HERALD OF THE AIR FLEET

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 65
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 27, 2013
• Sequence Number: 5
• Publication Date: January 1, 1957
• Content Type: REPORT

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EXPLANATORY NOTE
This publication is a translation of Herald of the Air Fleet, (Vestnik
VozdushnogoFlota)a monthly journal of the Sieiet Air Force published by
the Military Publishing House? Ministry of Defense, USSR.
?
Every effort has been made to provide as accurate a translation as
practicable. Soviet propaganda has not been deleted, b.s it is felt that such
deletion could reduce the value of the translation to some portion of the
intelligence community. Political and technical phraseology of the orig-
inal text has been adhered to in order to avoid possible distortion of in-
formation.
Users and evaluators of this translation who note technical inaccu-
racies or have comments or suggestions are urged to submit them to:
??
Commander, Air Technical Intelligence Center,lttention: AFCIN-4B,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
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AIR TECHNIINTELLIGENCE TRANSLATION
CI(
(TITLE UNCLASSIFIED;
HERALD OF THE AIR FLEET
(Vestnik Vozduslinogo Flota)
A
1957
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???
STAT
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Table of Contents
Soviet Aviators are Boundlessly Devoted to their Party 1
Editorial
A Glorious Seventy-Fifth Anniversary 8
TACTICS
Selecting a Target-Run for Bombers 12
N. I. Gapeyenok
On Target on Time 18
F. A. Vazhin
TRAINING AND EDUCATION
The Commander and the Party Organization 25
A. G. Rytov
Party-Political Work in Aviation Training 35
A. I. Tiguntsev
Competition for an Outstanding Crew. 42
B. V. Sutyrin, B. S. Serikov
The Use of Astrocompasses for Night and Day Flying. 48
N. S. Sorokovik
In the Drive to Improve the Quality of Night Bombing 60
K. M. Kar as ev
Eliminating Errors in the Piloting Technique of Trainees 65
A. R. Y epifanov
EQUIPMENT AND INSTAIILATIONS
and their
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Aerial Rocket Weapons
5. Autonomous Missile Control Systems 72
V. I. Marisov
Experience Obtained in Servicing Fighter Aircraft for Night Flights 82
G.A. Davydov
Saving Time in Refueling 85
N. V. Maksimov
FROM THE HISTORY OF SOVIET AVIATION
Communists are Closer to me than Anyone 88
I. U. Pavlov
READERS SUGGEST
A New Towing Device 96
.?
A Lap Plotting Board 98
FROM THE EDITOR'S MAIL
"Bearing" is the Best Combat Formation 100
D. F. Goldy-rev
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Concerning the Information Gained From Experience in
Operating Glider Targets . 101
REVIEW AND PUBLICATIONS
A New Textbook on Aircraft Aerodynamics 103
V.F.Bolotnikov
I Must .Make It 108
Cheng Yu-Kwi
AVIATION ABROAD
Aircraft Monopolies in the USA the Enemies of Peace anciDisarmament . . 111
S. M. Y ermakov
M411 111 I I I MP I I I I I KM I I I kV .*:1 I I KA II I I I 1 I I I Ul I I 111
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SOVIET AVIATORS ARE BOUNDLESSLY DEVOTED r-
TO THEIR PARTY
The Soviet State is nearing 40 years of age. For four decades, the first country
in the world to have freed itself from the fetters of capitalism has been boldly proceed-
ing-along the unexplored path of constructing a Communist society, under the leadership
of the wise party of the Communists headed by the Central Committee.
Our people constructed Socialism and defended it in a fierce struggle against the
striking forces of international imperialism. Putting the program planned by the Com-
munist Party into effect, it has converted the country into one of the most progressive,
highly developed countries in the world. Our industry now produces something over
30 times more than it did in the prerevolutionary period.
All the nationalities of the Soviet Union are developing successfully in a friendly
family of nations. During the years of Soviet power, each republic of the USSR has
changed beyond recognition. Our country is an example of a moral and political unity
of peoples, which is unprecedented in history.
