EVALUATION OF THE DEPOSIT DURING PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-00280R001300180013-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 53
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 6, 2011
• Sequence Number: 13
• Publication Date: October 30, 1956
• Content Type: REPORT

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S
ZVAWATION OF TEl DRP08f WRING PR08PECTESG AND IIPLOWI011
Otasnka Mestoroshde Pri Poiskakh
a n of tan
Deposit Prospecting and
Exploration], No 15, 1955, Moscow,
Pages 7-30; 84-94
(Pages 7-30)
PART I. ON TEE CHARACTBRiSTICS OF ILRCUEY AND ANTIHONZ:
THEIR APPLICATION, EcONDMIC8, AND ORE TEC1210IOrl
Chapter 1. Properties of Mercury and Antimorw
Mercury and antimony are metals having distinctly different
properties and, consequently, completely dissimilar fields of
application. Nevertheless, deposits of both these metals have a
great dual in cow wn;.they are frequently formed under similar
geological conditions. Moreover, in some cases, mercury and
antimony are extracted from complex mercury-antimony ores.
Therefore, in ekam? ing the properties of mercury and
antimony,, it is important to take into consideration not only
those properties which determine the direction of their practical
application, but also the common conditions governing the formation
of tbtl k deposits.
.ble 1 gives the basic physical properties of sarcury and
When heated, mercury undergoes intensive expansion which,
in the range from 00 to 1000 is almost proportional to the expansion
of gaps. Mercury is very volatile even at normal temperatures.
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Thus, the pressure of mercury vapor at 20? C constitutes 0.0013 =
of the mercury colusms, while at 100? it reaches 0.279 a. Mercury
vapor is extremely poisonous, and prolonged exposure to it, even
of low concentration, causes serious toxic effect.
In its chemical compounds mercury is monovalent or bivalent.
There are numerous mercury compounds. Among these are amalgam,
mercuric oxide, sulfides and sulfo salts, haloid compounds, sulfate,
and nitrate.
Amalgam (alloy) of mercury is oaaily formed through direct
diffusion in it of other metals, such as Aug Ag, Zn, Pb, Al, at al.
Among oxides of mercury there are the H820 oxide and the Hg0 oxide.
Mercury sulfides are the most widely encountered mercury compounds.
There are several modifications, of which 2 are the most important%
red mercuric sulfide and black mercuric sulfide. The red sulfide
(verailiiort) is formed when it is separated from alkaline sr,lutiona,
while black cinnabar (metacinnabarite) is separated from acid
solutions. Mercuric sulfides are practically insoluble in water,
but dissolve easily in solutions of alkali sulfides, forming with
them complex compounds of the J.%8 ?;nJa23 tn..
Of the haloid compounds the most important are the chlorides
which have broad application in medicine: Y12 ohloridt and W12,
also known as calomel.
Sulfate of mercury, y%, which is water-soluble only
difficultly, is most probably formed in nature as a result of the
action of sulfuric acid not directly on the cinnabar, but on %he
products of its variations - natural mercury or red mercuric
oxide (sontroidite).
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Nitrate of mercury, Hg(VD3)29 is an intermediate product
of the formation of the industrially important, so-called mercury
fuldnate, C2Hg(N02)h.
Mercuric cyanide is an exceedingly poisonous compound, and
is occasionally used in wedicine. Mercury produces almost no salts
of weak acids, since mercury itself is a weak base.
In its chemical compounds antimorgr is trivalent or pentavalent.
In acid solutions, compounds of pentavalant antimony usually Change
to trivalent sntimonys thus noting as acidifiers. Acids correspond-
ing to the valences of antiawrW are Sb203 and 5b205. most commonly
encountered in nature are the rhombic triwdde (valentinits), or
cubic trioxide (aernamontide). The combination of antimorp trioxide
and pentoxide yields the tetroxide Sb2O% which also occurs in nature
as cervantite. Hydroxide Sb(0H)3 is clearly amphoteric in character,
while hydroxide of pentavalent antimorq is acid in character.
Of great importance are antiaonu sulfides and alto-salts.
Antimony trisulfide 8b283 is the principal industrial antimomly
mineral. Its melting point is approximately 550? C. It is not
soluble in water, but with an 8' ion, it forms a complex easily
soluble ion 2(8b53)" '. Psntavalant antimony is not found in
nature. In technology it is used in the vulcanization of rubber.
In the sulfo-salt, 3b2S3 acts as a eulfo-anhydrides forming the
so-called sulfo-antimonitea.
A special group is formed by the ooahination of antimorpr
with metals, viz., antimonide of sodium, nickel, and silver.
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Relative3y small quantities of antiaory will increase the
hardness, of such soft metals as lead end sin.
Of the chemical properties of mercury and antimony, the
most uignificant in the matter of explaining the formation of
their deposits are the ability of their principal natural compounds,
the sulfides (cinnabar and antiaonite), to dissolve easily in
ageuous solutions of alkali sulfides, producing complex ions of the
2(Sbs3)''' and the Hg82 " type.
Atomic Atomic Specific Hardness Color Melting
number weight weight point
in oC
Boiling specific
po electric con-
ductivity with
respect to
silver (x)?
1.58 1o
80 200.61 13.55 Liquid at Silver- -38.7 357.25
normal tea- white
Antisoq$ 51 121.76 6.67 3 (Kohn scale), 630.5 1325 3.76
brittle Lead- (approx.)
white
Chapter 2. Application of Mercury and Antimooy and the Economics
of These Metal
In view of the variety and types of applications of mercury
and antimony in the most important branches of industry, both
these metals are considered strategic raw materials.
Application and Economics of Mercury
In metal form and in combination, mercury is used in medicine,
the chemical industry, the electric power industry, instrument
buildin, agriculture, mining, the -am, acturs of felt, etc.
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In the basic chemical industry, sulfate of warcury is used
as a catalytic agent is the production of acetaldehyde from
acetylide. In the electrolysis of sodium chloride for the purpose
of obtaining chlorine and sodium hydroxide, mercury cathodes are
currently used that make it possible to obtain sodium hydroxide
of great purity. Mercury is also indispensable in the manufacture
of certain paints used to cover the underwater portion of vessels.
Mercury fulminate is widely used as a detonator in explosive
operations in the field of aiming. Mercury rectifiers, Quarts
mercury vapor lamps, thermometers, manometers, diffusion vacuum
pumps, and numerous weasuricg instruments and control apparatus
would be unthinkable without the use of mercury. In agriculture
compounds containing mercury are used as mordant for seed. In the
field of medicine, mrcury has for many an been used in the form
of mercuric chloride, calomel, as the principal component of various
ointments, mercuric-organic compounds, dental amalgams, and in
mart' other medications.
More and more attention is being devoted to the use of
mercury in the field of poser, in mercury vapor boilers and turbines.
In that regard it was found useful to combine mercury and hydraulic
installations which utilise the beat of mercury vapor condensation.
In such binary, mercury-blydreulic power installations it has been
possible to increase efficiency now 38 to 115%, while decreasing
fuel consumption almost by j of the fuel used with water boilers.
table 2 contains official average aaazal figures of mercury
consumption in the United States during the period 19116 to 1950:
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?ABLE 2
ANWAL OO168QMPTIOK OP WWRZ IN THE UNITED 8TA7E8, 1946-1950
Quantity of mercury used
(t) 1%)
Basic chemistry (production of
chlorine and sodium chloride)
28.4*
2.8
Agriculture and forestry
174.0
17.1
Electrical apparatus
251.2
25.1
Precision instruments
180.0
17.9
Pharmaceuticals
Catalytic agents (production of
137.0
13.6
vinegar, etc.)
116.7
11.6
Antifouling paints for vessels
52.0
5.1
Dental medicine
36.7
3.5
Mercury fulminate
14.4
1.4
Laboratories
14.5
1.4
Amalgams
5.1
0.5
1,013.0.
100.0
5,
(*) In the production of chlorine and sodium chloride,, mercury is
used only in the loading of the electrolytic bath; it then regenerates
itself in the course of the operation.
,It should be noted that the United States expended increased
quantltieas of mercury during the war -- up to 1,880 t in 1943,
primarily in the production of disinfectants for the army (total
quantity of mercury used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals
reached 503 t at that time), and for explosives (108 t).
Based on available data concerning mercury deposits in Europe
and America, from the year 7.500 through 1950 about 670,000 t of
mercury were obtained; of this total. annual production in the 20th
century averaged from 4 to 4.5 thousand t.
