THE SOVIET EARTH SATELLITES 1957

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 88
• Document Creation Date: December 21, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 1, 2008
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: June 12, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
TEE-SOVIET EARTH SATELLITES
 Publishers' Note
I. Historic ;vent in the History of Mankind 1
II. The Sputniks 6
The Problem of Launching Them (6). Rockets (7).
The Take-off (12). Design (14).
III. The Sputniks' Orbits 17
Sputnik-1 (19). Now to Find the Orbit (20).
The ;volution of Sputnik-1's Orbit (24).
'Why Must the Rocket and Sputnik _tr up?
Are There Impermissible Orbits for Satellites?
(25). Sputnik-2's Orbit (26).
IV. "'hat Makes Satellites Move? 29
The Needed Speed (30). Altitude and Speed (31).
V. Observations of the Sputniks' Motion 34
VI. Research With the Aid of the Sputniks 40
The Upper Atmosphere (40). Cosmic Rays (48).
The Secrets of the Ionosphere (56). The
Earth's Magnetic Field (59). Weather Fore-
casting (62).
VII. Towards the Conquest of Outer Space 66
Problems Involved in the Study of Animals
Travelling in Cuter Space (66) Biological
Phenomena in Cosmic Flights (68).
~-III'. Life on a Satellite 71
77ithout Atmosphere (71). The Sun is Not All
Life (73). What Is "?eightlessness?.(75).
'There Are the Biologioal Limits? (79).
IX. Man in Outer Space 80
 ... "The steel birds find the air increasingly crowded,
and this has become possible in our country only at this time
when our whole industrious nation, every working man and wcn-
man in our Soviet land have all together set out to make
real mankind's dream of conquering the heights beyond the
clouds...
"Today I am very certain that my other dream, namely,
interplanetary travel, which I substantiated theoretically,
will also come true.
"For forty years I worked on jet-propelled engines and
thought that a pleasure trip to Mars would begin only after
several centuries. But times are changing. I believe that
many of'you will witness the first flight beyond the at-
mosphere...."
From a speech by B.E. Tsiolkovsky
recorded in 1933)
 PUBLISHERS' NOTE
On July 1, 1957 began the International Geophysical
Year. Joining their efforts, scientists of 64 countries
are engaged in extensive investigations of the continents
and islands, seas and oceans, the depths of the sea and the
atmosphere.
To be studied are the aurora polaris and glow of the
air, the cosmic rays, terrestrial magnetism, the earth's
gravitation, and solar radiation; also the ice situation,
the physics of the ionosphere and a number of problems of
meteorology, oceanography, seismology, and so on.
Occupying a special place in the research is the study
of cosmic space, one of the - fascinating tasks of modern
science. It is of tremendous interest for physics, astrophy-
sics, astronomy, meteorology, aviation, chemistry, biology
and many other spheres of science.
An important place in the IGY programme has been assigned
to this explormtton? which is being conducted with the aid
of rockets and artificial satellites of the Earth.
The Soviet Union plans to launch 125 rockets, to rise
from different points in-the USSR approximately along the
same meridian, beginning with Franz Josef Land beyond the
Arctic Circle, and from starting grounds in the middle la-
titudes belt. Rockets are also to be launchlad from the area
of Mirny settlement in the Antarctic. The Soviet rockets
will take up containers with instruments for different
kinds of observations 100-200 kilometres high. The United
States plans to send up 35 rockets, and Britain, France and
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-2-
Japan, also intend to launch rockets for research purposes.
The IGY's most important problem is the launching of
artificial satellites of the Earth. The very emblem of the
IGY is a picture of our planet ringed by an orbit of a
moving artificial earth satellite. Only two countries --
the Soviet Union and the United States -- have decided to
undertake to carry out this task, one of the grandest man
has ever set himself.
On October 4, 1957 a truly history-making event took
place -- the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik-1,
the first artificial earth satellite. And before another
full month had passed it was followed by Sputnik-2_, its
younger but much bigger brother, which took up to the
fringe of outer space the dog "Laika", the Earth's first
messenger.
The launching of Sputnik-1 was a great triumph of
man over nature. Man had surmounted "the physical carriers"
which have kept him out of cosmic space; he had overcome
the force of gravity and the resistance of the atmosphere.
However, there still remained the biological barrier, as
yet unexplored. Could a living organism endure the con-
ditions of space beyond the Earth's atmosphere? "Laika's"
heartbeats heard by-the world's radio stations furnished the
answer to this question. This is the first step toward
man's travel in cosmic space.
In this booklet we offer for your attention material
published in the Soviet press in connection with the launch-
ings of the satellites, amon-- them articles and other pub-
lications by the following authors:
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-3-
Academician V. Ambartsumyan, President of the Academy
of Sciences of the Armenian SSR; Academician A. Blagonravov,
Academician -- oecretary of the Technical Sciences Suction
of the USSR Academy of Sciences; E. Blinov, Corresponding-
Member of the UsoR Academy of Sciences; S. Vernov, Corres-
ponding-Member of the Academy; K. Gilzin, Candidate of
Technical Sciences; Prof. V. Dobronravov, Doctor of Physical
and Mathematical Sciences; S. Dolginov, Candidate of Physical
and Mathematical sciences; P. Isakov, Oandidate of Biological
Sciences; A. Karpenko, Learned Secretary of the National
Commission for Interplanetary Communication of the USE Academy
of sciences; V. Krasovsky, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical
Sciences; Y. Krylov, Candidate of Technical sciences; Prof.
V. Romadin, Doctor of Technical sciences; V. Perin, Member of
the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR; N. Pushkov, Can-
didate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences; Prof. A. Predvo--
ditelev, Corresponding Member of the UooR Academy of Sciences;
Prof. Y. Po1redonostsev, Doctor of Technical ociences; Prof.
G. Pokrovsky, Doctor of Technical Sciences= Academician
A. Topchiev, Chief Learned Secretary of the Presidium of the
USSR Academy of sciences; A. Shternfeld, Winner of the
International Prize for the Promotion of Astronautics, and
others.
 I. HISTORIC EVENT IN THE DESTINY OF MANKIND
Our epoch is rich in groat discoveries in the fields
of science and technology, and some of them are so great
that it is soaetimes hard for us to assess them prope-rly
at once. Space flights and an artificial Earth satellite
have been discussed in detail in the scientific literature
of different countries for a long time, and one would think
that the importance of this question had long been realised.
However, now that the Soviet artificial satellites have been
successfully launched and are whirling over various countries
the history of the question should be re-examined once more
and the success achieved assessed in a new way.
Many achievements of science and technology can be
evaluated more correctly and objectively by first ascertain-
ing to what extent they have given man greater power over the
forces of nature.
If we approach the event of the successful launching
if the Soviet artificial Earth satellites from this viewpoint,
we may say the followingt
Most biologists today are inclined to the view that
organic life, the highest manifestation of which is man, had
for more than 1,000 million years after emerging on Earth
been bound to Mother Earth, her hydrosphere and atmosphere.
And now we are witnessing the fact that machinery developed by
man has left the Earth and its atmosphere and is striking
root in cosmic space, where nothing emerging on the Earth
had ever been before.-
 -2-
Obviously it will not be many years before flights to the
Moon and other planets will be made not only by automatic
space ships without crews but also by vessels carrying people
on board.
In other words, we are now standing on the border line
of two great epochs. The epoch in which the life of man was
confined to the Earth is coming to a close, and the epoch
of man's striking root in cosmic space is beginning. From a
terrestrial being man is becoming a cosmic being..
Thera can be no doubt that this transformation will
have little effect on the course of man's normal life on Earth
in the next few years or even uecades. However, there can
be no doubt either that prospects are opening up for future
centuries and millennia which we cannot begin to assess
simply because there is no appropriate yardstick.
We may say that there are in science and engineering
"tactical" and "strategical" achievements. "Tactical" achie-
vements rapidly become part and parcel of life, bringing us
much that is useful but not changing the nature of man's
social existence. "Strategic" achievements do not affect
the life of individuals directly. Their pructical effect
manifests itself slowly, but then they radically change all
relations of human society and its environment.
We can assume that achievements such as the subju-
gation of fire, the making of metals, and so on, were
"strategical" achievements of technology in hoary antiquity.
But presumably all these human accomplishments are a trifle
compared with the conquest of cosmic space. Only the dis-
covery of nuclear energy -- an achievement of our days --
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
can in any way be compared with cosmic flights.
The beginning of space flights opened to mankind the
prospects of conquering endless space. Nuclear energy and
cosmic flights together open up to humanity boundless vistas
for further development.
To master nuclear energy and cosmic flights fully,
science, engineering and the economy have to be planned and
managed in the interests of human society as a whole, and
it is therefore far from accidental that it was precisely
the Soviet Union which has found an excellent and reliable
solution of the problem of building and launching artifi-
cial Earth satellites.
Russian science has splendid traditions in the build-
ing of rockets.Advanced scientists and inventors have
occupied tnemselves with problems of rockets and jet propul-
sion since way back. Many valuable works on powder rockets
were put out by K,N. Konstantinov, an eminent artillery
engineer, who worked in the first half and *be middle of
the 19th century. In 1881 the famed Russian revolutionary
N.I. Kibalchich suggested the idea of vertical flight by
using a jet engine to overcomothe force of gravity, and
towards the end of the 19th century Professor N.V. Meshchersky
of Petersburg Polytechnical Institute developed the theory
of bodies of variable mass, which is even today the
basis for all calculations in the sphere of rocket engineer-
ing. However, the most remarkable occurrence in Russian
science in this direction is the works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky,
works which received universal acclaim for brilliance. in
their purposefulness, concreteness and classic simplicity.
 -4-
Tsiolkovsky was the first in the history of science to
work out the principles uneerlying the theory of jet
propulsion and the general theory of space flights as
early as 1903, and a concrete scheme of multi-stage cosmic
rockets in 1929.
Towards the end of the twenties groups of engin,.:crs
worked on a number of concrete problems in the physics and
technology of jet propulsion. Tsiolkovsky was tirelessly
carrying his research in the dynamics of rockets which he
had begun at the beginning of the century, and by that
time he had come to the conclusion that a one-piece rocket
powered by chemical fuel would not be able to attain cosmic
speed (8-il kilometres a second), and in his search for
the solution to the problem of attaining greater speed
he conceived the idea of multi-stage rockets, an idea
which proved so fruitful.
Research in jet propulsion was placed in the category
of research of special state importance as far back as
early five-year plans, and this made it possible early
in the thirties, long before similar work was begun in
.other countries, to conuuct stand tests of jet engines
in the UooR, and in 1933 to launch a rocket designed and
built by engineer M.K. Tikhonravov for meteorological ob-
servations.
After the war Soviet scientists began to design long-
range guided roc,cets.
In 1947 regular investigations of the upper layers of
the atmosphere were begun with the aid of instruments lifted
 -5-
in rockets, and study was begun of the processes taking
place beyond the atmosphere. It was discovered that the
Sun radiates X-rays, data was obtained on the chemical
composition of the atmosphere over 100 kilometres high,
a study was made of the concentration of free charges in
the ionosphere, which plays a very important part in
short-wave radio communication, observations were conducted
of the condition of a living organism in the state of
weightlessness, which occurs during the free flight of a
rocket, and a number of other valuable investigations have
been carried out which have widened the horizons of scien-
tific knowledge and have paved the way for man's flight in
space.
The artificial satellites were launched in the USSR
under the IGY programme.
Artificial satellites are of importance purely for
scientific resserch. The programme of scientific measure-
ments on the artificial Earth satellites is very broad,
encompassing many divisions of physics of the upper atmos-
phere and study of outer space near the Earth.
These problems include: a study of the state of the
ionosphere and its chemical structure; measurement of its
pressure and density; m.gnetic measurements; study of the
nature of the Sun's corpuscular radiation, of the primary
composition and changes in comsic rays, of the ultra-violet
and X-ray regions of the aunts spectrum, the electrostatic
fields of the upper atmosphere and micropartioles, and,
lastly, a whole series of investigations into the vital
 i Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
activity of t#e living organism in cosmic flight.
To obtain all essential scientific data from the
flight of the satellites their movement has to be syste-
matically observed by means of astronomical (optical)
instruments, radio and radar aids.
Observations of satellites cin oe conducted by scient-
ists in all countries, nd this veil1 serve as a basis for
the growth and enrichment of all of world science. The
Soviet sputniks therefore not only symbolize achievements
of the Soviet Union but also the friendship and co-opera-
tion of all peoples with the dim of giving man greater
power over the forces of nature for the benefit of all
II. THE SPUTNIKS
The Problem of I,agaching Them
The difficulty of launching an Earth satellite is due
first to the fact that it has to be imparted colossal speed:
To indicate what these difficulties are it is enough to
mention one figure: a rocket (single-stage) capable of
attaining the so-called primary cosmic speed (roughly eight
kilometres a second), at which it will become an artificial
satellite of the Earth, has to take along 150 to 200 times
as much fuel by weight as weigh its body, instruments and
source of power required for the functioning of the irtru-
ments. So far we have succeeded in building rockets in
which the weight of the fuel is 95-80 per cent of the total
weight, in other words, only four times as much as the
weight of the rocket itself.