For us to picture to ourselves the grandeur of the historical transformations in
the Russian Federation, it is not out of place to call to mind how the great Lenin charac-
terized the pitiful legacy we received from the tsarist autocracy: "Have a look at the
map of the RSFSR.. To the north of Vologda, to the south-east of Rostov-on-the-Don
and Saratov, to the south of Orenburg and Omsk, and to the north of Tomsk, stretch
boundless reaches, where there is room for scores of tremendous civilized states. But
in all these reaches there reign primitive patriarchal conditions, half savagery, and
savagery in the truest sense".
The Soviet People have put an end for all time to century-old backwardness. Now
the regions that V. I. Lenin wrote about have been radically changed. The sage general
party line, as laid down by Lenin and directed at the crash development of heavy industry,
has been translated into reality, and, as a consequence, high rates of growth have been
assured in the RSFSR for such decisive branches of industry as ferrous and non-ferrous
metallurgy, the coal, oil, and chemical industries, power engineering, and machine con-
struction. Industrial output in the RSFSR in 1956 was almost 31 times greater than in
1913.
A similar picture of a flourishing economy may be observed in all the other re.-
publics constituting a mighty industrial and kolkhoz power ? the Soviet Union. The un-
precedented development of economy, the flourishing of culture, science, and art, and
the unity of the Soviet People in a single family of fraternal nations ? all these are in-
disputable facts which bespeak the grandeur of the achievements of October, of the wise
leadership of the Communist party.
The material well-being and cultural level of the Soviet People have risen im-
measurably. National income has increased greatly. In ever-increasing volume, ma-
terial goods have been placed at the disposal of our people for the satisfaction of their
needs. The well-being of the Soviet people has been growing and will grow steadily
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Editorial
from year to year. The population has been receiving additional benefits amounting
to over 35 billion rubles a year, merely as the result of measures put into effect last
year (the raising of pensions, the increase in wages for lower-income laborers and
employees, increase in fixed and purchase prices for agricultural products, etc.). A
new manifestation of concern for the welfare of the people is seen in the publication
on 5 July of a Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and of the Council of Min-
isters of the USSR "On the abolition of the compulsory deliveries of agricultural pro-
ducts to the State by the farms of kolkhoz workers, and of laborers and employees".
Only in the country of the Soviets, where the working-man stands in the foreground,
is such concern for the welfare of the people possible.
Guarding the great achievements of October and the defense of the freedom, in-
dependence, and happiness of the Soviet People, the Armed Forces of our state stand
alert ? a reliable shield and guarantee of the peace and security of the workers.
The Armed Forces of the Soviet Fatherland were created almost forty years ago,
in accordance with the wise instructions of the great Lenin, for the defense of the Soviet
State. In the very first months after October, V. I. Lenin proclaimed: "We have been
defenders since 25 October 1917; we have won the right to defend our fatherland ...
"It is precisely bekauise of the fact that we are advocates of the defense of the
Fatherland that we sayito ciurlelves: 'For defense we need. a steadfast and vigorous army
and a sturdy home front'. "
All of the Soviet People including us? soldiers of the Soviet Air Force ? are
particularly glad to know that the Communist Party, headed by V. I. Lenin, the great lead-
er of the Soviet People, stood by the cradle of our Air Force as a leading and guiding
force. From the very first d.ays after the Great October Socialist Revolution, by a de-
cision of the Communist Party and upon instructions from V.I. Lenin, the Soviet People,
creator of the new socialist state, started. to form Air Force detachments within the
framework of the Armed Forces, for the fight against the hordes of White Guards and
interventionists.
The War Revolutionary Committees, the Bureau of Air Force Commissars, and
the All-Russian Collegium for the Administration of the Air Fleet played an important
role in the building of the Air Force. The Party was concerned with strengthening the
cadres of the flying and technical personnel. The best men, tested in the fire of the
Revolution, were posted. to the Air Force.