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!lore than 70% of all mercury was obtained in the following
5 deposits: Almaden (Spain), 206,000 tl Idriya (Yugoslavia),
more than 90,000 tj New Almaden (US), 60,000 tj Juankavelika (Peru),
55,000 tj and the Tuscany deposit (Italy), nearly 40,000 t.
Maximum production of mercury in the foreign countries was
achieved in 1941, with a yield of more than 9,500 t. Purtaeraors,
particularly in the twentieth century, a very large number of
small deposits were under exploitation, with a total annual produc-
tion of not more than 10 to 15 thousand t. Thus, in the United
States in 1942, some 184 mines yielded but 1753 t of mercury.
The data presented in Table 3 will illustrate the quantities
of mercury produced in various foreign countries in recent years.
A comparatively sharp change in mercury production total
for the different years can be explained, primarily, by the fluctu-
ation in the price of mercury. The increase in the price of mercury
during the war or during the preparation for war is. followed 1u a
marked increased in mercury production and, conversely, the drop in
price during periods of economic crisis causes marked reductions in
the production and complete stoppage of production in certain
countries. It is also significant that the great demand for mercury
during World War II, when Spanish and Italian mercury was in the
hands of the Germans, resulted in the organisation of production
in other countries, such as Canada, Mexico, Asia, and South America.
Mercury prices in the world market are usually quoted in
dollars per oflinder, which is the accepted international unit for
mercury. The quantity of mercury per cylinder is strictly standard-
ised. Up to 1927 a cylinder hold 34.05 kg, while beginning in 1928,
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?+~...v.sa
my VL.IJUN ill FORSWN COUNmIIa (111 t/ (RD - IA DAL)
1928
1938
194.3
1947
1950
120
68
2
118
--
Japan
25
231
--
45
Turkey
20.5
6
ND
ND
Spain
1,245
2,195
1,379
1,646
1,858
1,745
Italy
1,PO4
1,984
2,301
2,137
ND
1,839
Austria
820
5
ND
ND
NL
--
72
100
ND
(jeans y
North Aaieri( a
Canc...
768
ND
ND
USA
687
616
620
1,790
.799
156
Mexico
166
45
155.
294
.976
126
South America
Peru
11. ?
Bolivia
95
Chile
95
. ND
ND
Africa
Algiers
.2
Zunis
18
Union of South
41 ? ND ND
Australia and Nov Zealand --
0.3 3 ND. ND
(Not*- Based cn a survey by Minerals Industry, over-all
production
of mercury in 1943 was approximately 8,150 t, as against
4,80,, t in 1950.)
-8-
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a cylinder was standardised at 3k.5 kg. In. Table 4 msrcary prices
are listed in dollars per ton, to facilitate comparison with
prices of antiaozq and other metals.
TABA4
R1 R1 PRICSS (Mt TORE STOCK ncWIGZ)
Year Price
1913
1,158
1928
3, 630
1938
2,180
1943
5,660
]950
2,350
It must also be noted that during industrial utilisation
of mercury the price remains almost unreduced, and the production
of secondary mercury, contrary to antimony, has almost no industrial
significance.
Application and Economics of Antimony
By far the greatest quantities of antimony are used in indus-
try sn form.alloys-with other soft metals. This process takes
advantage of the property of antimony to increase the hardness of
ws i '.n. Among the more important alloys containing antimony are:
anti.nous lead of increased hardness, used particularly in the
prodi.ition of shrapnel balls; various antifriction bearing alloys
having an antimony content of from 7 to 20% (babbit); type metal
(Containing 15 to 25% antimony); battery metal consisting of an
alloy of particularly pure lead, alloyied with a small quantity of
antimony of great purity; the so-called Brittania metal which
 sntiMny CobpouMa also Mn tat: .e e; ;, at:aer. jmbO a4
antimony sulfide (sb2Sj) is used In the strtdmg wlf3w et
matchboxes (20% 5b253 and 80% adds ti ve) i suit e r e . t w is as
added in small quantities tc artillery itslis, so -w&+* Gosk4ft
"as
accuracy of the shells in flight. Peat auifide of aat:a+uq S.
used in the vulcanisation of ribber (red ratter).
Trioxide of antimony is used in the wanafactars of ,mint,
lacquer, particularly of fire-resistant paints .,aid on glass,
ceramics, and in the manufacture of enamels. trichloride of aatlaoq
is used in medicine as an irritant; it is also used in the b.zniahlnq
of steel, particularly of armament stal. Pentachlorice of antlauny
has the ability to gin off a part of its chlorine to certain organic
compounds, and it is therefore used in industrial organic c:aemia,.ry
as a chlorinating agent.
Antimonate of lead is a fire-resistant paint known as
Neapolitan yellow. Sulfatrifluoroantimonate of ammonium is a
mordant used in the dyeing of fabric. Certain antimony compounds
are used in making fabric fire-resistant.
A number of organic antimony compounds, such as tartar
emetic and atigasan, are widely used in medicine.
Table 5 contains official data of average annual consumption
of antimony in the United States for different purposes in the
years 1945 to 1950.
No accurate information is available on the quantities of
antimony produced. Antimony and its minerals have been known since
ancient times; however, the industrial utilisation of antimony in
notable quantities has begun only recently in the second half of
the nineteenth century. In the past 100 yearc probably not more
than 2 million t of antimony have been mined.
- l&) -
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 Details on antinotp min' ns in different countries are presented
in Table 6.
Based on information published by Minerals Industry, over-all
production of antimony in 1948 amounted to approximately 45,000 t,
reaching a total of 50,000 t in 1950.
Table 6 indicates that up to the 1930s China was the principal
supplier of antimony, delivering about 2/3 of world production.
The relatively low level of production in other countries can be
explained by the fact that there was little interest in the study
of antimony extraction when low-cost Chinese antimony was amply
available on the market. However, when the intervention of imperi-
alist Japan seriously reduced Chinese antimony production, a noted
increase in antimony production could be seen in other countries,
particularly in Mexico and Bolivia. Comparatively largo quantities
were produced in the United States.
Among the European countries, Yugoslavia has the greatest
potential, with an annual production in 19-40 of 4,800 t. At a
result of the intensive development of the antimony industry in
other countries, the world's largest annual antimor - production
output was reached in 1942 almost without th. inclusion of China
which has. the largest and richest antimony deposits.
An important role in the antimony industry is played by
production of the so-called secondary metal, regenerated fran
various byproducts. This the United States covers from 40 to 50%
of its requirements by using the secondary metal. During World
War II the United States produced 11,400 t of the secondary metal
in 1940, 15,000 to 18,000 in 1942 to 1945.
 go largest user of antimorp is the United States which from
111.? to 1%5 used from 19,500 to 25,800 t of antiaorp. In 1949
tae -'shed states used a total of 10,500 t of antimony.
TABLE 5
ANRAL COIWMPTION OF ANTIMONY IN THE UNITED STATES
Metal Production Quantity of An'tiiwrq
t %
Hard (antimony) lead, including
battery metal
5,280
34.1
Bearing alloys
2,067
13.4
Type metal
1,oi6
6.6
Sheet and tube lead
244
1.6
Solder
151
1.0
Other
343
2.1
Total metal production
9,101
58.8
Nonmetal Production
Fireproof fabric
1,370
9.0
Paint and lacquer
1,279
8.4
Olasa, enamel, and ceramics
1,652
10.8
Other (matches, resins, antimony trichloride,
plastics, etc.)
2,062
13.0
Total nonmetal production
6,363
41.2
 TAHLB 6
NI PWWCTION IN FOREIGN COUfI88 (III. 1,000 t)
Country
1913
1923
3,928
1933
1938
1943
19b8
1950
Asia - total
13.3
15.0
23.1
14.1
8.?
1.9
4.4
1.4t
China
13.0
14.6
23.0
23.7
8.0
0.4
3.3
ID
Japan
--
--
--
--
0.6
0.1
0.2
Burma
N
N
?
?
0.1
0.8
0.1
ND
Turkey
--
--
--
--
0.1
0.8
0.1
ND
Europe -- total
7.0
2.6
3.1
2.1
5.4
4.2
5.4
5.0
Greece
--
0.1
0.1
ND
MD
1.5
Italy
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.9
0.5
0.5
0.4
France
4.5
0.9
1.2
0.4
--
1.3
U.3
0.3
Spain
N
N
N
0.2
0.3
0.4
North America total
0.9
0.5
3.6
2.5
8.7
17.8
13.4
8.4
United States
--
--
--
0.5
0.6
4.6
5.9
2.3
Mexico
0.9
0.5
3.6
2.0
8.6
12.6
7.4
5,p
South America -- total
--
0.3
3.7,
1.9
10.3
19.1
?'
