LETTER TO JOHN J. HARTFORD FROM (Sanitized)

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80B01676R003600070076-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 66
• Document Creation Date: December 12, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 14, 2002
• Sequence Number: 76
• Publication Date: December 23, 1960
• Content Type: LETTER

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STAT
December 15, 196 .
Allen W. Dulles, Director,
Central Intelligence Agency,
Washington, D.C.
In the last issue of Reader's Digest is a condensation of your
address delivered in Detroit before a convention of the Veterans
of Foreign Wars August 22nd last. Your recommendation, that
people must be sufficiently educated in all ramifications of the
Bolshevik movement, its intrigues and historical background and
in its purposes and programs to contribute toward an effective
answer, is most fundamental.
Accompanying this letter is a book by Dr. Fred Schwarz which, I
believe, exposes the delusion of Bolshevism and its intrigues in
easily read and understandable language. I would like to see
literature of this sort abundant in every high school and college
in this country.
As you know, an invincible American retalitory force is necessary
to prevent our immediate enslavement; however, in ideology and
education it is urgent that we must be on the great offensive. In
our foreign effort nothing better could be done for the preservation
and advancement of freedom than to have this type of literature
flowing into foreign university centers in the languages of the
countries concerned.
A. domestic and foreign education program of this type would have
profound and far-reaching affects in advancing the cause of
individual worth and sanity in human society.
Thank you for your attention concerning the accompanying book and
for the action you take in having such material placed where it
will be progressively effective.
JJH:jc
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OF THE PRESIDENT
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
OF WASHINGTON
1959-1960
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There have been moments in history when new worlds were discovered.
There was such a moment when Columbus discovered America. Creation wid-
ened to man's view. There is such a moment now. We are all aware that the
immediate future holds within it possibilities different from anything that has
been known in the past.
A. N. Whitehead-Education and Self-Education
In his youth, the born poet often wavers between science and literature; and
his choice is determined by the chance attraction of one or other of the al-
ternative modes of expressing his imaginative joy in nature. It is essential to
keep in mind, that science and poetry have the same root in human nature.
A. N. Whitehead-Science in General Education
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N A WORLD OF UNPARALLELED ADVANCE IN OUR APPRE-
ciation and comprehension of nature, we are privileged to vistas of both
insight and wonder inconceivable to our forefathers. Perhaps we are
also heir to even keener concerns and more profound problems, rooted at
once in the extraordinary command of natural forces that we have achieved
and in the unexampled magnitude and complexity of the social questions that
beset us. By these very tokens, may not ours be another generation which has
the privilege of standing once again at a major crossroad of history, of living
in that deep travail which more than once has preceded and ushered in a Golden
Age?
What, indeed, is the nature of our own time? Our day is one in which
the brilliance and variety of man's concepts, the diversity of his imagination,
the extent of his practical power to shape and to use his material environment,
perhaps even the penetration of his understanding, have never been remotely
rivaled in all of earlier history. It is also an age in which the dangers of man's
very existence have never seemed as vivid, as omnipresent, as remote from
resolution. For Americans this spirit of the age is twice compounded. For
to the problems of living in a world in upheaval, in which it often seems as
though vast seismic shifts were taking place before our eyes in the deepest
strata of history, is added the insistent feeling that at home too we face new
horizons, new opportunities, new hazards, challenges which demand search-
ing reassessments of our strengths and limitations. We are convinced that
the values in which our nation and our society are rooted are fundamental
to us, yet we are constantly haunted by the feeling-and the evidence-that
the means by which we have traditionally implemented and expressed them
in the past, if projected into the coming years without innovation and imagi-
nation, simply will not be adequate to our future.
All these circumstances lie in the forefront of our individual and our na-
tional thinking and feeling. What may be less evident to us is the significance
of the very fact of the paradoxes they present, of the very fact of our present
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discomfort and dismay. We may forget that the great ages of mankind, the
ages of the most radical changes and the longest advances, the ages that later
generations of men called great, were not the times of easy optimism when
men thought everything discovered, everything architected, everything finished.
Greatness and ease, vast innovation and untroubled stability, are no more com-
patible among nations or in a world community than they are among indi-
viduals.
In the heat and burden of the day, the challenges to our democracy which
such times present are surely as compelling as those that faced the founders of
this nation. Yet current issues differ so greatly from those problems, in range
and complexity and subtlety, that we must seek our answers far beyond the
eighteenth century. One image which may provide significant resources of
inspiration and understanding was little known to the architects of our so-
ciety-was, indeed, in their day, in a relatively primitive stage of development.
Since the earliest years of American industrialism, an important element of
our national character and of our evolution as a society has been molded by
our swiftly developing technology and the science which at once led and
served it. Today we are predominantly a scientific and technical nation, liv-
ing in an age itself characterized by the explosive development of science
throughout the world. Are there not significant things which the very struc-
ture of science as a way of life can say in aid of our understanding of ourselves
and of this age and of the task of our nation-this age and this nation so pro-
foundly shaped by science at a secular level, as we all know, and, as we may be
less keenly aware in our everyday living, at a deeper and more spiritual level
too ?
I N THE north and south porches of the famous Gothic cathedral of Char-
tres, high on its hill overlooking the Eure, stand thirteenth-century carved
figures among the most perfectly balanced and most delicate sculptured works
of art executed in western Europe since the days of the Greeks. They have
long been cited as the very epitome of that new freedom of spirit in the French
Gothic which within a hundred years replaced the stylized, often cruel, modes
of the Romanesque, with their echoes of Byzantine and Celt. Their natural-
ism and the fresh imagination that evidently inspired it, well symbolized by
the curling leaves just broken from the bud which were a favorite image,
ushered in that flowering of the High Gothic of which the cathedrals at Amiens
and Rheims are such superb and characteristic examples. These figures of the
north and south porches were probably completed between 1205 and 1270.
In their lightness and their naturalism and the vivid imagination they con-
vey, they proclaim the attainment at last of a sense of freedom and a vision
and a hope wholly foreign to those Romanesque styles which but two hun-
dred years earlier obviously dominated a very different age.
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In sharp contrast to these striking sculptures stands another line of figures
of a significance more pointed, perhaps, for our own day. These sculptures
of the western face are of far different character. They were evidently com-
pleted before the great fire of 1194, which largely destroyed the older building,
and date, perhaps, from about 1145-a mere century, more or less, before their
companions on the northern and the southern walls. The prominent heads
and vertical, elongated figures, the rigid stance, and the conventionally stiff
lines of the robes, almost Egyptian in suggestion, make each outline more
nearly that of a structural column than of a human figure, and mark the
work as unmistakably Romanesque in style.
But the faces of these rigid figures are arrestingly different.. In striking
contrast to the rigid formal bodies, they are of an intense and haunting spiritu-
ality, of a loftiness and a deep unease which convey an intense inner disquiet
combined with overpowering resolution. They are the spirits that withstood
the thousand years of storm and flood, of lightning and of wind-torn darkness
that spanned the distance between two great ages-the age of Greece and the
age of the High Renaissance. In their faces, and in the curious blend of cul-
tures they represent, are written the intensity of hopes and fears, the clouded
but importunate vision that must ever precede a great awakening. These are
features created by artists who were clearly the children of an ambivalent
society, whose greatest doubts, whose greatest tests of strength, came just before
its dawn. When those features are compared with the assurance and com-
mand, the far greater art but the lesser inner demand, expressed in the more
beautiful and graceful features of the figures of the transept porches, they offer
vivid testimony of how indissoluble uncertainty and insecurity and great syn-
thesis and prophecy must be, and on the other hand of how often balance and
satisfaction and stability and a conscious sense of achievement among men
may be the attributes of mere completion.
Three hundred years later, when Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452, that
particular dawn had become full day. Da Vinci's own incomparable art, and
the undying testament of his contemporaries Titian and Michelangelo and
Raphael Sanzio, are its permanent proof. But there were other contemporaries
too-Columbus and Magellan and John and Sebastian Cabot and Vasco da
Gama. Less than thirty years after Leonardo's death in France in 1519 Tycho
Brahe was to be born in Denmark, and less than half a century was to pass
before the birth of Francis Bacon, and of Leonardo's own immortal country-
man Galileo. Casements to new worlds, which would open to undreamed
enlargements in man's concepts of the universe and of his more immediate
environments, stood just ajar. We have long revered Leonardo as a spirit
which crowned the classical Renaissance while offering prophetic testimony to
another and a greater age, more popular and more empirical, that was to fol-
low. Our evidence has been the span of his gifts, the incredible breadth of
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interest and imagination and energy that has made him, of all the figures of
history, most nearly the epitome of the artist and the scientist at one.
But he left another testimony which is more poignant, and more relevant
today. It is a testimony of the doubts, the fears, and the sense of disaster that
must beset the most sensitive and prophetic of those who walk the corridors
of change. Among the later drawings that survive from this artist who by
the contemporary accounts showed to the world a nature predominantly of
kindliness, of optimism, of radiant magnetism, there is a group of miniature
sketches portraying scenes of massive and catastrophic human suffering and
of calamitous human disaster. In them, helpless crowds of men and women
are overwhelmed by flood or tornado or consumed by fiery holocausts whose
curving whorls of smoke and flame are set out with a careful and a devastat-
ing accuracy against the human agony. Nothing could so contrast with the
serene beauty of Leonardo's faces to which we are more accustomed-to the
spirit of a Mona Lisa-than these creations, with their overtones of violence
and disaster and despair, and their curious mixture of art and of coldly ana-
lytical descriptive science.
At Chartres, and again three hundred years later in Italy, the story is dra-
matically repeated. A brilliant and a predominantly classical age is jostled by
a new, with its secularization, its promise of a broadening of horizons beyond
men's wildest dreams, its widely shared revolution of attitudes to the world
which no man can predict in detail but which a few men can dimly sense. Eager-
ness and undefinable excitement, instability and danger, an intoxicating and
a suddenly expanding delight in the new ideas and in their communication
compete for men's minds and their emotions. And for those who have
pioneered the older age or have brought it to maturity and fruition, for those
who stand on the threshold and sense its portent without, often enough, being
able to see the form, there is suffering and despondency and even transient
despair. In the faces of the west porch of Chartres and in the fantasies of
disaster of Leonardo are the marks of the somber but deeply characteristic
elements of two of the great passages of history-elements which, in moments
of doubt or of discouragement, we shall do well to bear in mind today.
Through the centuries that followed, the changing panorama of our civili-
zation has evidenced and re-evidenced that truth. We are vividly aware, to-
day, of the developments that followed da Vinci's doubts and questions and
troubled anticipation-the waves of exploration of the physical world beyond
men's most vivid imagination, the discovery and exploitation of huge and
unsuspected natural resources, the new audacity and confidence that they
brought, the giant strides of commerce and communication and widened social
participation that followed. We know the advent of a new way of looking at
the world which Leonardo foreshadowed, the mode of modern science, emerg-
ing from its long, slow preparation in the trusteeship of the Greeks and
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Moslems. We have vivid experience of how much part and parcel of all men's
evolving worlds this new realm of science was to become, how sensitively re-
sponsive to their moods and needs, and, at a level both subtle and intricate,
how accurately it was to portray each new age which nourished it.
It is no accident that the mathematics of insurance and the computation of
rates of interest underwent a great development in the years of the later Renais-
sance, when commerce was expanding so explosively. It is no accident that
the years when the primitive arts of navigation served a primary frontier of
man's advance were also the years when the first telescopes were designed, and
when the scientific study of optics and hydraulics and the building of clocks
and with them deductions from their mechanism to the processes of life pre-
empted men's enthusiasms and preoccupied their minds. These, and a hun-
dred others, were the currents of desire and need and sensed opportunity that
ultimately produced a Newton and a gravitational theory and gave to modern
science a characteristic, enduring stamp. When trade and commerce and in-
vention replaced navigational exploration as a primary lifeline of nations, it
was such men as James Watt and Edmund Cartwright and Eli Whitney, and,
at another level of understanding, Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry, who
became the architects of a new and different scientific age. And now when
than looked in upon himself or considered other living organisms as physical
phenomena once again he saw them and himself as mechanisms of the kinds
he knew-more complex now: as elaborate and subtle machines operated by
strings and pulleys, or hydrodynamics, or electric currents, as instruments for
the conversion of power, animated by some distinctive primum mobile. Now
when man examined the nonliving world, he strove to reach the heights of
objectivity of a Newton. Right down to the beginning of our century, indeed,
he strove to separate, as rigorously as possible, the observer and the thing he
observed, resistant almost until our day to entering doubt that they might in
truth comprise one system, interlocked and inextricably joined. In our own
time, it is no accident that communication and game and information theory
preoccupy us, that considerations of prediction and of contingent probability
strongly color our thought about life processes, that the molecular structure of
the chromosome and the information-coding aspects of its mode of action are
frontiers in our thinking about heredity.
So it is with the whole history of the growth of modern science. Every-
where it took its character from the conspicuous needs and opportunities of
the time, developing greatness in those areas where it was most needed-where
the age demanded, detected, and rewarded greatness. And everywhere its
spirit was in turn reflected in the society that it served. Surely it is not acci-
dental that the centuries of the flowering of modern science have also been
the centuries of the rise of the Western concept of the dignity, the uniqueness,
and the essential worth of the individual. Perhaps it was not accidental, too,
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that these were also the centuries of the genesis and ascendancy of the modern
nation-state as we, its latter-day contemporaries, understand that term.
In all this tremendous evolution of science there recurred from time to time,
just as in the larger evolution of cultures, periods of a settled and rationalized
optimism in which men took brief and too smug satisfaction, little enclaves in
the march when, it was said, everything was perfected, everything finished.
Such, for instance, in formal Western science, was much of the eighteenth
century, when the Royal Society of London turned back upon its brilliant
promise in the days of Newton's presidency and sank to the level of a club
for polite dilettantes. And there was that later day of May 24, 1859, when
Thomas Bell, the president of the British Linnean Society, in reviewing papers
that had been read before the Society in the preceding session, expressed his
regrets that the session had passed with no evidence of "any of those striking
discoveries which at once revolutionize, so to speak, the departments of science
on which they bear" or "produce a marked and permanent impress on the
character of any branch of knowledge." In fact, it was during that term, on
July 1, 1858, that Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace had read before
the Society their joint contribution On the Tendency of Species to Form
Varieties-the first formal statement of the theory of evolution. And we forget,
nowadays, that several Fellows withdrew from the Linnean Society in pro-
test that Darwin was not expelled from membership for the publication of
the Origin of Species.
Less than a half century later, at the beginning of our own century, there
came another, similar period, this time for physics, when everything seemed
to be completed and known-the era which once again, by the same seem-
ingly typical just irony of fate, immediately preceded the revolutionary dis-
coveries of the structure of the atomic nucleus which have so shaped our own
time.
