at Mogadiscio.
A medium-frequency and HF radio station for
shore-to-ship communications is operated by the government
at Mogadiscio.
5. Other
Several foreign oil companies with headquarters
in Mogadiscio have HF radio facilities that provide voice
communications with field personnel.
E. Prime Telecommunications Targets
The telecommunications system of the Somali Republic
is poorly developed. In most areas of the country HF radio-
telegraph facilities are the only available communications medium
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
Figure 48. Airport Radio Station, Mogadiscio.
-111-
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
and, their loss would. serve to isolate such areas from the rest
of the country. Figure 49 shows the main telegraph office at
Mogadiscio.
Interurban telephone service can be interdicted
easily by the destruction of a few wirelines. Wirelines, such
as those shown in Figure 50, generally follow the main highways.
The HF radio transmitters and antenna farm for
international telephone and. telegraph service from Mogadiscio
are located. 6 miles southwest of the city. If this facility
were made inoperative, international communications from the
Somali Republic would, be reduced substantially.
Radiobroadcasting service could be disrupted, by the
destruction of the transmitters or studio facilities at Mogadiscio
and Hargeisa. The two 5kw transmitters for the Mogadiscio station
are located 6 miles southwest of the city. The 50kw transmitter
is located 5 miles northwest of Mogadiscio near the main high-
way to Afgoi. Figure 51 shows the studio facilities of Radio
Somali in Hargeisa.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
Figure 49. Central Telegraph Office, Mogadiscio.
Figure 50. Open Wirelines near Mogadiscio.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
Figure 51. Studio Facilities of Radio
Somali, Hargeisa.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
Assab YEMEN ; PROOT. ,.OADEN STATE (U.K.)
SOUTH ARABIA ADEN
f FRENCH
SOMALILAND
Borama
Jijiga
?
T H I 0 P I A
Las Anoa
/
Galcaio
?Q a
caaY po~t...
\
oJ/
a
I`' Dolo+-
?? -~-
K,/ Lugh
a~
ENYA Ganan
Bardera
/-,\ pa
Belet Uen El Bur
Bulo Burti
Bur
Acaba
Llana J ? Ita a?
r ? ? Uanl Uen
Balad AA . PA
goi
GenaleAf MOGADISCIO
Telephone wireline
Radiobroadcasting transmitter
ROUNDARV REPRESENTATION IS
NOT NECESSARILY AUTHORITATIVE
?~~~
Oddur
pka
Bender
Cassim
H o rd ioL4
,~v t
Scusciuban/.~
Gardo
?.
'Obbia
SOMALI
REPUBLIC
TELECOMMUNICATION
FACILITIES
1 JANUARY 1966
Aeronautical radio
(ground-to-air)
Coastal radio
(shore-to-ship)
Main control of the police radio
network (P Regional control)
Main control of the army radio
network (a Outstation)
50 100 150 Miles
I
100 150 Kilometers
53019 2-66
GROUP 1 ow
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
3. FBIS. Station and Program Notes, No. 407, 13 Oct 1964.
OUO.
4. O. Lund, Johansen Ltd.. World. Radio TV Handbook, Hellerup,
Denmark, 1966. U.
5. Somali Republic. First Five-Year Plan (1963-1967),
Jul 1963. U.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
IX. Military and Internal Security Forces
The material contained in this chapter is
essentially a condensation of material to be
found in the NIS General Survey, Somali Republic,
July 1966.
A. General
Somalia's military and internal security forces consist
of an 8,500-man army, a 6,000-man national police force, the
beginnings of an army air force (300), and a navy (125). The
Somali National Army (SNA), though becoming more proficient,
is not yet able to prevent a determined invasion by a well-
equipped, well-trained force or to maintain an effective
force outside the Republic. Combined with the police they
probably can maintain internal security. Training of the
army, air force, and navy (by the Soviets) and the police
(by Italy, West Germany, and the US) is still underway. The
low level of education among the recruits and the shortage
of trained leaders has slowed the building of the capabilities
of the security forces.