 1, Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-7-
But even so, even under these conditions, primary cos-
mic speed can be attained by applying Tsiolkovsky's idea
of a multi-stage rocket, made up of two or three rockets,
with their engines working in turn. When the fuel of the
first (rear) rocket has been used up this stage falls away
and the second starts working. And when the second has
used up its fuel it falls away and the third will take
the artificial satellite to its orbit.
It took many years of hard work by large teams of
engineers and scientists to put into flesh Tsiolkovsky's
daring ideas. The greatest difficulties wer: encountertid
in working out the carrier rocket which was to place the
satellite in its orbit. The rocket had to be light and
durable and it had to have powerful yet very light jet
engines which could operate under the difficult tnermal
conditions and would ensure a propelling force of hundreds
of tons for a sufficiently long period. Needed too was an
exceedingly precise and reliable system of control over
the rocket's flight. And, finally, compact and light power
sources had to be designed for radio transmitters, and
automatic and remote-controlled equipment which could be
relied upon to function for a considerable time under con-
ditions of interplanetary flight.
Present-day extra long-range rockets designed to fly
at sub-cosmic speeds high gbove the Earth's surface, are
set going by liquid-fueled jet engines. In the main
part of such an engine -- the combustion chamber --
Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
 special fuel is burned continuously and the gases produced
are ejected, developing the force of recoil, or what is
called the engine's thrust. Since a rocket over most of
its path has to fly in extremely rarefied layers of the
atmosphere, where the amount of oxygen required for the
burning of any substance is cegligible, the oxygen has to
be carried on the rocket along with the fuel.
In order that the rocket carrying the artificial satel-
lite may attain the required speed, the engine has to de-
velop a great propulsion force. The rocket should weigh
as little as possible. Several et.gines have to be installed
in such rockets, for to attain a propelling force of even
several score tons from one engine is a problem which has
not yet been solved.
Even on the best present-day rockets the structure weighs
about 20 per cent of the combined weight of the rocket,
and fuel. That is why the first thing that has to be
done is to manage to attain the speed of cosmic flight
with less fuel.
K. Tsiolkovsky showed that to accomplish this it will
be necessary as far as possible to increase the speed at
which the gases produced by the combustion of the fuel flow
out of the engine, and then each kilogram of fuel will
produce a more powerful "recoil," and then less fuel will
be required to obtain the needed propulsion force for
acceleration.
How is that to be done?
The answer to this question has long ago been furnished
Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-9-
by thermodynamics and heat engineering: what should be
done is to take the most calorific fuel and burn it in
the combustion chamber under high pressure.
In an engine working efficiently on such fuel, pressures
of 50 atmospheres or more should be developed at a tempe-.
rature of some 3,000?. Although such an engine functions
very briefly (a few minutes), no Material available to
engineering could stand the strain of work under these
conditions. And such a problem has never come up before,
as the most powerful tnerual engines of other types developed
only between 100th and 1,000th part of the power developed
by liquid-fueled jet engines.
To build a reliably working engine it is necessary
first to solve the problem of cooling and of making its
walls strong enough. And that is not so simple. However,
even with good cooling it is very difficult to obtain a
wall temperature of less than 500-800?. Which :means that
the material of which the chamber is made has to be excep-
tionally heat-proof. The problem of cooling is a basic
one but not the only one.
To make sure that the engine works reliably highly com-
plex calculations have to be made of the processes taking
place in it. We have to know what laws opv:ate in the
mixing and burning of the fuel, how to ensure that it is
uniformly fed to the engine, how to produce safely the
initial ignition of the fuel and, finally, what loads the
engine parts are subjected to while it is in operation.
Special attention has to be given to ensure uniform
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-10-
feeding and combustion of the fuel, as otherwise strong
vibrations will uevelop, leading to the destruction of
the engine and the rocket. This problem is no less
difficult than the problem of cooling.
Solution of all thase problems would be impossible
without the point effort of scientists working in the
field of gas dynamics, the theory of combustion, hydraulics
and the theory of control. Only by starting out from the
accomplishments in these spheres of science have Soviet
engineers bean able to design a powerful and reliably
working engine for the carrier rocket.
Without the work done in ballistics, aerodynamics, gas
dynamics and the theory of strength it would have been
impossible to build the carrier rocket.
To ensure that the satellite gets exactly to the orbit,
the whole path of the rocket nad to be calculated in ad-
vance. Experts in ballistics and aerodynamics, especially
the latter, had to labour much. The physical structure of
the upper atmosphere differs sharply from the regular
atmosphere: because of-the considerable rarefaction the
gas molecules travel at tremendous speed. At an altitude
of 300 kilometres the rocket traveling at a speed of seven
kilometres a second comes up against a pressure of five
milligrams per square centimetre and as they bombard the
flying body the molecules impart their energy to it.
To make sure that the rocket or satellite do not burn
during the launching or flight highly complex computations
had to be made to determine the force of resistance of
Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-11-
the surrounding medium.
It is necessary to have an efficient and exact system
of automatic control to look after the fuel feeding and
the flight characteristics, to detach the used-up e a?es
of the rockets, and to keep the rocket in the set trajec-
tory. The following figures give an idea of what is
demanded of the control system of a rockets when it
reaches its top speed of 28,000 kilometres an, hour (which
is 20 times as much as the velocity of sound), an error
of 10-20 metres a second in the speed or 0.50 in the direc-
tion of the rocket's notion can prove fatal for the satellite.
A rocket is made up of tens of thousands of parts, each
performing a certain task. And if any of them should not
work perfectly the rocket may not fly and .gay not carry
out the prograaiue set for it.
Extreme care in making and assembling it was necessary
to ensure success.
In the few seconds that it takes the rocket to rise a
mocstrous power is developed as the fuel burns, reaching
several million kw. The colossal speed of tue outflow of
gases from the engine, which is several times faster
than the speed.of a bullet, the tremendous temperatures
require special fuels and special constructions to make it
possible to use such fuela.
It is not without interest to note that the energy of
ti:e useful mass of Sputnik-2 , its kinetic force at a speed
of 8,000 metres a second is equal to the energy of a
goods train weighing 320,000 tons traveling at a speed
Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
 -12-
of 36 Kilometres an hour. No such train could travel
on railway tracks, for it would have to be made up of
thousands of waggons, making the train several score
kilometres long.
Of course, it is impossible to attain a speed of some
8,000 metres a second on land. Such speed is possible
only in outer space where there is no resistance "at all."
The construction of the rocKet for launching the first
artificial Earth satellites in the history of mankind
shows that Soviet science has reached a high degree of
development in every sphere and is capable of solving the
most complex overall problems.
The Take-off
How is an artificial satellite of the Earth launched?
It is done by means of a multi-stage ballistic rocket, and
the flight of such a rocket can be pictured as follows.
Towering over concrete grounds is the launching
outfit, and through the open-work structure of steel trusses
can be seen the streamlined rocKet set up vertically.
Immediately before the launching the steel framework of
the outfit is taken away on a special trick, the rocket
standing by itself for a few minutes before the take-off
as though taking leave of the Earth.
The people leave the take-off grounds, taking shelter
behind thick reinforced-concrete walls. The launching is
made automatically, the instruments installed in the
rocket reeeiveing the order from the command point by
radio.
 _13-
A thunderlike roar deafens the people, even though
they are in the shelter, and a dazzling torchlike flame
bursts from the rocket nozzle, scorching the concrete.
The rocket quivers as though hesitating for an instant
and tnen slowly rising from the ground mounts faster and
faster towards the sky. It take off vertically to an alti-
tude of about two kilometres, then, guided by a programmed,
control device, it begins to slope in a vertical plane.
The first-stage rocket engine stops a minute or two after
the start; by that tide the rocket had attained a speed
of something like 7,000-7,500 kilometres an hour and
reached an angle of about 450 to the Earth's surface.
After the first stage has fallen away the second-stage
engine starts, bringing up the speed to 18,000-20,000
kilometres an hour. From then on the rocket travels by
inertia tracing in space a gigantic ellipse designed
so that its summit touches the set orbit, hundreds of
kilometres high and so that the path is parallel to the
Earth's surface. By that time the rocket was more than
1,000 kilometres away from where it started.
Then comes the decisive moment. The rocket is at
the set altitude but the speed is not enough to make it
a satellite. If the rocket does not get a further
impetus, in a second it will start falling back on its
course to the Earth, along the second half of the ellipse.
But this will not happen, for the last-stage engine be-
gins to work. Another effort and the rocket picks up the
needed eircular speed of something like 8,000 n4,jroo
 aisoaoad. And then the rocket's engines grow silent for-
ever. A satellite has been born. .??
Dest n
Sputnik 2 is spherical in shape. It is 58 centimetres
in diameter and weighs 83.6 kilogrammes. Its hermetically
sealed 'body is made of aluminium alloys ar.d its surface
is polished and specially treated. All its apparatus
and powEr sources are located inside the body. Before
being launched it was filled with a gaseous nitrogen.
On the outside surface aerials were put upt four rods
2.4 to 2.9 metres long. While the sputnik was taken out
to its orbit the aerials were folded back to the body of
the rocket, and after the two stages had fallen away
the aerials turned on their hinges, assuming the position
shown on the photo.
While moving in its orbit the satellite is subjected
from time to time to sharply changing heat influences --
heating by the Sun's rays while on the lit side of the
Earth and cooling when flying in the Earth's shadow, the
influence of the atmosphere's heat and so on. Besides,
a certain amount of heat is generated when the apparatus
on the satellite is working. As far as heat is concerned
the satellite is an independent heavenly body, exchang-
ing radiant heat with the surrounding space. To ensure
for a eonsiderable period the normal tesperature needed
for the functioning of apparatus on the satellite is
therefore a fundamentally new and rather difficult problem,
I Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
 -15-
The needed temperature on the Sputnik-I was ensured by
incorrorating in its surface the proper ratio of absorption
to the Sun's radiation and by regulating the heat resist-
ance between the envelope and the equipment through the
forced circulation of the nitrogen in the satellite.
Two radio transmitters were installed in the satellito
constantly emitting signafQfrequencies of 20,005 and
40,002 megacycles (15 and 7.5 metre wave-lengths respect-
ively).
$putnik-2, unlike Sputnik-l, is the last stage of
the rocket on which all of the scientific and measuring
instruments are installed. This arrangement nas zaterial-
ly simplified the problem of determining the satellite's
coordinates with the aid of optical instruments; our ex-
perience with Sputnik-1 showed that observations of the
carrier rocket were simpler than of the satellite it
self. The earrier rocket was brighter than the Sputnik-1
by several stellar magnitudes. The combined weight of
the apparatus, of the animal taken up and source of
electricity on Soutnik-2 amounted to 508 kilogrammes and
300 grammes.
Installed on a special frame in the forward part of
the last stage of the rocket are an instrument for measur-
ing solar radiations in the ultra-violet and X-ray regions
of the spectrum, a spherical container with the radio
transmitters and other apparatus, and the nermetically-
sealed chamber in which the dog was kept. The instruments
for studying the cosmic rays were mounted outside the body
of the rocket. A special Done protects the instruments in
 -16-
the fra.ae and contain,rs from aerodynamic and ther;.:al
influences during the rocket's flight in the tense layers
of the atmosphere. After the last-stage rocket had been
taken out to the orbit the tune was disc..rded.
The radio trans-iitters and their sources of electri-
city, the syste4 of heat regulation ani: the sensitive
elements registering the changes in the temperature and
other paraLuetres were put up in the spherical container
which resembles Sputnik 1 in dasign.
The signals from the transaitter on 20,005 aega-
cycles (15 metre wave-length) soun.:ed like telegraphic
clicks. They lasted on the average about 0.3 seconds,
just as did the pauses between the.,, changing within
certain li1its when there were ohanjes in the parameters
in the spherical container (temperature and pressure).
The trans..,itter on 40,002 ueracycles (7.5 :,etre wave
length) continuously gave out signals. These frequencies
perr.:itted the investigations of the propagation of radio
waves coning frog the satellite and Leasurenent of the
parameters of its orbit, and audibility of the signals
was ensured regardless of the state of the ionosphere.
It should be :ientioned that because of their rela-
tively large weight it was found possible to set up
powerful radio. transmitters on both sputniks. This
and the selection of the wavelength have ensured getting
signals- from the sputniks over great distances, enabling a
great many radio amateurs in all parts of the world to
cooperate in the observations. The latter's observations
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
structural elements, The radiotelenetric apparatus en-
sured transmission to the Earth, of the readings of all
mlaasuring instruments on the sputnik. It was tined to
transmit the roadin3s at regular intervals.
The programme of investigations connected with the
measurements on Sputnik 2 was calculated to work for seven
days after which the radio transmitters and the radiotclenotr:,.;
apparatus on board ceased functionin,. Further observa-
tions of the movement of Sputnik 2 for studying the character-
istics of the upper atmosphere and predicting the sputnik's
uoveuent arc being carried on by optical instrunents and
radar.