But the main trends in science, as in the rest of our recent civilization, have
been far different. Their stamp has been instability, vast shifts in man's con-
cept of his universe and his place in it and of his own very constitution and
nature, delight in ideas, or sheer fascination with them because of their com-
pelling sweep and force, and an overwhelming urge to communicate them
broadly and to share widely in them. The ages that have witnessed these
trends have been characterized, too, by the attainment of new levels in the
physical well-being and the moral and spiritual horizons and opportunities of
the individual. Together with all these developments, and both as cause and
as consequence of them, new and widely voiced demands have typically ap-
peared-demands for innovation in the structure of society, reflected in social
and political insecurity, in rapidly shifting patterns of political and social
organization.
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REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT xxi
HE MORE one contemplates our own time, the more it seems to resemble
those earlier dynamic and critical eras of Western history so typically
characterized by a keen sense of change and exploration, and also by an atmos-
phere of personal and political and social insecurity. No one observing the
eagerness with which developments in the exploration of space, for example,
are currently watched and commented upon and interpreted by all the peoples
of the globe can forget the world of Leonardo, into which Columbus and
Magellan and Vasco da Gama were born. Our time is marked by the same
sense of new physical frontiers close at hand, the same ferment of new ideas,
the same vast and rending shifts in the individual's notion of the universe and
his place in it, and, most poignantly, of his very nature. There are the same
new and violent and still little-understood demands of political and social
organization, in a world whose huge and shifting tides bring new and untried
peoples to the political level of the nation-state just when the nation-state in
its primitive form is elsewhere passing from the world. And there is the same
intense need for vigorous and imaginative leadership in every field.
In all these aspects, our own age may indeed be quite typical of the most
significant eras of change in the fifteen hundred years since the fall of Rome,
differing primarily in the greater intensity and scope of an enormously more
complex world. Yet some of the changes with which we are concerned so
vastly exceed those that occupied other ages as almost to differ in kind. The
sources of physical power which have been uncovered and brought to use in
our era are evidently of a different order of magnitude and of variety from
any that man has known before. Concomitantly, the burden which we place
on. our natural resources is greater by orders of magnitude than we have ex-
perienced before, and is quite clearly still near the beginning of its expansion
curve. The world communication of ideas, always a feature of the great
ages, now so far exceeds in volume, range, and speed what we have ever
known as to bring social and intellectual implications of a wholly new charac-
ter. The capacity for essentially instantaneous communication, indeed, as
has recently been pertinently noted in connection with the observance of the
three hundredth anniversary of the Royal Society, has been a primary gift of
engineering to the second half of the twentieth century. Power is carried in
seconds from waterfalls to cities. Messages are transmitted in moments from
one continent to another. Computers are able to perform in microseconds
calculations that would require days or years for the human mind-if, indeed,
it were capable of encompassing them at all. It has taken a major human
adjustment for the West to accustom itself to this range and speed of com-
munication, deeply affecting all its affairs and driving society at a new pace.
And now, in our immediate future, new nations must make this same great
orientation, in a world which allows but little time for major readjustments
of international affairs.
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Our age brings difficult paradoxes and radical shifts of concept at a more
subtle level which must challenge us with more imminent and even more
telling blows to our sense of competence and security. In an era which offers
unrivaled opportunities for individual development the very pressure of popu-
lation and the intricacy of modern life demand new levels of human integra-
tion. It is a demand that will tax our ingenuity to the utmost if we are to
live successfully in a world where complex and powerful organization is an
overriding factor without at the same time suffering an intolerable shrinking
of the sphere of the individual. Again, in an age that has succeeded in un-
locking the sources of physical power to a degree unimaginable to earlier
times, the control and modulation and organization of this power now must
claim our particular attention. That is a claim that can bring as profound
changes in our concepts of the universe and of ourselves as ever were wrought
by the physical exploration of a new continent. At the very time when we
have achieved almost the instantaneous transmission of messages, the mode
of generation of the message and the assessment of its content of information
become primary targets of inquiry and research. And with these develop-
ments are coming once again vast upheavals in the individual's vision of his
own nature and his relationship to his world wrought by the profound de-
velopments in science and philosophy since the advent of quantum and of
relativity theory. What wonder that an age so challenging, so richly reward-
ing but with such high and irrevocable penalties for failure, should engender
the dread that we so often see, the "turning away" that factors of such
poignance must bring when they press in inhuman measure? Such times call
for an order of leadership and an order of excellence in every sphere greater
than we have ever known: a leadership of greater force, greater knowledge,
greater understanding-and a leadership yet more widely dispersed in every
level of our society.
Once again in our time, as in the times of Newton or of Faraday, science
serves as a mirror of the wants, the hopes, the fears, and the visions of the
societies that nourish it. Although science is but one among many modes that
affect the course of a society or reflect the nature of its concerns, it is a pe-
culiarly sensitive and prophetic one. For science by its very nature, in the
modern day, is a provider of both sinews and ideas to the societies that it
nourishes-it is at once a spiritual and an intellectual way of life and a very
practical and powerful way of getting things done. This is especially true of
our own time and our own nation, in an age where scientific matters form so
considerable a component of the fabric and the concern of our society. So it
is especially interesting to think of science. within the framework of the
character, the aspirations, and the contemporary needs of our own nation.
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REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT xxiii
We have always been a pioneering, an experimenting, and a deeply pur-
poseful people. These attitudes, with their pre-eminent concern for the
future, their fundamental tenet that nothing is-or should be-finished, that
the past is but a foretaste of what is to come in different and better measure,
constitute our basic inheritance from a wilderness land where the challenges,
though severe and taxing, were not insurmountable. Those tenets have
formed a core of our being, a foundation of our greatness. They have not
changed essentially in the two centuries of our nationhood. They represent
our most fundamental ethic, the most priceless heritage that we have to
conserve.
From that heritage follow beliefs of equal import. The reverence for the
individual and his rights, the belief that most creation is, at base, individual,
spring from the foundations of our original national ethic, itself a Renais-
sance inheritance. They have been constantly reinforced by the continuing
evidence that in a pioneering culture, where innovation is all-important, the
individual in a practical as well as an ethical and a spiritual sense is indeed
the vital fount of a society. We have felt profoundly that individual excellence
is our most exalted goal. And with this conviction has always gone, as de
Tocqueville long ago observed, a deeply religious ethic, which in fact gave
birth to large sectors of our society and still shapes our attitudes and motiva-
tions. We still know that the essential worth of life for the individual lies
in a dedication larger than himself.- We are learning, now, that the wisdom
of total dedication spans the workaday world no less than the religious realm.
We have always-been a nation of buoyant optimists, convinced that nothing
is inherently impossible, that, at most, it may take a generation or two to
modify the course of events to suit our needs, just as it took a generation or
two to accomplish the winning of the west. And, finally, we have a keen
appetite and a native relish for situations in which the means are relatively
well known but the ends are large and uncertain. It is very important for us
that our goals shall in the main be unknown until we have achieved them;
that they shall be larger than our means, and perhaps larger than our dreams;
and, above all, that when they are finally within our grasp, we have the op-
portunity to pass on to the pursuit of other and more distant goals, still all
but hidden over the horizon, still the foundation of dreams as well as of
fulfillment.
In America the technology at which we were traditionally so apt and the
science which was its later consequence and leader burst upon a society which
had not yet crystallized its patterns. Their revolutionary influence brought
material prosperity as well as intellectual satisfaction, and they soon assumed
so dominant a role in the infant society that its principal modes formed easily
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around them. Thus it was, perhaps, that the curious dichotomy between an
essentially conservative social structure and a radical technological and scien-
tific one, by which we live, came into being and persisted and grew through
the years. Thus it was, perhaps, that some of the most socially conservative
of our highly gifted citizens, some of the early great industrialists, became
the most radical social innovators of their age. Even more important, this
curious and apparently almost fortuitous circumstance of timing may have
had a major contributing influence on the extent to which the very struc-
ture of science and technology, in our day, has come to mirror and epitomize,
sometimes with extraordinary emphasis and accuracy, the essence of the
democratic way as we conceive it.
Science is today, as it has always been, in essence a society-a society made
up of individuals committed to the pursuit of truth wherever it may lie, a
society with extremely high standards of conduct. They are standards, more-
over, which must be maintained not only out of strong inner belief in them, but
as well for the less lofty but pragmatically compelling reason that, unless they
are so maintained, science simply cannot function. The rules of science are
flexible in content but uncompromising in principle: dedication to the search
for truth, dedication to unconformity, dedication to rigid discipline and
economy and parsimony of thought, to communication among its members,
to the continuous checking and cross checking and agreement and disagree-
ment which not only can alone ensure the elimination of error and miscon-
ception, but which, at a deeper level, almost certainly constitute the truth in
our modern definition of it.
It follows that in science, as in our larger democratic society, the individual
is still a supremely important factor. In a related sense, science, like democracy,
must enthrone the values of private concern, embodying and sternly defend-
ing those sectors of individual effort for which no collective element may
substitute. Again science, like a democracy, has made an institution of the
process of continuous reorientation, in a sense, of continuous reform. A
science that is faithful to its trust, like a democracy that is true to its being,
will refuse to claim that its work is ever done. Neither the success of science
nor the success of a democracy can ever be taken for granted. It is quite pos-
sible that science may be able to supply, may indeed be supplying to a sig-
nificant degree, one of the greatest needs of our larger society today-the
continuing demonstration of human perfectibility, the constant stimulation,
and recognition, of individual excellence, albeit in one particular sector of
living. In so doing, it may well be providing one of the important incentives
for individual achievement. Like our greater society, the society of science at
its best is deeply motivated by an ethic at once basically religious in character
and dedicated not only to the supremacy of the individual but to that spirit of
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frontier unconformism which is such a pronounced end precious element in
our own tradition.
As Walter Lippmann has aptly observed, Americans stand today in need of
fresh road maps, and, once again in our history as so often before, of great
innovational leadership. As an internal problem, we have now to live success-
fully with and successfully dispose the large resources, personal and national,
that our genius and hard work and incomparable good fortune have brought
to us. We have the problem of redefining our unknown ends, now that we
seem to have attained many of the old ones. Perhaps most important of all,
we have the tremendous problem of maintaining our old aptitude and appe-
tite for excellence-not only because they provide us with the one goal which
is immortal and is of all most deeply satisfying, and which of all our ends
most clearly epitomizes our dedication to the worth of the individual, but for
the further very practical reason that in a perilous, highly competitive world
our survival as a free people requires nothing less.
The coming years, moreover, will bring a new and most important kind
of challenge to our verve, which will demand all our reserves of understand-
ing to meet and to surmount. That ingrained optimism, that belief that the
future is on our side which is one of our most precious assets as a people, is
evidently rooted in part in our domestic environment and in our proven past
successes. But it is a product too of other very special aspects of our history,
as Robert L. Heilbroner has pointed out. We began our nation with the
protection of two oceans, with weak competitors at home and divided enemies
abroad. At our door were reserves of wealth probably unsurpassed in the
experience of pioneers, wealth which required ingenuity and application, skill
and toil, to exploit, but the realization of which was never beyond the power
of able men. We inherited a land free from social constraint, or indeed from
social patterns of any kind that were relevant to us. We were blessedly free,
and knew that we were free, of an oppressive and abiding past. We did indeed
inherit the priceless asset of the tabula rasa, so far as our new environment
was concerned.
These circumstances have left us with the firmly rooted conviction that,
if we but strive sufficiently, history and the future must do our bidding. It
would be extraordinary-and profoundly tragic-if we were really to doubt,
today, that we can remake any situation to our liking and our need. But
there is an obverse to this coin. As a mature nation, now, maintaining our-
selves in a world of unmatched danger, faced with challenges more severe
than man has ever known, no longer protected by our oceans and quite as
vulnerable as any other people, our old concepts about the future must be
critically sharpened if we are not to be needlessly and damagingly disillusioned
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in ways that could seriously affect our verve and our philosophy. For it is
inevitable, now, that we shall encounter large factors in our future which we
cannot immediately manage to our satisfaction, no matter how hard we try.
Inevitably we shall sometimes find ourselves in situations where our power of
will in the short run, try as hard as we may, will not suffice. These will be
tests of a new order of severity. We shall be tempted to accuse ourselves, and
especially representative individuals among us, of incompetence, or misman-
agement, or wrong action, or insufficient action. We must continually remind
ourselves, in these circumstances, that the forces of history are titanic when
we are fully exposed to them, and more than ever so in our own day. We must
remember that a keen sense of what to expect and a keen general instinct of
how to react may be as important as an immediate design of action. Above
all we must learn to live steadfastly with such situations over an indefinite
future, knowing and firmly resisting the temptations, which will unfailingly
come to us, to abandon even for a moment the fortresses of our being-our
verve, our optimism, our humanity. Above all else our actions must continu-
ally reaffirm our faith in our deepest ethic-our loyalty to one another, our
refusal to refer the shortcomings of all of us and of our situation to the easy
scapegoats of particular men in particular situations, and most of all, our con-
tinued reverence of the individual. Here science may be particularly helpful,
for in its multifarious encounters with a difficult and unknown and fre-
quently intractable world it long ago developed special skills, based upon
these truths, for meeting such situations.
It is clear that science is one of the most precious spiritual and moral, as
well as material, values in our society, and that it serves us today in a par-
ticularly critical time-and nowhere more so than in its emphasis upon the
individual. Movements of history have typically been initiated by individual,
unconforming men. Originality and independence, individual dissent, properly
protected, are the very essence of our civilization. Calvin and Spinoza, dis-
senting Puritans and Yankee husbandmen, a John Knox and a Washington
and a Roosevelt and thousands more bear testimony to the power of the indi-
vidual. And in science, whose basic task is innovation and whose greatest
weapon is originality, this truth is epitomized: Newton and Einstein,
J. J. Thomson, Rutherford, Darwin, and Pasteur, and hosts whose contribu-
tions are publicly less known, all furnish the immortal demonstration of it.
For science in its public function, now become one of its greatest, the protec-
tion of the individual and his independence, the honor of free thought and
free expression, the public welcome of dissent, all are utterly vital. The ene-
mies of these in our time are particularly dangerous because they are not
tangible and dramatic, but amorphous and difficult to see. They are not formal
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oppression or suppression, or even organized intolerance. They do not take
the shape of the great and striking social injustices which we have known and
fought before and so can recognize and be on guard against. They are more
subtle, more insidious factors-inattention, lassitude, hostility to innovation
arising from failure to recognize that innovation must, of its very nature, be
antithetic to established order, and that we must embrace that antithesis for
the life blood that it brings. Perhaps most important among these subtle dan-
gers for the scientific way is the threat of simple, widespread, massive mis-
urlderstanding of its nature, its purpose, its indispensable place and part, not
only in our practical world, but as a vital part of our deepest philosophy and
belief.
It. is disturbing, therefore, to note a gulf, in feeling and sympathy, which
frequently exists between those who practice the scientific way and those whose
commitment lies with the nonscientific sector of our cultural heritage-the
dichotomy of "the two cultures." This is a conflict rooted far in the past.
But it has become greatly intensified in our time, to the disadvantage of both
humanistic and scientific disciplines. In our own, day we can ill afford the
misapprehensions that it entails. There is much, in fact, to suggest that the
apparent dichotomy may be basically unreal, and it is worth careful analysis.