At independence in 1960, the military forces, totalling
under 4,000, were a combination of Italian-trained police,
British-trained scouts, and new recruits. Since then, expan-
sion and reorganization, largely the result of a Soviet military
assistance agreement, have taken place in accord with the
Somali Government's objective of molding a national army and
police force. During the first years of independence, the
United Kingdom and Italy were the chief sources of military
assistance. In November 1963, Somalia, disillusioned with
the speed and quantity of Western offers, accepted a $35
million military assistance agreement with the Soviet Union.
Since 1963, most SNA equipment and training has been provided
by the USSR, about 600-700 armed forces personnel have begun
or completed training in the USSR, and about 200-250 Soviet
military advisors have been stationed in Somalia. The Soviet
Union's military assistance agreement provides for extensive
reorganization and training and for the addition of large
quantities of relatively modern equipment. The Soviet equip-
ment includes infantry weapons, tanks and armored personnel
carriers, artillery, anti-aircraft weapons, motor vehicles,
patrol vessels, and aircraft. By 1968 the SNA is to be
slightly larger and significantly modernized, with mobile
ground forces supported by jet fighter aircraft. At the same
time, Somali officials, both civilian and military, have said
they do not want to be entirely dependent on the USSR.
m
r..i y
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
The armed forces are believed to be largely apolitical
and loyal to the government, although there is some dissat-
isfaction among junior officers with conditions of service
and the leadership of older police-trained ranking officers.
B. Army
The SNA ground forces have a current strength of about
8,500 organized into eight infantry battalions and several
support units. Each battalion consists of three infantry
companies, a headquarters and service company, and support
elements including mortar, antitank gun, machinegun, and
antiaircraft gun platoons.
The present battalions may be converted into six mechan-
ized battle groups by 1970. Each of the new battle groups is
to consist of a mechanized infantry battalion, an artillery
battalion, a tank company, a service company, and a head-
quarters company. The new infantry battalion will include
three infantry companies and a weapons company composed of
two mortar platoons and two antitank platoons. The artillery
battalion will include an antiaircraft battery and one or.two
field artillery batteries. The service company will include
a transportation platoon and an engineer platoon.
The present eight battalions are widely deployed, and
the locations of the six new battle groups are expected to
be similarly scattered. Three battalions are currently
stationed in the northwest, at Hargeisa, Adadle, and Burao.
Three are located in the southwest, at Mogadiscio, Baidoa,
and Chisimaio. Two are stationed in the central portion of
the country, at Belet Uen and Galcaio.
Prior to the 1963 Soviet assistance agreement, Somalis
received military training in the United Kingdom, Italy, Iraq,
and the United Arab Republic. Beginning in 1964, most overseas
training has taken place in the USSR, and training in Somalia
has been almost entirely in the hands of Soviet advisers.
The army maintains an officer candidate school in Mogadiscio.
Noncommissioned officers also train in Mogadiscio. Recruit
training centers are located at Mogadiscio and Hargeisa. Com-
mando-type training is conducted at Hargeisa and at Balad, near
Mogadiscio. An artillery school is at Mogadiscio, and a driver
school is at nearby Uarsceich.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
The Somali National Police (SNP), organized into eight
territorial units of varying sizes, is responsible for law
enforcement, border control, and internal security. The
force is generally well trained and disciplined. It is
capable of maintaining internal security, although it prob-
ably could not contain continuing, widespread violence and
cannot prevent endemic tribal conflicts.
The strength of the SNP is estimated at 6,000 including
the 1,500-man Darawishta. The Darawishta is a mobile force
in which most of the N 's paramilitary capability is con-
centrated. It is organized into nine companies stationed
throughout the country. It is trained in basic infantry
tactics and armed with automatic weapons and light mortars.
The SNP has four Cessna 185 light aircraft.
Police training is conducted largely in Somalia. Selec-
ted officers and technicians are trained abroad, principally
in Italy. The chief sources of advice and material assistance
are Italy, the United States, and West Germany. An Italian
army adviser assists in Darawishta training.