14.0
l~p,
Bolivia --
0.3
3.5
1.9
9.4
16.5
12.3
ND
Peru --
--
0.2
--
0.7
2.5
1.8
AID
Africa -- total 0.2
0.6
--
0.3
1.4
3.3
6.1
10.5
Algeria 0.2
0.6
--
0.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
1.5
French Morocco --
--
--
N
0.1
0.4
0.9
0.7\
Union of South Africa --
--
--
--
1.6
4.1
8.3
Australia and Now Zealand 1.3
0.5
0.1
--
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.2
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 current annual antiaorq requirements of Francs are estimated,
at 4,000 t. Britain used 5,?00 t of antiao:q in 1946, and 1A,900 t
in 1947, including 3,000 t of secondary antiaoy. In 1948, Britain
increased its antimorq consumption to 12,300 t.
Price of antimorq on the world market is normally expressed
in cents per pound. To facilitate comparison of antimony prices
with those of mercury and other metals, Table 7 lists antimony prices
in dollars per ton.
ANTIMONI PRICKS
Year
Price
1913
165
1923
173
1928
226
1933
143
1938
330
1943
362
1950
614
Naturally, the mercury and antimorq resources of foreign
countries are of great interest. However, no detailed information
is available.
No long-range exploratory activities are being carried on in
the capitalist countries. Thw, the complexity of mercury deposits
led American geologists to believe that exploration for the purpose
of determining available reserves is not possible. Therefore, the
American mercury industry does not prepare reserves of ore deposits
for exploitation.
 Asarican geologists evaluate pessimistically the mercury
and antimony resources of their country. They consider that US
mercury resources have been 95% depleted and that d6mostic mercury
resources will be completely depleted in 3 Tears, while antimony
reserves will be used up in 4 years.
China, which had the world's richest antimony resources in
1941, carried out a long-range evaluation of its resources. Based
on putlished data, the reserves of deposits in Hunan Province
contain 1,415,000 t of antimony, while total reserves in all known
antimony deposits in China amount to approximately 2,500,000 t.
Thus, with current word production of 30,000 to 40,000 t per year,
known antimony deposits in China alone could cover world require-
ments for the next 60 to 80 years. As for more-iry, the situation
is even more favorable in view of the rich deposits in Almaden,
Idriya, and Tuscany.
Below are figures comparing mercury and antimony ;?roduction
with that of other ferrous and nonferrous metals in 1941 (in t):
Copper
2,550,000
Nickel
136,000
Lead
1,850,000
Antimony
44,400
Zinc
1,750,000
mercury
9,500
Alumiaua
1,%5,000
silver
8,550.
Tin
237,000
Gold
11290
In conclusion it is to be noted that, prior to the Great
October Revolution, there was in operation only one mercury mine,
the Pildtovsk Mina in the Don Basin region. The mine operated
irregularly and during its most productive years did not exceed an
annual production of 300 t. There was no antimoty production of
any kind. Thus, Russia's requirements were covered by imports.
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Chapter 3. Industrial Types and Varieties of Mercury and Antimoy
Ore Industrial Types of Ore
Industrial-types of ore, naturally, are classified by those
properties which?determina~their use and technological treatment.
On that basis, the simple ores whose primary component is mercury
or antimozO+, and the complex ores in which mercury or antimoty may
be the prime or secor.'ary component, must be mentioned. Further
subclassifications of industrial ore types are made on the basis
of mineral composition.
?
?
It must be noted that such a system of classifying industrial
?
ore types is logical not only from the point of view of technology,
but also fkr practical geological reasons, since this system enables
geologists o search for certain deposits under specific geological
conditions.
I. Natural mercury ore. The primary mineral contained in
Uses area is cinnabar; in certain caaes, quantities of aetacinnabarite,
mercury selenide, as well as natural mercury, are contained in the
ore,. Ore of this type is most commonly found, particularly in
the .'ell-knuwn ore deposits of Almaden, Idriya, Monte Anists, et al.
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II. Among complex mercury ores are the followiW
(a) Mercury-antimovW ores which in turn can be classified
is most cor.zwnly found in small quantities as an admixture of
mercury ores; however, quantities that are of any interest at all
are rarely found in mercury deposits. This is probably due to the
fact that the technology.of processing complex mercury-antimony
ores is itself a complex process, and therefore the presence of
antimonite in mercury ore has simply been ignored abroad.
The only known industrial deposit having livirastonite ore
is the 0lyutsuko deposit in Mexico. Until recently that deposit was
looked upon as .a mercury mine. only; the mining of antimony was
neglected until 1937 because of the complexity of the technological
process involved. For this reason only some 2,500 t of mercury and
738 t of antimorgr were mined there. between 1869 and 1913. At the
present, time the mine is looked upon as an antimory deposit.
(b) kyrcury-arsenic ores are encountered quite frequently;
their minura.u consist of cinnabar and realgar with orpiment (yellow
arsenic) or ,ircury-containing realgar. In these ores it is
difficult to etect the cinnabar because of the realgar which looks
very much li.e it. Since arsenic sulfides are sublimated at
temperatures hich are necessary for the pyromstallurgy of mercury-,
the technology of these ores is very complex indeed.
(c) In certain polymetallic and tin ores small quantities
of mercury are found. Another fact worth noting is that in Sardinia
several hundred kilograms of mercury have been obtained annually
from dust resulting from the processing of tin ores.
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1. Natural antiaory orn. In all dopoaita of thin VP. of
ore the minerals appear as antimorites and as ptodti.cto of aetS
oxidation. Ores in the well-known deposits such as the antLasW
deposits of China, Mexico, and the USSR is of that type. A large
portion of total world antimony production is mined in such deposits.
II. Among complex antimony ores the following net be noted,
in addition to the mercury-antimony one mentioned earlier:
(a) Lead-antimony ores whose primary minerals, such as
Jamesonite, Boulangerite, and others, are common admixtures of ores
in polymetall.ic deposits. However, it is practically impossible to
separate antimony from lead in the course of processing this ore;
thus, the and product of this process is anti noun lead. This
product is of great importance, si.noe very large quantities of
antimony are used in producing lead alloys. in the United States
the production of alloys containing antimony resulted in large
quantities of antimonous lead with a 5 to 7% antimony content.
For example, in 1944, 4,670 t of antimony were obtained from such
a product. Japan similarly utilised available polymetallic ores
containing from 1 to 1.5% antimony.
In addition to the load on deposits mentioned which contain
Iahlers as an admixture, a number of natural fahlers one are known.
Up to now, little attention has been paid to the processing of such
ores.
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(b) An important group is aside up of MZ
oa^es, these include, prirarUj , the Bolivian guarts-anliaow
veins, containing a high concentration of antimony and having a
gold content of 1.5 to 8 g/t. Until recently, little attention
has been paid to gold-quartz veins with antimonite. This, for
example, gold has been extracted for maw years from the quarts veins
in the Murchison Ridge in Northern Transvaall, while antiaorp was
ignored. Only after 1940 was antimony extraction begun. As a
result, it appeared in 1946 that ore was extracted which contained
antimony whose cost waif 4 times that of the gold content in the on.
A similar can occurred at the Guadalupe mine in Cuba which, in
1920, was considered a gold mine and which in 1939 became an antimony
mine. Significant quantities of antimony were obtained from gold-
ore deposits in Australia and Alaska.
(c) The comparatively rare but unusual antimony-wolfrain
ores in which antimonits is usually associated with ferberite.
These ores frequently also contain gold. Ore of this hype is found
Mention must be pads' of the unique antimony-scheelite deposit
of Yellow Pine in Idaho, USA, its ore contains 2.5% wolfram trioxide,
3.5% antimony, 51 g/t silver, and 2.5 g/t gold.
(d) Of interest are also the antimony-nickel ores in the
Turkhal deposit in Turkey. Ore found there contains up to 2.85
nickel in the form of garnierite. The we also contains such primary
antimony and nickel minerals as gudoundite (FeSbS) and bravoits
(PeNiS).
 Theme are no standard varieties of mercury and antimony
ore. Different varieties of on occur in the various deposits,
with every variety having specific characteristics that determine
the method of processing which must be employed.