The common factors that unite all the creative disciplines, be they artistic
or humanistic, philosophical or scientific, are far deeper and more fundamental
than the more obvious differences that distinguish them. We are apt to neglect
the fact that, with the possible exception of authentic genius and some very
specialized kinds of talent, good minds in the one culture tend also to be good
minds in the other, and to forget how frequently in the earlier days of scien-
tific effort, before the sheer weight of learning and of evidence forced our
modern specialization, many great figures united the two fields. We forget,
toy, that historically the older periods of cultural burgeoning in the world
have also been the periods of the burgeoning of early science. Shall we classify
da. Vinci, at last, as scientist or humanist-or Socrates, or Plato? What shall
we say of Copernicus, whose education was in the classics, and law and medi-
cine? Shall we forget that Omar Khayyam was a Persian astronomer, or that
the motto of the Royal Society of London was given it by John Evelyn the
diarist, that Samuel Pepys and the poets John Denham and John Dryden
were among its first Fellows, and that the opening lecture of the Society-
on astronomy-was given by the architect Christopher Wren?
Furthermore, as H. M. Dowling has keenly perceived, in our own time
good minds introduced to the sciences and the humanities early enough and
as coherent structures rather than as collections of isolated and apparently
unrelated ideas, will characteristically retain a lifelong sympathy with and gen-
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eral understanding of the objectives of both. Moreover, the mind that has
once been opened to a real appreciation of the one field must perforce acquire
a much better understanding of its own domain, however distant it may super-
ficially appear to be. Conversely, men who misunderstand the deeper cur-
rents and purposes of their own work can never properly appreciate the work
of others.
At their most general level, the characteristics and the objectives of the
arts and of the sciences are of course essentially identical. Both are primarily
concerned with the process of discovery itself, and with discovery of the
beauties of nature. Both professionally excel in innovation, and take delight
in the shapes of things, their patterns, lights, and shades, and in the uncover-
ing of hitherto unperceived relationships. Both strive to cast their descriptions
and discoveries in evocative and universal forms. The successful evocation,
the stimulating or inspiring chain of thought or feeling links the worker with
his audience-the critic and the witness and the final judge. At a very profound
level of understanding, both take communicability and coherence, within the
subject itself and with the audience, as the ultimate criterion of conceptual or
of demonstrated truth.
Both take their very living being and draw their vitality from the joy of
discovery, from the attaining of ends unknown when the work was begun,
through means which are indeed partly or wholly known, but are usually,of
technical difficulty. Both are deeply concerned with the underlying likenesses
between superficially unlike things; with the equating of different aspects of
the same phenomena; with uniting such apparently disparate aspects in com-
mon matrices; with the generalizations which follow the painstakingly,
minute analyses; with analogies and their testing. In this, of course, they are
not only typical of all the most creative and imaginative pursuits of man. They
are typical of the ways in which, today, we are suspecting that our very minds
operate. They are typical, indeed, of the life processes themselves, vitally con-
cerned as these must be with synthesis as well as with analysis, with generaliza-
tion as the final adaptive crowning of the stages of analysis that are first steps
in life's survival. Finally, the arts and the humanities, quite as much as the
natural sciences, must be truly consonant with our contemporary history. All
of them sensitively express the spirit of their age and their civilization at its
highest. As faithfully as they reflect their period, so they are reinforced by the
societies that nourish them. It is a great responsibility that they bear.
But of course the deep-lying similarities between the disciplines of the arts
and the humanities and those of the natural sciences cannot obscure differences
that do indeed exist at another level. They are important, and they must be
fully recognized and thoroughly understood. Perhaps they may best be
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summed in the antitheses we have long recognized, if more intuitively and
generally than analytically and in particular, between what we have often
somewhat vaguely characterized as the additive, versus the nonadditive,
branches of learning.
In the arts and in the natural sciences, alike, it is indeed true that com-
rnunicability and coherence, as Martin Johnson long ago pointed out, are the
essence of truth, and the discovery of truth is the objective of both. But it is
worth noting that in art such coherence must be primarily internal, uniting
the parts of one creation. In the natural sciences, however, it must be in a
sense external, at its best uniting in one theoretically coherent frame the fruits
of many thinkers, whose work is often extremely disparate in character.
Communication and communicability in art must extend primarily between
the creator of the work and his audience, at once his witness and his critic.
Such communication comes primarily after the work itself is finished. In
science, on the other hand, this communication occurs at least as actively dur-
ing the actual progress and structuring of the work as after its completion.
Science, therefore, in a very deep sense is basically a communal activity.
Though the great steps of innovation lie most often with the individual,
"truth" for science cannot rest with him, however comprehensive or pene-
trating his genius. In our day more than ever before it must perforce inhere in
a whole composite fabric of evidence and interpretation, derived from a great
body of communicating investigators examining nature from a multitude of
viewpoints. Truth in our day, indeed, must be a property of this common fabric
of accepted knowledge shared among all the working scientists in a given
field-and, indeed, in a wider sense, shared in comprehension by a multitude
of interested though nonparticipating observers. Of all the newer extensions
of concept in the philosophy of science, this, a product of the more recent years
of our experience, is perhaps the most profound. It is for this reason that the
scientific community in its essence is basically a world community, surpassing
the boundaries of nations. As Pasteur said so penetratingly, "Science has no
homeland"; presciently he added "but a scholar has one." There is an in-
herent paradox in the circumstance that the second aspect of science, as a
fabricator of practical power, makes of it a peculiarly national community as
well. This particular aspect of the scientific effort probably does not find a
close counterpart within the arts.
In the arts, imagination alone may fix the final limits of experience which
can be shared. In the sciences, on the other hand, however indispensable
imagination may-and indeed must-be in discerning those limits and in
reaching the goals that they define, the limits themselves are fixed and de-
termined, in the last experimental analysis, by the concrete evidences of veri-
fication and therefore, ultimately, of the human senses.
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There is an important inherent qualification in this inescapable position of
the natural sciences. Since the final criterion of communicable truth is here
the observation, repeated in many times and places, by many workers and
under many conditions, and since, as we know today, all observations of the
world are of their nature relative, we have to recognize that this "ultimate"
criterion must be relative itself, joining the observer and his environment in
a system from which he can never be isolated.
From this communal characteristic of science there follow many striking
contrasts between its operating modes and those of the arts. The arts must
always make place of honor within their ranks for the lonely, creative Titan.
The sciences, too, ultimately look to such giants for their great advances; but
these men in turn are immensely dependent upon all their fellows, including
among them a wide range of more particular talents-the minute observers,
the keen analysts, the able accomplishers of specialized technical work. So
these men, too, become integral and indispensable elements in the operating
structure of the sciences to a degree that is difficult to conceive within the arts.
From this basic quality, of course, follows the strong tendency to specializa-
tion so characteristic of the natural sciences at the present day. The fact of
specialization in science is strikingly two-edged in its implications and conse-
quences. Specialization in science is fundamentally essential to scientific prog-
ress. For progress in science, in its most general sense, must ultimately come
from that penetration whose indispensable tools are minutely particular
knowledge and expertly sharpened intuition. The classic observation of Pasteur
that science favors the prepared mind is more than ever true in our day. Yet
specialization also erects barriers that are basically inimical to that communi-
cation within the whole body of science upon which truth alone must finally
rest. This barrier to communication is not one of language only, as is too often
imagined. We are prone to forget that in all our affairs words and the con-
cepts for which they stand are intimately and subtly interlocked. So the
barrier is more than one of words-it is frequently a barrier of comprehension
or even awareness of the underlying concepts that the words must try to con-
vey. Yet at the same time this fragmenting of science in the course of its de-
velopment has historically offered rich opportunities for pioneering along
boundaries by men who have been willing to acquire competence in two or
more apparently disparate disciplines which yet are significantly related.
Physical chemistry and chemical physics and geochemistry and geophysics
have testified how rich and illuminating such borderlands can be; the sciences
of biochemistry and biophysics and borderlines between neurophysiology and
studies of behavior, to name but three, offer contemporary testimony that is
equally compelling.
There are important differences between the sciences and the humanistic
disciplines in yet another dimension. The primary task of both the humanities
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and natural sciences in a peculiarly subtle sense is to illumine the future as
well as the past. The primary business of the arts and the humanities, quite
clearly, is to create and to communicate that creation. But to this responsi-
bility the natural sciences add another-in a very special sense, that of building
a fabric of prediction. The idea that the final task of science is the tracing of
relationships of cause and effect has only an ill-defined meaning, in the light
of our present concepts of the universe. But however meaningful such a view
might. be, this task in any case would not be the overriding challenge. That
primary challenge, for science, is conditioned instead by its delight in the
search for grand recurrences in nature. Such a search for regularities must
ever, in the final analysis, resolve to the process of prediction. Science profes-
sionally predicts, and in this it may actually be closer to the essence of living
things than the arts. For the basic processes of life itself are those of predic-
tion. What else, indeed, is the phenomenon of instinct at its functional level
than the process of correct prediction, requiring little immediate information
for its successful execution but relying heavily on regularities in the environ-
ment, which for its success must be quite faithfully maintained? And what is
that property which we call plastic intellect, or even genius, but the ability to
predict successfully, relying heavily now on current information and less de-
pendent on invariant features in its world-though in the end dependent, as
all men, and indeed all life, must be, on some degree of repetition in the
universe ?
Finally, the natural sciences differ from the arts and the humanities in a
pragmatic way. In its second genre, as a means of getting things done, science
has obviously become the architect of great material power, and what it has
accomplished in this field in the past is likely to pale before what the future
holds.
~-l O IT WILL NOT be easy to heal the rifts that have grown between the
L) kingdoms of the humanities and the natural sciences, between the bodies
of thought that they comprehend and the men who are their practitioners. It
will not be easy to bridge the gaps of understanding and of sympathy that
ideally should not exist between them, or to undo the damage that these rifts
have certainly brought, or to eliminate the dangers that they pose for the future.
And yet the fundamental similarities, the bonds of common purpose and of
common taste which unite them more strongly and more deeply than the dif-
ferences can divide, are plain for all to see. They are the foundations on
which to build.
In times of unexampled excitement and opportunity and of great peril, times
when uncertainty is coupled with new heights of concept and of execution, a
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xxxii CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
philosophy rooted in the currents of our time at their deepest level is vital to
our future. Perhaps the understanding demanded by that challenge can find
a significant dimension in the image of the scientific way as it exists in our
society-not so much in its secular aspects, important as these are practically,
as in its deeper philosophy and spirit.
For this reason, a reason quite apart from any inspired by practical con-
siderations and in the end, perhaps, far greater, it is imperative that we under-
stand the nature and the needs of the scientific way and comprehend the
dangers that may menace it. Such an understanding of the society of science
can provide penetrating insights to the nature and the needs of our larger
society. It may help to light the vision that alone can inspire leadership in a
critical period of history whose challenge for the future may well be without
parallel in all of human experience.
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T h e Y e a r i n R e v i e w
It is my privilege to report once again upon the progress made by the De-
partments of the Institution in their dynamic research programs. In a year
when the activities of scientists have been almost daily news to the public, the
achievements of the staff of the Institution have been most reassuring. Only
a few, to be sure, have been of the substance that leads to headlines. But very
many have been exciting and highly significant to the scientists who partici-
pated in them, and exciting and illuminating to those privileged to watch
their progress. As in previous years, the range of interest and attention has
been enormous, extending from the tiniest particles of life on this planet to
the outermost galaxies detectable in space. The staff of the Institution operates
not only in a dynamic professional world of increasing massiveness, com-
plexity, and versatility, but also in a physical world limited only by the
sensitivity and power of resolution of mind and instrument.
In mere numbers the total professional staff of the Institution is but a very
modest part of the now huge scientific establishment active in the United
States. The rapid growth of American scientific effort, particularly under
the stimulus of federal grants and federal agency employment, is one of the
striking features of our present-day culture. Because the effort is vastly dif-
ferent from that prevailing during much of the Institution's history, it makes
a most interesting background for viewing our current work.
The scientific effort of the country, both privately and publicly supported,
reflects several trends that abet the greatness of the nation. The value of un-
committed research is recognized now more generously and appreciatively than
ever before in our history.. No longer are we viewed in Europe as the culture
which only takes fundamental discoveries from other lands and applies them
to practical ends. Instead, Americans are regarded as indispensable fellow con-
tributors on the common frontiers of fundamental research. The precision
of American scientific equipment and methods is now known wherever ad-
vanced research is undertaken. The range of subjects explored with their aid is
ever widening.
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Hand in hand with these strides, an increasing sensitivity to and aptitude
for discovering and pushing forward "growing points" is appearing in the
vital disciplines. Often such points are at the line of contact between disci-
plines. Often they are heavily dependent on theoretical studies for guidance.
Increasingly, the effort of our science mingles the interests of the past disci-
plines. A reflection of this is the growing rapport between basic and applied
science-indeed, they really form a continuum. The research scene may cur-
rently be viewed as one not of "pure" and "applied" science but as one of
"science" and of "science applied." Finally, it should be a source of great
satisfaction to us that widely within the United States institutions are actively
seeking out opportunities for advancing science throughout the Western world,
and are deepening the ties of Western nations by building or strengthening
science research within many of them.
Several of these trends illustrate values to which this Institution has been
deeply committed for many years. Nowhere, indeed, has the spirit underly-
ing the work of the Institution been given better expression than in this year's
report of the Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. "Basic
research . . . has the goal . . . of increasing and sharpening man's awareness
of the beautifully intricate and orderly world in which he finds himself." The
meaning of these words is superbly illustrated by the year's work in each of
the departments.
Among the general fields of basic science in which "growing points" have
been particularly visible in the nation during the year are geophysics, the ob-
servation of outer space and of the stellar universe, and the study of the cellu-
lar structure of life and of its nature at the molecular level. One need only
mention the current additions to our knowledge of the earth's outer atmos-
phere and the electromagnetic fields surrounding it, the suggestive evidence
obtained of the possible existence of life on Mars, and the artificial chemical
synthesis of chlorophyll. In all the fields of geophysics, astronomy, and the
life sciences research workers of the Institution have actively contributed dur-
ing the year toward an understanding of our "beautifully intricate and orderly
world."
By its very nature, any important discovery in astronomy is always exciting
to the imagination. The Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories report once
again a spectacular new view of the "edge" of our known universe. During
the year Dr. Rudolph Minkowski photographed through the 200-inch Hale
telescope the most distant astronomical object thus far discovered. It is a
cluster of galaxies apparently receding from the earth at the rate of 138,000
kilometers per second, almost half the speed of light. This discovery is an in-
teresting example of the pioneering that can follow on close interdisciplinary
cooperation. The cluster was first located accurately by radio astronomers at
the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England, and at the California Insti-
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tute of Technology's new Owens Valley radio observatory. The cluster proved
to be a strong source of radiation in the radio range, particularly at the longer
wavelengths. This suggested that galaxies within the cluster are in collision,
as has been classically illustrated by the much nearer source of radiation in
Cygnus A. Accurate location by radio receivers, the resolving power of which
has been greatly improved in recent years, made possible the remarkable spec-
tral photographs obtained by Minkowski.