The Somali National Army Air Force (SNAAF), with a
strength of about 300, was organized in 1962 as a branch of
the SNA. Its mission is to support ground forces in the
maintenance of internal and border security, but current
capabilities are limited by an insufficient number of air-
craft and trained personnel and by shortages in replacement
parts and fuel. Prior to the Soviet agreement Somalia had
about 15 old US, UK, and Italian aircraft.
Since late 1964 flight training and supervision, as well
as schooling for mechanics and other support personnel, have
been undertaken in large part by the USSR. Because of low
educational and skill levels, the attrition rate for SNAAF
cadets in the Soviet Union has been high, and many graduates
are unable to maintain their proficiency when they return to
Somalia. Of some 30 pilots who recently returned from the
USSR, only two were able to qualify on jet aircraft and eight
on conventional aircraft during a refresher training program
conducted by Soviet advisers.
The SNAAF has about 25 aircraft, of which only seven are
known to be operationally assigned. These include two C-47
transports, two Vampire T-55 trainers, and three Helio H-395
Courier utility aircraft. The unassigned aircraft include
-119-
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
three Soviet MIG-15 jet fighters which are being used for
training. Some of the 40 cadets now in the USSR probably are
training on MIG-17 fighters. The Soviet military assistance
agreement probably includes the provision of one squadron of
about 15 MIG-15's or MIG-17's before 1970. Some MIG-17's
have also been delivered.
E. Navy
The Somali navy has been recently organized under Soviet
supervision as an element of the SNA. Operations are centered
at the port of Berbera which is being developed by the Soviets
under the 1961 economic aid agreement. Somali naval capabilities
are currently insignificant. There are four boats of Soviet
design: two mechanized landing craft (LCM) of the "T-4" class
and two patrol craft (YP) of the "Poluchat-l" class. Four
additional patrol craft are to be delivered, probably before
1970. About 125 personnel are in training,.most of them in
the USSR, and some Soviet advisors are working with the naval
recruits at Berbera.
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Survival in Somalia depends on one's knowledge of the
water supply and the people. Regional and seasonal differences
in the location of both water and people, which may be strongly
modified by recent rainfall abnormalities, greatly affect any-
one's chances of success. Food is scarce, even for the local
population. Without the help of the local population survival
would be extremely difficult, but with their assistance at
least the basic physical needs could probably be met. Recent
political and paramilitary events and the affiliations of the
assisting group largely determine the degree of cooperation
shown a stranger.
The relatively flat terrain throughout most of Somalia
would not be a serious barrier to movement of small groups on
foot. However, the mountains of the north are extremely
difficult to cross except through one of the three passes,
and the two rivers in the south may be dangerous if not
impossible to cross when in flood. Watercourses that are
customarily dry are also a potential hazard, for they can be
treacherous because of the rapidity with which they flood
after a rain.
B. Water and People
By far the most important consideration is the avail-
ability of water. Because of the continually high tempera-
tures a walking man perspires freely in every month of the
year, even in the northern mountains, and requires at least
a gallon of water per day to continue to move about freely.
The usual sources of water -- wells,boreholes, surface pools,
and the two rivers -- are meager even in the rainy seasons
(April-May and October-November) of most years, and as long
as these sources contain any water they are used by a per-
manent or nomadic population. All water must be considered
contaminated and should be treated chemically or boiled.
During the dry seasons (December-March and June-September)
the smaller sources dry up, especially those in northern
Somalia, and force their users to seek more reliable sources,
most of which are in the south. Under these conditions no
watering place is left unattended for long, and securing
water without detection by the local inhabitants is virtually
impossible. Abnormal climatic conditions can modify drast-
ically the customary regimes of water and people. In 1961
a flood destroyed the food crops of an estimated 100,000
persons living in the Giuba and Scebeli River basins.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
The drought of 1965 in northeastern Somalia killed off some
three-fourths of the cattle, sheep, and goats of that area
and drove many destitute nomads into the towns.