In natural mercury deposits, the different varieties are
classified by the amount of mercury content, since.the process of
burning the ore for the purpose of precipitating the mercury differs
for the various ores with different mercury content. Certain
quantities of high-grade ore, with a mercury content of 1 to 2%
are processed separately in retort furnaces, while the poorer grades
of ore are processed in continuously rotating furnaces. While that
can be done ty the smaller enterprises, the larger mining enter-
prises do not maintain such a system of are classification, since
the mixing of the ores from a large number of shapes assures a
satisfactory flow of ore of sufficiently constant mercury content.
Of great significance is the classification of mercury ores
on the basis of admixture content, such as siliceous ore, carboo
naceous ore, eto.i This is important, because the processing of
carbonaceous ore, for example, can be done with the aid of the so-
called forced burning process, assuring furnace efficiency 2 to 4
times higher than would be the case with siliceous area,
In the case of the more complex mercury ores, the classifi-
cation of the different varieties of are depends on the content of
certain components. For example, in mercury-antimony deposits it
is useful to identify those having a high antimony content and
those with low antimony content. The former may be sent directly
to the furnaces for the preliminary precipitation of mercury.
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The cinders are then transferred to the metallurgy plant for
extraction of antimony. The low content or poor on, containing
little or no antimony, must first undergo a mechanical concen-
tration process. Only after the collective antimony-mercury
concentrates have been formed in this manner can they be forwarded
for metallurgical processing.
Ore varieties in the different antimony deposits are also
classified in a similar manner. However, in the case of antimony
ore the identification of the high-grade ore is even more important,
since as a result of manual picking and sorting of the ore concen-
trates having an antimony content of no less than 30% can be obtained.
Such concentrates can be directly utilized in certain branches of
industry, such as the match manufacturing industry, or can be used
for liquation (the smelting) of trisulfids of antimony to obtain
the so-called crudum.
In antimony deposits it is extremely important.to take into
consideration the oxidation and airing of sulfide-oxidised ores.
This is necessary because the oxidised antimony minerals, in the
course of concentration, easily become pulverized, which makes it
more difficult to extract them bpr gravitational means; further,
they cannot easily be floated. For these reasons the poor oxidized
antimony ores at the present time are almost without practical
value. Hoeiever, oxidized antimony ores having an antimony content
of not less than 3 to 5 percent can be subjected to sublimation
(distillation burning); the end product of this process is trioxide
of antiantp. High grade oxidized ores, with an antimony content
of more than 10 or 12 percent can be subjected to amelting without
concentration.
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In coapl.x antimony ores it is frequently possible to
identify on varieties on the basis of certain admixture coaiponsnts.
This is possible because in deposits of this nature the contours of
indi trial ores having varying components coincide only partially.
Thus in the above-mentioned wolfraa-antiaoi -gold deposits at Tellow-
Pine the following ores were obtained: gold ore, with a gold content
of 2.4 to 6 g/tj antimony-gold ore, with an average content of 1.5%
of antimony and 2.75 g/t of gold; and wolfram-antimony-gold-silver
ore, having a content of 2.5% of trioxide of wolfram, 3.5% of
antimony, 51 g/t of silver, and 2.05 g/t of gold.
Finally, mercury and antimony ores must also be classified
in accordance with harmful admixtures, e. g., arsenic, various
organic compounds, etc. All these may make processing more diffi-
cult or may affect the quality of the product obtained. Determi-
nation of the varieties is made by means of laboratory exper3tnts.
In the Soviet Union the quality of metallic mercury, is regu-
lated by OST Tam 33-40. Three separate qualities of mercury are
identified; their characteristic properties and data are presented
in Table 8.
Brand Chemical composition
in %
mercury, not
less than
Nonvolatile
residue, not
more than
Designation
RI
99.999
0.001
Vacuum electroengineering
R2
99.990
0.010
Control and measuring instr,ments
R3
99.900
0.100
Amalgamation of gold; preparation
of salts and pharmaceuticals
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Additional requirements are that mercury of whatever kind
be silver-white in color, have a mirrorlike surface, and be fs".
of mechanical admixtures (sand, soot, *to). Mercury of brand
RI and R2, when shaken, must not stick to the sides of a clean
glass far. Nor must mercury of these 2 brands leave am7 trot-on
on smooth white paper or on a marble slab. Mercury of all brazes
must be fully soluble in nitric acid having & .specific weight of
Chinese antimosp dominated the world market for a long time.
The only quality requirement was that it contain not less than 99%
antimory and not more than 0.3% arsenic. Chinese antiaorp was
refined in England. Products made by English firma contained
99.6 to 98.9% antimoxr, had an admixture of 0.1 to 0.7% lead, and
contained 0.09 to 0.2% arsenic, as well as other metals in very
small quantities.
In the Soviet Union production of antiaor>y is governed bb
OOST 1089-41. Based on chemical composition, 5 varietiso vi
metallic antimorp are recognised. Specific data are given in
Table 9.
VARIETIES OF AHTDC)XX (IN ACCOBDAHCs WITH OOST)
Brand
Antimony and Of that,
lead, not lama Lad
Copper Arsenic
Sulfur
Iron
Total
admix-
Designation
than not more
tuna
than
Ciro
99.85
0.7
0.04
0.02_
0.1
0.02
0.15
special
Patterie
Cyl
99.65
1.0
0.08
0.05
0.1
0.03
0.35
ratteriea and
C72
99.50
2.0
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.50
type natal
alloy
C73
99.40
0.4
0.2
0.25
0.1
0.15
0.60
Babbitts
Cy4
98.30
0.8
0.3
0.25
0.4
0.25
1.20
solder;
electrotype
 )4utalllc ant; governed by Ldditional coaditioas
which 1 the content c? ..c: Mn, Ni, Bit Co, Au, Pt, and other
metals in hundredths and thousandths of one percent.
In antimony of brands C73 and Cy4, used in alloys with copper
0
or lead," the allowable copper or lead content is correspondingly
O ?
increased to 5%. In brands of antimoxgr used in the manufacture of
arsenous babbitts, the allowable. arsenic content is increased to
3%. In those cases, the content of the element. named is not
considered part of the over-all content of admixtures.
metallic antimony (regulus) is produced at the plant in the
In addition to etan.ards established for metallic antiaow,'
there are G`"' standards for antimonous lead. Brands CCyl, CCy2,
and CCy3 are standard designations for antimonous lead and quality.
requirewnts are listed in Table 10.
CCyl
ccy2
ccy3
TABLE 10
VARIETIES OF ANTIWNDQS LEAD (IN ACCORDANCE WITH GOST)
Chemical Composition (in %)
Lead and antimony, Of that, Admixtures, not more than Designation
not less than anti ozW Tin Copper Zinc Other
99.5 0.3 - 3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 Core alloys
99.4 3.0 - 6.0 ? 0.3 0.05 0.25
98.8 1.0 - 6.0 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.25
Manufacture of
dies for
diecastinq of
aluminum alloys;
also nix" with
lead in lead
plat operations
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The roquina.nta listed in Table 10 are based on the
extraction of antiaoaus Ltd through the processing of scrap
metal and other materials,.vithont the addition of antimozp.
The data indicate. the requirements for the quality standard
desired in ..i'%iaonous lead which say be' obtained from ores aired
in various complex lead-antiaozy deposits.
Trisulfide of"antimorz.(antimonium crudua) is governed by
technical specifications.TantU 99M1, which establish 2 classi-
L? S
ficatione -- CTC-l and CTC-2 (see Table 11).
Trisulfide of aniinor' must be in. pieces of different site,
Reaction of aqueous extr'aotion for brand CTC-1 in.teas of .ethyl
orange must not be acid,
not permissible..
o ?,
COMPOSITION OF ANTS )NIUM CJVDUK (IN ACCORDANCE WITH TO
)
Chemical composition (in %)
AntiaOty
Sulfur
Admixtures: not more than
not less than Sulfur (free) Trisulfids Residue
Moisture
of arsenic insoluble
in aqua
regia
cTC-1
~'
- 73
25
- 28.3
0.07
0.7 0.3
0.2
CTC-2
`19
- 73
25
- 28.3
0,10
1.0 0.5
Undetermined
Based on technical specifications Sit-TiM 901-,40, antimonous
flotation concentrate must conform to the following: it must contain
not less than 33% Sb2S3 and not more than 5% moisture. A dried
sample quantity must pass through a 100-mesh sieve to the extent of
90%, and to the extent of not less than 60% through a 170-.ash sieve.