On the basis of the redshift relations found (the displacement of character-
istic spectral lines to the red), it is estimated that the newly discovered cluster
is eight times as distant as the colliding galaxies in Cygnus A. Although
the distance of these new galaxies from the earth cannot be precisely deter-
mined yet because of uncertainties about the redshift/distance relation, it is
certainly of the order of several billion light years. Spectra obtained by Min-
kowski identified one of the brightest galaxies within the cluster as the radio
source because it contained the X3727 emission line characteristic of such a
source. Multicolor photoelectric measurements of two fainter galaxies in the
same cluster by Baum confirmed Minkowski's identification. Baum's meas-
urements also gave precise values for the magnitudes of the galaxies in the
cluster.
The year at Mount Wilson was also marked by a striking stellar age deter-
mination. Sandage, in a photometric color magnitude study of NGC 188,
produced evidence that this galactic cluster may have an age of 25 billion
years, the oldest thus far found for any group of stars.
A third discovery of great astronomical interest during the year was that of
the strongest magnetic field so far found in nature. H. W. Babcock determined
that the star HD 215441 showed at one stage in its fluctuation a general mag-
netic field of 34,400 gauss. For comparison, large sunspots have been deter-
mined to have magnetic fields of about 4000 gauss.
Several other discoveries likewise of much significance were made at the
Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories. The group working with Green-
stein on the chemical composition of stellar atmospheres continued to find
stars showing large deviations from the composition normally observed in the
sun and other stars in its neighborhood. Several stars or star clusters were
found to have deficiencies in the abundance of metals by a factor of a hundred
or more. Among a number of the stars investigated the two light elements
lithium and beryllium showed especially large fluctuations, although other ele-
ments also varied markedly. One star (3 Centauri A) was found to have a
hundredfold greater content of phosphorus than the sun.
Discoveries of such extreme situations are of interest not only as sheer curi-
osities or aberrations but more pointedly because they often have great indirect
significance to the observing science. Such extreme situations, for example,
may provide crucial tests for important theories and furnish vital data for
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xxxvi CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
testing the validity of contradictory models attempting to represent reality.
Astronomers have to deal with some of the most fascinating and difficult prob-
lems in all of science in constructing cosmological models and evolving theories
about the origin and age of the universe. The discoveries outlined briefly above
are illustrative. For example, the relation between redshift and distance yields
a significant set of clues for discriminating among several models of the uni-
verse. The velocity and magnitudes of the very distant galactic cluster so
accurately determined by Minkowski and Baum will be of great importance
in future studies of this relation. Similarly, Sandage's color-magnitude meas-
urements of NGC 188 must cause. us to re-examine carefully current theories
of the age of the universe. If Hazelgrove's and Hoyle's models of stellar evolu-
tion are correct, the age of stars in NGC 188, using Sandage's measurements,
is about 25 billion years. On the other hand, if the best current value of the
Hubble redshift constant is used in an exploding cosmological model, the age
of the universe is only about 7.4 billion years. Thus either the traditional
exploding cosmological models are incorrect, the value of the Hubble param-
eter is incorrect, or the ages from the more recent stellar models like Hoyle's
are incorrect.
The unusually strong stellar magnetic field is of particular interest because
consideration of the influence of magnetic fields has not played a prominent
role in current theories of stellar structure. The anomaly presented by the field
of HD 215441 suggests that the subject is well deserving of further study.
Finally, the deviations in chemical composition that have been observed in
stellar atmospheres also raise questions basic to the structure and dynamics of
the universe. A constant comparability of luminosity and period among the
cepheid variables has been an important presumption in their use as distance
indicators. What effects may these recently observed chemical variations have
on their luminosities and periods? Furthermore, how do thermonuclear proc-
esses produce the anomalies that have been observed? With such major ques-
tions before it astronomy continues to be a frontier science in every sense.
Nowhere are the vigor and penetration of current methods and the power
of new tools better illustrated than in the wide domain of geophysics. The
striking recent accretions to our knowledge of the atmospheric envelope sur-
rounding the earth and the earth's electromagnetic field give us a new view
of our immediate planetary surroundings. Because many of these discoveries
have been associated with missile probes or orbiting satellites, their existence
is commonly known. Not so well known is the less publicized, but equally
penetrating and equally important, application of geophysics to the study of
the earth's crust. This field has been the focus of attention of another extraordi-
narily interesting and productive Institution program.
No section of the great field before science more aptly deserves the descrip-
tion "beautifully intricate and orderly" than the crustal zone of this planet.
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Its intricacy has long been appreciated, as stratigraphy, paleontology, min-
eralogy, and other subdisciplines of classical geology followed their courses.
How orderly it is, and indeed what nine-tenths of it is made of, are matters
upon which we are getting our first solidly based views through the tools and
methods of geophysics. The determination of the gross and the fine structures
of this crustal zone and the unraveling of its tectonic and magmatic history
are large objectives toward which a number of the geophysicists of the Insti-
tution contribute. The nature of these investigations, and the order of their
significance, may be judged by samples from the year's work at the Geophysi-
cal Laboratory and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Two important immediate objectives of this joint activity of the Geophysi-
cal Laboratory and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism have been a
charting of the phase equilibria of a number of important mineral systems and
a search for indicators that will be as accurate for the history of crystalline rocks
as fossils and sedimentation sequences are for sedimentary rocks. For both ob-
jectives the laboratory synthesis of minerals under varying conditions of chemi-
cal composition, temperature, and pressure has given significant results. But
the most important results for the second have come from the study of min-
eral sources of radioactivity-the now well known "nuclear clocks."
The primary methods for investigating phase equilibria among mineral sys-
tems rest upon the use of high-temperature, high-pressure equipment for syn-
thesizing or metamorphosing minerals in the laboratory. One interesting con-
sequence from employment of these methods during the year was the synthesis
of diamonds from graphite by Boyd and England, making the Geophysical
Laboratory one of the few places where this feat has been performed. The first
well established report of diamond synthesis was made from the research
laboratories of the General Electric Company in 1955. The synthetic product
crystallized at the Geophysical Laboratory resembles natural "carbonado" dia-
monds used for industrial purposes. They were synthesized at pressures of
75 kilobars (75,000 atmospheres) and 1500?C (approximately 2750?F). The
studies of the graphite-diamond inversion were undertaken to gain knowl-
edge of the geological formations within which diamonds occur and of the
contact catalysts needed for their synthesis.
Even though the synthesis of a rare mineral like diamond constitutes a strik-
ing feat, the Laboratory has stressed experiments with minerals thought to be
very generally distributed in the earth's crust and mantle, and therefore par-
ticularly revealing of its structural history. The olivines are such a mineral
series. Boyd and England during the year obtained a dense spinel form of the
iron olivine fayalite in experiments using pressures between 60 and 80 kilobars.
The results of these experiments, together with other data, suggest that the
transition from fayalite to spinel occurs in about the same pressure-tempera-
ture range as the inversion from graphite to diamond. These experiments are
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of particular interest because they furnish further evidence for the existence
of a transition from natural olivine to spinel. This transition may be responsi-
ble for the marked seismic discontinuity known to exist at a depth of about
400 kilometers in the earth's mantle, and thus far not satisfactorily accounted
for otherwise.
One mineral of widespread occurrence at the earth's surface is kyanite.
Earlier experimental work had indicated that pressures necessary for its forma-
tion were substantially greater than those considered by geologists to be re-
sponsible for common metamorphic rocks in which kyanite is encountered.
Professional skepticism therefore greeted these earlier laboratory results, and
it became important to extend them. This was. done during the year by S. P.
Clark, who redetermined the equilibrium curve between kyanite and its poly-
morph, sillimanite. His new data suggest that a minimum pressure of 10 kilo-
bars, corresponding to a depth within the earth of about 30 kilometers or more,
presents the most likely condition for the stable formation of kyanite in nature,
confirming the earlier laboratory work.
In another set of experiments Schairer of the Geophysical Laboratory is in-
vestigating the principal mineral systems influencing the nature of the source
magmas (molten rock) from which the many types of igneous rock are
formed. The materials selected for experiment are the normal minerals of
basalt, including forsterite (an olivine), silica, nepheline, the feldspars albite
and anorthite, and the pyroxenes diopside and enstatite. Data accumulated
from experiments during the year on the albite-forsterite-silica series and the
forsterite-nepheline-diopside series offer major contributions to a comprehen-
sion of the complex basalt system. This far-reaching program aims at the con-
struction of a "flow sheet" in which the sequence of the main liquid courses
of crystallization of basalt may be shown. Its initial successes suggest that the
construction of such a flow sheet will be possible. The work of Hytonen has
also contributed to an understanding of this system. He found that the alumina
in pyroxene minerals has a significant role in the crystallization of basalt.
The search for an order to be found in the earth's mantle and in the past
history of its evolution of course seeks principles of as wide applicability as
possible. Each contribution to an understanding of phase equilibria in mineral
systems builds in this direction. One such contribution during the year was
also of unusual theoretical interest.
For several years a derivation from thermodynamic theory has been set forth
as an explanation of some phenomena involved in the genesis of minerals in
nature. This theory indicates that the formation of minerals of low molar
volume is favored by high total pressure. It is known that minerals form in
the presence of an impure vapor phase, the course. of formation being affected
by both the total confining pressure and the partial pressure of each reacting
volatile component. This theory and its applicability to geology have been
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points of controversy among petrologists, whose disagreement had not been
resolved by earlier experiments. During the year Greenwood of the Geo-
physical Laboratory tested the theory by investigating the stability of analcite
(NaAlSi2O(,H2O) in the presence of water-argon mixtures. The effect of total
pressure on the stability of analcite as observed in the experiments was in
close agreement with the stability predicted from thermodynamic theory.
These results are significant because the theory is widely applicable to prob-
lems in metamorphic petrology. Metamorphic reactions occurring in the
presence of other gas mixtures, such as water and carbon dioxide, can be
treated in the same way as the analcite-water-argon system, and the separate
effects of total and partial pressures can be evaluated.
Other interesting experiments have dealt with the behavior of ions within
aqueous solutions in rocks. In one, Orville of the Geophysical Laboratory has
found that when solutions containing alkali ions are simultaneously in con-
tact with alkali feldspars at different temperatures potassium tends to migrate
toward the low-temperature and sodium toward the high-temperature region.
This behavior explains the known occurrence of potassium-rich feldspars in
the wall rock adjacent to intrusive bodies of granite, and other puzzling differ-
ences in the potassium and sodium content of adjacent rocks. In another ex-
periment Barnes and Ernst have examined the effect of ionization and of
dissolved substances in geological fluids at supercritical temperatures and pres-
sures. Preliminary results indicate that pressure-temperature curves for hydra-
tion reactions may be 70?C or more lower where sodium hydroxide is the
solute than those where pure water is present.
In the search for geological age indicators of general use the most scien-
tifically attractive thus far have been the five nuclear "clocks" described in
previous years. It will be remembered from our earlier reports that all five
clocks (involving the radioactive decay of uranium-lead, lead207-lead20B, stron-
tium-rubidium, potassium-argon, thorium-lead) recorded the same indicated
age for ancient rocks under undisturbed conditions. Later it was found that
the clocks in rocks that had gone through periods of mountain building some-
times disagreed substantially. Aldrich, Wetherill, and Bass of the Department
of Terrestrial Magnetism and Tilton and Davis of the Geophysical Laboratory
have continued to explore the characteristics of these clocks and the conditions
for their accurate interpretation. It has now been established that long-term
diffusion is a factor where discordant ages are shown by the different clocks,
particularly in the lead X07/lead20. ratios found in zircon. The differential losses
of lead207 and lead206 can be calculated from their diffusion characteristics, and
a predicted pattern of consequent age discordances can be developed and com-
pared with the discordances observed in natural rock. Analysis indicates that
long-term diffusion has been an important factor in accounting for discordant
ages as measured by uranium-lead "clocks" but has been less important in age
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values determined by means of the other radioactive pairs. This information
promises material assistance in resolving problems of age determination arising
when, in situations where pronounced mountain building has occurred, there
is a substantial lack of agreement among the various "clocks."
These experiments and others suggest that the "clocks" must be examined
with the greatest possible care and thoroughness, including an accounting for
variations in age patterns, if they are to be considered accurate indicators of
age. There is a very real prospect that, through such means as these, answers
can be found to three fundamental geological questions: Is the mineral-form-
ing process continuous? Are there discrete epochs of tectonic activity inter-
spersed with quiescent periods? To what extent are epochs of tectonic ac-
tivity, if they do occur, simultaneous in all continents? The data now at hand
suggest that significant epochs of tectonic activity may have occurred about
1000 million years ago and again about 2600 million years ago on nearly all
continents.
A search for another type of geological indicator also met with considerable
success during the year. Yoder and Chinner have been looking for a com-
mon sensitive piezometer (pressure indicator) for rocks formed under a wide
range of conditions. Studies of almandite-pyrope-garnet series strongly sug-
gest that the composition of the solid solutions formed may yield a sensitive
measure of pressure if the temperature is known. A first step in pressure de-
termination is calculation, with the aid of one of the known geothermometers,
of the temperature at which the rock was formed. With this information at
hand, Yoder and Chinner find that the pressure at which the minerals were
formed can be learned from the composition of the garnet in the rock. Thus
garnet promises to be a most useful piezometer for many rocks.
One of the most striking general aspects of the geophysical program at the
Institution is its consistent design to uncover results that will be widely appli-
cable. Knowledge of the phase equilibria in mineral systems obtained at the
Geophysical Laboratory has repeatedly been applied to mineral associations
from all the continents, and even to meteorites from outer space. Application
of the Institution's geophysical work is likely to be extended even further in
the future. Members of its staff currently participate in the planning of the
national space research program and the Mohole project for probing into the
earth's crust. As the Director at the Geophysical Laboratory has pointed out,
exploration of the planets is certain to lead to additional application of the
results already at hand, and must present us with new and important ques-
tions. The same will be true as new evidence on the nature of the deeper layers
of the earth's crust is provided by specimens which will become available from
extremely deep drilling. The staff of the Institution that is concerned with
geophysical matters has been preparing for the interpretation of such data dur-
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ing some years. A fascinating future appears to lie before the earth scientists
no less than before the astronomers.
By contrast to the situation some years ago, the science of biology today is
one of precision and elegant method. The advancing frontier in the life sci-
ences lies in research where the ultracentrifuge, the electron microscope, iso-
topic tracers, and the concepts of molecular chemistry are commonplace tools
and essential weapons. Perhaps more than in any other area of science the
intermingling interests and methods of disciplines once considered discrete
dominate the research scene. Physicists and chemists have joined their knowl-
edge and their methods with those of biologists and medical research workers.