If it is possible to obtain water from a solar still
or other independent source and thus avoid the usual watering
places and the people, an outsider's ease and flexibility of
movement would be greatly increased. This advantage applies
particularly to northern Somalia in the dry seasons, when
many nomads have moved south and those remaining must stay
close to the few available watering places. Conversely, the
advantage of an independent water supply is least in the south
in the wet seasons.
It is difficult to avoid contact with people in Somalia.
Even in areas of the north that are remote from roads, water-
holes, and flocks, curious natives may appear when least
expected. They are usually friendly to a Westerner, although
they are basically antiforeign. Their outlook is generally
conditioned by the current state of Somali nationalist agita-
tion. They have little respect for international borders and
may not even know their approximate location. As of mid 1966,
secessionists from the Northern Frontier District of Kenya
were located in 10 camps in Somalia near the Kenya border.
(When food and arms are available the secessionists return
to their tribal area in Kenya and attack government installa-
tions.) A traveler on foot in the bush could avoid people and
might find easier walking for a few miles along one of the
many "shot lines" of Somalia. "Shot lines" are narrow, absol-
utely straight clearings made by Western oil companies in
testing for oil. They avoid villages and habitations of any
sort. A traveler should realize that news of his contact
with local people anywhere probably will spread quickly and
will soon reach one of the 81 Somali police posts. All such
posts are equipped with good radio communications.
Little information is available on living off the land
in Somalia. North of the Scebeli River only a highly expe-
rienced individual could obtain food and avoid detection
for an extended period. South of the Scebeli the vegetation
is heavier and there is probably more small game, such as
guinea fowl, rabbit, dik-dik, and Speke gazelle, than in the
north; but there are also more people. Fishing offers fairly
good possibilities to a person near the two rivers or the coast,
partly because most Somalis are not fond of fish. Rock lobsters
can be picked up from the reefs at night at secluded spots
along the coast. Stealing planted crops or animals on the hoof
-S P
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
anywhere in Somalia would probably result in detection by
dogs, children, or owners who are ever conscious of their
meager food supplies.
D. Natural Dangers
An adequate defense is necessary against strong sunlight,
high temperatures, and hot, drying winds. A complete covering
of light clothing, including full-length trousers, sleeves,
socks, and hat, is desirable and also provides protection
against insects, thorns, and blowing sand. Along the immedi-
ate coast the humidity may be uncomfortably high, even in
the heat of the day. The hardest time of year is probably
the northern spring and summer (April through September),
which starts off with lifeless air and thunderstorms over
most of Somalia and develops into the hot, dry, southwest
monsoon.
At night, living in the open presents few problems.
Sleeping on the bare ground with very little covering and
without a shelter is customary for natives and Westerners.
Rarely do prowling animals disturb a camp unless wounded
or very hungry, and a circle of thorn brush offers considerable
protection from them. Insects are numerous near water, but
they are not prevalent enough in dry places to be bothersome.
The danger from poisonous snakes (Somalia has 17 varieties)
is much less than supposed, night or day; an American who
recently spent 4 years in Somalia and lived much of the time
in the open saw only two poisonous snakes while he was there.
E. Medical Factors
Medical and health conditions in the Somali Republic
are very poor due to a critical shortage of medical workers
and supplies and to a reluctance on the part of the native
population to observe sanitatary measures and to participate
in medical programs. Many infectious diseases are therefore
rampant which otherwise could be brought under control.
The principal diseases to be encountered and other
pertinent data are tabulated in paragraph F.
The following points will be of use in operations in
the Somali Republic:
1. In order to avoid infection with schistosomiasis
(blood fluke disease), do not enter water infested with
snails.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
2. Filter and boil all water for 20 minutes.
Chemical treatment of water is a secondary method.
Cook all foods thoroughly and eat them while they are
hot. Clean and scald all fresh fruits and vegetables,
or, after cleaning, soak in chemically treated water.
3. Take care when camping or operating in areas
containing domestic animals; many of these carry diseases
transmissible to man.