III. THE SPUTNIKS' ORBITS
Uissilcs have boon shot over a lone, Cistancos be-
fore, but no ::matter how fast they traveled they aL..ays
remained within the confines of our planet. Now that the
sputniks have brcn Given a speed rou;,hly 10 times as great
as the initial speed of shells leaving lon?-ran?c Guns,
their flight distance increased by leap almost to infinity:
man-:.made structures beg-an to revolve around our planet just
lii:e celestial bodies, and if there were so resistance,
which though it does not amount to much in the rarified
air is nevertheless appreciable their nove.:ont would never
stop.
The artificial satellites do not ._ovo westward, as
do all heavenly bodies. Observers, depc:mding on where they
are, sea then flying northeastward or southwestward, and
observers near the 65th parallel in the northern or southern
 -19-
hemisphere see them on rare occasions flying in an eastern
direction. It may seen therefore that the curve along which
the sputniks cove is very intricate. They move in orbits tnat
are ellipses, in first approximation, with one of the foci
lying in the Earth's centre.
Sputnik 1
Since the Earth rotates on its axis, the sputnik should
appear over a different area, at each succeeding turn, shifting
approximately 240 in longitude each time. Actually, the longitu-
dinal shift will be a little greater (roughly a quarter deg-
ree Greater each revolution). As a result of the k.otion of
the Earth relative to the orbit plane each succeeding turn
will pass approximately 1,500 kn# west of the preceding one
at Moscow's latitude, while at the equator the shift is
roughly 2,500 kilometres.
The plane of the sputnik's orbit is inclined at an
angle of 650 to the plane of the Earth's equator, as a result
of which the sputnik's path crosses the land areas lying
approximately between the Arctic and Antarctic Circles.
Because of the Earth's rotation about its axis the angle of
slope of the path to the equator differs froze the angle of
slope of the plane of the orbit. On entering the northern
hemisphere the path crosses the equator at an angle of
71.5 degrees in a northeasterly direction.
Then the path gradually turns more and more to the east
and touching the parallel meeting 650 N.L. it deviates to
the south, crossing the equator at an angle of 590 to the
 parallel meeting 65? S.L., after which it is deflected to
the north and again enters the northern hei;isphere. (See
picture).
Owing to the large angle of slope to the plane of the
Earth's equator the sputnik flies over almost all continents
and expanses of water, except some small regions beyond the
Arctic and Antarctic Circles. This has opened up consider.
able possibilities for solving various scientific problems.
It can be stated that launching the sputnik on this orbit
is a more difficult task than launching it on an orbit near
to the plane of the equator. If launched along the equator
the speed of the Earth's rotation about its axis could be
utilised to a larger extent to accelerate the speed of the
rocket.
How to Find the Orbit
Sputnik made approximately 15 revolutions around the
Earth in 24 hours in the initial stage of flight.
Readers can easily see what areas the sputnik will fly
over and when by doing the following.
Put a ring around a globe at an angle of 65? to the
equator and fasten it to the leg of the globe. At a cer-
tain moment, let us says when Sputnik flies over Moscow
turn the globe so that Moscow comes in the plane of the ring,
which represents the orbit of the sputnik. Now by sirple
calculation you can figure out where the sputnik is at any
particular time. For instance, let us locate Sputnik after
it has passed over Moscow. In one minute Sputnik flies
over 360? divided by 96.2 (the period of its revolution
 01 0
initial period),/3.74 degrees and in 12 minutes, roughly 45
Mark the ring accordingly. During the same time the Earth
has turned around its axis three degrees to the east, and
the mark on the ring will show the spot sought.
In the same way we can solve the problem in reverse,
nauelyt the time when Sputnik passes over a particular localt-
ty. We can also figure out whether Sputnik will fly over a
particular territory at all.
If we make with the help of this device the consecutive
projections of Sputnik on the globe along its orbit we shall
find that the 16th turn of such projection coincides almost
exactly with the first, the 17th with the second, and so
on.
Vie may say that Sputnik 1 appears at regular intervals
(with slight variations)e since every 24 hours it appears
over approximately the sage area over which it had already
flown.
Using our device (the ring and globe) we can easily
understand a nuaber of other features of the iiove..ent of the
artificial satellite.
It may be thusi an observer notes, for instance, that
Sputnik travels in a southeasterly direction. Then some
tiL.e later it again appears over the sae area but this time
flying northeast, Does this :.jean that Sputnik is flying in
a different direction? Of course, not. Sputnik keeps re-
volving all the this in a so-called straight direction, and
the apparent change in direction of its noveuant is due to
 -22-
the fact that in the interval between two regular obser-
vations the observation spot on the Earth's surface has
made along with our planet half a revolution (or one and a
half, two and a half revolutions, and so on) about its
axis.
As Sputnik makes a complete revolution the observation
point on the Earth's surface shifts, as a result of the
Earth's daily motion, 1,130 to 2,670 kilometres, depending
on whether the observation point is on the 65th parallel
or on the equator. However, if Sputnik were up at an al-
titude of even 200 kilometres the diameter of the area
from which it could be seen would be more than 3,000 kilo-
taetres. This Weans that approximately an hour and a half
after the artificial satellite passes over the given local-
ity it would again come into the field of vision of the par-
ticular observer. But that does not jean that it really
would be noticed, for this would require special conditions,
namely, that our "little star" should be flooded with sun-
shine, and the surface of the Earth where the observations
are conducted should be dark. Twilight is therefore the best
time for observations.
From what has been said before,it is clear that the ar-
tificial satellite will never rise in the east or set in th,:
west as we are accustomed to see the Sun do. Why is that so?
Theoretically it is possible to launch a satellite to revolve
so to speak in the general stream of heavenly bodles.Practical-
ly however,this is not done for the following reasons.Hotatiu?
as it is on its axis the Earth can help in the launching of
an artificial satellite if the latter is launched in the same
direction,or hinder imparting to it the needed speed if it
is launched in the opposite direction. (The Earth, as we know,
moves from west to eaat),
 However, to turn to cocount the speed of the Earth's
rotation is not always expedient. In fact if the
satellite is launched in the direction of the Earth's
motion it will fly only over a belt confined on th-u
north and south by the parallel of the starting point
relative to either sphere. For Sputnik-l a compromise
decision was adopted under which the Earth's daily
rotation is utilised to an insignificant degree. This
is apparently because of the tasks connected with
the International Geophysioal Year, namely, that
Sputnik should fly over as much terrestriinl spade as
possible.
The Evolution of Sputnik-l's Orbit
In our reasoning before/assumed that Sputnik moved
along its orbit at a uniform speed. However, even where
there is no air resistance this movement would be
possible only if the orbit were a perfect circle with
its centre coinciding with the Earth's centre. Actually,
however, Sputnik describes an ellipse, and for this
reason, when it passes through its perigee (the point
on the orbit nearest to the Earth's centre) its speed
is appreciably greater than when it passes through its
apogee (the point on the orbit farthest from the Earth's
centre). As to the ellipse along which Sputnik moves
it may be pointed out that it is very slightly flattened:
tho difference in length between its major and minor
axes is less than a quarter of one per cent. As can be
seen, this is practically a circle, but the oontre of
this "circle" is a little off from the Earth's oontre.
 The period it takes Sputnik to circle the Darth
gradually changes because of the braking force it
encounters, and as the orbit contracts the period too
will grow shorter. The rapidity with which the period
changes will serve to show how fast the shape of the
orbit changes. Since on great heights where Sputnik
moves the density of the atmosphere is very small the
evolution of the orbit will at first be very slow.
The height of the apogee'will decline faster than that
of the perigee and the orbit will more and more approxi-
mate a circle, and when Sputnik enters the denser layers
of the atmosphere the braking force will be quite
substantial. Sputnik will then grow burning hot and
burn up like meteors from interplanetary space when
they enter the Barth's atmosphere.
Other conditions being equal, the greater the mass
of a satellite the longer it will survive, since the
greater the mass the less speed it will lose on orossing
through upper layers of the atmosphere.
Why ]lust the Rocket and Sputnik Burn up?
After the take-off the rocket used for launching
a satellite rises straight up, which enables it to cross
the loswor and dense layers of the atmosphere the shortest
sway. The rocket's speed rises gradually. Passing through
the dense layers of the air there is not enough time for
it to become greatly overheated; it will therefore not burn
and manage to got out to a greater altitude where the air
is very much rarefied.
 -25-
On returning to Earth the movement of the satellite
and carrier rocket will present a different picture.
Gradually descending the rocket and satellite will enter
the dense layers of the atmosphere at a tremendous speed
and at a relatively small angle to the horizon. Moving
towards the Earth in a spiral they will have to travel
longer in these layers, and as the friction of the air
will be very great both bodies will rapidly brow very hot
and "burn up."
Apparently the carrier rocket will burn up first as
it will land in the lower strata of the atmosphere some-
what earlier.
Are There Impermissible Orbits for Satellites?
First of all# the orbit of a satellite must absolutely
lie in one of the planes passing through the centre of the
Earth. A satellite can be designed to revolve in the plane
of any meridian or in the plane of the equator, but its
orbit will never stay in the plane of a parallel. A
satellite launcned on such an orbit will certainly shift
to the plane of the equator or fall back on Earth.
A satellite's path has to lie at a great height, beyond
the dense atmosphere, otherwise the resid;ance of the air
will act as a brake and the circular flight will turn into
a spiral, ending in the satellite falling to earth. For-
tunately, it is not necessary to lift it too high. In the
neighbourhood of 200 kilometres above the Earth the resist-
ance of the air is virtually impalpable.
In selecting orbits for future satellites specific features
 of some of them must be taken into account. For instance,
a characteristic feature of an orbit at an altitude of
557 kilometres is that the satellite's period of re-
volution along it will equal exactly an hour and a half,
and it is therefore sometimes called an "hour-and-half"
orbit. Traveling in it the satellite will circle the
Earth 18 times in 24 hours. Moving in a "two-hour" orbit,
which lies at an altitude of 1,669 kilometres, it will
cix4cle 12 times. Obviously there is also a "24-hour"
orbit, for which the period of revolution will be exactly
24 hours. This orbit should be at an altitude of appro-
ximately 36.000 kilometres. Especially interesting is a
24-hour orbit in the plane of the equator. Indeed, in
such a case the satellite, which actually travels at
breakneck speed, will hover motionless over some point
of the equator as though on top of an invisible tower
tens of thousands of kilometres high. There are also a
number of other no less interesting orbits.
Sputnik-2's Orbit
Sputnik-2 was taken out to its orbit by means of a
sectional rocket. "hile being taken out to the orbit the
rocket rose to an altitude of several hundred kilometres
above the Earth's surface and on reaching the end of take-
out sector the last stage moved parallel to the Earth's
surface at a speed of more than 8,000 metres a second,
becoming an Earth satellite. By the time it reached the
orbit the fuel is the rocket's tanks had been used up
and the engine stopped. Thereafter Sputnik moved by kinetic
 energy gained by the rocket while it wao sped up into
the orbit.
The speed imparted to the rocket's last stage was higiier
than the speed needed for Sputnik's movement in thebircular
orbit at a constant altitude at which it entered its orbit.
Sputnik does not therefore move in a circular orbit but in
an elliptical, its farthest point from the Earth being
roughly 1,700 kilometres, or almost double the highest al-
titude attained in launching Sputnik-1. Since the semi-
major a$is of Sputnik-2's orbit is larger than that of
Sputnik-1, the period of its rotation around the Earth also
proved greater, initially amounting to 103.7 minutes.
Owing to the greater period of rotation Sputnik-2 makes
some 14 complete turns around the Earth in 24 hours, while
Sputnik-1 in the initial period made about 15 turns.
Because of the Earth's rotation the shift of Sputnik-2
with each successive turn is 1.15 times greater relative to
Sputnik-1, and the distance on the Earth's surface between
the paths of two nearest turns has grown to the same
extent.
The resistance of the Earth's atmosphere acts as a brake
on Sputnik, its orbit changing its size and shape. Owing
to the fact that at great heights the atmosphere is very
thin the braking force acting on Sputnik does not amount
to much. At the point of apogee the Sputnik moves at such
a great height that it is in outer space beyond the Earth's
atmosphere, which according to theoretical calculations
extends to an altitude in the neighbourhood of 1,000
kilometres above the Earth's surface.
Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-28-
The braking force operating against a satellite de-
pends not only on the density of the atmosphere but also
on the shape of the satellite and on the ratio of its
wight to cross-section area. The greater this ratio the
smaller the loss in speeds
Two satellites taken out to the same orbit but mov-
ing against different braking forces will after a certain
period move along different orbits, since their orbits
will vary with time at a different rate. And while the
orbits are contracting it is mainly by decrease of.the
apogee height.
Sputnik-1 and its carrier rocket at first moved
approximately in the same orbit and their periods of
revolution differed slightly, being about 96.2 minutes
for either: Later, owing to the fact that Sputnik-1 exper-
ienced less resistance than the carrier rocket their orbits
began to differ materially.
The braking force operating against both the carrier
rocket and the Sputnik has changed in time as a result of
the change in the orbit's parameters. As the orbit lowered
is
the braking force increased progressively. This/ distinctly
confirmed by the findings of the observations.