The penetrating concepts which these methods are bringing to the life sciences
are well illustrated in the biological program of the Institution, in genetics, in
the study of the metabolism of cells, in developmental biology, in the study of
the basic mechanisms of plant growth. Although the study of life processes
is the dominant interest of three of our six departments, no less than five of
them have been concerned in one way or another with significant experiments
in that field during the current year.
In many of the technically advanced nations of the world experiments are
being conducted on the physical and chemical nature of the storage and trans-
fer of hereditary information from germinal or embryonic cells to the mature
organism. The dominant view at the present day is that the sole carrier of
hereditary information in most if not all organisms is deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). As Hershey and his associates in the Department of Genetics have
set forth in some detail later in this report, such a theory, taken together with
modern concepts of the molecular nature of DNA, must imply that the bodily
characters defining, for example, a species, are specified in a message written
in at least two codes. One code is inviolate, and ensures the reproduction of un-
changed DNA molecules during the multiplication of cells. Other codes serve
as the templates for growth through precisely guided and normally irreversi-
ble stages which ultimately will produce the mature organism. An important
part of this picture ascribes the synthesis of protein to the intermediate action
of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Guided by a linear and specific sequence of bases
in the DNA molecule, the RNA in turn directs the joining in a definite se-
quence of amino acids to make the proteins that are the building blocks of life.
All. over the world, experimenters are probing for further evidence to con-
firm or revise this scheme. During the year two groups of research workers
in the Institution have continued illuminating experimental programs to test
and elaborate various aspects of the theory. Hershey and his associates in the
Department of Genetics have used bacteriophage and their specific bacterial
hosts as experimental media, while Roberts and his associates of the Biophysics
Section in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism have continued their study
of metabolism in bacterial cells, particularly those of Escherichia coli.
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The Biophysics Section of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism has
continued to center its attention on the structure and metabolic role of the
ribosomes-those intracellular particles that appear to be so intimately and
specifically connected with metabolism in bacterial cells. It will be remem-
bered that the bacterial cell includes a nucleus with deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), protein, and ribonucleic acid (RNA) content, "ribosomal" particles
outside the nucleus containing RNA and protein, "nonparticulate" protein
and RNA within the cell, and of course the cell wall. During the year Roberts
and his colleagues found that ribonucleic acid (RNA) can be extracted from
ribosomes in a manner that preserves hydrogen and magnesium bonds. A
unit equivalent to the RNA in a large ribosomal particle was obtained. It was
found that these large units could be artificially broken down into smaller
ones. In this way structures one-twentieth to one-fortieth the size of the larger
ribosomes were obtained. These 4S units, as they are named from their sedi-
mentation rate, were isolated from living cells. They were found to occur
naturally both in the ribosomes and in the nonparticulate fraction of the cells.
In an experiment employing radioactive tracers it was found that the small
4S units in the undifferentiated part of the cell are the first to be labeled. Simi-
lar units in the ribosomes come next, and finally the components of a large
ribonucleic acid unit are labeled. The conclusion drawn is that the large
ribosomal units are formed in the growing cell by assembly of the 4S subunits
of RNA and associated protein. Thus the basic structural unit associated with
protein and RNA synthesis within these cells may have been discovered.
Several other and related observations of significance were noted : (1) Ribo-
somal protein is similar in content to the soluble protein in the nonparticulate
portions of the cell. (2) If present theories of the mechanism of genetic in-
formation transfer are correct, the small RNA subunits of the ribosomes are
not large enough to serve as templates for the number of amino acids that oc-
cur in even the smallest protein chain of the cells. (3) An analysis of cell
enzyme digests shows many nucleotide sequences, with a frequency indicat-
ing random distribution within the cell. These data suggest that there are many
different kinds of RNA molecules. (4) Other previous work has indicated
that early steps of ribosomal synthesis occur in the nucleus.
Although the hypothesis that information is transferred from DNA to RNA
to protein is currently popular, there are difficulties in interpreting all the ex-
perimental data in terms of this model. Furthermore, the data do not exclude
the alternative hypothesis that information may be transferred directly from
DNA to protein during ribosomal synthesis. It may be this protein rather than
RNA alone that subsequently specifies the amino acid sequence of protein
synthesized by the ribosome. Such an hypothesis is sufficiently arresting to
emphasize that further study of intracellular organization and metabolism is
of primary importance to understanding how the molecules of life are built.
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What can demand more wonderful precision than the examination and
charting of the interior of a cell? But a challenge of equal demand and in-
tricacy is offered by the structure of the interior of a virus particle. At the
Department of Genetics, Hershey and his colleagues have been working with
the bacteriophage known as T2, which infects Escherichia coli, in a series of
elegant experiments searching for evidence of the structure of the DNA within
the virus, and on its functions in phage metabolism within the infected bac-
terial cells. Using chromatography on a column of basic protein Burgi and
Hershey have been able to identify half molecules and quarter molecules of
phage DNA. They have found that the sedimentation coefficient and intrinsic
viscosity of quarter molecules of DNA isolated by the column correspond to
a molecular weight that they tentatively estimate to be about 13 million. This
weight is calculated by projecting a calibration curve, based on light-scatter-
ing measurements, elaborated by Doty and his co-workers at Harvard Uni-
versity. If the estimate is correct, a particle of phage T2 contains two DNA
molecules of the identical molecular weight of 50 million, rather than the ten
molecules postulated in last year's report. One or both of these molecules must
make up the phage chromosome.
By differentiating among phage proteins, tracing the course of development
of these proteins, and sequentially inactivating DNA in phage particles with
ultraviolet radiation, Hershey and his associates have obtained evidence that
the formation of some proteins is at least linked with the development of phage
DNA. They divide such "phage-specific" proteins into two classes, one repre-
sented by a hydroxymethylating enzyme for which synthesis commences less
than two minutes after infection of the bacterium (class 1) and another repre-
sented by phage-coat protein for which synthesis begins seven minutes after
infection (class 2). If infected bacterial cells are irradiated with ultraviolet
light soon after infection, nucleic acid synthesis will fail but proteins of the
first class will be formed within the infected cells. However, irradiation sev-
eral minutes after infection does not prevent subsequent synthesis of class 2
proteins within the infected cells. This indicates that the synthesis of class 2
proteins depends on a modified DNA function that is not itself sensitive to ul-
traviolet light but can occur only after a cell contains relatively large amounts of
phage-modified DNA at a particular developmental stage. For the synthesis of
phage-coat proteins this point may come when the phage DNA derived from
the infecting particle goes through a transition from the "extended" configura-
tion it has within the bacterial cell to the condensed configuration it is thought
to have within the completed phage particle.
Bacterial cultures infected with phage T2 exhibit a remarkable increase in
resistance to radiation of the phage-producing ability of the cells during the
first ten minutes or so after infection. By comparing the effects of chlor-
amphenicol when added at various times between two and nine minutes after
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xliv CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
the infection of bacteria with the T2 phage, Simon obtained evidence during
the year that suggests a correlation of the evolution of this radiation resistance
with the synthesis of DNA. The addition of chloramphenicol prevents pro-
tein synthesis totally, but inhibits DNA in a degree inverse to the time elapsed
after infection. Simon found that, if the antibiotic is added two minutes after
infection, the time at which ultraviolet light resistance normally begins to
increase within the infected bacteria, no resistance develops. Radiation re-
sistance does develop within the cells, however, if chloramphenicol is added
later than two minutes after infection. The later the addition of chlorampheni-
col up to the maximum of nine minutes, the higher the rate of increased
resistance. Thus the effect of the chloramphenicol on the rate of development
of resistance is very similar to its effect on the rate of DNA synthesis, and can-
not be correlated with its effect on protein synthesis. This evidence is con-
sidered to be of particular interest because the belief has been held in some
quarters that genetic information initially carried by DNA might be trans-
ferred to radiation-resistant structures other than DNA, like protein, to account
for the phenomenon of increased radiation resistance.
The effects of radiation upon the materials of heredity have been the subject
of much more than laboratory concern in the last several years. Warnings
also have been voiced about the possible effects of the variety of chemicals that
man has introduced into his environment in modern times. The recent re-
search of Kaufmann and his co-workers of the Department of Genetics sug-
gests that even mild chemical agents of cellular origin have mutagenic ac-
tivity. They have found that the enzyme deoxyribonuclease (known from
earlier work to be a "dissolving" agent for DNA) is mutagenic to fruit flies
(Drosophila melanogaster) under laboratory conditions. Treatment of larvae
and imagoes with deoxyribonuclease produced both recessive and dominant
lethal effects and chromosomal rearrangements in the flies. Even though
great care must be used in extrapolating these results to other organisms, they
do underscore the great complexity of the problems of mutagenesis.
The ingenuity of recent laboratory techniques and the extent of the contri-
butions of modern medical research to the study of developmental biology are
vividly illustrated in the results obtained during the year by Dr. Ramsey of
the Department of Embryology and her associates. Ramsey has been inter-
ested for some time in the circulation of blood within the maternal placenta.
Over the past several years she has developed the hypothesis that arterial blood
enters the placenta from the endometrial arteries under a pressure sufficiently
high to drive it through the intervillous space and toward the chorionic mem-
brane of the fetus. Physiological studies had earlier given indirect evidence of
pressure gradients and other consequences of the hypothesis. Direct evidence,
however, was lacking until the techniques of rapid serial radiography and
cineradiography were employed in experiments this year. Radiopaque dyes
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were injected into the femoral arteries of anesthetized pregnant rhesus mon-
keys. The course of the dyes was followed until they entered the uterine ar-
teries and finally the intervillous space of the placenta. Observations were
achieved by rapid serial X-ray photographs or by cineradiography. In the
latter procedure a moving-picture camera is used to photograph the X-ray
image on the screen of a television monitor. The resulting films show with
great clarity the characteristic spurts of blood as the dye enters the intervillous
space, as predicted by Ramsey's hypothesis. These experiments were carried
out in cooperation with the Department of Radiology, Johns Hopkins Hospi-
tal, whose Director designed the X-ray photography equipment.
The present program of the Department of Embryology is particularly well
typified by the work of Ebert and DeLanney. It lies essentially in the domain
of molecular biology, involving the careful and accurate advancement of our
knowledge of immune reactions. During the year Ebert and DeLanney have
completed a major program in which they have used chicken spleen to study
the properties of immunologically competent tissues. As the work has pro-
gressed it appears that the effects of grafts not only embrace a graft-versus-
host reaction but also definite reactions on the part of the host. In the course
of the year they have successfully resolved problems of the relative contribu-
tion of donor and host cells. Ebert, Mun, and Tardent (a Rockefeller Founda-
tion Fellow) have traced the course of cells emanating from spleen grafts la-
beled with tritiated thymidine within embryonic chick hosts. By the eighth
postoperative day radioactive cells could no longer be detected in the graft.
Also, none were clearly detectable within the enlarged host spleens. A subse-
quent experiment by Errico, Mun, and Ebert employing repeated serial graft-
ing of embryonic spleen, however, did establish the fact that a very small num-
ber of embryonic cells from the graft enter the host spleen, where they are
capable of maturing. This cellular contribution to the later immunological re-
action is thus small, but significant. Ebert concludes tentatively that the cells
of both donor and host may contribute to the spleen reaction, the host cells
playing the predominant role numerically. The cells associated with the nor-
mal growth processes in an organism would therefore appear to dominate the
immune reaction rather than cells from the donor tissue.
The staff of the Institution is deeply concerned with developmental biology
not only in the animal but also in the plant world. Algae have long been a
subject of attention for the Department of Plant Biology as it has explored
the intricacies of the photosynthetic process; now they have also become a
subject of investigation for the Geophysical Laboratory, which during the
year commenced an interesting series of experiments on the paths of carbon
assimilation in algae, using methods of isotopic analysis.
Past investigations of the Department of Plant Biology on the occurrence
and function of chlorophyll a have established the participation of specific
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forms of chlorophyll in two separate photochemical reactions in photosyn-
thesis. One of these reactions is driven by the form of chlorophyll a having
its red absorption peak at 695 mu. The other is driven by either chlorophyll b
or the 673-mu absorption form of chlorophyll a. The complementary func-
tion of chlorophyll a 673 and chlorophyll a 695 was found in several algae
lacking chlorophyll b.
The enhancement obtained by simultaneous illumination of two comple-
mentary pigments was found to disappear in Chlorella depleted of phosphate.
It returns after addition of pyrophosphate. This experiment of McLeod is
the basis for the conclusion that the photophosphorylation reaction and the
formation of reducing power, two well known parts of the photosynthetic
process, are driven by separate pigments.
By contrast with green plants, experiments with the algal genus Phormidium
showed that the pigment phycoerythrin increased efficiency of light absorbed
not only by chlorophyll a 695 but also by the other forms of chlorophyll a.
Furthermore, excitation of the phycoerythrin pigment by light of differing
wavelengths indicated that there are at least two different pairs of mutually
enhancing pigments.
A new technique was used during the year that facilitated the detection of
the several forms of chlorophyll a. By measuring derivative absorption spectra
at -180'C the bands of the separate pigment forms are greatly sharpened.
A particularly striking consequence of the duality of the photochemical sys-
tem is seen in the action spectrum for Chlorella photosynthesis when measured
at high light intensity. Such spectra have a structure with distinct peaks at
650 mu and 440 mu. This is important evidence to contradict a prevailing hy-
pothesis that at saturating light intensities all wavelengths have the same photo-
synthetic efficiency. Instead, it appears that a maximum rate of photosynthesis
is reached only when the two photochemical reactions initiated by the two
pairs of interdependent pigments are proceeding in the correct ratio.
In an especially interesting experiment Abelson and Hoering of the Geo-
physical Laboratory have produced some arresting evidence that conventional
photosynthesis leading to carbohydrates may not be the only pathway through
which the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere is assimilated by the green plant.
Their study started with the relatively well known fact that the lightest isotope
of carbon tends to be preferentially fixed when inorganic carbon is converted
into living matter. The carbon 12/carbon 13 ratio is thus higher in organic
carbon than in limestone carbon or in carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.
Abelson and Hoering raise several fundamental questions of great scientific in-
terest which follow from this phenomenon. Among them are: Is this isotope
fractionation characteristic of all living matter? Do significant differences in
isotope abundances exist among specific compounds? And, if such differences
exist, can they be related to known biochemical processes?
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With these and other questions in mind Abelson and Hoering have begun
to examine the distribution of the stable isotopes of carbon in living material.
Their first effort has been devoted to the study of the green alga Chlorella
pyrenoidosa, from cultures of which amino acids were isolated and their car-
bon isotope composition examined. The amino acids were chosen for analy-
sis because of their biochemical importance and because excellent methods are
available for their isolation. The results are of considerable interest. They
showed that some of the amino acids, such as leucine and valine, have isotope
ratios similar to those in the lipide fractions of the plants; that is, they contain
markedly less carbon 13 than is present in the inorganic environment. Other
amino acids, like serine, proved to have ratios much closer to the inorganic
carbon dioxide used as input for the experiments.