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Ths'catch aarutaoturiv industry was a osmesatsals obtaiaad traa
the first 2 ohaabsrs of flotation naohinsa of oemmentratirg plant..
High-grads concentrate is not governed to atp specific
standards other than that it sort have an antiaorp content of not
leas than 25%.
Current prices of mercury, antimony, and certain other
industrial antimory products are given in Table 12.
Product
Brand Price per Ton (rubles)
Mercury
Rl.
100,000
Mercury
R2
97,600.
Mercury
R3
96,000
Antimony
CYO
32,700
Antimony
Cyl
29,700
Antiaory
Cy2
26,000
Antimony
Cy3
20,300
Antimony
Cy4 and CyK
18,000
Antimonous lead
CCy1
3,200
Antimonous lead
CCy2
3,100
Antiaonoua lead
CCy3
2,800
Trioxide of antimony (ver7 pure)
40,000
Antimonium crudun
CTC-1
15,700
Antimoniuna crudua
CTC-2
14,900
Pentasulfids of antiaorp
59,000
Flotation antiwry concentrate (33%)
5,000
Nigh-grade antiaory concentrate (30%)
3,200
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Chapter 4. Data an the 7eohnoUff of Proosssige Nsraurir and
AUtipa Ore.
Prooeesiaa of mercury ore.
The processing of mercury are for Lhe purpose of obtaining
metallic mercury can be carried out either by means of direct
metallurgical conversion-or with the aid of the combined, method
or the other approach depends primarily on the composition and
quality of the ore. Achievements in.the field of mercury metallurgy
have made it possible to*convert ore with even a low mercury content.
If production, on a sufficiently large shale can be organized, it is
possible to convert mercury ore that has a mercury content of more
than 0.1% without first concentrating it.
Metallurgical conversion yields 90% and more of mercury
from mercury ore. Thus the need for initial concentration of
mercury ore is determined by economic considerations. It must
be remembered that if the combined method is used, whereby the ore
is first concentrated and then converted, loss of the metal will
be considerably greater.
In the case of complex ores the task of extracting the
admixtures, primarily the extraction of antimony, requires the
use of the combined conversion method.
Direct metallurgical conversion of mercury area is carried
out by dead roasting of coarse ore (pieces 50 na in size or smaller)
at 700 to 800? C. This temperature assures the rapid and complete
separation of the cinnabar in accordance with the equation HgS + 02
Hg + S02. The released mercury in vapor form (its boiling temper-
ature is 3570 0 leaves the furnace together with the chimney gas
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and is collected in a special condensation apperatue. Several
types of furnaces are used for the roasting of mercury ores pit
furnaces of various typesj reverberatory furnaces, retort Thraaces,
multihearth furnaces, and tubular furnaces. The most convenient,
economical, and productive modern furnaces are those of the tubular
The furnace gases, together with the mercury vapors are sucked
by fans through A battery of metallic tubes and.are subjected to
air, water, or a combined cooling system. In the lower portion of
the condensation tubes receptacles are provided in which the metallic
mercury and a byproduct, atuppi are collected. Stupp is a mixture
of minute drops of'mercury and soot, ore duet, mercury oxide, and
arsenic. Mercury content in stupp may be as high as 80%.
Completeness of mercury distillation in' the roasting process
depends on'the temperature and duration of roasting. The duration
is a'variable that depends on'the type of ore which is to be roasted.
One that are porous at the start, or those that become porous during
the roasting process, will produce mercury more rapidly than compact
The most'harmful admixture in ore,'arsenic, hampers the normal
course of ,the metallurgical process.' Vapor pressure of trioid.de of
arsenic reaches 760 mm at 5000 C. For this reason trioxide of arsenic
is fully sublimated at working furnace temperatures and, precipitating
in the condensation system, reduces the collection of'mercury, help-
ing to fora large quantities of atupp.
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Plant persoaosl"xuat be protected against the taodo action
of mercury vapors. Accordingly, most components of the apparatus
must be hermetically seaiad, particularly the oondensation instal-
lation.
The processing of relatively small quantities of high-grade
are or of mercury concentrates can be carried out in simply con-
structed retort furnaces consisting of a series (usually 4 to 6)
of iron or pig iron retorts embedded in a muffle furnace. The
retorts are loaded with ore at one and which is than closed with
a cover] the other and of the retort is connected to the condensation
system. Mercury vapor, produced through the heating of the retorts,
is directed into the condensation system. Since cinnabar is sepa-
rated in the retort furnace because of oowgen shortage, the ore or
concentrate mixes with lime. Under these conditions, the .follow-
ing cinnabar separation reaction takes place:
Wigs + 4CaO ? 48g + 3CaS + CaSO4.
Though their efficiency is not great, retort furnaces,
because of their small clearance and light weight, are frequently
used for the processing of high-grade are in relatively small ore
deposits located in areas that are difficult to reach.
When the combined method of mercury are processing is used,
the metallurgical cycle is preceded by the mechanical concentration
of the ore. This method is particularly applicable in the process-
ing of complex mercury-antiaonq ores. Such ores, after being crushed,
are subjected to flrotation, zonstiaes in conjunction with gravi-
tational concentration in settling machinsa or on concentration
tables. Intensive research and many experiments have so far failed
to produce selective mercury and antimony concentrates.
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This industry produces collective .sraury-antimany conoentratea.
To obtain asroury, these concentrates are loaded into special
retort furnaces. The antiaonite remains in the cinders which are
then processed to extract antimony.
On the whole, mercury processing plants are small and compact.
The establishment of a mercury processing plant of average capacity
requires a relatively small area. Such plants require power only
for the crushing of the ore, rotation. of the furnaces, and operation
of the blowers which suck the gases through the condensation system.
Masut oil is commonly used as fuel. Depending on local conditions,
the fuel expenditure is approximately 28 to 32 kg/t of ore. Use
of other types of fuel, such as coal or wood, requires the instal-
lation of more complex heating systems. Quantity of water used
in a mercury processing plant is also relatively small. When it
is necessary to construct a concentration plant, requirements of.
area, power, and particularly of water increase considerably.
The quantity of water required in the mechanical concentration of
the ore is normally between $ and 6 m3/t/ of ore.
Processing of Antiaow Ores
In contrast with mercury ores, antimony ores almost always
require concentration prior to metallurgical processing. Usually,
antimony ores are nonuniform in terms of antimonite content.
Frequently found in comparatively poor ingrained ores are pockets
and irregular veins of high-grads ore which sometimes contain solid
ore minerals. For this reason, the ore in normally sorted. This
sorting process which sometimes is carried out right at the pit
produces high-grade concentrate which, if it contains 30% or more
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of antimony (this corresponds to 42% of antiaonite) can serve as
a coaercial product or can be used in the production. of trisulfati
of antimonys or can also be used in the smelting of metallic
antimony black. .
High-grads ores with a content of 8 to 12% may serve as the
raw material for the extraction of antimony tor use of the metal-
lurgical process. Ordinary ore with an antimony content of leas
than 8% must first be subjected to mechanical concentration.
However, it must be remembered that antimony oxides are extracted
is small quantities only. Because of ttheir relative softness,
antimony oxides become mixed with the sediment during processes
employing the gravitational method of concentration. Nor are
very large quantities extracted when the flotation method is used.
As for antimonite, it can be floated with excellent results and
small losses even if relatively poor ore is used which contains
only 0.8 to 1% of antimony. The flotation process is sometimes
combined with the gravitational method, the nettling and concen-
tration on tables.
If mercury is.. present in antimoty-ores, collective mercury-
antimony concentrates are obtained. Auriferous pyrites and wolfram
minerals (ferberite and sal elite) as will as arsenopyrite can be
separated as independent concentrates in the course of the concen-
tration process.
Extraction of antimony reaches. 85 to 90% in the case of
medium to high-grade sulfide ores (4 to 6% Sb). Extraction
normally does not exceed 70 to 75% fray the poor-grads ores (1 to
1.8% Sb). Extraction of antinonq* in concentrate decreases in
proportion to the increase in the content of oxide minerals in
 tntLeq era. .- aeon, It is very important that the extent
of tee tress -e .. jzidised minerals in the ore be carefully studied.
A commercial antimony product is the so-called antimonium
crvdam -- antimony trisultide, liquated from sulfide ores.. However,
in view of the relatively peat antimorW loss (30 to 50%) in the course
of production, and in vim of the low price of this product, there
has been little production of it in the recent past. Crudun is
obtained through heating of antimony concentrates, having a 40 to
50% antimorpr trisulfide content, to 600 to 7000 C in crucible furnaces
having a perfors'ed bottom. These furnaces, covered at the top to
prevent entry of nygen and inserted into,a second furnace, are placed
into a compartment kiln. When a temperature of 5480 C is reached,
the antimony trisulfide is melted and flows into the lower furnace.