How long a satellite will survive depends on the brak-
ing force of the atmosphere. Obviously the greater period
of revolution and the less braking force the longer it will
survive. Estimates based on data obtained from the obser-
vations of Sputnik-1 and the carrier rocket suggest that
$1xtt~ tr+.a'r rYidt~zicn ia~zfxx~ci3xesc
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
tt?endxxjdI' zXz==l zxxTkisxmfamazxX= Sputnik-1,
January 1958.
will move in orbit apparently until tnx snx PP-'
The carrier rocket will not last as long, and it can be
expected to burn up before Sputnik. The greater period
of revolution of Sputnik-2 and the smaller braking force
it experiences warrant the statement that Sputnik-2 will
move in orbit appreciably longer than Sputnik-1.
When the trajectory measurements have been worked
up it will be possible to establish fully the whole process
of evolution of the parameters of satellites' orbits and C
to obtain important information on the distribution of the
density of the upper atmosphere. Later on it will be
possible reallably to predict how long artificial Earth
satellites will survive.
IV. WHAT MAKES SATELLITES MOVE?
Modern celestial mechanics is based on the law of
gravitation. The artificial satellites move around the
Earth like heavenly bodies. The movement of the little
"Moon" is subject to the same laws of celestial mechanics
as that of the real Moon around the Earth or the movement
of the Earth and other planets of the solar system around
the Sun.
Satellites move around the Earth at great speed. If
there had been no terrestrial attraction the satellites
would be moving in a vacuum uniformly and in a straight
line, and would disappear in outer space. The Earth's
attraction distorts their path, making them circle the Earth
and move around the Earth along its surface.
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-30-
The force of attraction acting on the satellites is
of a definite magnitude, and that is why they can make
their circular movement around the Earth only at a certain
and quite definite speed.
The Needed Speed
The approximate value of this so-called circular speed
can be determined on the basis of the following reasoning.
In order that a satellite moving around the Earth should
continue at constant altitude it must every instant Sit a~
far away from the Earth as it gets nearer to it in its
continuous dropping. In the first second a body falling
freely to the Earth loses approximately 5 metres of altitude.
Obviously in this second the satellite has to get away
from the Earth the same five metres so that there is no
change in the altitude at which it is moving. This makes
it possible to build a right-angle triangle and making use
of the Pythagorean theorem; to figure out the speed we want.
For a satellite moving hot very far away from the Earth's
surface the speed ib e4ual to toughly eight kilometres a
second.
The question may arise why the speed is the same for
bodies of any weight when the force of attraction acting
on a heavier body is greater. At first sight it would
seem that such a body should move around the Earth in a
circular orbit at greater speed because of the action of
force of attraction. However, if we bear in mind that
it is harder to deflect a heavier body from movement in
a straight line, and exactly as as many times more as it
v.eighs more, it will become clear that the speed of a
 satellite's movement should not depend on its weight. The
speed of movement of Sputnik-1 in its orbit therefore will
It should be mentioned that to launch heavier satel-
lites it is necessary to hurdle a number of other obstacles.
That is why their launching will be a new and important
stage in the development of science and engineering.
Altitude and Speed
The required speed of a satellite shamus with alti-
tudes The force of the Earth's attraction diminishes as
the distance from the Earth increases, and therefore in a
higher orbit a satellite must move at a lower speed. For
satellites moving in different orbits lying about 1,000
kilometres above the Earth's surface the difference in the
speed of motion is comparatively small. However, for
satellites moving at considerably greater distances from
the Earth the speed appears to be substantially less.
For instance, the Moon, which is also a satellite of the
Earth and is approximately 380,000 kilometres distant from
it, moves around the Earth at a velocity of about one
kilometre a second, that is, a speed roughly one-eighth
that of a satellite flying close to the Earth. Bearing
in mind that the Moon's path around the Earth is much
longer than the path of an artificial satellite per revo-
lution, it will become clear why the Moon revolves around
the Earth not in an eighth of the time the Sputnik does
but much more slowly.
 In order to launch an artificial Earth satellite it
has to be lifted to a great height and accelerated to the
speed required for its movement in the orbit at that height.
No energy is expended as the satellite moves in its
orbit. The satellite has no engine, moving solely at the
expense of the speed imparted to it by the carrier rocket.
Because in a higher circular orbit the satellite
moves at lower speed, it follows that when the satellite
is taken out to such an orbit it has to be accelerated
to a lower speed. This however does not mean that it is
easier to launch a satellite on a higher circular orbit
than on a lower one. The thing is that in launching a
satellite the difficulties in lifting it to great alti-
tudes are very great and the higher the altitude the
greater the difficulties.
We pointed out before that at every height the move-
ment of a satellite in a circular orbit has to proceed
at a definite speed. If the speed is less than the one
required, the Earth's attraction will deflect it more easi-
ly from a straight line; the path will be distorted in the
direction of the Earth and the satellite will begin to
drop. If the speed is only slightly less than required,
the drop will be relatively small, and the satellite,
after drawing closer to the Earth and gaining a certain
speed thereby, will be able once again to rise to the
earlier height, repeating the drop and rise periodically
on each revolution.
If the difference in the sptad of movement from the
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
circular is somewhat greater, the drop may prove precipit-
ate. The satellite will enter the dense layers of the
atmosphere, and after losing its energy as a result of
friction in the air it will not be able to climb aGain,
and dropping lower and lower will grow terrifically not and
burn up in the atmosphere.
If the speed of the satellite at the point at which,
it enters the orbit is considerably greater than the circul-
ar speed required for its motion in the circular orbit at
a constant height it will be harder for the force of 6ravliy
to deflect its course closer to the Earth's surface and the
satellite will then be able to rise to a very great height,
much higher than to which it was originally lifted by the
rocket. Should the speed reach something like 11.2 kilo-
metres a second or more the satellite will disappear in
interplanetary space.
Thus, in order that the satellite may move in an
orbit at the predetermined altitude its speed has to be
quite definite. It is impossible to design another sa-
tellite to move in the same orbit at a different speed.
A speed of eight kilometres a second is called pri-
mary cosmic speed. It is the speed a satellite must
attain to move in an orbit close to the Earth. A speed
of 11.2 kilometres a second is called secondary cosmic
speed, and an interprlanetary vessel launched near the
Earth must have it to overcome the Earth's attraction and
to begin to move in interplanetary space as a new planet
of the solar system. Speeds between the primary and secondary
 cosmic speeds will make it possible to launch a satellite
moving in elliptical orbits whose perigee will be near the
Earth and apogee considerably distant from it. The orbits
will be the more extended and farther away from the Earth
the greater is the initial speed imparted to the satellite
by the carrier rocket.
If a satellite's orbit can be made to pass at all
points at altitudes in the neighbourhood of 1,000 kilometres
or more above the Earth's surface, the satellite will move
so
virtually in a vacuum and continue/for an indefinitely
long time. With present progress in the building of rockets
it is quite realistic to speak of launching a satellite to
survive scores of hundreds of years, and such a satellite
will be practically a perpetual satellite of the Earth.
V. OBSERVATIONS OF THE SPUTNIK'S i.,JTION
A very important element of the r.search conducted
with the aid of satellites is the observation and record-
ing of their motion,treatment of the records and forecast
of their further motion on this basis.
During the first period of the sputniks' motion
the scientific stations conducted observations with the
aid of radar and radio direction finders and by means
of optical instruments and photographing their motion.
Since the radio transmitters have stopped working the
observations have been conducted mainly by the latter two
methods.
All data obtained by the stations and the observations
of amateurs are collected and anal,. sod and electronic
computing machines are used to work up the data. How
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
valuable will be the geophysical observations by the
scientists will depend on how correct and precise are
the data obtained in observing the Sputniks as they move
in their path. For example, to determine the Earth's exact
shape for geodetic purposes the orbit of the satellites'
motion has to be determined accurately within a few seconds
in the arc and a few milliseconds in time.
Many of the ground stations measuring the position
of the Sputnik in its path transmit the results of their
observations to a central station, where the orbit is de-
termined, and the more observations are made the mom
accurate will be the determination of the orbit. Radio
amateurs have been very helpful in the collection of radio
observations; in particular, thousands of Soviet radio
amateurs have conducted observations of the sputniks using
ordinary radio instruments as well as radio receivers de-
signed specially-for the purpose. Diagrams of the receivers
and of the direction finders with which they are equipped
were published in "Radio", a Soviet popular-science magazine
in the field of radio engineering, long before Sputnik-1
was launched.
Used too for observing the Sputnik are ground radar
stations, which irradiate the Sputnik and receive signals
reflected from it, the same as radar stations designed to
detect planes in the air at high altitudes, or which make
it possible to receive signals reflected from the Moon.
However, as the Sputniks and their reflecting area are
relatively small, these special stations must have a very
large pulse radiation capacity.
 Optical observation of the Sputniks is possible
mornings and evenings on cloudless days, when the Earth's
surface where the observer works from is all in darkness
and the sputnik, very high up, is lit by the Sun.
Since the transmitters on the Sputniks have ceased
working, optical observations have been widely used.
Besides, optical observations in conjunction with radio
methods have made it possible the better to ascertain the
actual path of the Sputniks, and to make geographical
calculations much more exact.
Wide-angle optical instruments are best for these
observations. But the satellites can be seen also through
an ordinary binocular or a wide-angle prism spyglass.
It should be mentioned that observations of the
Sputniks with the aid of astronomical instruments present
a certain difficulty; they are not similar to observations
of regular heavenly bodies, as the Sputniks move very
fast across the sky, at an average speed of approximately
one degree per second.
To make sure that the observations are reliable,
each optical station has one or two sets of optical
instruments placed as a barrier on the meridian and along
the vertical circle perpendicular to the apparent orbit
the of the Sputnik. In.additiont/in searching for the Sputnik
to based on the so-called "local-time rule". This method
turns to account the fact that the Sputnik's orbit is not
involved in the rotation of the Earth, and the Sputnik
itself passes through a given latitude in local sidereal
 time, which changes slowly as the orbit revolves in ab-
solute space around the Earth's axis, owing to the di-
vergence of the gravitational field from central. There-
fore, with respect to a given station the satellite will
in the course of its motion pass successively through the
points in the celestial sphere which may be called
waiting points. If the axis of the opticallnstrument is
regulated so as to be directed to the waiting point next
in order in the celestial sphere as figured out in ad-
vance, then sooner or later the satellite will inevitably
be detected, and when detected the time of its passage
should be noted with the aid of a chronometer or by
radio time signals. In this way the accuracy in determin-
ing the time the satellite passes through their range
of vision will not be above a second. Among other things,
the Soviet amateur astronomers at 66 optical observation
stations and all observatories have at their disposal many
special improved wide-angle optical instruments. The
observation stations also have sets of equipment making
it possible to fix the Sputniks in the celestial sphere
as accurately as within one degree in position, and
one second in time.
Optical observations of the satellite and following
it up will be more precise and thorough if the optical
instruments are fitted out with special photographic and
photoelectric apparatus registering the position of the
satellite and the azimuth and quadrant angle of the in-
strument's optical axis. The purpose of the optical follow-
up is to obtain a relatively exact position of the
 satellite in the celestial sphere (during twilight hours).
All along the time of each recorded position of the satel-
lite in the orbit should be determined precisely.
The satellite can be followed up by instruments
with a focal distance of 0.6 - 1.0 metres. In such an in-
strument, as the satellite passes through its range of
vision, the rate of movement of its image is 1-2 centi-
metres a second. A particularly important part will be
played by the optical observations of the satellites at
the last moment of the final stage of their passage,
when they make the last spiral movements before entering
the atmosphere's denser strata and when they begin to
burn up.
aiiVW,1.I,~L.w.wc..,..ia'.a...rA.L.4t1JrW.114.D....W[.Zrr~.k1PG'T"L,J.'.cy,rt'~1tr1~ -.'3:C
+ r' ..Y'Y~i`V." -1.' V??~v.sP+-vl~4iu~ +f1'S "a'--A, t.n V'M tr-^Y.i-~ 6c .
bulr~~"AS
"v,i-TS-47tbL"L?`ldf~ .
Along with visual observations, photographic observa-
tions of the carrier rocket and Sputnik-2 are conducted.
The photographs taken by observatories in the Soviet
Union and other countries have made it possible to define
the orbits of the Sputniks and of the carrier rocket with
considerably higher precision.
In using the special cameras for photographing
satellites. highly sensitive plates are required.-. The
shutters should permit very small exposures and the lens
should have an aperture ratio of 1 and the sight at least
 30 degrees. Exact pictures of the position of the Sputniks
in the orbit will make it possible to determine their geo-
detic position in space in relation to the Earth's centre
with an error of about 10-15 metres. When we have a num-
ber of these positions for 10 to 15 regions of the Earth's
surface it will be possible to determine the Earth's figure
more accurately than has been done up to now. As a result
we shall be able to refine the continental geodetical
system. These observations will also enable scientists
to understand better the distribution of masses in the
interior of the Earth.