Even more significantly, the carboxyl carbons of all chains were heavier;
that is, they contained a higher proportion of carbon 13 than the remainder
of the carbon chains of the amino acids. This point is of particular interest,
because it was previously shown at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism
by Roberts, Abelson, and others that in Escherichia coli there is a direct in-
corporation of carbon dioxide into the carboxyl group of glutamic and aspartic
acids and into the guanidine group of arginine. In these earlier experiments
carbon 14 tracers showed a common point of entry for carbon dioxide into the
bacterial cells, namely, condensation with pyruvate and subsequent synthesis
in a Krebs cycle.
The year's study of Chlorella strongly suggests that a similar situation holds
for it and probably other photosynthetic organisms. Abelson and Hoering
believe that the results obtained by examining carbon 12/carbon 13 ratios of
aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and arginine in Chlorella are interpretable through
comparative biochemistry. They argue that living systems have invented only
a limited number of pathways, and that these have broad general application.
The synthetic pathways of the three amino acids in Chlorella pyrenoidosa
seem very similar to those in Escherichia coli and other organisms. There
appear to be at least three pathways by which carbon dioxide is incorporated
in Chlorella: condensation with ribulose diphosphate, the Krebs cycle path-
way, and one leading to the guanadine carbon of arginine.
If it can be assumed that the isotope abundance found in the lipides or in
the noncarboxyl portion of aspartic or glutamic acids in Chlorella is character-
istic of the fixation of carbon dioxide in carbohydrates, the result is a most
significant conclusion: a considerable fraction of the carbon fixed in Chlorella
is incorporated by pathways other than those traditionally described for photo-
synthesis. The potential bearing of this upon our knowledge of plant growth
and biochemical evolution is obvious.
The program of the Institution in the life sciences, of which only a rela-
tively few representative experiments have been included in this review, well
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illustrates the strategy of unfolding the "beautifully intricate and orderly
world" of life. The greater part of the efforts of the Institution in the biologi-
cal sciences at present are concentrated in investigations at the molecular and
cellular levels. This is where many of the most significant investigational
challenges now lie. At the same time the larger problems of more complex
organic systems and even of populations of systems are not forgotten, as is dem-
onstrated by such work as that in developmental biology already described.
As Hershey notes elsewhere in this report, "No scheme can be tested short of
learning the details of its operation. This is evidently a task for generations of
biologists. We report . . . what we hope is perceptible progress." One may
add that it is progress which includes some of the most fascinating and skillful
detective work in the modern world.
At the beginning of this review, brief mention was made of the present
close relation between science basic and science applied. The equipment of
every laboratory devoted to fundamental research these days provides exam-
ples of the important, and even essential, symbiosis between basic and applied
science, whether it be in the great variety of fine chemicals at hand, in the
presence of recording equipment of great sensitivity and versatility, or in such
specialized instruments as the ultracentrifuge or devices for maintaining pyro-
genic temperatures. For many years the program of the Institution has illus-
trated particularly well the meaning of this relation. Indeed, it has illustrated
not only the close relation between science and science applied but also the
fruitful cooperation sometimes possible in science between governmental and
private institutions. A particularly good example has been the operation
of the Committee on Image Tubes for Telescopes, a cooperative project of
the Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories and the Department of Ter-
restrial Magnetism of the Institution, and the Lowell Observatory, the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, and the United States Naval Observatory. Several
commercial companies have participated in the program both by contract and
by professional consultation, including the RCA Electron Tube Division, the
ITT Laboratories, the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, the Allen B. Du-
Mont Laboratories, and others. Technical problems of a high order are en-
countered in the development of image tubes, and the participation of the
several great industrial research laboratories has been vital to the success
achieved.
It was reported last year that development had approached the stage where
some application of the tubes to astronomical observation could be predicted.
During the current year, the work of the Committee has reached a point of
real application to research astronomy. The Committee now has at its disposal
special tubes for astronomical use that have proved thirty to sixty times more
sensitive than photographic plates in a few special applications. Because the
devices at present available have inherent difficulties of resolution (granu-
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larity) and background fog that limit their employment, discovery of situa-
tions where they do have special advantage, and a search for improved de-
vices, have been of current interest. Two uses in astronomy have been found
for these tubes, even in their present stage of development, where they yield
considerable observational advantage.
Cascaded image intensifiers manufactured by RCA have been employed to
record images of close double stars that cannot be resolved by any other photo-
graphic technique. Fredrick of the Lowell Observatory has measured with
precision the separation of the visual binary 51 Aquilae, which has a separa-
tion of about 0.46 second of arc; in previous photographic resolution a separa-
tion of less than 1.5 seconds has been rare.
Mica window tubes, developed by the ITT Laboratories, have been used to
explore the region of infrared stellar spectra at around 1 micron, a spectral
region relatively inaccessible by ordinary photographic techniques. Fredrick
has undertaken a program of observing several long-period variable stars in
the 1-micron region. It is possible that such observation may prove an im-
portant tool for measuring temperature differences in stellar atmospheres.
In addition, some testing was undertaken. of tubes using secondary electron
multiplication which have been under development for several years at the
Westinghouse Research Laboratories. Relatively high resolutions have been
demonstrated with these tubes in the laboratory-higher in fact than with any
other type of tube. It is thought that with further technical improvements
providing greater contrast and eliminating spurious emission these devices may
be extremely useful for spectroscopic work. Thus, though additional prob-
lems undoubtedly lie before the Committee and its participating contractors,
the events of the year have demonstrated sound progress on their part toward
a real advance in research technique as well as in application to astronomy.
It is satisfying to report also that the Institution has shared significantly in
the national effort to support scientific effort and science institutions abroad.
Indeed, we are no strangers in this area, since our programs in archaeology and
in terrestrial magnetism long maintained important field stations abroad, and
our fellowship and grants program has had a long succession of foreign re-
cipients. During the year seventeen Fellows from nine foreign countries were
resident and participated in the research of our departments. The work of
nearly all of them is recognized in the individual reports that follow this re-
view. In addition, the Institution took the initiative in obtaining a continua-
tion of the distinguished visitor program of the International Geophysical
Year. A grant from the National Science Foundation, supplemented by Insti-
tution funds, has either brought or scheduled sixteen geophysicists from eleven
countries for visits of three to fourteen months at laboratories and research
establishments in the United States, including our own. In this program,
which has been directed by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, foreign
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guests were invited to write their own itineraries. These invitations appar-
ently have combined to make a highly successful demonstration that the
United States has participated in the International Geophysical Year on a truly
international basis.
The Institution continues to be interested in the building of the physical
sciences in South America, particularly through the program of the Depart-
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. Wells of that Department has become Scien-
tific Attache for southern Latin America, stationed at Rio de Janeiro. During
his two-year leave of absence it is expected that he may be able to do much to
stimulate interest in radio astronomy and radio propagation.in that area of the
world.
Duplicates of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism extended antenna
arrays for studying the radio emissions of the sun have been provided to DTM
collaborators in Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay. Finally, Institution funds and
National Science Foundation funds have been made available to build in South
America a duplicate of the equatorially mounted parabolic antenna installed
at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in 1952. The "parent" instrument
has been used for the survey of hydrogen clouds among the stars of our galaxy,
a program that was shifted to the new 60-foot parabola during the year. The
South American installation will probably be located in the vicinity of Buenos
Aires.
It seems appropriate to end this review with brief mention of the meaning
of uncommitted research. We believe that one of the greatest assets of Car-
negie Institution is the freedom an individual staff member can feel to under-
take research on any subject, regardless of his past interests. One vivid current
example has been the work of Chayes of the Geophysical Laboratory during
the year.
Chayes is a petrologist, but elsewhere in this volume will be found a report
from his laboratory entitled "Correlation in Closed Tables," a contribution
in the statistical field of correlation analysis. This investigation was stimu-
lated by certain problems in petrography, but in it Chayes has reached a num-
ber of novel and potentially useful conclusions applicable to the statistical
analysis of data obtained in many branches of experimental science.
Chayes notes that a large part of scientific inquiry is aimed at discovering
whether or not relations between two or more variables of a complex assem-
blage are random, as, for example, between birth weight and growth rate of
living organisms, or between hardness and chemical composition of alloys.
Numerical analysis to discover the existence of these relations usually takes
the form of calculating total or partial correlation, followed by tests of the
significance of these correlations. However, if the sum of variables in each
statistical item of a sample is the same for all items, the assumptions underly-
ing traditional correlation analysis are invalid. These are "closed arrays";
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Chayes's study treats correlation statistics within them. With the assistance
of machine computation he is planning to carry this study further, investigat-
ing next experimentally closed arrays resembling those actually encountered
in nature.
. As always, this summary can report only a relatively small proportion of
the many investigations undertaken by our six departments during the current
year. They have been chosen not only because they are representative of the
work of the Institution in each of its fields but also because they reflect Insti-
tution interests in the trends of American science at large. Such condensation,
essential as it is, must always be in some measure arbitrary and difficult. It is
well epitomized by a remark made by Dr. Emile Roux, a famous director of
the Pasteur Institute, to his colleagues at the twenty-fifth anniversary of the
founding of that institution. He must be excused, he said, "for presenting in
such a summary fashion research work which had cost them so much trouble
and care."
Losses
Once again, and as always with much regret, I report the retirement of
some senior Staff Members of the Institution. Dr. Milislav Demerec, Director
of the Department of Genetics since 1943, Dr. Rudolph L. Minkowski,
Staff Member of the Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories since 1937,
Dr. Joseph W. Greig, petrologist at the Geophysical Laboratory since 1922, and
Mr. Earle B. Biesecker, Bursar of the Institution since 1941, all retired on June
30, 1960. Each of these men will be greatly missed.
Dr. Demerec joined the Institution as a Resident Investigator in the Depart-
ment of Genetics in 1923, commencing his long and highly productive re-
search career at Cold Spring Harbor. His interest and achievement in research
never flagged, even though his administrative load became increasingly heavy
after 1936, when he was appointed Assistant Director of the Department. In
1941 the post of Director of the Biological Laboratory of the Long Island
Biological Association, which adjoins the Institution laboratory at Cold Spring
Harbor, was added to his administrative duties. He became Director of the
Department of Genetics in 1943. Largely as the result of Dr. Demerec's drive
and organizing ability, the.summer Symposia at Cold Spring Harbor have be-
come world famous and may truly be said to have had a significant influence
on the course of modern biology.
Dr. Demerec's lifelong research has been directed toward elucidating the
structure, the function, and the mutability of genes. His earliest studies were in
maize genetics, but he is perhaps best known for his work on mutagenesis, his
significant wartime researches on the biological production of penicillin, and,
especially, for his most recent investigations of the "fine structure" of bacterial
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chromosomes, using the criteria of biosynthesis and applying the methods of
transformation, and particularly of transduction by bacteriophages. The high-
yielding mutant strain of Penicillium notatum which he developed during the
second World War has displaced previously used strains in the commercial
production of penicillin.
After the war Dr. Demerec concentrated his research primarily in bacterial
genetics, adding critically to our knowledge of the chromosome structure es-
pecially of the bacteria Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Results
of Dr. Demerec's studies during the current year are described in this report.
In recent work, in which he has studied gene loci controlling the synthesis of
specific amino acids in S. typhimurium, he has been able to distinguish mul-
tiple mutation sites within single "gene loci."
Dr. Demerec will carry forward his active research without interruption.
He has been appointed a senior Staff Member of the Biology Group at the
Brookhaven National Laboratory, and it can be predicted that his program
will continue in all its present activity and significance for years to come.
Dr. Rudolph Minkowski came to the Mount Wilson Observatory from Ger-
many in 1935, and ever since that time has contributed continuously and most
significantly to stellar astronomy. He is especially well known for his studies
of gaseous nebulae. During his career, indeed, he more than doubled the
known number of such astronomical objects. He also studied the velocities
and internal motions of near-by galaxies, and has obtained some notably long
sequences of spectra of supernovae, adding greatly to our knowledge of these
stars.
In collaboration with Dr. Walter Baade, Minkowski pioneered in the optical
identification of strong sources of radio emission in space. He provided evi-
dence that some of these radio sources, as in Cygnus A, actually constitute
galaxies in collision. This has proved to be true of the cluster of galaxies dis-
covered optically this year by Minkowski, a cluster that is the most distant
object in. the universe whose spectra have been photographed and analyzed.
Dr. Joseph Greig was a petrologist at the Geophysical Laboratory for thirty-
eight years. He devoted his attention especially to studies of phase equilibria
in mineral systems, a subject of great importance in geophysical research. An
outstanding contribution was his comprehensive study of liquid immiscibility
in silicate systems. His studies of the equilibrium relations between ferric oxide,
ferrosoferric oxide, and oxygen have provided a basis for interpreting the oc-
currence of iron oxides in nature. His joint study with T. F. W. Barth of the
nepheline-albite system has assisted greatly in the geological interpretation of
relations between feldspathoid and feldspar minerals. At the time of his re-
tirement he was preparing a comprehensive report on the copper-iron-sulfur
system, which will treat the theory of coexisting ternary solid solutions.
Dr. Greig's research has had several practical applications. His studies of
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silicate systems led to the development of low-alumina, low-alkali silica brick,
and they have given information of considerable importance in studying the
reaction between metallurgical slags and refractories in furnace operation. His
ferrosoferric oxide study was especially useful for improvements in the manu-
facture of steel.
The long and devoted service of Earle B. Biesecker spanned a significant
period of reorganization in the financial management of the Institution. Dur-
ing the twenty-seven years of his service, the responsibilities of his office be-
came much enlarged and increasingly exacting, in consequence of the adoption
by the Institution of a collective insurance program, the extension of Social
Security and Group Hospitalization benefits to the Staff, the establishment
of the Institution's independent Retirement Plan, and significant changes in
investment policy. He introduced a modern auditing system into Institution
practices, and standardized the accounting procedures of the Departments. He
drafted the first manual of fiscal procedures used by the Institution, and brought
in the mechanization of payroll accounting. His careful analyses of the finan-
cial aspects of many administrative problems were appreciated by every officer
of the Institution having administrative responsibilities. He had an important
part: in the development of the new Retirement Plan, and he served as Treas-
urer of the Retirement Fund of the Plan from the initiation of the office in
1954 until this year. His wise counsel, his conscientiousness, and his friendli-
ness will be missed by all who were privileged to associate with him.
It is with a deep sense of loss that I must report the deaths of one former
Trustee, six retired Staff Members, and one Fellow.
William Cameron Forbes, former Trustee, died on December 24, 1959, at
age 89, after a distinguished career in the public service. During his thirty-five
years as a Trustee of the Institution (1920-1955) he accepted many important
special responsibilities. He was Secretary of the Board from 1922 to 1930, Vice-
Chairman from 1935 to 1937, and Chairman from 1937 to 1945. He was a
member of the Executive Committee from 1922 to 1930 and from 1932 to 1947,
serving as its Chairman from 1935 to 1945. During his long and active career
he occupied high public office, including that of Governor General of the
Philippines, to which post he was appointed by President Taft.