The cinders normally contain 15 to 20% of antimony.
The oxidising roasting with sublimation is a very interesting
metall. ?gical process whose end product is trisulfide of antimony.
The latter,. as is known, is volatile and when heated even to a
temperature below its malting point (6560 c) is sublimated. Useful
admixtures such as gold or silver can be extracted from the cinders.
This method is of particular interest in the processing of ores
that contain considerable quantities of antimory in oxidised item,
in excess of 400? C,.the natural trioxide of antimony contained in
the ore L, sublimated iam odiately, while the antimony trisulfide
is sublimated only after initial oxidation in accordance withs
:.5b233 ? 90 ' 28b203 + 6 802.
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to tranatoaAa- the nonvolatile Sb2% into 8b,,03, the necessary
conditions smut be created i6 the furnace. through. the use of rednoing
agents. ?? .
To separate volatile trioxide, the furnace gases are cooled
?
and subsequently purified in a seriesof devices,capable,of collect-
ing 98 to 99% of the antimony trioxide contained in the gases.
Metallic antimony is obtained from plant concentrates or.high-
grade ores through the no-called. process of settlement smelting with
iron in reverberatory furnaces at temperatures ranging from 1200 to
13000 C. This process is carried out ' 1n. accordance with the reaction:
8b283 + Me a 2sb i 3Fe8.
Antimony, the heavier element, is collected at the bottom of
the furnace, while the sulfurous iron becomes part of the matte.
Fusing agents, such as soda or sodium sulfate are used to form
slag of the waste material, while coal is used to reduce the oxides.
The proc..t obtained through this process is the so-called blacks
or grey, antimony, containing from 6 to 15% iron.
'lack antimony is further refined in a second smelting process
during .+.iich measured Quantities of crudum or high-grade antimony
concent ?,e are added in order to transform the iron in accordance
with tht above reaction into sulfurous iron and transferring it into
the matte. In the course of the settling-smelting process the
admixtures of arsenic, lead, gold, and silver pass into the antimony.
The latter 3 metals can be removed only through electrolysis. The
removal of the arsenic, a particularly harmful admixture of antimony,
is achieved through refining by smelting of black antimony under
addition of soda or potassium.
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Up to 80% of antimorq passes into the crude metal, while
up to 9% of antiaozy remains in the matte, and up to 157 escapes
in the fora of trioxide. For this reason, in order to collect
the antimorgr trioxide, all furnace gases must be channelled through
a dust-collecting system.
To obtain the metal, antimony trioxide is reduced in a re-
verberatory furnace. Antimony trioxide, frequently having a metal
content of up to 75%, is mixed with a reducing agent (coal or
charcoal) and with fusing agents (calcined soda or sodium sulfate).
Was of antimony in the reduction process ranges between 5 and 20%.
The slag which is enriched with antimony is, in turn, subjected
to processing. In the reduction smelting of high-grade ores, the
admixtures such as gold, silver, or lead all pass into the antimony.
H}+drometallurigcal methods of ore processing are based on
the fact that antimony trisulfide is easily soluble in relatively
weak solutions of sodium sulfide. Subsequent electrolysis of the-
antimony produces a.metal of exceptional purity (brand Cy0).
The system of processing antimony ores is greatly more complex
than methods used in the processing of mercury. As a rule, any
processing of antimorp must be preceded by a concentration operation
carried out in a concentration or metallurgical plant. Such an
installation is gaits complex and costly and is economic only when
adequate supplies of raw material can be counted on.
The extraction of the commercial metal, if losses of 5 to 10%
are taken into consideration, can yield from 80 to 85% mercury,
while only 40 to 60% of antimony can be extracted from known deposits.
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RagS. 84 - 941
MKIVJRT AND ANTIMONr DEPOSITS D 7H9 588R
Prior to the Great October Revolution the antimony industry
was nonexistent in Russia. Mercury was extracted in comparatively
limited quantities -- these only at the Nikitovka deposit in the
Donets Basin -- unless one counts some minor efforts to exploit
J
the Il'dikanka deposit in Transbsik.Lta it the and of the past
century and the Khpeka deposit in Dagestan early in the present
? e
century. Knowledge of stussia's mercury and antimony deposits in
?jleneral at that time was extrimely scanty.
At a number of places in Russia, however -- in the Donets
Basin, in Ruthenia, and particularly in. Central Asia -- a fairly
well developed mercury industry had existed in the ninth to the
twelfth centuries, traces of sh ich have survived in the form of
numerous ancient excavations, the remai.7s of metallurgical
furnaces, ceramic tiles and condensation pipes, atone hammers,
iron chisels, and piles of candleends. Traces of this ancient
industry serve today as one rather important indication during
prospecting for mercury deposits.
Geological prospecting and exploration conducted by Soviet
geologists have lad to the discovery of quite a number of anti-
mony and mercury deposits in various regions of the USSR. Of
course these deposits represent by no means all the potential
antimony and mercury resources of the USSR. The discovery of new
deposits of these metals continues to be a most important task
for Soviet geologists.
 Geological Position of Deposits
Deposits and ore outcroppings of mercury and antimony in
the USSR are rather widely scattered; they occur in Ruthenia,
in the Donets Basin, in the Caucasus (on the northern and southern
elopes of the main range), in Central Asia, in various Farts of
'%asakhetan, in Gorno-Altay, in the Kusnets Ala-Tau, in Trans-
baikalia, in the Maritime Territory, and in the Urals: A study
of the pattern of the USSR'a mercury and antimony ore deposits
shows that these 2 metals are consistent components of a general
hydrothermal process of ore formation. The conditions under which
mercury and antimony are deposited, however, differ sharply from
the conditions of deposit for other metals.
antimony are formed in ore-bearing regions where strata of
sedimentary rock overlying a hard crystalline base -- strata which
thickness.
In the Donets Basin, for instance, the mercury ore 'vein
lies in a thick (2,400-5,400 si) Middle Carboniferous stratus of
mixed shale-sandstone-limestone composition, which is underlain
by a stratum of Aaoarian and Upper Visean sandy shale of analogous
composition (up to 2,400'*) and by Vialan and TLmronian limestone
(216-455 a)? The latter lie either directly on a Pre-Cambrian
crystalline base or, in now places, on Devonian continental or
oceanic sediments up to 600 a thick.
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The ors-bearing Middle Carboniferous is in turn oovired bF
chalet and sandstones of the Upper Cerboniterous (2,100-2,800 a).
The sandy, gypsum-dolomite and salt-bearing strata of the Pazisn,
which overlie the Carboniferous in the northeastern part of the
Donets Basin, are characterised by considerable variation in
thickness (1,700 to 3,700 a). Like the faso-Casnosoic sediment.,
they are absent in the region whore area are most plentiful.
In the Caucasus the mercury and antimony deposits on the
northern (Dagestan) and southern (Georgia) slopes of the main
range lie chiefly in Jurassic strata which cover ancient crys-
talline rocks. The thickness of these Jurassic strata reaches
1900 a. The Jurassic deposits, like the Chalk and Paleogene,
which overlie them in adjacent regions (up to 1700 a in thick-
ness), have a F],ysch Oharacter, 79% being terrigenoua deposits
and 21% carbonaceous.
Mercury deposits in the Stavropol' Territory are associated
with Permian sandstone-oongloearate strata. Here too the crya-
tallins base lies at considerable depth -- more than 2000 a.
In Central Asia the geological conditions under which
mercury and antimony deposits are found are extremely varied.
In the Kopet-Dag they are associated with the middle portion of
the Lower Chalk, whose total thickness reaches 2000 a. Here the
lower 500 to 700 a are acapocid of Banwdsn limestone and the
upper 1300 a of clayey-sandstona rocks of the Aptiaa and Albian.
Apparently lying below the lower Chalk in the Kopet-Dag are Jurassic
strata with a thickness of 2,000 a. Thus, hers too, the crystal-
line base lies at extremely great depth.