? During the course of the battles against our enemies, the Air Force detachments
grew mature and stronger. The number of Communist flyers increased, and their
awareness grew. It is characteristic that out of the 730 men in the flying personnel of
our Air Force, 347 were already Communists by January 1921.
The best Air Force men, defenders of the young Republic, were entering the Com-
munist Party. Like one of the heroes of the Civil War, Pilot and. Group Commander
1. U. Pavlov, they would declare, upon entering the ranks of the Party: "I feel closer to
the Communists than to anyone else," And in numerous battles with the enemy the Red
military pilots proved, by their high skill, courage, and heroism, that they were real
sons of a liberated nation, loyal to the great banner of the Party of Marx and Lenin.
The heroic deeds of Pilots I. U. Pavlov, ,Yu. A. Bratolyubov, A. V. Pankrat'yev, I. K. Mi-
khalyuk, B. N. Kudrin, and many others, are bright pages in the combat history of our
Air Force.
In creating and strengthening the Air Force detachments, our Party and Govern-
Soviet Aviators are Boundlessly Devoted. to Their Party
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ment displayed untiring concern for the development of aviation science, and for the
training of flying and technical cadres. In spite of the tremendous difficulties con-
nected with the Civil War and the resulting devastation, V.1. Lenin, the great leader
of the Soviet People, regarded the needs of the scientists, designers, and pilots with
solicitude. In commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the scientific activity of
Professor N. Ye. Zhukovskiy, V. I. Lenin signed the famous decree in which he praised
highly the services of the founder of aviation science, calling Mm "the father of Russian
aviation".
The years passed. The Socialist State was growing and was becoming stronger.
Carrying out Lenin's designs, the workers of the country of socialism, under the lead-
ership of the Communist Party, transformed the appearance of our Motherland in short ?
periods of time.
During the years of the prewar five-year plans, new branches of industry sprang
up and grew strong, including aircraft and engine construction. Tremendous work was
performed in training qualified cadres of aireraft builders, designers, engineers, pi-
lots, and navigators. Our Motherland became a mighty air power.
During the difficult years of the Great Patriotic War, Soviet pilots showed them-
selves to be worthy sons of the socialist Motherland, able and brave defenders of their
people. In spite of the tremendous difficulties of an armed. struggle against a powerful
and technically well-equipped enemy, our pilots bravely repulsed the attacks of the foe
and succeeded. in achieving supremacy in the air.
Sparing neither pains nor resources, the Soviet People supplied combat equipment
for front-line needs in ever-increasing volume and. the flyers made use of it in a fitting
manner and with great skill. They routed the much vaunted Hitlerite Air Force, secur-
ing freedom of operations for our ground troops and. saving the population from the threat
of bombings from the air.
During difficult periods of combat, the most mature Communist pilots went to car-
ry out the most crucial missions. They proved with their lives their filial devotion to
the Motherland, the Party, and the People. In taking off on dangerous missions, many
young pilots would leave brief, but ever so eloquent, notes: "If I die, I request that I be
considered. a Communist".
The entire history of the Air Force is the history of the loyalty of Soviet aviators
to their military duty and. of their devotion to their nation and its heroic Communist Party.
During the post-war years, the Air Fleet obtained new, more highly perfected
equipment ? jet bombers and fighters fitted out with the most complex instruments and
apparatus. Now aircraft can fly at supersonic speeds, high altitudes, and in the strat-
osphere, by day and night, and under adverse weather conditions.
Our units and. outfits have developed a considerable number of skilled, resolute
men who know their work well pilots, navigators, radio-operator gunners, radar sta-
tion operators, engineers, technicians, mechanics, and the men of the air-technical out-
fits. And. this is quite natural; for the Communist Party and. the Soviet Governinent have
untiringly taught and continue to teach that it is impossible to solve problems connected
with the securing of the defensive capacity of the Fatherland without men who possess
high combat morale and know how to use their weapons and. equipment. .