In fact the Sputniks move in the gravitational field
of the Earth and this field in turn is determined by the
distribution of the masses in the Earth's interior and
its crust. Studying the movement of the Sputniks we can
highly refine our knowledge of the gravitational field
of the Earth and thereby arrive at interesting conclusions
on the Earth's structure. True, revolving around the
Earth is also the real Moon, but a study of its motion
gives us information only about those parts of the terrest-
rial gravitational field which are relatively far from the
Earth, as the distance from the Earth to the loon is some
380,000 kilometres. Of course at such a distance the terrest-
rial gravitational field depends much less on the distribu-
tion of the masses in the interior of the Earth. The study
of the Uoon's motion can therefore furnish only very meager
information on this question. Artificial satellites, how-
ever, launched something like 1,000 kilometres above the
 Earth's surface, offer many more opportunities in this
respect.
Thus, not to mention the telemetric measurements
of different quantities in following the artificial Earth
satellites in their orbit, simple observations with the aid
of radar, optical instruments and photography will furnish
scientists abundant geophisical data widening and refining
our knowledge of our planet.
VI. RESEARCH diITH THE AID OF THE SPUTNIKS
The Upper Atmosphere
In studying the heavenly bodies around us and the
outer space in which the Earth moves, scientists have en-
countered considerable difficulties due to the fact that
the observatories and scientific stations are situated
at the bottom of the air ocean surrounding the Earth,
hundreds of kilometres deep. This ocean is the Earth's
atmosyhere, which lets through to us only some narrow re-
gions of the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations
emitted by the bun, stars and other heavenly bodies.
Scientists have therefore always dreamed of extra-atmos-
pheric observatories, as are artificial satellites, which
open up new possibilities for carrying out all kinds of
scientific experiments that earlier seemed unrealisable.
What is meant by the upper atmosphere today is the
region above 30 or 40 kilometres high. It is of great
practical interest, as it is the medium through ghioh
artificial satellites will travel and the routes of future
interplanetary ships will pass. Besides, the upper
 atmosphere is the medium in which radio waves are propagat-
ed. The strata and regions with high ionisation forming
in it reflect or scatter the waves, thereby creating the
requisite conditions for their propagation over great dist-
ances. At the same time, under certain conditions, the
upper atmosphere sometimes becomes a medium in which radio-
waves are absorbed.
The processes going on in the upper region of the
atmosphere are characterised by a great many features
which are not usually intrinsic in its lower parts. Among
them are the features related to the continuous chemical
conversions of the atmosphere's molecules and atoms and
their ionisation which occurs when they are irradiated
by the penetrating ultra-violet, X-ray and corpuscular
emibsion of the Sun (corpuscular radiations of the Sun are
the fast-moving elementary particles: electrons, protons,
neutrons, alpha-particles, etc.). Besides, in the hitiher
parts of the upper atmosphere the change of its relative
atomic composition becomes significant. Here the lighter
molecules and atoms -predominate owing to the force of
gravity. The circulation of the ionised atmosphere, which
is an electrical conductor, in the Earth's constant magnet-
ic field is accompanied by the generation of electric
currents which cause different kinds of variation in this
field.
Valuable information on the circulation of the upper
atmosphere has been obtained by the observation of the drift
of meteoric trails by means of optical instruments and radar.
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-42-
and the observation of the tides in the atmosphere caused
by the bun and Moon, Vie know of tae high and low tides of
the seas, yet these phenomena have been observed to be
much more intensive in the upper atmosphere. From the obser-
vations approximate characteristics of the upper atmosphere
have been derived; the temperature in the upper part was
estimated to be several thousand degrees and the density
about 1,000 million molecules and atoms per cubic centi-
metre (at an altitude, of some 300 kilometres). It should
be mentioned that the air density at the Earth's surface
is more than 10,000 million times as much.
It had been believed that in the upper atmosphere
there were three or four distinct ionised strata. How-
ever, the information gained about the penetrating ultra-
violet and X-ray radiation of the Sun which is absorbed
by atmosphere and does not reach the Earth's surface, was
until recently rather hypothetical. The dynamics of the
upper atmosphere related to the photo-chemical changes and
ionisation remained unclear. Too little is known also about
corpuscular emission,which causes auroral displays and anomalous
iunisation.Without exact knowledge of tnese disturbing factors
it is difficult to build up a general theory of the dynamics
of the processes going on in the upper atmosphere.
Of late there has been considerable development of the
study of omissions, that is, certain forms of radiations
of the upper atmosphere. Many valuable data have been
obtained in this way. For instance, by using spectroscopes
it has been estarlished that the Earth's atmosphere about
100 kilometres above the surface is colder over the equator
and warmer over the polar regions. That is a 'very
 important factor for the origination of circulation. The
higher temperature in the polar regions leads to a highly
original structure of the highest regions of the atmosphere,
called the exosphere. As is known the ionised particles
in highly rarefied medium can move only along magnetic
lines of force, and therefore projections of ionised
particles or columns are formed over heated aroas and they
are sometimes discovered in the twilight hours when the
exosphere is lit. These are the so-called high radiant
structures of polar auroras. Interesting information about
ionisation was obtained by investigations of the auroras
by means of radar.
Meteors greatly influence the properties of the upper
atmosphere. Their falls lead to the formation of readily
ionisable nitrogen oxides and shock sound waves, which cause
variations in the density of the medium. This phenomenon
occurs in the upper atmosphere also when sub-audio waves
produced by winds and the disturbances of the ocean sur-
face and. so on, penetrate up there from the atmospheric
strata near the Earth. Thus, to employ a figurative
expression, the outer part of the atmosphere suggests
somewhat the agitated foaming water surface during a
storm.
In recent years new and important results have been
obtained through the use of rockets in investigations of
the upper atmosphere. A lower density and lower temperatures
have been found above 150-200 kilometres. Exceptionally
valuable results have been obtained in determining ioni-
sation; it was found that there is a gradual and smooth
 rise in ionisation with a large nuwber of very snallow peak-,
which it is difficult to identify with the sharply defined
simple strata assumed earlier. Then, the rLal ionosphere
proved to be lower than had been believed, and the penet-
rating ultra-violet and X-radiation of the "un has been
measured directly.
The measuring of absorptions of the penetrating solar
radiations has made it possible to brine out the fact of
the lower density of the upper atmosphere. However, a
material shortcoming cf rocket investigations was the
short time they lasted.
Artificial satellites can ensure long and conti-
nuous observations over different localities of the globe,
and therein lias their chief advantage. Most important is
the observation of the penetrating ultraviolet, X-ray and
corpuscular emission of the Sun.
On 6putnik-2 instruments for investigating the bun's
radiation were installed. Three special photoelectronic
multipliers set up at an angle of 120 degrees to each
other serve as the radiation receivers. Each multiplier
is successively covered with several filt'rs made of
thin-metal and organic plates and also of special optical
waterials, which make it possible to separate different
ranges in the X-ray region of the solar spectrum and the
hydrogen line in the far ultraviolet region. The electric
signals produced by the photomultiplier trained on the Sun
were magnified by radio circuits and transmitted to the
 Owing to the fact that the S1:utnik has continuously
changed its orientation in relation to the Sun and part
of the time was in the sector of its orbit lit up by the
SLzn, to economise on power the electric circuit was
switched in only when the Sun landed in the range of one
of the three light receivers. It vas switched in with the
aid of photo resistors lit by the Sun simultaneously with
the multipliers and the system of automatic control.
Parallel with the observations of solar radiation
from the Sputnik, observations of the Sun are also con-
ducted by the whole network of the "solar service"
ground stations under the IGY programme. By comparison
of all the observations it will be possible to arrive at
the preliminary deductions on what connection there is
between the dun's ultraviolet and X-radiations and the
processes going on in the chromosphere and the Sun's
corona and the state of the Earth's ionosphere; these data
will serve as a basis for the regular observations to
follow.
Outer space is full of cosmic dust, the nature and
characteristics of which it has heretofore not been
possible to study directly. Science had only conjectures
on its origin and characteristics, With the artificial
satellite serving as a laboratory it v;ill be possible to
begin direct study of this problem too. What makes it
important is the presumption that cosmic dust is the
material out of which planets are formed.
 Since Newton's Lays scientists all over the wvrlu
have been yon..ering over the 1hysical nature of terrestrial
,;ravitatiun an, of tie force of inter-action between ..a-
terial bodies in General. But it was only Linstein's
theory of relativity which sli.;htly lifte.i the wail from
the :ystery of these phenomena and hence attracting the
attention of the vast ..ajority of scientists thrnuehout the
world.
.So convincin,; is cinstein',s concoition that today
it is the only rational theory explainin; rany cosmic phe-
noLena. However, in some respects it has to be refined
and checked by experiments. Artificial Earth satellites
launched to cove in.hi,~h altitudes can help to check experimen-
tally sore of the theses of this theory, one of
the funciaLental theories -of no-,ern science.
It is known that the Lietagallawy possesses a definite
luminosity and its value should be In agreement with the
general tneory of relativity. It is difficult to measure the
luminosity of the Eetagallaxy from the Earth's surface be-
cause of the ni;_,ht-sky air-Glow, but with the aid of an
artificial satellite it will be easier to solve this problem.
7.1en we have ueasured the luminosity of the Aletagallaxy we
shall solve an i:oportant cosmic probleu and verify certain
theses of the general theory of relativity.
Finally, in astronomical observations by telescope
from the Earth's surface magnification of 900 tires is
ordinarily the limit because of interference caused by tiny
air strears in.the atmosphere (twinklin;; of stars,
 breaking up and blurring of the images of the heavenly bo-
dies in the telescopes, eto.). On the other hand beyond
the atmosphere magnification as high as 10,000 times is
.possible so that objects 12 metres in diameter will be
seen on the Moon from a satellite , and on Mars areas
measuring approximately 1.5 kilometres in diameter will
be observable.
Of considerable interest is the study of electric
fields at great heights (in the neiOourhood of 1,000
kilometres) and solution of the problem whether the Earth
,and its atmosphere constitute a charged or a neutral system.
Along with indirect studies of the ionosphere, by observ-
ing the passage of radio waves, the programme of investiga-
tions on satellites envisages direct measurements of ionic
concentration at different altitudes, and later the chemical
composition of the ionosphere by mass spectrometry. If the
present ideas that there are no negative ions at great alti-
tudes are correct, these experiments will furnish complete
information on the composition of the ionosphere.
Of great interest for science is the study of the
radiation arising from the disturbance of the atmosphere by
a body moving at cosmic speed. This radiation will become
especially interesting when the satellite will be somewhat
slowed down by the breaking force and will get into the
lower strata, behaving like an enormous artificial meteor
which excites and ionises the molecules and atoms of the
surrounding medium. It will be particularly valuable if all
these observations are conducted simultaneously with those
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-48-
from the Earth's surface as provided for under the current
IGY programme.
It goes without saying that a complete solution of
the problems enumerated above will require many satellites
equipped pith various equipment of high degree of perfection.
And the data thus obtained will of course give birth to a
great many new problems.
Cosmic Rays
Cosmic rays come to us from outer space. These
radiations are a stream of nuclei of the atoms of different
elements travelling at velocities very close to the velocity
of light. They are the heralds of the gigantic processes
as a result of which the nuclei of atoms of elements are
accelerated to very great energies. The cosmic rays produced
in this way offer the possibility of studying the cosmos at
great distances from the Earth and even from the solar system.
In most cases the energy of the particles of cosmic
radiation amounts to thousands of millions and even tens of
thousands of millions of electron-volts. Some of the
particles, however, attain an energy millions of times greater.
Up to now particles have been found with an energy of as much
as a billion billion electron-volts. This high energy of
cosmic ray particles makes it possible for physicists to use
them effectively to "bombard" atomic nuclei, and to study
the laws operating only at the extremely high energy of the
colliding particles. The study of cosmic rays, especially
with the aid of instruments mounted on a satellite, will
make it possible considerably to simplify some of the studies
 which when conducted on the ground require highly powerful
accelerators such as a cyclotron or proton synchrotron.
We might mention incidentally that the world's bigbest proton
synchrotron, made in the Soviet Union, can accelerate to
an energy of "a mere" 10,000 million electron-volts.
Not many particles of cosmic radiation reach the
Earth. On the average a square centimetre receives one
particle a second. Despite the great energy of the indivi-
dual particles the total energy of cosmic radiation is there-
fore small, being equal approximately to that brought to us
by the light from the stars.
That is a trifle compared with the energy enterin6
the Earth from the bun. However, far away from the Sun
the cosmic rays play no small part in the general energy
balance.
The question naturally arises how cosmic rays come
,into being? There can be no doubt that as a rule they start
out far from the Earth and even from the solar system.
Sometimes, though extremely rarely, the bun itself is the
source of cosmic rays, and in such cases explosive processes
have been observed on the Sun.
Cosmic rays produced on the Sun consist of particles
possessing little energy, which shows that the scale of
phenomena taking place on the bun is very small compared
to that which cause the formation of cosmic rays.