Dr. John A. Anderson, noted for his development of instruments for astro-
nomical research, died on December 2, 1959, at age 83. He joined the staff of
the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1916, retiring in 1943. Having devised
methods for ruling extremely fine spectroscopic gratings, he was at once placed
in charge of constructing a large ruling engine when he came to the Observa-
tory. After World War I he developed the exploding-wire techniques for pro-
ducing extremely high temperatures and, with Sinclair Smith, various auxiliary
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devices, including the rotating-mirror camera, the rotating-mirror spectrograph,
and the Kerr cell shutter, for studying the explosions. These methods and de-
vices were employed during World War II in programs for the development
of nuclear weapons.
As Executive Secretary of the Observatory Council created to supervise the
construction of the Hale Telescope, Dr. Anderson carried a great weight of
responsibility for all phases of designing and constructing the 200-inch in-
strument on Palomar Mountain. He was a member of the National Academy
of Sciences and of professional societies in the several fields of his broad scien-
tific interest-astronomy, seismology, physics, and chemistry.
Dr. Ralph E. Wilson, Staff Member of the Mount Wilson and Palomar
Observatories, who retired in 1951, died in Pasadena on March 25, 1960, at
age 73. Dr. Wilson was primarily concerned with research on the motions
of stars. He took a leading part in preparing the classic Boss Catalogue, which
furnished the precise positions and motions of 33,342 stars for the epoch 1950.
His last publication, General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities, issued in
1953, contains the positions, magnitudes, spectral types, and definitive radial
velocities of all stars whose velocities had been determined at the Observatories
and elsewhere. A total of 15,105 stars is included, and proper motions are
listed for 90 per cent of them. Astronomers concerned with stellar motions
and galactic structure have found the Catalogue an indispensable tool in their
studies. Dr. Wilson was a member of several astronomical and scientific socie-
ties and received the Gold Medal of the Danish Academy of Sciences in recog-
nition .of his work.
Dr. Arthur L. Day, Director of the Geophysical Laboratory from its begin-
ning in 1907 until his retirement in 1936, died on March 2, 1960, at age 90.
The Laboratory was the first of its kind in the world to be set up for the
systematic study of rock formation, and through Dr. Day's efforts petrology
was established as a quantitative science. Dr. Day bequeathed his entire scien-
tific library to the Geophysical Laboratory, where it will be kept as a fitting
memorial to his early leadership of the program.
Concurrently with his Directorship of the Department, Dr. Day was a Vice-
President of the Corning Glass Works between 1919 and 1936. He had previ-
ously had the important responsibility of supervising optical-glass production
in this country during the first World War. He was a member of the National
Academy of Sciences and a past president of the Geological Society of America.
The death of Dr. Walter Baade on June 25, 1960, at Gottingen, Germany,
is a loss that the Institution feels most keenly since he had planned to visit at
the Observatories during this year. Dr. Baade retired in 1958, after twenty-
seven years during which his distinguished work developed the basis for cur-
rent theories on the evolution of stars, and provided us with our present con-
cepts of the scale of distances in the universe. Dr. Baade first distinguished
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two general types of stellar populations in galactic formations, which he desig-
nated Population I (blue giants) and Population II (red giants). He found
the first most plentiful in the arms of spiral galaxies, while the second pre-
dominate in the nuclei of some galaxies. Deductions from this discovery led
to important new concepts of the nature of stellar evolution. He recalibrated
the cepheid variable stars, increasing their precision as indicators of stellar dis-
tances beyond the Milky Way. This recalibration established the fact that such
distances must be considered to be at least twice as great as had previously been
estimated. Dr. Baade also collaborated in first identifying optically several of
the more distant celestial sources of radio emission, among them the galaxies
in collision in Cygnus A, already mentioned, and a supernova in Cassiopeia.
After his retirement Dr. Baade served as visiting professor of astronomy at
Harvard College, then at the Australian National University at Canberra, and
finally at Gottingen University in Germany. Among Dr. Baade's many aca-
demic honors was the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.
Dr. Frank C. Kracek, physical chemist at the Geophysical Laboratory from
1923 until his retirement in 1956, died in Washington, D. C., on July 5, 1960,
at age 69. Dr. Kracek's investigations were concerned with the phase equi-
libria and thermal chemistry of silicates and sulfides and with the effect of
pressure on phase equilibria. During World War II he carried on ballistic re-
search for the National Defense Research Committee. After his retirement
from the Institution he continued his work in thermal chemistry at the Geo-
physical Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey.
Mr. Karl Ruppert, a member of the Institution's former Department of
Archaeology for nearly thirty-two years, died in Rochester, Minnesota, on
August 13, 1960, at age 64. He had retired on October 1, 1956. Mr. Ruppert
took an active part in the excavation and restoration of Maya buildings at
Chichen Itza in Yucatan. In 1947 he was in charge of a joint Carnegie Insti-
tution and United Fruit Company expedition to Bonampak, Chiapas, Mexico,
the archaeological site now famous for its mural paintings by the Maya Indians.
The location of the site, the history of its discovery, and its architecture are
all ably described by Ruppert in Bonampak, Chiapas, Mexico, written in col-
laboration with J. E. S. Thompson and Tatiana Proskouriakoff and published
by the Institution in 1955. When the Department of Archaeology in 1950
began its survey of the last important center of aboriginal Maya civilization,
the ruins of Mayapan, Mr. Ruppert worked with A. L. Smith on the survey
of the site and excavations in many nonceremonial buildings. He spent much
of his time during the last few years before his retirement in ordering and
analyzing the data collected at Mayapan.
Dr. Colin Stanley Gum, a Research Officer of the Division of Radiophysics
of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Syd-
ney, Australia, and Fellow of the Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories
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16 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
for the year beginning August 1, 1959, died in an accident in Zermat, Switzer-
land, on April 28, 1960. He was in Europe at the time working on plans for
a new Australian telescope. During the three years that Dr. Gum was at the
Radiophysics Laboratory he participated in a 21-cm survey of the southern
Milky Way and later interpretation of data from it. He also played a major
role in research that led to the recommendation of a new system of galactic
coordinates, largely based on 21-cm data. Dr. Gum was a Fellow of the Royal
Astronomical Society and a member of the International Astronomical Union
and the American Astronomical Society. His loss is keenly felt in the United
States as well as in Australia.
? . and Gains
Mr. Garrison Norton, President of the Institute for Defense Analyses of
Washington, was elected a Trustee during the year. Mr. Norton comes to the
Board with a most distinguished record of public service. Before undertaking
the Presidency of the Institute, an interuniversity organization which assists
the Department of Defense, Mr. Norton served as Assistant Secretary of State
(1945-1949), as Director of the Export-Import Bank (1948-1949), as Deputy
Director of the International Bank and Monetary Fund (1948-1949), as Con-
sultant to the Secretary of the Air Force (1951-1955), and as Assistant Secre-
tary of the Navy for Air (1956-1959). During the second World War
Mr. Norton was a naval aviator in the American and European theaters, end-
ing the war with the rank of Captain. Before the war he was associated with
Arthur Young and Company, Accountants, in New York, becoming a gen-
eral partner of that firm after 1930. He also was a special partner in the in-
vestment firm of William A. M. Burden and Company, New York, between
1949 and 1952.
I am especially glad to report that Dr. Philip H. Abelson, the Director of
the Geophysical Laboratory, has been appointed by the President of the United
States to the nine-member General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy
Commission for a term of six years. This post is one of high significance in
guiding the atomic program of the nation, both in matters of defense and in
the development of atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
It is also my particular pleasure to report that Dr. Olin C. Wilson of the
Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories was elected during the year to the
National Academy of Sciences.
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Three astronomers in the Institution have assumed chairmanships of im-
portant professional committees during the year. Dr. Ira S. Bowen, Director
of the Observatories, was elected Chairman of Section D of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science; Dr. William A. Baum was ap-
pointed Chairman of the Committee on Astronomy, Advisory to the Office of
Naval Research, and Dr. Armin J. Deutsch, Chairman of the Advisory Board
for the National Radio Observatory at Green Bank, West Virginia.
Scott E. Forbush of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism was elected
an honorary professor of the University of San Marcos, Lima, Peru.
Caryl P. Haskins
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PRESIDENT and TRUSTEES
Caryl P. Haskins
Walter S. Gifford, Chairman
Barklie McKee Henry, Vice-Chairman
Robert Woods Bliss, Secretary
James F. Bell
Robert Woods Bliss
Amory H. Bradford
Omar N. Bradley
Vannevar Bush
Walter S. Gifford
Crawford H. Greenewalt
Caryl P. Haskins
Barklie McKee Henry
Alfred L. Loomis
Robert A. Lovett
Keith S. McHugh
Margaret Carnegie Miller
Henry S. Morgan
Seeley G. Mudd
William I. Myers
Garrison Norton
Richard S. Perkins
Elihu Root, Jr.
Henry R. Shepley
Charles P. Taft
Juan T. Trippe
James N. White
Robert E. Wilson
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TRUSTEES Continued
Barklie McKee Henry, Chairman
Robert Woods Bliss
Walter S. Gifford
Caryl P. Haskins
Robert A. Lovett
Henry S. Morgan
Garrison Norton
Henry R. Shepley
James N. White
James N. White, Chairman
Walter S. Gifford
Alfred L. Loomis
Henry S. Morgan
Richard S. Perkins
Elihu Root, Jr.
Keith S. McHugh, Chairman
Alfred L. Loomis
Juan T. Trippe
COMMITTEE ON
ASTRONOMY
Seeley G. Mudd, Chairman
Amory H. Bradford
Crawford H. Greenewalt
Elihu Root, Jr.
COMMITTEE ON
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES
Juan T. Trippe, Chairman
Barklie McKee Henry
Richard S. Perkins
Robert E. Wilson
Henry S. Morgan, Chairman
Robert Woods Bliss
Walter S. Gifford
Barklie McKee Henry
Omar N. Bradley, Chairman
Barklie McKee Henry
Henry S. Morgan
James N. White
COMMITTEE ON
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Alfred L. Loomis, Chairman
Margaret Carnegie Miller
William I. Myers
Charles P. Taft
COMMITTEE ON
ARCHAEOLOGY
Henry R. Shepley, Chairman
James F. Bell
Robert Woods Bliss
Juan T. Trippe
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FORMER PRESIDENTS and TRUSTEES
PRESIDENTS
Daniel Coit Gilman, 1902-1904 Robert Simpson Woodward, 1904-1920
John Campbell Merriam, President 1921-1938; President Emeritus 1939-1945
1939-1955
Vannevar Bush
,
TRUSTEES
Alexander Agassiz
1904-05
Seth Low
1902-16
George J. Baldwin
1925-27
Wayne MacVeagh
1902-07
Thomas Barbour
1934-46
Andrew W. Mellon
1924-37
John S. Billings
1902-13
Roswell Miller
1933-35
Lindsay Bradford
1940-58
Darius O. Mills
1902-09
Robert S. Brookings
1910-29
S. Weir Mitchell
1902-14
John L. Cadwalader
1903-14
Andrew J. Montague
1907-35
William W. Campbell
1929-38
William W. Morrow
1902-29
John J. Carty
1916-32
William Church Osborn
1927-34
Whitefoord R. Cole
1925-34
James Parmelee
1917-31
Frederic A. Delano
1927-49
Wm. Barclay Parsons
1907-32
Cleveland H. Dodge
1903-23
Stewart Paton
1916-42
William E. Dodge
1902-03
George W. Pepper
1914-19
Charles P. Fenner
1914-24
John J. Pershing
1930-43
Horner L. Ferguson
1927-52
Henning W. Prentis, Jr.
1942-59
Simon Flexner
1910-14
Henry S. Pritchett
1906-36
W. Cameron Forbes
1920-55
Gordon S. Rentschler
1946-48
James Forrestal
1948-49
David Rockefeller
1952-56
William N. Frew
1902-15
Elihu Root
1902-37
Lyman J. Gage
1902-12
Julius Rosenwald
1929-31
Cass Gilbert
1924-34
Martin A. Ryerson
1908-28
Frederick H. Gillett
1924-35
Theobald Smith
1914-34
Daniel C. Gilman
1902-08
John C. Spooner
1902-07
John Hay
1902-05
William Benson Storey
1924-39
Myron T. Herrick
1915-29
Richard P. Strong
1934-48
Abram S. Hewitt
1902-03
William H. Taft
1906-15
Henry L. Higginson
1902-19
William S. Thayer
1929-32
Ethan A. Hitchcock
1902-09
James W. Wadsworth
1932-52
Henry Hitchcock
1902-02
Charles D. Walcott
1902-27
Herbert Hoover
1920-49
Frederic C. Walcott
1931-48
William Wirt Howe
1903-09
Henry P. Walcott
1910-24
Charles L. Hutchinson
1902-04
Lewis H. Weed
1935-52
Walter A. Jessup
1938-44
William H. Welch
1906-34
Frank B. Jewett
1933-49
Andrew D. White
1902-03
Samuel P. Langley
1904-06
Edward D. White
1902-03
Ernest O. Lawrence
1944-58
Henry White
1913-27
Charles A. Lindbergh
1934-39
George W. Wickersham
1909-36
William Lindsay
1902-09
Robert S. Woodward
1905-24
Henry Cabot Lodge
1914-24
Carroll D. Wright
1902-08
Under the original charter, from the date of organization until April 28, 1904, the following were
ex officio members of the Board of Trustees: the President of the United States, the President of the Senate,
the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and the President
of the National Academy of Sciences.
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STAFF
MOUNT WILSON AND PALOMAR OBSERVATORIES
813 Santa Barbara Street, Pasadena 4, California
Ira S. Bowen, Director; Horace W. Babcock, Assistant Director
Halton C. Arp
W
l
Fred Hoyle
Allan R. Sandage
i
liam A. Baum
Robert P. Kraft
Maarten Schmidt
Armin J. Deutsch
Rudolph L. Minkowski 1
Olin C. Wilson
Jesse L. Greenstein
Guido Munch
Fritz Zwicky
J. Beverley Oke
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
2801 Upton Street, N.W., Washington 8, D. C.
Philip H. Abelson, Director
Francis R. Boyd, Jr.
F
li
h
Gabrielle Donnay
Gunnar Kullerud
e
x C
ayes
S
d
Joseph L. England
J. Frank Schairer
y
ney P. Clark, Jr.
G
d
Joseph W. Greig 1
George R. Tilton
or
on L. Davis
Thomas C. Hoering
Hatten S. Yoder, Jr.
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
5241 Broad Branch Road, N.W., Washington 15, D. C.
Merle A. Tuve, Director
L. Thomas Aldrich
Elli
T
Dean B. Cowie
Richard B. Roberts
s
. Bolton
R
John W. Firor
Georges M. Temmer
oy J. Britten
B
d
Scott E. Forbush
Harry W. Wells
ernar
F. Burke
W. Kent Ford, Jr.
George W. Wetherill
Norman P. Heydenburg
1 Retired June 30, 1960.
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STAFF Continued
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BIOLOGY
Stanford, California
C. Stacy French, Director
Jeannette S. Brown Malcolm A. Nobs
William M. Hiesey James H. C. Smith
Harold W. Milner
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
Wolfe and Madison Streets, Baltimore 5, Maryland
James D. Ebert, Director
David W. Bishop Elizabeth M. Ramsey
Bent G. Boving Mary E. Rawles
Robert K. Burns Royal F. Ruth
Robert L. DeHaan
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York
Milislav Demerec, Director 1
Elizabeth Burgi Ernest L. Lahr
Helen Gay Barbara McClintock
Alfred D. Hershey Margaret R. McDonald
Berwind P. Kaufmann 2 George Streisinger
i Retired June 30, 1960.