As has been pointed out by the Minister of Defense of the USSR, Marshal of the
Soviet Union, G. K. Zhukov, our Soviet military science holds that military equipment,
even the most effective, cannot, in and. of itself, decide the fate of a battle or an opera-
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4 Editorial
tion. The outcome of armed combat in future wars, as well, will be decided by men
who master their combat equipment perfectly, believe in the justness of the war aims,
are deeply devoted to their government and are always ready to defend the interests of
their people.
In carrying out the decisions of the Party and the Government, our flyers have
achieved great success in the political and military training of personnel. Their love
and devotion to their Fatherland are thereby manifested concretely.
Now the entire Soviet People are working with fervor and creative enthusiasm at
putting the historical decisons of the 20th Congress of the CPSU into effect. In the '
program worked out by this Congress, methods have been pointed out for solving de-
velopinental problems of Soviet society which have come to a head, and basic princi -
pies have been formulated on the most important questions of the international Com-
munist movement.
And now at a time when the Communist Party, under the leadership of the Cen-
tral Committee of the CPSU and relying on the support of the entire nation,has been con-
ducting tremendous work in carrying out the decisions of the 20th Congress, the anti-
Party group of Malenkov, Kaganovich, and Molotov rose in opposition to the Party line.
By anti-Party, factional methods, this group was trying to bring about a change
in the personnel of the leading organs of the party, which were selected at the Plenum
of the Central Committee of the CPSU, by setting themselves the goal of changing Party
policy and by bringing the Party back to the wrong methods of leadership, which were
condemned by the 20th Congress.
For the past 3 - 4 years the Party, resolutely correcting the errors and short-
comings engendered by the cult of personality, has been successfully fighting against
the revisionists of Marxism and Leninism, both in the international arena as well as
within the country. Important work has been carried out by the Party in correcting
distortions of Leninist national policy which were committed in the past. The partici-
pants in the anti-Party group have constantly put up opposition,direct or indirect to this
course which was approved by the 20th Congress of the CPSU'.
They opposed the execution of such very important Party measures as the broaden-
ing of the rights of the Union republics and the enhancing of the role of local Soviets.
They were against the assimilation of virgin and fallow lands, and they kept objecting
to a change in the planning procedure in agriculture and to the administrative reorganiza-
tion of industry. They opposed a number of measures aimed at improving the welfare of
the nation. In the .field of international relations, the Malenkov-Kaganovich-Molotov
faction attempted in effect to counteract the Leninist Party policy aimed at peaceful co-
existence among states with different social systems, and to oppose a relaxation in
international tension.
The Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union,
which was held fr,om 22-29 June 1957, considered the question of the anti-Party faction
of Malenkov, Kaganovich, and. Molotov which had formed in the Presidium of the Central
Committee of the CPSU.
In the Decree of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU "Concerning
the anti-Party group of G. M. Malenkov, L. M. Kaganovich, and V. M. Molotov", it is
stated: "The position of Comrades Malenkov, Kaganovich, and Molotov, which is at
variance with the Party line, is based essentially on the fact that they have been and
are the captives of old notions and methods; they have lost touch with the life of the Party
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Soviet Aviators are Boundlessly Devoted to Their Party
5
and the country; they do not see the new conditions or the new situation but display con-
servatism and cling stubbornly to antiquated. forms and methods of work which do not
correspond to the interests of the movement towards Communism; and they reject that
which life has engendered and which flows from the interests of the development of Soviet
society and the interests of the entire Socialist camp.