Where then in the Universe do these gigantic processes
occur? To answer this question it is first necessary to
study the composition of primary cosmic radiation. When
 -50-
colliding with the nuclei of the atmosphere's atoms the
particles of cosmic radiation impart a portion of their
energy, scmetimes a very considerable portion, to secondary
radiations, and owing to the high energy of the particles
of cosmic rays a good many generations of secondary particles
appear. For this reason, what we are studying on the
Earth's surface and in the stratosphere too is nut the primary
radiation which came from cosmic space but in the main its
numerous offspring.
In order to study primary cosmic rays scientific
apparatus has to be lifted beyond the Earth's atmosphere,
Until now we could lift instruments to considerable
heights by means of sounding balloons, stratostate or
rocicets, but in the first two bases primary radiation is
masked by a secondary, while in the case of rockets the
time of measurement is limited to a few minutes.
Artificial Earth satellites make it possible to study
fully the composition of primary cosmic radiation. We shall
very likely succeed in finding new components of cosmic
radiation which will reveal many of the universe's secrets.
Physicists have long tried to establish the age of
cosmic rays, to find out how much time has passed since
the particles of cosmic radiation have obtained their great
energy and beban their wanderings through the universe.
This question, however difficult it seems to be, can
nevertheless be answered if we turn to account the fact that
the longer cosmic rays travel in the universe the more
times they collide with the atoms of toterstellar space.
 of
In such collisions the atomic nuclei/heavier elements in
cosmic rays will break up and out of their fragments nuclei
of lighter elements will be formed.
In cosmic rays we find nuclei of the atoms of different
elements. The more nuclei of the atoms of a particular
element there are in the cosmos the more of them will
become accelerated and gain high energy. Experiments have
shown that the composition of cosmic rays corresponas, in
the main, to the distribution of the different elements
in the universe. Though there is very little of some
elements in the cosmos, lithium, beryllium and boron, for
instance, yet the nuclei of these elements are ofteh produced
when heavier nuclei decay.
Consequently if such nuclei are found in the com-
position of primary cosmic rays it will mean that cosmic
radiation travels a long time in the universe.
To find the nuclei of atoms of different elements in
the composition of cosmic rays is a very difficult problem.
It may be successfully solved by using special
counters, which register the Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation.*)
? The "Vavilov-Cherenkov effect" (named for the Soviet
scientists who discovered it) is that charged particles fly.
through matter at a velocity greater than the velocity of
light, producing an original lightwave similar to the sound-
wave produced by a plane flying at supersonic speed.
 The greater the specific gravity of the element the more
intense the radiation of the atomic nucleue passing through
the counter. As shown by experiments carried on by the
6oviet scientists L.V. Kurnosova, L.A. kazorenov and
M.Z. Fradkin, this is a good way to analyse primary cosmic
radiation and especially to try to find out if it has the
nuclei of lithium, beryllium and boron. In the same way
the nuclei of the atoms of many other elements, particularly
heavy elements, can be searched for in cosmic rays. The
large opportunities offered by the satellites will permit
undertaking new attempts to find among primary radiation
electrons, and photons, the tiniest material particles of
light. If these new components were found even in very small
quantities our knowledge of the origin of cosmic rays
would be considerably advanced.
This will be evident, indeed, if we recall that
there are magnetic fields in outer space. While passing
through the Earth's magnetic field the cosmic-ray particles
are greatly deflected in the field, and as a result the
primary particles of cosmic radiation, possessing as they do ..n
an electrical charge, follow a considerably distorted path.
Observing these particles on the Earth we cannot tell where
they came into being since the original direction of their
motion was completely lost owing to the deflection in the
magnetic fields.
Photons, on the contrary, move practically in a
straight line. If, therefore, we succeed in finding them
they will better than any other radiation indicate to us
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-53-
where in cosmic space are to be found the sources of cosmic
rays.
Thus, study of the composition of primary radiation
will make it possible to discover a number of phenomena
occurring in cosmic space and to shed light on the origin
of cosmic rays, and in particular to check some consequences
of the hypothesis put forward by the Soviet scientist
V.L. Ginzt.urg to the effect that cosmic rays are formed on
supernovae outbursts.
With the aid of artificial Earth satellites long obser-
vations of primary cosmic radiation can be conducted affordic:;;
the possibility of discovering even relatively little variations
in the intensity of the different components of this radiation.
In every particular case it is very interesting to
find out the nature of those particles of cosmic radiation,
which have changed in number. The use of satellites will
make this possible.
Among other things, the number of primary particles
can be registered to this end and simultaneously the ionisa-
tion caused by them. In this way it will be possible to
separate the variations in the intensity of the main component
of. cosmic rays consisting of the nuclei of the atoms of
hydrogen, namely, protons, from the changes in the number
of nuclei of the heavier elements.. Instruments on the Earth's
surface cannot effect this separation, but satellites offer
an altogether new approach to analysing the processes going
on with cosmic rays.
The number of primary particles can be measured
 with the aid of a counter of charged particles. As has
been shown by experiments conducted in the USSR (by N.L.
Grigorov,Y.I. Logachev, A.M. Charakhchyan and A.E. Chudakov),.
it is now possible to design an instrument which will use
electricity viery economically.
Considerable difficulty is presented in measuring
ionisation produced by cosmic radiation beyond the atmos-
phere. However, the measurement can be managed by employ-
ing a method developed by Chudakov, as followsi owing
to the ionisation, the instrument travelling outside the
atmosphere accumulates an electric charge, and when the
charge is removed an impulse emerges which is radioed to
the Earth, and the ionisation produced by the cosmic rays
can be judged from the value of the impulse.
The orbits of the Sputniks girdle almost the entire
globe, and this makes it possible to study the dependence
of the intensity of cosmic radiation on latitude and longi-
tude. This dependence is due to the deflection of the
primary cosmic rays in the Earth's magnetic field. By utili-
sing the Earth as a huge measuring instrument the composi-
tion of cosmic radiation can be analysed, and the distri-
bution of the radiation over the globe makes it possible
to investigate our planet's magnetic field.
Instruments for studying cosmic rays were installed
on Sputnik-2.
The particles making up cosmic radiation were regis-
tered on the sputnik with the aid of charged-particles
counters. When an electrically charged particle passed
 through the counter a spark was produced which supplied
an impulse to the radio eireuit incorporating semi-con-
ductor triodes, the purpose of which is to add up a number
of cosmic-ray particles and signal when a certain number
has been counted. After transmitting the signals that
the particular number of particles had been added up
registration of cosmic-rap particles began again and when an
equal number of particles had been counted another signal
followed. Dividing the registered number of particles by
the time in which they were dounted we get the number of
particles passing the counter per second, or, in other
words the intensity of cosmic rays.
The preliminary analysis of the data on the cosmic
rays transmitted from the Sputnik has shown that the instruv
ments function normally. It has been definitely shown
that the number of particles of cosmic radiation depends
on the geomagnetic latitude, and the analysis of the
many measurements of the energy spectrum of the primary
cosmic particles makes it possible to study the vari:ition
of the spectrum with time and compare it with the processes
going on during that time in the space around it.
There can be no doubt that in time the instruments
set upon the Sputniks will provide the possibility for a
continuous observation of the primary cosmic radiation.
In this way cosmic rays will become a powerful
means of studying the Universe.
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-56-
he Secrets of the Ionosphere
The characteristics of the atmosphere at altitudes
above 200-250 kilometres have been little investiated.
Especially interestin6 is the study of the fine structure
of the ionosphere, that is, the part of the atmosphere
which contains a vast nuuber of electrically char,ed
particles -- electrons and ions. Science today nossesbes
few data on the circular electrical currents in the iono-
sphere and other related phenomena, as until now the prin-
cipal infor4ation on the ionosphere has been obtained by
studying the ratns of the radiowiives sent from the Earth an.
reflected from the ionised strata. Moreover, this Lctho;:
wakes it possible to Get an idea of the ionosphere only up
to the level of maximum ionisation (F2 layer), that is, up
~'. to a height of roughly 250-300 kilometres. This is because
the ionosphere reflects or lets throu;_h radio signals, de-
pendinG on the frequency used in transmitting them. For
instance, greater density of ionisation is required to reflect
signals sent on high frequency waves.
The greatest frequency at which radio waves are
reflected frou a liven layer of the ionosphere when they
fall vertically on it is called critical frequency,
The greatest critical frequency is observed in the F2
layer. Radio waves of a greater frequency than the critical
frequency of the P2 layer pass through the inonosphere and
do not return to the Earth. Thus, in order to study the
higher layers of the ionosphere it is necessary to have
radio-wave sources placed considerably higher than the F2
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-57-
layer, and it is such sources that the Sputnik carries.
However, radio waves from the Sputnik #allin;; on the
ionosphere from the outer side and not from the side of
the Earth can also be reflected and not ;et to the Earth.
To avoid this, the bputnik's radio transmitters had higher
frequencies than the critical frequency of the F2 layer,
with a range of 10-15 aeacycles, depending on the season
of the year.
Radio Waves Emitted from the Sputniks Made it Possible
to Get Signals fror. an area in the Ionosphere in which
hadio .saves Travelling from the Earth Cannot Penetrate
Radio observations were conducted fro.n points in
different geo'raphical latitudes and longitudes by radio
direction-finder stations, r>dio clubs and thousands of
radio amateurs.
Of very Great importance are the rr,easureuents of the
field intensity of radio signals received from the Sputnik.
The weasureuents were made by continuous automatic record-
ing as well as by separate measurei:aents at certain fixed
instants, and so much Laterial has been obtained that at
this time only a preliminary analysis has been completed.
The results of receiving the radio signals from the
Sputniks and Weasurement of their levels have shown that
the signals transmitted on a 15-metre wave-length rose very
high up, far exceeding the direct vision range.
Of special interest is the fact that while moving, in
the elliptical orbit the Sputniks occupy a varyin% position
in relation to the lain maximum of electronic concentration
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-58-
in the terrestrial atmosphere. While in the Southern
Hemisphere the Sputnik travels above the ionosphere layer
in the 2torthern Hemisphere at certain moments it is above the
peak ionisation of that stratum, at other moments under it,
and at still others, near the peak. These conditions Lake for
a great many ways of propagation of short waves over great
distances. One of these ways is the reflection from the
Earth's surface of the radio waves which have come
from above through the whole mass of the ionosphere,
followed by a sin4le reflection of it from the ionosphere
in the regions where the critical frequencies are suffi-
ciently hi0h. In other cases the radio waves fallinb on the
ionosphere from above at a certain angle are considerably
refracted by it and as a result penetrate into a region
lying beyond geometrical direct visibility.
The position of the Sputnik near the area of maximum
ionisation of the atmosphere creates especially favourable
conditions for the propagation of radio waves by means of
ionospheric radio-wave guides. In some cases, as the obser-
vations have shown, radio waves came to the receiving;
point not the shortest way but rather travelled about
the globe over the lonoer are of the great circle. In some
cases the phenomenon of round-the-globe echo of the radio
signals has been observed.
There can be no doubt that the final analysis of the
great amount of material obtained through the radio observa-
tions of the Sputniks will provide, very valuable information
on the specific features of ionisation of the upper layers of
 -59-
the ionosphere and the absorption and propagation of radio-
waves in them.
There is a natural magnetic field around the Earth.
Its properties, for instance, its directional effect on
the magnetic needle, have long been utilised in practice,
though the nature of the field and its origin still remain
obscure. The Earth's magnetic field affects the motion of
charged particles coming from the sun to the Earth through
outer space, particles formed in the upper layers of the
atmosphere when the latter are ionised by the sun's ultra-
violet rays;. This is the explanation for the geomagnetic
effects such as the latitude distribution of the intensity
of cosmic rays and the frequency of auroral displays, the
polarisation of the radio waves reflected from the iono-
sphere and many other things..
Until recently the Earth's magnetic field W8U8 measured
either on the Earth's surface or close to it (from aeropi4mes){
it was only lately that several measurements were taken from
rockets at altitudes exceeding a 100 kilometres. The
mathematical analysis of the measurements made on the ground
has led to a number of interesting deductions. It turned out
that the field observed ntar the Earth's surface should be
:e,-arded as consisting of two partst one due to sources
in the interior of the Earth, and the other to sources
outside the Earth.
Althou6h the share of the outer sources is very small
(one to three per cent), its valve lying close to the limits
 of the error involved in the mathematical analysis, there is
no. doubt that it exists in reality. The existence of an
external field is confirmed by the rapid chanes takin;
place in the Earth's magnetic field, changes that are
known as diurnal magnetic variations, magnetic disturbances
and magnetic storms. These changes are closely related to
many phenomena occurring outside the Earth's surface, such
as solar activity, the state of the ionosphere, auroral displays
,and cosmic rays.
A mathematical analysis of the chanties shows that
their sources lie outside the Earth's surface. Unfortunately,
the analysis of the data obtained from ground observations
will neither indicate the exact spot where the field's sources
are to be found nor define their nature. Other data have
to be found for this purpose.
Investigation of the daily variations, magnetic storms
and the phenomena related to them have led scientists to.
assume that an external magnetic field may be produced by
systems of electrical currents outside the Earth's surface.
The most likely place where such currents might originate is
the upper conductive layers of the Earth's atmosphere,
namely, the ionosphere.