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In the southern part of the Tien than, mercury and aatts 4y
deposits are swat frequently associated with Carboniferous strata
represented by alternating layers of limestone and shale with a
total thickness of 500 to 1,500 or 2,000 mj these are underlain
by Devonian, Upper Silurian and Cambrian strata, partly terrigenous
and partly of limestone composition, quite variable but on the
whole quite thick. The Pre-Cambrian base is most probably crystal-
line in character. At certain places in the Tien Shan, mercury
and antimony deposits are also encountered in Silurian and Devonian
strata, but only where the latter's thickness is markedly greater.
In the northern ranges of the Tien Shan there are scattered
deposits lying in the upper portions of a very thick and ancient
stratum of me wawrphoaed shale and marble, posshly of Proterozoic
age. mercury and antimony mineralization is also encountered in
effusive-terrigenous strata of the Carboniferous and Permian,
which overlie either the afore-mentioned Proterozoic shales and
marbles or Silurian and Devonian strata.
In Altai and Western Siberia, mercury and antimony ores
are found in very thick Middle and Lower Paleosoic strata of
mixed coapositionj these border the Kusnets coal basin on the east
(Kusnsta Ala-Tau) and west (Salair) and extend farther south into
Gorno-Altayo
extremely thick sedimentary strata of the Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian.
In the Maritime Territory mercury and antimory ores are found
in Upper Paleozoic and Jurassic strata, i. e., quite far above the
crystalline base.
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While the total thickness of the sedimentary rocks with
which the Soviet Union's mercury and antimony deposits are
associated is very great, considerable variation in the thick-
ness of the individual formations which go to make them up is
quite characteristic. From all the foregoing, one may draw the
significant conclusion that mercury and antimony deposits are formeJ
in regions which have experienced great, complex, and often diifer-
entiated tectonic movements. Formation of the deposits is associated
with the final phase of these tectonic movements.
The great thickness and lithological complexity of sedi-
mentary strata determine hiv solutions evolve as they move along
their course and to what degree they become differentiated.
It is also significant to note that in cases where condi-
tions favorable for ore accumulation are also manifest in ore-
bearing strata -- conditions such as those which will be discussed
below -- deposits are sometimes found at several levels or layers
(central Asic, Donets Basin).
In most cases the mercury and antimony deposits of the USSR
lie in long, narrow sores, sometimes extending hundreds of kilometers.
As detailed research has shown, such distribution of mercury and
antimony ores is due to the fact that they are formed along large,
complex zones of crust movement, usually between a depressed area
and an uplifted area.
 Of th-A4 type, for izastance, are the fault son" controlling
the location of deposits observed along the edges of the Sur!astash
and Karachatyr Upper Faleosoic depressed areas in the Alay Range
of Central Asia, as well as the faults bordering the Kusnsts
Depression in Western Siberia. In the Caucasus, mercury and antimoq
deposits are also distributed along faults marking the contours of
depressions in which have accumulated extremely. thick strata of
Hero-Csenosoic Flysch sediments.
Unfortu.ately, such an analysis of the geological-tectonic
position of.ms cury and antimony deposits has not as yet been
made for many if the mercury-antimony regions of the Soviet Union.
In the Donets Basin, for example, the geological position of the
ore-controlling fissures is still not clear. They may be linked
with the outlines of depressions of Permian age. But for the
pr_ cipal mercury and antimony ore regions of the USSR, it may be
considered a proven fact that the distribution of deposits is
controlled ty deep faults which have clear and diverse geological
manifestation and which conform to the over-all geological structure.
Tno' sing Rooks, their Age and Composition
The rocks in which mercury and aatimor0 deposits lie are
rather varied both as to composition and as to age. They include
core`owrates, sandstones, shales, limestones, intrusive igneous
roots, and agglomerated effusive and tuffaceous rocks of volcanic
The age of the" rocks ranges from Pre-Caabrian to Upper
rtioo? ere, of r ,Area the upper age limit of ore-baring rucks in
each individual region is determined by rteriod in vniah via
f', Lion of the deposit took place.
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For example, in the Tien $ban the age of most of the mer-
cury and antimony deposits is Persian. Consequently, the deposits
favoratir, in rocks of anger age in the older Permian -- in the
Carboniferous, the Devonian, the Silurian, and even in the Cambrian
and Pre-Cambrian. But for the several regions in Central Asia,
depending on their geologic history, other ages' of mercury
mineralisation are sometimes observed: PostfJ1rassic for the
Ku it' -Tau Post-Chali for the Ko t- ~~
g ang , ps Lag, P~,dle and Upper Car-
boniferous for the Talass Ala-Tau, etc. All this is appropriately
taken into account when prospecting operations are being organized.
As far as rock composition is concerned, the USSR's
largest mercury and antimony deposits are associated at times
with rocks having's considerable primary porosity (porous sand-
stones, conglomerates) and for the most part with brittle rocks
which under tectonic deformation can form.brecciation cones
containivd a large number of empty spaces (limestones, sand-
stones, ciuartzites). An extremely important condition (observed
in all iniustrial deposits of the Soviet Union) for the forma-
tion of .Large concentrations of mercury and antimony minerals
in areas I high primary or secondary porosity is that these
areas b: of a relatively isolated character, with a covering of
compact, Impermeable rocks -- usually clays and shales.
As a rule, mercury and antimory deposits in the Soviet
Union's are regions are formed in sectors which are quite broke.
up tectonically. This follows logically from their location, as
noted above, in zones of transition between depressed areas and
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upthrust areas. Such zones are usually characterised t0r wry
complex structural forms due to both foldirs and faulting of the
earth'a cruet. This accounts for the extreme diversity of
structural forms bearing ore deposits.
First of all, we should discuss deposits which are in the
form of a layer or bed, then those orebodies which are irregular
in shape and have resulted from massive breccistion of the rocks,
and finally ore veins of many different forms, often very complex.
In all deposits of these structural types 3 common structural
features are observed: (1) channels of access, which take the
form either of well-defined fissures and cracks, individual or in
series, or of zones of intensive fine fissuring in the rock;
(2) ore-accumulating cavities, usually linked with the channels
of access through offshoots rather than directly; and (3) a
layer of impermeable rocks lying over the ore-accumulating cavity.
The channels of access determine the location of deposits
within the limits of ore belts and sons, but they themselves
often remain virtually unoineralized, since their great extent
usually gives them a through-passageway character. Ore-bearing
solutions have apparently been brought to the surface through
then without forming any ore concentrations (Central Asia;
Caucasus, Altay, Donets Basin).
The character and shape of the ore-accumulating cavities
naturally determine the shape of the deposits. The latter may
be layer-shaped, in the form of a saddle or mould, associated
with corresponding folds of the enclosing rocks (Central Asia,
Donets Hain); layers of porous rook associated with denser rocks
in a monoctirae (Central Asia); or various types of bedded deposits
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lying between strata of rock which differ litholo`icaly from
each other, both sedimentary and igneous (Ruthenia). Especially
noteworthy are the irregularly-shaped ore-bodies due to nassine
brecciation of brittle rocks; these usually extend to the heart of
tightly pressed folds (Central Asia). Ore veins are usually
associated with fissures due to faulting or, leas frequently, to
cleavage.
Mercury and antimony ore veins often intersect more or
less rigid, brittle rocks, attenuating in the softer, more
plastic rocks above them (Central Asia: limestone under shale;
Altay: limestone and sandstone under shale and serpentine;
Kazakhstan: sandstone under shale; Donets Basin: layers of
sandstone and quartzite in shale). A number of antimony ore
crack-veins in Kazakhstan, the Caucasus, and the Chita Oblast
even lie in intrusive igneous rocks which have penetrated
sedimentary strata. They quickly attenuate and break down in the
latter. There are some veins, however, which intersect even rather
plastic rocks -- Jurassic shales in the Caucasus, metamorphic
Pre-Cambrian shales in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, etc. But even
for these veins, isolation from above is characteristic, as is
shown by their enclosed offshoots and apophysee, which as a rule
are noteworthy for higher-quality ore, and by independent blind-
alley veins, always richer at their upper ends. It should be pointed
out that veins associated with relatively plastic rocks are
characterised by intermittency and often form lenticular pockets,
single or in series (Caucasus, Krasnoyarsk Territory).
Mercury and antimorq- deposits of the layer type are of the
greatest importance for practical purposes.
 Figures 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 show the most important and
typical structural forms of mercury and antimony deposits in the
USSR.
Material Composition of Deposits
The Soviet Union's mercury and antimony deposits are rather
varied in material composition and range from virtually single-
mineral deposits of cinnabar and stibnite to extremely mixed,
complex, multimineral deposits.
Quarts is of the greatest importance as a gangue mineral.