"Both in questions of domestic, as well as in questions of foreign policy, they
are sectarians and dogmatists and display an uncritical and lifeless approach to Marx-
ism and Leninism. They cannot grasp the fact that under modern conditions;living
Marxism and Leninism in action as well as the struggle for Communism manifest them-
selves in the implementation of the decisions of the 20th Congress of the Party; in per-
sistently conducting a policy of peaceful coexistence and of struggle for friendship among
nations, a policy of strengthening the Socialist camp in every way; in improving indus-
trial management; in struggling for a thorough upsurge in agriculture, for an abundance
of produce, for large-scale housing construction, for broadening the rights of Union re-
publics, for a flourishing of national cultures, and for every kind of development of the
initiative of the popular masses. "
The Presidium of the Central Committee and the Central Committee as a whole
kept correcting Malenkov, Kaganovich, and Molotov patiently and fought against their
errors, hoping that they would take a lesson from their errors and not persist in them,
and that they would get in step with the entire leadership of the Party. But they con-
tinued to maintain their erroneous non-Leninist positions.
After convincing themselves of the fact that their erroneous speeches and actions
were meeting with constant rebuff by the Presidium of the Central Committee which con-
sistently puts the policy of the 20th Congress of the CPSU into effect, Molotov, Kagano-
vich, and Malenkov embarked upon a course of group struggle against the Party leader-
ship.
However, the Central Committee of the CPSU, united and, like Lenin, high-princi-
pled, repulsed in good time the ad.venturistic activities of the anti-Party faction of
schismatics who had lost touch with the Party and the people. Facts revealed at the
Plenum of the Central Committee fully unmasked the anti-Party group, whose activity
had been aimed at splitting the Party and changing its general policy. In embarking
upon a course of factional struggle, Malenkov, Kaganovich, Molotov, and Shepilov, who
had joined. up with them, violated Party Rules and the decision of the 10th Congress of
the Party, as worked out by Lenin, "On Party unify", in which the Congress demanded
immediate disbandment of all factional groups and charged all organizations to see to
it strictly that no factional speeches whatsoever be allowed. At the Eam e time non-fulfill-
ment of this decree entailed unconditional and immediate expulsion of the culprits from
the Party.
The Plenum of the Central Committee unanimously condemned the anti-Party group.
In the entire membership of the Plenum there was not a single man to support these
schismatics.
The Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU expelled Malenkov, Kaganovich,
and Molotov from membership in the Presidium of the Central Committee and riEmbership
in the Central Committee of the CPSU; it removed Shepilov from his post as secretary
of the Central Committee of the CPSU and. struck him from the list of candidates for
membership in the Presidium of the Central Committee and. from the membership in the
Cential Committee.
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6 Editorial
The men of the Soviet Air Force, together with our entire party and people, un-
animously approve the Decree of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU,
and angrily stigmatize the anti-Party activity of Malenkov, Kaganovich, Molotov, and
Shepilov who joined up with them. The speeches of pilots, navigators, engineers,
technicians, and all aviation specialists at meetings of Party aktivs, at Party meetings,
and. at general personnel meetings bespeak the indestructible solidarity of the aviators
behind their Communist Party and its Leninist Central Committee.
"Our glorious Party and the entire people, united and indivisible, are proceeding
confidently towards the planned goal: Communism", said Pilot First Class Lt. Col. A. F.
Krasikov in a speech at a Party meeting of Unit X. "And now men have turned up who
took it into their heads to split the Party. They connived behind the Central Committee's
back. But the Central Committee disclosed and stigmatized this anti-Party group of
schismatics in good time. And it could not have been otherwise; the unshakable unity
of the Party's ranks is the source of all our victories. The course of our Party is
correct and no one will ever succeed in deflecting us from it."
Military Pilot First Class, Communist I. A.Primov, warmly approving the deci-
sions of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU and,angrily condemning the
schismatic activity of the anti-Party group, spoke of the fact that every Communist
must raise his ideological level even higher and must be uncompromising towards any
manifestations of laxity, ideological instability, and lack of discipline.
The words of Military Navigator First Class Lt. Col. Ye. G. Dagayev rang with
emotion. "In the history of the Party", he said, "there have been many factional
groups of all kinds who have tried to split the unity of the Party. And each time their
schismatic, anti-Party activity was the result of their having lost touch with the masses.