It is also suggested that there may be currents
beyond the ionosphere too. They may possibly be due to
charged particles and corpuscles, ejected by the Sun and
captured by the Earth's magnetic field and revolving around
the Earth in the plane of its magnetic. equator several tens
of thousands of kilometres away from the Earth. These
 -61-
extra-ionospheric currents increase when during magnetic
storms the Earth finds itself in the midst of intensive
corpuscular streams ejected from the Sun's active regions,
At such time their magnetic field shifts the zones of
auroral displays closer to the equator and reduces the
intensity of cosmic rays.
The presence of sources of a magnetic field in the
ionosphere is confirmed today by direct magnetic measurements
conducted from rockets.
Considerable attention is given in the International
Geophysical Year to studying the varying external magnetic
field and its relation to solar and other geophysical phenomena,
The changes in the magnetic field will be registered continuously
at a great many stations. It is also planned to measure
the magnetic field from satellites and rockets, Matnetic
measurements on satellites make it possible to survey the
magnetic field around the Earth at great altitudes. Their
purpose is to check the existence of extra-ionospheric
currents, to find out the system of ionospheric currents
and learn more about the main part of the fild, i.e, the part
due to the Earthls interior sources# By means of satellite
measurements it can be checked whether the streams of the
Sun's particles are neutral or consist of electrically-
particles of either sign.
Data on the field portion created by external sources
can be obtained by comparing the measured values of the
-field with the theoretical calculations based on the
assumption that the field is produced only by sources in
 the interior of the Earth. Knowing the field produced by
the external sources at high altitudes it will be possible
to appraise better the part it plays in particular geomagnetic
effects. It is not impossible that in some cases it plays
a considerable part. In particular, the recently revealed
difference in the position of the Earth's geomagnetic equator
as found from the data obtained by magnetic measurements on
land and by measurements of the intensity of cosmic rays,
may possibly be caused by the action of the field's external
sources on the charged particles of cosmic rays.
Observing that the intensity of the large magnetic
anomalies decreases with altitude we shall be able to
judge whether the sources-of these anomalies lie near the
Earth's surface or far out in space.
Weather Forecasting
It is close to 75 years since the first attempt was
made to carry out geophysical investigations simultaneously
on a worldwide scale. That was the first international
polar year, Its task was to study the influence of the
Arctic on the weather, and to investigate the Aurora Borealis
and the Earth's magnetic field. The second attempt was made
50 years later, in 1932-1933, when the second, international
polar year was organised. The object of that attempt was
to study the ionosphere and its effoct on the propagation
of radio waves, and to conduct meteorological observations
by an extended network of stations.
The meteorological maps compiled following the observa-
tions of the second international polar year (for the Earth's,
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-63-
Northern Hemisphere) serV94 scientists as a basis for
developing a thermo-hydrodynamic method of lone-range weather
forecasting, and to verify whether the experimental hydro-
dynamic long-range forecasts were justified.
The next international meteorological observations were
planned for 1982-1983, but the rapid rate of development of
science and technology in the middle of the 20th century made
it necessary to change the schedule and fix the IGY for
1957-58.
Participating in the IGY are 64 countries, with the
USiiR taking an important part in carrying out its pro1ramme.
cotae 300 meteorological ground stations and some 100 aero-
lo,gical stations were set up on Soviet territory. The
work done un..er the_IGY programme will be extremely important
for meteorology, especially for weather forecast, which is the
principal problem in this science. For the first time the
results of observations by a wide network of meteorological
stations will be received from both hemispheres of the Earth.
This will be the first time that meteorological condi-
tions in the antarctic and equatorial regions will be widely
analysed, an analysis that meteorologists are so badly in need
of. Vast material will be collected for meteorology, during
the year, and by using electronic fast computin,; machines the
material will be analysed in brief time. The calculations,
which formerly would have taken scores of years, can now be
done in a few hours.
The automatic meteorological stations set up on the
Sputniks operating beyond the Earth's' atmosphere will lead
 to fundamental chanties in the theory and practice of
weather forecasting. Many meteorological phenomena
hidden from observers on Earth will become obvious when
observed from the Sputnik. Today meteorologists are forced
to collect most of their data from an extremely limited
number of ;;round observations. However, making use of
a satellite it will be possible, for instance, to photograph
at once all clouds over the Earth's surface at least sevcral
times in 24 hours, It will also be possible to obtain
data on ice conditions and information on other factors
influencin the weather all over the world.
Many problems of meteorology are already in the process
of solution as a result of the observations of the first
two satellites; for instance the distribution of the density
of the air in the upper layers of the atmosphere along
longitude and latitude, etc. In future satellites will
help to solve a vast number of meteorological questions.
The successful launching of the Sputniks has afforded
the possibility for the first time in the annals of meteoro-
logy to conauct extended observation of the Earth's atmos-
phere "from above."
By equipping the Oputniks with special sensitive photo-
cells, scientists will ;;et a picture of the distribution
of clouds over extensive regions of the Earth's surface and
simultaneously bet a picture of the distribution of the
gigantic planetary and atmospheric waves (more than
1,000 kilometres long), which play a part in shaping the
weather over large distances; scientists will be able to
 watch jet currents, that is, a pronounced belt winding
among the cyclons and anti-cyclons which block it, like a
river winding between islands, and many other things.
In short, the Sputniks will furnish a picture of the
distribution of the air currents, a picture of total air
circulation over wide expanses.
It has been proved that for short-range forecasts
it is necessary to know
(24 to 48 hours)/the initial field of meteorological
elements for a relatively small area, surrounding the
particular region for which the forecast is made, However,
as the time for which the forecast is made grows longer
the territory to be elucidated by the initial data in-
creases sharply. In the case of long-range forecasts
for some point in the Northern hemisphere the initial
data have. to cover the entire Northern Hemisphere as a
minimum.
A dense network of stations to take observations and
cothplete information from the stations are essential for
making more accurate forecasts. There are still however,
large areas on the Earth's surface in which there are few
stations or none at all. Thus, while on the Atlantic
Ocean daily observations are conducted on a few stationary
vessels belonging to the meteorological and aerological
service, practically no obeservations are conducted on
the Pacific Ocean. Here observations from the Sputniks will
render indispensable service, They will cover vast areas
including the oceans, on which no regular observations of
the state of the atmosphere have been conducted.
 j Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-66-
VII. Tr'WARDC THE CONQUEST OF OUTER SPACE
Problems Involved in Study of Animals Travelling in Outer
Space
Soviet scientists began the conquest of space }y imple-
menting a broad programme of medical and biological investi-
gations of animals on their flights in rockets to 100-200
kilometres above the Earth's surface.
From the biological standpoint a flight in the upper
layers of the Earth's atmosphere has much in common with a
flight in outer space. A living organism in that case
too, will be affected by a :Whole series of factors not
found in the usual environment, such as the effect of
cosmic radiation, the long gravity-free dynamic state and,
under certain conditions, the virtual absence of atmospheric
pressure and molecular oxygen.
Some of these factors can be produced artificially
and studied in laboratories, and others during brief flights
in rockets. A good many papers deal with the study of
their effects on the organism. Airflight medicine today
has enough experimental and theoretical data which reveal
more than merely the physiological effects of the influence
of this kind of factors. At its disposal are preventive
and protective measures to safeguard the living organism;
these are hermetically-sealed chambers, space suits and so
The effects of weightlessness, of primary cosmic radiation,
corpuscular. and ultra-violet radiation of the Sun have as
yet practically not been studied from the medico-biological
 angle. Their biological effects and perhaps also other
factors we still know inadequately can be found out only
ry long flights in the upper layers of the atmosphere.
To conduct such investigations, considerable difficultic-
as regards design and method have to be overcome. All aRpara-
tus in such cases must operate independently over a long
period, ensure automatic recording of the needed data and
be highly resistant to the action of overstrai.nvibrations
and variations in pressure and temperature. At the same
time the apparatus has to be compact, weigh little and consume
little electricity.
No less are the difficulties arising in providing con-
ditions to enable animals to survive in the flight. For
instance, the efficient systems of air regeneration used
ordinarily are unsuitable for the hermetically-sealed chambers
because of their bulk and large weight.
New and more efficient systems had to be designed.
Obviously the ventilation system had to be a forced feed
system since the gravity-free state precludes the air ex-
change usual for conditions on Earth. Becauseof this, the
heat exchange in the chamber and protection of the animal
from the considerable variations in the temperature have
to be specially designed.
A special system had to be worxed out to provide the
animal with water or liquid food, as in conditions of weight-
lessness liquids in a free state can possibly disperse
throughout the chamber.
It was necessary to work out a whole system of rather
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-68-
complex automatic equipment to ensure that the conditions
required to keep the animal alive are maintained. Scientif-
ic instruments are used which are designed to investigate
a number of basic phyy4Alogigal functions of he animal and
(temperature, air _-ressure, etc.)
hygienic conditions in the chambe i For this purpose par-
ticular physical values are converted into electrical,
then they are coded into different kinds of radio impulses,
which are transmitted by radio and automatically recorded on
Earth with the aid of special recording devices.
Even this by far incomplete enumeration of the prob-
lems is enough to give an idea of the variety and comple-
xity of the tasks due to the specific conditions of the
experiment.
Observations of the animal's behaviour on Sputnik-2
made it possible to find out the effect on the organism of
factors which could not be studied in laboratory conditions
or in high flights on aeroplanest
Biological Phenomena in Cosmic Flights
For the purpose of studying a number of medico-biolo-
gical questions a special hermetically-sealed chamber was
fixed up on Sputnik-2 in which the animal (a dog called
Laika) was placed, also instruments to study the physio-
logical functions of the animal, equipment for regenerat-
ing the air, for feeding the animal and removing the
products of its physiological activity. In designing
the equipment account was taken of the need of the utmost
economy in the size and weight of the instruments and of
minimum consumption of electricity by them,
I Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
 ,I Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
Functioning for some considerable time, the apparatus
ensured with the aid of radio telemetric system the re-
gistration of the animal's pulse and respiration, its
bio
arterial blood pressure, the/electrical potentials of the
heart, the temperature and air pressure in the chamber, snd
so on.
It is perft.ctly natural that the first "passenger" on
the Sputnik was a warm-blooded animal -- a dog -- the normal
physiology of which had been thoroughly studied. It may be
that to clear up special questions it will be necessary to
use anthropoid apes, rodents# mollusks and insects. Insects
will afford opportunities for genetic studies.
Laika, the passenger on Sputnik-2, was a small dog
weighing approximately five kilogrammes. Unfortunately
its genealogy is not known. It was a&blo gmatic animal;
while living in the vivarium it never quarrelled with its
four-footed neighbours. The information obtained from the
Sputnik shows that during the space flight too it did not
lose its calm disposition.
Before sending it on the Sputnik, Laika underwent
preliminary training. It was gradually accustomed to long
stays in a small hermetically-sealed room wearing a special
outfit, and to the gauges attached to different parts of its
body for registering the physiological functions, and so on.
The animal was also trained to stand the effect of overatasins,
and in the laboratory it was determined how far it was
proof against the effect of vibration and certain other
factors. Following long training the animal calmly endured
several,weeks in the hermetically-sealed chamber, which made
Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-70-
it possible to conduct the needed scientific investigations.
The study of the biological phenomena of a living
organism travelling in outer space became possible as a
result of extensive preliminary investigations on animals
in short flights in rockets to altitudes of 100 to 20C
kilometres, investigations conducted in the USSR over a
number of years.
This is the story of one of the flights.
... Five minutes before sunrise a cigar-shaped silver
grey rocket was zooming up to the stratosphere. In the
forward part was fixed up a non-hermetically sealed
compartment in which catapulting trolleys had been placed.
Attached to the trolleys were special outfits -- oxygen
supply instruments, containing 900 litres of oxygen, a
parachuting system and apparatus for recording the physical
functions in flight)
The catapulting trolley weighed 70 kilogrammes, and
the parachuting system ensured a vertical landing speed of
about six metres a second. The rocket quickly reached a
height of 110 kilometres, at which the head part fell away
from the body and began its free fall. At an altitude of
80-90 kilometres the first trolley was catapulted at a
speed of some 700 metres a second; three seconds later, the
parachute system began to work and the animal dropped down
to Earth from a height of 75-85 kilometres, the descent
taking an hour.
In the last five years Soviet scientists carried out
many similar rocket flights for the purpose of studying
 the high layers of the atmosphere and their effect on
living organisms.
Unlike earlier investigations, the flight of an
animal on the Sputnik makes it possible to study the effect
of zero gravity over a long period. Before this the in-
fluence of weightlessness could be studied only on an aero-
plane for a few seconds at a time, and during the vertical
launching of a rocket for a few minutes. On the Sputnik,
however, it was possible to study the animal's organism
in gravity-free state for several days.
The experimental data obtained in the medico-biologic-
al investigations are now being studied thoroughly and in
detail. It may be said already now that the animal stood well
the long action of the accelerations as the Sputnik was
taken to its orbit and the gravity-free state which followed
for several days. The data show that throughout the experi-
ment the animal's state was satisfactory.