Intensive quarts formation is very often obserN*d in mercury
and antimony deposits; it takes the form of metasomat..c replace-
ment of the rock by fine-crystalline quarts, often peratoid in
structure, or sometimes by chalcedony. But as.a rule this quartz
formation always precedes ore deposition. First-generation
quarts generally cements fragments of rock. In addition, second-
generation quarts is often observed; this is nearer in time of
origin to the time of the ore-deposition process itself, and
sometimes almost simultaneous with it. Second-generation quartz
most frequently forms well-defined grains of columnar, prismatic
crystals which grow in druses in the cavities.
These zones of quarts formation, which stand out sharply
in relief and which are covered with a dark crust of desert tan
when climatic conditions are favorable, are an important indi-
cation in prospecting for mercury and antimosW deposits. It must
be kept in mind, however, that such quarts zones are not always
accompanied by orebodies, even in regions known to contain mercury
and antimorw ores.
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Besides quarts, some Central Asian and Maritime leiritory
deposits contain fluorite, whose possible importance as a use-
ful by-product must be considered. Another common gangue
mineral, especially in deposits which were formed in a carbon-
ceous environment, is calcite. Complex carbonates and barite
are less frequently encountered in mercury and antimony deposits.
Still, in Central Asia there are some known mercury deposits
with barite and ankerite as the principal gangue mineral.
Although quartsless antimosW deposits or orebodies are a
great rarity, quartzless mercury deposits with calcite or, less
often, dolomite as the principal gangue mineral are often
encountered, especially in carbonaceous rocks.
In the USSR's mcsrcury and antimony deposits the following
hypogenic ore-bearing minerals (listed in the approximate order
of their frequency and `typicality) are found:
In Mercury Deposits
Cinnabar
Metacinnabarite (Usually
metacinnabarite is a secondary
mineral in mercury deposits, but
some researchers nevertheless
at the possibility that it is
of )gpogenic origin.)
Pyrite
Stibnite
Realgar
Orpiment
In Antimoo Deposits
[_..2
Stibnite
Pyrite
Cinnabar
Boulangerite
Bournonite
Jameaonite
Sphalerite
Marcasite
Chalcopyrite
Galena
Gold
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 ( l]
Marcasite
Seloniumrbearing varieties
of cinnabar
Schwataite
Famatinite
Chalcopyrite
Galena
Sphalerite
Gold
Hematite
Bismuth glance
(2)
Arseaop7rite
Berthierite
Realgar
Orpiment
Pyrrhotite
t aa4stinite
Hematite
Magnetite
Wolfram (farberite)
Silver
Bismuth glance
Stannite
Titanite
scheelite
From the list of minerals above, certain differences are
apparent between the material composition of mercury deposits
and that of antimony deposits] for instance, antimony deposits
contain a greater number of minerals which occur in ore deposits
of other metals.
It is curious to note that while galena is sometimes found
in mercury deposits, lead in antimony deposits more often forme
aulfo-salts containing antimony, and only rarely is lead found in
the form of galena. Stibnite is virtually never found in deposits
where lead is present. In the latter antimony is encountered
chiefly as a component of sulfo-salts, or very infrequently in
the form of native antimony.
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She above list of Igpogenic ore-bearing uinersla in both
mercury and antimony deposits bears witness to the genetic
relationships between mercury and antimony oreformation and other
types of mineralisation (see Note.) These relationships become
still more apparent if one considers the complex po],7metallic
deposits which contain antimoaac-bearing tetrahedrite and the
presence of antimony in considerable quantities in some wild
and gold-polymetallic deposits.
((Note:) The author is attempting to prove that mercury and
an*.imozW deposits originate from the same solutions which first
lay down gold, lead, and other polymetallio ores. The proof,
however, is not very convincing, since the small quantities of
lead in mercury and antimorv deposits may have been absorbed
from the wall rocks. Furthermore, the idea is not verified
geologically. As a rule, no locally widespread connection is
observed between polymetallic deposits and deposits of mercury
and antimony. -- Editor's note.)
These genetic links between the processes mercury
and antimony deposits, and those forming other types of ore
deposits, are also indicated by the fact that the material com-
position of mercury and antimony deposits depends on their
geological position. This has been demonstrated by comparing
such deposits in various on regions of the Soviet Union.
It appears, for example, that single-mineral mercury
deposits, evidently formed by well-differentiated solutions,
are located in the upper portions of the thickest and most
lithologically complex strata. On the other hand, deposits
associated with strata which are not so thick and are underlain
 oy rigid, it ' L., . d consequently more penetrable rocks, of ton
have a mixed, complex mineral coapositionj i. e., they were
formed by nondifferentiated solutions. In other words, the
composition of ore-bearing solutions is observed to undergo a
definite evolutionary change in the course of their movement
0
0 0 0
? through thick, complex rock strata.
A very interesting question which has not yet been pursued
0
0 C
very far In that of the paragenetic relationships between minerals
c
in the mercury aril antimony deposits of the USSR. Nevertheless,
the factual data it hand indicates that the process of ore
J 0
formiation.may be considered a very protracted and consistent one
0
which develops according to definite principles. The composite
paragenstic diagrams in Figure 15 show this rather clearly.
0
They are derived from data from mineralogical study of a number
of Central Asian mercury std antimony deposits. From these
0
diagrams it As evident that if the precipitation of certain
minerals or their derivatives in individual deposits be disregarded,
0..
the general course of development of the mineral deposition process
is a fairly consiatcnt.one.
Relation to Igneous Rocks
The intrusive or effusive igneous rocks, near or within
which certain mercury and antlmzv deposits of the soviet Union
iie, u' course cannot be considered the source of the ore-
;raring solutions involved. Geological correlation nearly always
shows c_-ivincinily that they are of considerably greater age
than this deposits themselves.
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A aumbsr of neraury and antimorp deposits have been formed
at depths of 1,000 to 2,000 as and mercury mineralisation
canting a great span along the vertical (1,300 m and more)
vithout any substantial change in its material composition has
been observed in. certain mineral regions of Central Asia. Those
facts oblige us to place the sources of the ore solutions at
relatively greater depths. The intrusion of pre-ore, ultrabasic
rocks to form stocks and dikes along certain great ore-controlling
faults (Central Asia) also points indirectly to the possibility
that the source of ore-bearing solutions lies at coraiderabls depth.
Om the other hand, it is noteworthy that the igneous rocks
containing mercury and antimony deposits in the Soviet Union's
ore regions (th6 Alay, Turkestan, Hissar, and Talons Ranges of
Central Asia, the Donets Basin, the Urals, Altai, etc) are
alkaline in character. Also typical is the presence in these
areas of ultra-alkaline igneous rocks (nephelitic sysnite,
barkerikite, shonkinite, etc) accompanied by a great many
mir:,rals containing fluorine; these are characteristic of many
mercury and antimozW regions, particularly in Central Asia.
However, numerous attempts to attribute the origin of
men nury.and antincaW.deposits:to this or that type of magmatic
roe. have led to no results of praotical or theoretical value.
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figure lA
Plan visit of the poricttnal end of ao ors-bearing -witic1immo as
eserl ing shale; bs ore bearing sandstone; as maderlying abate;
d, fault; e, ore-.sins tdtb cinnabar
Pigure n
Cross section of a mercury deposit association with the contact of
a serpentinisod intrusion of byperbasits. a, hyperbasite; b, sedi-
nenter7-effusive strata; co ore deposit
 Figure 12
Pan view and *roes section of an antimony deposit' associated with
radial cracking in a dose. Ore reins (a) in the sandstone forming
the heart of the fold (b) extend only as far as the level of the
shale (c), whose ore-controlling significance is thus readily apparent
Figure 13
An antimony ore-rein (a) associated with a fault crack in aetamorpb
shale (b). The richest ore (in black) 13 concentrated in the dew
are-shoots branching off from the vein and in the wide spaces in
vein
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 MI ?t ?S ESP
Figure lt,
Structural diagram of a whole mercury-antimony ore Meld, a, the
groat slippage which has caused the peculiarities of folded stncture1
b, ors-controlling fissures; c, ore-distributing fissures associated
with the latter, intersecting an upthrust block. 1, anticlinal folds;
2j mercury ore; 3,' antimony ore; k, ore deposits
tooiO
1
e ?1s
Ilirerry
IMAIw~Mfl
"spoof -
Figure 15
aransaetitI diagrams for typical kinds of mercury and -antimony de-
posita-.of Ientrel Asia; 1, much; 2, considerable quantity; 3, little