This gave rise to an attitude of lordliness, degeneration, arrogance, and contempt for
the needs of the people. And that is true now as well. Only those who have divorced
themselves from the people and lost touch with life could have fallen so low and, in ef-
fect, have played into the hands of the enemies of our Fatherland. But the Party will
always find the strength to repulse degenerates and factionists. The Party has become
even stronger as a result of its conclusive unmasking of the members of the anti-Party
group. The decisions of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU are correct
and timely."
In all groups and units of the Air Force, the personnel has been actively discussing
the Decree of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU "Concerning the anti-
Party group of G. M. Malenkov, L. M. Kaganovich, and V. M. Molotov". And everywhere
the opinion of the soldier-aviators is unanimous: the June Plenum of the Central Com-
mittee of the CPSU has given a deserved. rebuff to the factionists and honorably defended
the monolithic unity of our Party, a unity which has developed and grown strong in un-
compromising battle against the Party's enemies. The Plenum has once more clearly
shown how unshakable are the ranks of our Leninist Party which has been trained in the
spirit of devotion to the ideas of Communism, and in the spirit of indestructible unity
of thought, will, and action.
Just like every man in the Armed Forces of the USSR, the Soviet aviators are
proud of the fact that during the period which has passed since the 20th Congress of the
CPSU, life has become better for the workers of our Fatherland, new and splendid vic-
tories have been won in industry and agriculture, the power and authority of the Com-
munist Party have grown even greater, the Leninist unity of its ranks has been strength-
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Soviet Aviators are Boundlessly Devoted to Their Party 7
ened., and its leading role in Soviet society has been enhanced.
Our mighty Fatherland, directed and guided by the Communist Party is in a new
upsurge. It has the power to handl.e any problems and it confidently continues to move
forward towards Communism.
The Soviet Armed Forces and their component, the Air Force, stand guard vigi-
lantly over the peaceful work of our people.
Our soldier-aviators are filled with the unbending aspiration to close their ranks
even more tightly and., under the invincible banner of Marxism and Leninism, steadfast-
ly strive for newer and newer successes in combat and political training and in the en-
hancing of vigilance and combat readiness in their units and outfits. Soviet aviators
have been and a3-3 ;s will be loyal to their people and boundlessly devoted to their Com-
munist Party.
In the future as well, the personnel of the Air Force will untiringly scale the heights
of flying proficiency; incre3.se the ranks of outstanding men ? first class air warriors;
and make use in full measure and under any conditions of the combat equipment which
has been entrusted to them.
The pilots and navigators, engineers, and technicians, experts in all aviation spe-
cialties will persistently continue to struggle to reinforce iron discipline and solidarity
and to enhance their readiness to carry out all tasks assigned them by the Communist
Party and the Soviet Government.
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A GLORIOUS SEVENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY
Seventy-five years have passed since the day when, in our country, the world's
first aircraft was built and tested in the air.
It may seem that everything has been said about A. F. Mozhayskiy long before our
time. It seems that critics representing all groups and trends have examined his work
in detail, have been debating it for three quarters of a century. They have not only
examined in detail the design of his aircraft and the engines, but they also looked into
the most unlikely incidental details that involved. individual minor components and. the
time required. for their production, and adjusted their findings to fit their homespun
theories sand interpretations. At times they wanted to picture him as a failure, at
others they saw in him a mysterious inventor whose work was done not in terms of set
dates and deadlines, but in terms of whole periods. In addition to this, behind their
every line there lurked some other vague connotation, something ambiguous. In this
way both explicit and implicit contradiction arose.
But even then, at the end of the 19th century, many progressive Russians were
familiar with the creative work of A.F.Mozhayskiy. In spite of the fact that his work
was classified, both scientists and prominent engineers fervently defended his inven-
tions and highly esteemed them.
Articles and speeches of scientists and specialists of that period fill a very special
page in the history of the struggle for the construction of the world's first aircraft.