VIII. LIFE ON A SATELLITE
Without Atmosphere
Animals and human beings can travel in outer space
only in hermetically-sealed chambers, where the air compo-
sition and pressure are close to those prevailing on Earth.
In order that the organism could breathe the space ship must
have a supply of oxygen, and most expedient is liquid
oxygen. One litre of liquid oxygen yields 8C0 litres of
oxygen gas as it evaporates. However, the required amount
of oxygen dissolves in the blood only at a certain barometric
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-72-
pressure; if there is not enough barometric pressure, even
if the organism breathes pure oxygen it will not get all it
needs.
If the barometric pressure drops (in outer space there
is practically none) the gases dissolved in the blood pass
out. This brings stout grave consequences, and sometimes
a complcta disturbance of the vital activity of the organism
is the result.
Liquids' boiling temperature depends on the surrounding
pressure. The lower the pressure the lower the temperature
at which a liquid begins to ),oil. At a pressure of 47 mm.
of mercury (which corresponds to 19 km. above sea level)
thc; liquid begins to boil when its temperature tarely
reaches 37?C. This is the blood temperature of a human
being, and the "Moiling" of the Blood would inevitably
bring serious consequences.
When could sudh disorders arise? They could occur if
something unforessoq? happerto the hermetically-sealed
ehamter. If a meteorite traveling at a terrific speed
?
collided with the space ship and pierced the chamber and
the astronaut was not wearing protective clothing he would
taint in 15 to 30 seconds. For this reason, besides
hermetically sealing the pjiamber, space or special high
altitude suits are provided. In the space suites the re-
quired barometric pressure is maintained and in the special
altitude suits the pressure is produced by ten-
sioniss the fabric of the suit which. tightly fits
the human body. Both hermetically-sealed chambers and
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-73-
space or altitude suits are used.
Flights of animals in satellites will make it possible
to check up how reliable are the hermetically-sealed ch,Ambers
and the space and altitude suits and to work out ways to
enable the organisms to take food and water under these
conditions, and to solve a number of other questions.
An important requisite for the normal life of living
beings is the adequate temperature of the surrounding medium.
The first experiment of launching a satellite with a dog on
board has shown that Soviet scientists have correctly solved
the problem of producing the required temperature inside; the
satellite; the animal behaved calmly in flight and its
general state was satisfactory.
The Syo Is Not All Life
It is extremely important to study with the aid of
satellites the effect of the different kinds of solar and
cosmic radiation on living organisms. The intensity of
the ultra-violet radiation in the upper atmosphere and
beyond is so great that it is fatal for the living cells.
However, protection against the action of the Sun's ultra-
violet rays is no difficult problem, since most materials,
including ordinary glass, do not let through this part
of the solar spectrum.
Solar radiation also contains the so-called X-rays.
While. at.first their influence on the organism is quite un-
noticeable, in may later lead to very unpleasant consequences.
Therefore an effective protection against X-rays must be
secured.
 -74-
Cosmic rays, or cosmic particles, as they should be
called more properly maybe even more dangerous. Possessing
enormous kinetic energy these particles, on encountering
molecules of other substances, cause their disintegration
into ions. Molecules become ionised also when cosmic
particles penetrate into the tissue of the organism; that
leads to the destruction of the cells, to unhealthy symp-
toms like those caused by gamma radiation, which occurs in
nuclear reactions.
The question naturally arises: how can the organism
be protected against cosmic particles? While there are no
finished plans on this score as yet, published data
indicate that this protection is faced with considerable
difficulties, and the launching of satellites carrying
animals will make it possible to obtain highly important
information on this question.
Sputnik-2 is equipped with measuring instruments
for studying all "radiant" effects of outer spaces the
Sun's short-wave ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, and cosmic
rays.
A few words should be said about the danger from
meteorites.
It has been established that more than 8,000 million
meteorites enter the planet's atmosphere every 24 hours,
their total mass being approximately one ton. Possessing
an immense speed of movement -- 30 to 50 kilometres or
more a second -- they become hot from friction in the air
and 'A)urn away in the upper strata of the atmosphere;
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-75-
we see them as "falling stars." Meteorites do not, as a
rule, penetrate below 70-100 kilometres. However, the
higher a satellite moves the more likely it is to meet
meteorite. It is important to establish how much this
possibility depends on the height of the orbit, the time
of the year, and so on.
The very first weeks Of the Sputniks' flight have
shown that the Sputniks have not been hit by a meteorite
of destructive force. It may well be that the chance of
colliding with meteoric particles will turn out to be no
greater than the chance of an automobile accident.
That Is Weightlessuess?
To have a satellite get out to its orbit a speed of
some 8,000 metres a second has to be imparted to it1 and
this involves a considerable acceleration over a long
period. The effect of acceleration depends on its magni-
tude, period of action, the rate of increase and the direc-
tion of the motion in which the force producing the accele-
ration acts on the body of the human being or animal.
The effect of the accelerations, or overstresses,:as
they are also called, on the organism of animals and humaL
beings has been studied quite intensely in recent years,
since modern high speed planes are subject to considerable
accelerations over long periods.
If the acceleration acts upward from a person's feet to
his head it will cause a redistribution of the whole mass
of the blood, and there will.be more blood than usual in
the lower part of the body and not enough in the upper.
 If the acceleration is strong enough the blood circulation
in the brain may be less than the regular, and this will
lead to a disturbance in the functions of the central ner-
vous system, including the loss of consciousness.
If the acceleration does not act on a person along
his body but perpendicularly it can be withstood much
easier. The special suits also help to protect from over-
strains, as they envelop the different parts of the body
tightly, not letting the blood accumulate in them. These
questions too will be checked in the experiments with
animals.
A few words on the speed of movement the organism
can stand. Uniform speed does not affect the organism.
We certainly are not troubled in the least by the Earth's
rotation on its axis. Neither are we disturbed by the
Earth's motion around the Sun, at a velocity of more than
100,000 km. an hour. We may state definitely that the
human organism can safely stand any uniform speed. However,
at a certain speed of movement there comes a point when
man's sense organs cannot supply the brain with exhaustive
information because the information is transient and in-
complete. Space flights will therefore be controlled
chiefly from land stations by means of electronic computing
machines with a stored programme. Astronauts in space
flights will be released from having to control their
flight themselves, which is literally beyond man's capacity.
Let us now pass on to the question of weigLtlessness,
which travelers in space are bound to come up against.
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246AO03700510002-3
-77-
The effect of weightlessness has been studied in recent
years on both animals and human beings. True, the observaw
tions were of effects lasting but several scores of seconds.
Undoubtedly the effects of being a considerable time in a
gravity-free state will be quite different. That is just
what satellites carrying animals should establish. Dogs
clad in special space suits on their brief flights in
rockets also experienced a state of wightlessness. Automat-
ic instruments recorded the animals' respiration, measured
the blood pressure and pulse, and an automatic motion-
picture camera took photographs. No material changes in
respiration or heart activity were found. However, such
experiments were limited as to time.
Interesting results have been obtained in studying
the effect of zero gravity on human beings. WeigLtless-
ness occurred in a specially programmed flight by aero-
plane and it continued for 30 to 45 seconds. Of the 14
persons who took part in those flights eight said that
they had felt well. The scientist who conducted the study
and who took part in the flight stated that the zero-
gravity state was the best form of relaxation for a human
being. Five of the fliers, however, experienced illusory
sensations during the gravity-free state: they had the
feeling that they were iu a state of free falling or that
they were flying "upside down." And one showed symptoms
of health disturbance very much like the sick feeling one
gets during air sickness.
It has been established that after repeatedly exper-
iencing weightlessness in flight the human organism adjusts
 Approved For Release 2008/07/01 : CIA-RDP80T00246A003700510002-3
-78-
itsalf to it, and a person who has experienced it several
times retains a sufficiently good orientation in space and
is capable of making precise coordinated movements.
The dog's flight on the Sputnik, in which the gravity-
free state continued for a considerable time, makes it
possible to study the effect of prolonged weightlessness'
on the organism and to solve the problem to wLat extent
centrifugal forces should :,e created on a satellite to
take the place of gravity
There can be no doubt that weightlessness also affects
the organism's functions of breathing, blood circulation,
body temperature, and so on. Observations have showu
that weightlessness causes some drop in blood pressure.
Under the action of accelerations there is increased
gas exikange in the organism, and the consumption of oxygen
and ev$rement of earbonic acid gas rises severalfold.
During the gravity-free state a drop in the gas exchange.
may 1,e expected, at least after the organism had become
adjusted to this state. These facts are important for
,ensuring a supply of oxygen for the animals and for deter-
mining the capacity of the air-conditioning apparatus.
Another important reason why satellites should be
lauLched with animals on board is the saving of crews of
future space ships. It may happen that unforeseen circum-
stances will force pilots to abandon the cosmic vessel, and
provision should be made to save the people in suc:i cases.
Naturally, such experiments should first be conducted with
animals. Besides, for scientific purposes it would also
 be highly desirable to save the animals after the satellite
has completed its movement in the orbit.
The height of the orbit above the Earth is important
for flights of satellites; the greater the altitude the
longer will the satellite survive. But what about satellites
carrying animals? Is there any reason to limit the distance
of its orbit from the Earth? There appears to be no
difference, for animals have the same chance for survival
at any of the heights to which a satellite can be launched.
The thing is that already at very low heights our
atmosphere begins to lose rapidly its proporties which are
essential for a living organism.
At eight 9r nine kilometres above sea level the
effect of insufficient barometric pressure is felt, and
at 19,200 metres, where total barometric pressure equals
47 mm, of mercury, measures have to be taken to protect
the organism against the liquids beginning to boil.
At 36 to 37 kilometres up lies the boundary where
heavy particles of cosmic radiation are absorbed; above
that level in the atmosphere one must be protected against
cosmic particles. Above 42-43 kilometres negins the re-
gion which as regards the ultraviolet part of the solar
spectrum is equivalent to interplanetary space.
Meteorites generally burn away at an altitude of
ati?,ut 100 kilometres.
 higher sound cannot propagate in the atmosphere. At that
altitude the distances between the air's molecules are
approximately equal to the lengths of sound waves apprehend-
ed by the human ear. Above this limit the free path of thu
air's molecules is longer.
Approximately at these heights the intensity of
cosmic particles begins to increase sharply.
However, the region in which a satellite can survive
for a long time is considerably higher than these outside
limits.
IX. Man in Outer Space
Today we may already say that in a very few years
satellites will be built to revolve around the Earth at a
distance of several thousand kilometres from the Earth's
surface and they will be equipped with apparatus for
every kind of scientific measurement. One of the next
steps should be the development of a rocket capable of
breaking away from the sphere of the Earth's attraction,
get close to the Moon and fly around it. Such a rocket
would give us abundant information on the nature of the
Moon's surface and on the structure of the Moon's hemi-
sphere which we never see.
We can say that a flight to the Moon is a matter of
the not distant future. The carrier rocket of the world's
first artificial Earth satellite imparted to it an orbital
speed of some eight kilometres a second, and the second
satellite was imparted an equal speed. And to send up a
 space, snip to Lne 1VIOOn 1L w111 ueeu a Dpecu v? vui,r --,
kilometres more, or slightly more than 11 kilometres a
second. In the latter case the space ship will travel in
a drawn out ellipse, and entering the sphere of the
Moon's attraction will after.a few evolutions land on the
latter's surface.
The whole trip will take no more than five days and a
minimum of fuel will be consumed. A route has been figured
out to make the flight in less time. If the space ship
will fly faster than 11 kilometres a second it will tc
a`.ie to reach the Moon in 24 hours. Such projects too have
been worked out by Soviet scientists.
Soviet scientists are also working on projects for
flights to Mars. One of the projects envisages the assembly
of 10 space ships each weighing 1,700 tons on flying
stations. From their circular orbit around the Earth
they will get out via the transitory orbit to an ellipse
and will move towards Mars in the sphere of the Sun's
attraction without using fuel. The trip to Mars will take
256 CUs. For the return flight the travelers will have
to wait on Mars or its artificial satellite until the
position of Mars and the Earth in relation to each other
is again such as will favour the start of the return flight.
This waiting period will equal 440 terrestrial days. The
vholr trip will thus take 952 days, or nearly three
years. Scientists believe that such flights will be made
towards the end of the present century. There are also
projects under which a path has been figured out for a
fligLt to Mars in less time.
 At first, space ships will make their flights without
people on board. The development of present-day automation
and electronic computing machines provides a theoretical
basis to build equipment which besides taking measurements
will be able also without human intervention to figure out
exactly which measurements should be taken and how they
should be arranged in view of the findings of the earlier
measurements. The radio makes it possible automatically
in short time to transmit to the Earth the results obtained
in the vast number of observations and measurements. Theo-
retically it is possible also to transmit pictures visible
from the ship,
It will thus be possible to obtain enough scientific
data without sending people out into outer space.
Considerable technical difficulties are still to be
overcome before man will be able to fly in outer space.
However, the progress made and the continued hard work by
scientists give us grounds to believe that before very long
man's flight in outer space will become a fact.