2 Acting Director, July 1, 1960.
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STAFF. Continued
OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATION
1530 P Strcet, N. W., Washington 5, D. C.
Caryl P. Haskins
President
Paul A. Scherer 1
Executive Officer
Edward A. Ackerman
Executive Oficer 2
Ruth L. McCollum
Assistant to the President
Ailene J. Bauer
Director of Publications
Lucile B. Stryker
Editor
Earle B. Biesecker 8
Bursar; Secretary-Treasurer, Retirement Trust
James W. Boise'
Assistant Bursar; Assistant Treasurer, Retirement Trust
Kenneth R. Henard 5
Assistant Bursar; Assistant Treasurer, Retirement Trust
James F. Sullivan
Assistant to the Bursar
Richard F. F. Nichols
Executive Secretary to the Finance Committee
Staff Member, beginning February 1, 1960.
2 Beginning February 1, 1960.
$ Retired June 30, 1960.
Bursar; Secretary-Treasurer, Retirement Trust, beginning July 1, 1960.
'Appointed July 1, 1960.
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STAFF Continued
of Carnegie Institution of Washington
Walter A. Baade, Bad Saizuflen, Germany 1
Georges N. Cohen, Institut Pasteur
Louis B. Flexner, University of Pennsylvania
F. T. McClure, Applied Physics Laboratory of The Johns Hopkins University
J. D. McGee, Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London
Harry E. D. Pollock, Carnegie Institution of Washington
E. E. Salpeter, Cornell University
Edwin M. Shook, University Museum, University of Pennsylvania
P. Swings, Universite de Liege
C. E. Tilley, Cambridge University
Evelyn M. Witkin, State University of New York
R. v. d. Woolley, Royal Greenwich Observatory
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ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION
Public No. 260. An Act to incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America
in Congress assembled, That the persons following, being persons who are now trustees
of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cad-
walader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman,
John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P.
Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius 0. Mills, S. Weir
Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew
D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, their associates and successors, duly
chosen, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate by the name of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington and by that name shall be known and have perpetual
succession, with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained.
Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and
most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowl-
edge to the improvement of mankind; and in particular-
(a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of science, literature,
or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments, universities, colleges, technical
schools, learned societies, and individuals.
(b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research.
(c) To publish and distribute documents.
(d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain a library.
(e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such building or build-
ings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation.
(f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the objects of the
institution, with full power, however, to the trustees hereinafter appointed and their suc-
cessors from time to time to modify the conditions and regulations under which the work
shall be carried on, so as to secure the application of the funds in the manner best adapted
to the conditions of the time, provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all times
be among the foregoing or kindred thereto.
Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corporation and the
control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in a board of trustees, twenty-
two in number, to be composed of the following individuals: Alexander Agassiz, John S.
Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage,
Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L.
Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius 0.
Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C.
Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, who shall constitute
lxvii
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lxviii CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
the first board of trustees. The board of trustees shall have power from time to time to
increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned
by death, resignation, or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner
as the by-laws shall prescribe; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees
and also members of the said corporation. The principal place of business of the said
corporation shall be the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia.
Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold, and administer the
securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew Carnegie to the trustees of
the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or property as may at any time be given,
devised, or bequeathed to them, or to such corporation, for the purposes of the trust; and
with full power from time to time to adopt a common seal, to appoint such officers, mem-
bers of the board of trustees or otherwise, and such employees as may be deemed necessary
in carrying on the business of the corporation, at such salaries or with such remuneration
as they may deem proper; and with full power to adopt by-laws from time to time and
such rules or regulations as may be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction
of the business of the corporation; and with full power and discretion to deal with and
expend the income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best pro-
mote the objects herein set forth and in general to have and use all powers and authority
necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes of the donor. The said
trustees shall have further power from time to time to hold as investments the securities
hereinabove referred to so transferred by Andrew Carnegie, and any property which has
been or may be transferred to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by any
other person, persons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or amounts from time to
time in such securities and such form and manner as are permitted to trustees or to
charitable or literary corporations for investment, according to the laws of the States of
New York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, or in such securities as are authorized for
investment by the said deed of trust so executed by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of
gift or last will and testament to be hereafter made or executed.
Sec. S. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional donations, grants,
devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of the purposes of the said
corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof the personal expenses which the
trustees may incur in attending meetings or otherwise in carrying out the business of the
trust, but the services of the trustees as such shall be gratuitous.
Sec. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a meeting of the
trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Gilman, John S. Billings, Charles
D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root, and Carroll D. Wright, or any four
of them, at the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia, by notice served in person
or by mail addressed to each trustee at his place of residence; and the said trustees, or a
majority thereof, being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect
officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the said corporation; and said
trustees herein named, on behalf of the corporation hereby incorporated, shall thereupon
receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property,
real or personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the Carnegie Institution, incor-
porated, as hereinbefore set forth under "An Act to establish a Code of Law for the District
of Columbia, January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts,
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claims, and property of any kind or nature; and the several officers of such corporation, or
any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, real or personal, books, or
property thereof, shall, on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this
Act or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same; and the trustees of the existing
corporation and the trustees herein named shall and may take such other steps as shall be
necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act.
Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation known as the
Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this Act, or
the transfer of the property hereinbefore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation
for the payment of any sums due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any
manner or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or im-
paired; but such corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations
and liabilities and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and
contracts of the said corporation so existing to the same effect as if such new corporation
had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no such
action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been
discontinued by reason of the passage of this Act.
,Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this Act of
incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be
divested or impaired.
.Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.
Approved, April 28, 1904
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BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION
Adopted December 13, 1904. Amended December 13, 1910, December 13, 1912, December
10, 1937, December 15, 1939, December 13, 1940, December 18, 1942, December
12, 1947, December 10, 1954, October 24,1957, May 8, 1959, and May 13, 1960.
ARTICLE I
The Trustees
1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members with power to increase
its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. The Trustees shall hold office
continuously and not for a stated term.
2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meetings of the Board
he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee.
3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such.
4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees by ballot at an
annual meeting, but no person shall be declared elected unless he receives the votes of
two-thirds of the Trustees present.
Officers of the Board
1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice-Chairman, and a
Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the members of the Board, by ballot
to serve for a term of three years. All vacancies shall be filled by the Board for the unex-
pired term; provided, however, that the Executive Committee shall have power to fill a
vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees.
2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual powers of a
presiding officer.
3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall perform the
duties of the Chairman.
4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its transactions, and
conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the Board and to his duties.
ARTICLE III
Executive Administration
The President
1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold office during
the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive officer of the Institution. The
President, subject to the control of the Board and the Executive Committee, shall have
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general charge of all matters of administration and supervision of all arrangements for
research and other work undertaken by the Institution or with its funds. He shall prepare
and submit to the Board of Trustees and to the Executive Committee plans and suggestions
for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general correspondence and the corre-
spondence with applicants for grants and with the special advisers of the Committee, and
shall present his recommendations in each case to the Executive Committee for decision.
All proposals and requests for grants shall be referred to the President for consideration
and report. He shall have power to remove, appoint, and, within the scope of funds made
available by the Trustees, provide for compensation of subordinate employees and to fix
the compensation of such employees within the limits of a maximum rate of compensation
to be established from time to time by the Executive Committee. He shall be ex officio
a member of the Executive Committee.
2. He shall be the legal custodian of the seal and of all property of the Institution whose
custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall sign and execute on behalf of the cor-
poration all contracts and instruments necessary in authorized administrative and research
matters and affix the corporate seal thereto when necessary, and may delegate the per-
formance of such acts and other administrative duties in his absence to the Executive
Officer. He may execute all other contracts, deeds, and instruments on behalf of the cor-
poration and affix the seal thereto when expressly authorized by the Board of Trustees or
Executive Committee. He may, within the limits of his own authorization, delegate to
the Executive Officer authority to act as custodian of and affix the corporate seal. He shall
be responsible for the expenditure and disbursement of all funds of the Institution in
accordance with the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee, and shall
keep accurate accounts of all receipts and disbursements. Following approval by the Execu-
tive Committee he shall transmit to the Board of Trustees before its annual meeting a
written report of the operations and business of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year
with his recommendations for work and appropriations for the succeeding fiscal year.
3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees.
4. There shall be an officer designated Executive Officer who shall be appointed by and
hold office at the pleasure of the President, subject to the approval of the Executive Com-
mittee. His duties shall be to assist and act for the President as the latter may duly
authorize and direct.
5.. The President shall retire from office at the end of the fiscal year in which he
becomes sixty-five years of age.
Meetings
1. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City of Wash-
ington, in the District of Columbia, in May of each year on a date set by order of
the Executive Committee, unless the date and place of meeting are otherwise set by order
of the Executive Committee.
2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Committee by notice
served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each Trustee twenty days prior
to the meeting.
3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the Chairman upon
the written request of seven members of the Board.
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Ixxii CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Committees
1. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz. an Executive Committee, a
Finance Committee, an Auditing Committee, a Nominating Committee, and a Retirement
Committee.
2. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee, the Finance Committee, the
Auditing Committee, the Nominating Committee, and the Retirement Committee shall be
filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting. In case of vacancy in the Finance Com-
mittee, the Auditing Committee, the Nominating Committee, or the Retirement Commit-
tee, upon request of the remaining members of such committee, the Executive Committee
may fill such vacancy by appointment until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees.
3. The terms of all officers and of all members of committees, as provided for herein,
shall continue until their successors are elected or appointed.
Executive Committee
4. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and Secre-
tary of the Board of Trustees and the President of the Institution ex officio and, in addi-
tion, five trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of three years, who shall
be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder
of his predecessor's term.
5. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and has not given
specific directions, have general control of the administration of the affairs of the corpora-
tion and general supervision of all arrangements for administration, research, and other
matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution. It shall also submit to the Board of
Trustees a printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the annual meeting
shall submit to the Board a report for publication.
6. The Executive Committee shall have power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange,
or transfer of real estate.
Finance Committee
7. The Finance Committee shall consist of not less than five and not more than six
members to be elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years, who
shall be eligible for re-election.
8. The Finance Committee shall have custody of the securities of the corporation and
general charge of its investments and invested funds, including its investments and in-
vested funds as trustee of any retirement plan for the Institution's staff members and
employees, and shall care for and dispose of the same subject to the directions of the
Board of Trustees. It shall have power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or
transfer of securities and to delegate this power. It shall consider and recommend to the
Board from time to time such measures as in its opinion will promote the financial inter-
ests of the Institution and of the trust fund under any retirement plan for the Institution's
staff members and employees, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board.
9. Th
of Trust
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BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION lxxiii
Auditing Committee
9. The Auditing Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the Board
of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.
10. Before each annual meeting of the Board of Trustees, the Auditing Committee shall
cause the accounts of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year to be audited by public
accountants. The accountants shall report to the Committee, and the Committee shall
present said report at the ensuing annual meeting of the Board with such recommendations
as the Committee may deem appropriate.
Nominating Committee
11. The Nominating Committee shall consist of the Chairman of the Board of Trustees
ez officio and, in addition, three trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term
of three years, who shall not be eligible for re-election until after the lapse of one year.
Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's
term, provided that of the Nominating Committee first elected after adoption of this
By-Law one member shall serve for one year, one member shall serve for two years, and
one member shall serve for three years, the Committee to determine the respective terms
by lot.
12. Sixty days prior to an annual meeting of the Board the Nominating Committee shall
notify the Trustees by mail of the vacancies to be filled in membership of the Board. Each
Trustee may submit nominations for such vacancies. Nominations so submitted shall be
considered by the Nominating Committee, and ten days prior to the annual meeting the
Nominating Committee shall submit to members of the Board by mail a list of the persons
so nominated, with its recommendations for filling existing vacancies on the Board and
its Standing Committees. No other nominations shall be received by the Board at the
annual meeting except with the unanimous consent of the Trustees present.
Retirement Committee
13. The Retirement Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the
Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years, who shall be eligible for re-election,
and the Chairman of the Finance Committee ex officio. Any member elected to fill a
vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term.
14. The Retirement Committee shall, subject to the directions of the Board of Trustees,
be responsible for the maintenance of a retirement plan for staff members and employees
of the Institution and act for the Institution in its capacity as trustee under any such plan,
except that any matter relating to investments under any such plan shall be the responsi-
bility of the Finance Committee subject to the directions of the Board of Trustees. The
Committee shall submit a report to the Board at the annual meeting of the Board.
ARTICLE VI
Financial Administration
1. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a previous appro-
priation by the Board of Trustees, or as provided in Article V, paragraph 8, hereof.
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Ixxiv CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of July in each year.
3. The Executive Committee shall submit to the annual meeting of the Board a
full statement of the finances and work of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year
and a detailed estimate of the expenditures of the succeeding fiscal year.
4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make general
appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year; but nothing contained herein shall prevent
the Board of Trustees from making special appropriations at any meeting.
5. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all appropriations
made by the Board. Following the annual meeting, the Executive Committee may
allocate these appropriations for the succeeding fiscal year. The Committee shall
have full authority to reallocate available funds, as needed, and to transfer balances.
6. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property, and funds invested and
to be invested, shall be deposited in such safe depository or in the custody of such trust
company and under such safeguards as the Finance Committee shall designate, subject to
directions of the Board of Trustees. Income of the Institution available for expenditure
shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may from time to time be designated
by the Executive Committee.
7. Any trust company entrusted with the custody of securities by the Finance Committee
may, by resolution of the Board of Trustees, be made Fiscal Agent of the Institution, upon
an agreed compensation, for the transaction of the business coming within the authority
of the Finance Committee.
Amendment of By-Laws
1. These by-laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the Board of
Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided written notice of the pro-
posed amendment shall have been served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address
of, each member of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting.
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in each year.
he Board a
g fiscal year
lake general
hall prevent
ppropriations
imittee may
mittee shall
balances.
nvested and
~f such trust
e, subject to
expenditure
designated
Committee
:ution, upon
ie authority
Le Board of
of the pro-
ual address
Reprinted from Carnegie Institution of Washington Year Book 59
for the year 1959-1960, pages xiv-Ixxiv.
Issued December 12, 1960.
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 Approved For Release 2002/08/21 : CIA-RDP80B01676R003600070076-5
77 Li7~u~sr~~ry~
CAI~YI n TT n Cl- 14"S
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
1530 P STREET, N. W., WASHINGTON 5, D. C?
Approved For Release 2002/08/21 : CIA-RDP80B01676R003600070076-5