Before building the aircraft the Russian inventor had carried out many tests and
experiments. In 1876 he built a large kite and twice went up into the air in it. The
following year he constructed the well-known models of the aircraft. The kite flights
and the experiments with the models made it possible for Alexandr Fedorovich to ob-
tain more precise critical data for his aircraft project and to check these data. An
experienced marine designer who had built several ships, he approached the solution
of his problem in an amazingly systematic and logical manner based on both theory and
experiments.
On 3 November 1881, he obtained a patent for his machine. By 1880 and by the
first half of 1881 all parts of the flying machine had already been manufactured. On
20 June 1881 Mozhayskiy pointed out in his memorandum that he "...had only to as-
semble the machine and to carry out the final tests." (TsGVIA [Central Government
Military Historical Archives] Stock 740 (1), inventory 1, file 698, sheet 40) But it was
only in the summer of 1882 that the Russian inventor succeeded in building the aircraft
and. starting testing it at the military field in Krasnoye Selo, near Petersburg. This
happened. 75 years ago.
In recent years the American press has given much space to the materials which
prove the Wright brothers' priority in the field of aircraft construction. The authors
of such articles are usually not restricted as far as the size of the articles is concerned.
Entire issues of some aviation magazines deal with the Wright brothers. In these ar-
ticles the Wright brothers are often called "the only people in the world who discovered.
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4
A Glorious Seventy-Fifth Anniversary 9
the laws of flight and. knew how to fly a plane".
Such an exaggerated representation of the Wright brothers' work evokes a feel-
ing of annoyance and protest on the part of the progressive scientific public, since it
misrepresents the essence cif the matter.
In our country no one has denied the fact that in 1903 the Wright brothers built
their Aircraft and. ascended in it into the air the same year. But we should stick to
the truth, after all. And the truth is that the Wright brothers were not the first people
to build an aircraft which became airborne with a man on board. It was A.F.Moz-
hayskiy, a Russian scientist, who was the first man to achieve this.
Thus the American magazine "Aviation Week" is quite vainly wasting its polemi-
cal ardor when it offers its readers another sensational item saying that the Wright
brothers have been "rehabilitated." in the Soviet Union and. that the Mozhayskiy priority
has been given up.
"Aviation Week" has found. a fan in Belgium. His name is Lucien X. He de-
clares right out that he didn't have a chance to look into the matter, that he doesn't
know Russian but has read. the item in "Aviation Week" magazine; and now he doesn't
believe (let's add. here: without any reason for it) in Mozhayskiy's achievements. These
absurd and malicious insinuations expressed by the bourgeois falsifiers were elicited.
by the biased and confused. article by Ye. Burche and I. Mosolov which appeared in 1956
in the sixth issue of the magazine "Voprosy Istorii" [Questions of History]. This item
was quite contrary to reliable and incontrovertible historical facts.
It's quite obvious that the attempts made by the bourgeois falsifiers of history
who, by their provocative statements, try to sow doubts about the priority of our nation
in the field of aircraft construction are doomed to fail.
The priority of the Russian people in creating an aircraft which rose into the air
with a man on board was proven 75 years ago. At that time the Wright brothers prob-
ably were not even thinking about projects in the field of aviation; one of them was then
only 11 years old, and.the other 15.
Seen in this light, the unfounded claims made by "Aviation Week" and Lucien X
look ridiculous and naive.
His contemporaries assumed that, in days to come, Mozhayskiy's name would.
loom above the valley of life like a magnificent mountain, but far removed from the pres-
ent.
But a new era in the history of mankind dawned-- the Great Socialist October Rev-
olution? and A. F. Mozhayskiy's works were read by those masses who hadn't known
about his exploits. It was only in the time of the Soviet .regime that A. F. Mozhayskiy's
documents were publicized as well as books about him. The new generation of grate-
ful readers plunged into their reading with an interest never witnessed. before. - Their
interest in the remarkable inventor was never greater than on the 130th anniversary of
his birth which was widely observed in 1955 in our country.
It is well known that A. F. Mozhayskiy didn't construct his aircraft in a vacuum.
His discovery was the logical culmination in the development of technological ideas both
in our country and. abroad.