4. The incidence of malaria is discontinuous due
to geographic barriers. It is seasonal and follows
periods of heavy rains. Malaria is transmitted from
the valleys to the mountains up to heights of 7,000
feet. The incidence is relatively low above 4,500
feet.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
1n
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
1. CIA. NIS 55, Sec 21, Military and Geographic Regions,
May 1960. C. NO FOREIGN DISSEM.
2. . NIS 55, Sec 23, Weather and Climate, May 1965.
C. NO FOREIGN DISSEM.
3. NIS 55, Sec 24, Topography, Feb 1960. C. NO
DEIGN DISSEM.
25X1
6. Navy, ONI. Poisonous Snakes of the World -- A Manual
for Use by US Amphibious Forces, ONI Study 3-62,
30 Jun 1962. U.
7. Simmons, J. S. and T. F. Whayne, G. W. Anderson, and
H. M. Horack, Global Epidemiology: A Geography of
Disease and Sanitation, Vol II, London: J. B.
Lippincott Co., 19 1. 652pp. U.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
RECOMMENDED MAPS
Maps and, charts of Kenya have been published. primarily by
the British or are based on British sources. Many have been
reproduced in quantity by US agencies. The maps and charts
listed. below are suggested. for general use and are available
at the CIA Map Library. A detailed, discussion of mapping and
charting is contained, in Chapter IX, Map and. Chart Appraisal,
of National Intelligence Survey 55, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the
Somalilands, published, in October 191'97.
1. East Africa, 1:250,000; US Army Map Service; Series
-64. Six sheets cover the Somalia - Kenya
border west of 42?E.
2. East Africa, 1:500,000; US Army Map Service; Series
7401 (GS 4355); 1942-58. Sixteen sheets cover Somalia
south of 08?N.
3. World, 1:500,000; US Army Map Service; Series 1404
(GSGS 4830), 1959-60, boundaries 1964. Seven sheets
cover Somalia north of 08?N.
4. World, 1:1,000,000; US Army Map Service; Series 1301;
1946-63. Eight sheets cover Somalia.
DRAINAGE MAP
British Somaliland, 1:100,000; British Directorate of
.Military Survey; GSGS 4868; 1957. Sixty-seven sheets cover
former British Somaliland. Drainage, road pattern, and place
names are detailed.
1. USAF Operational Navigation Chart (ONC), 1:1,000,000;
US Aeronautical Chart and Information Center; Sheet K-6;
base 1961, air information June 1963. This sheet covers
Somalia north of 08?N.
2. World Aeronautical Chart (WAC), 1:1,000,000; US Aeronautical
Chart and Information Ci7nter; bases 1951-65, air information
1954-65. Five sheets cover Somalia south of 08?N.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
TOWN PLANS AND PORT PLANS
1. Mogad.iscio, 1:12,500; US Army Map Service; Series Y921;
1963.
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 Approved For Release 2007/02/23: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100060001-2
POPULATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
r it - _A-LT.ORjANO ;
Halin '
y
L L\E Y
(El Hamurre
Dbbia'
Garad
Region boundary
? Region capital
O* National capital
Persons per square mile
o 26 and over
O io and over
Persons per square kilometer
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
Coastal fishing
Area of northern Somali wet-
season grazing (The Haud)
Inland limit of coconut palms
Average annual rainfall
in inches
^ Bananas
p Cotton
A Sugarcane
j Sugar refinery
)44 Fish cannery
Beef cannery
J Leather goods
Cotton gin
? Railroad repair shop
Structural metals plant
Dairy products
Fe Iron
Gypsum
PEOPLES
SOMALI REPUBLIC
TERRAIN AND TRANSPORTATION
ROADS
May be closed for long periods
Spot height (in feet)
POPULATED PLACES
Under 10,000
Statute Miles
0 50 100 150
Dir
Is'hak
Darod
Hawiya
Digil
Rahanwein
Non-Somali
Limit of Somali-
inhabited area
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 El
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E
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