There is also another matter of great importance. All basic parts of a monoplane
were incorporated in A. F. Mozhayskiy's design: wings, power plant, fuselage, landing
gear, and empennage. Up to this day not a single element has been eliminated from
this scheme.
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10 A Glorious Seventy-Fifth Anniversary
And, by the way, many latter-day aircraft designs have appeared and quickly
vanished without even a trace. Mozhayskiy's aircraft scheme has served as a proto-
type for the modern airplane. It has had a long life full of honor, 75 years in all. It
has kept evolving, has been enhanced, but basically the modern aircraft has its begin-
nings in this design.
Every element in this scheme of design has been constantly developed and perfect-
ed, has kept changing as fat as appearance and materials are concerned, has kept ac-
quiring additional devices and various apparatus. But their purpose and function have
remained unchanged.
Let us consider wings or fuselage as an example. Has the purpose and function
of these most important elements in the aircraft design really changed? Of course not.
In developing A.F. Mozhayskiy' s aircraft scheme, designers, both in our country and
abroad, introduced many remarkable technological innovations fostering the rapid prog-
ress of aviation technology. In these 75 years the aircraft engine has been changed
three times. The steam engine was replaced by the internal combustion engine which,
in turn, was replaced by the jet engine.
Here figures are quite eloquent. The speed of the A. F. Mozhayskiy aircraft built
in 1882 was approximately 40-45 kilometers per hour. According to newspaper informa-
tion, modern fighters fly at a speed of more than 2000 kilometers per hour. That's
what the past 75 years have given merely in this one respect: aircraft speed has increas-
ed 45 times.
Not only was the aircraft being developed and improved during these decades. Our
entire aircraft industry leapt forward, especially under the Soviet regime.
In the 40 years that have passed since the establishment of the Soviet state, science,
including aviation, has made unprecedented advance and, ever progressing, is constant-
ly achieving new goals.
The following comparison is interesting. Before the Great October Socialist Rev-
olution, Russian aviation had existed for 35 years, and the basic indices (speed, altitude,
flight range) had increased 3 times. During 40 years of the Soviet regime, on the other
hand, our aviation, according to the same indices, increased 10 times, and, according
to the indices in som.e specific instances, dozens of times.
The progressive role of our people in the field of conquering the air evolved histor-
ically, and, under the favorable conditions of the Soviet social order and political regime,
the skill of our people has found a splendid application in the creation of our powerful
Air Force whose heroic exploits were crowned by combat glory.
The advantages of the Soviet social order and political regime made it possible for
our people, through their selfless work, to transform our country into a great air power.
A decisive part was played by the struggle for preferential development of heavy industry
which was so wisely directed by the Communist party. Our country's working class
kept working steadily in order to transform their Motherland into a mighty independent
power and to make Soviet aviation strong and powerful.
Even during the difficult time of war, our aviation plants stepped up aircraft pro-
duction, and, by the end of 1942, had increased their output over three times. During
the last three years of the Great Patriotic War our country gave her Air Force approx-
imately 40,000 aircraft a year.
In the years following the war, as a ,consequence of the work done by Soviet scien-
tists and designers, aircraft production in the USSR reached a new high; never achieved
S.
A Glorious Seventy-Fifth Anniversary 11
before. Literally with every new airplane some new improvements were introduced,
technological concepts were enriched, and the status of our country as a great air power
became more secure.
The jet passenger aircraft TU-104, designed and built under the supervision of
the Lenin Prize Laureate A.N. Tupolev, has attracted wide attention both here and a-
broad. This aircraft is equipped with two powerful jet engines, has a cruising speed
of 800 km per hour, and can take on board 50 passengers and their baggage. Recent-
ly a new modified TU-104 went up. It can carry 70 passengers, has a greater load
capacity, is comfortable, and its production is inexpensive.
At the present time, a group of engineers under A. N. Tupolev's supervision is
working on the construction of a larger jet passenger plane, the "Rossiya" which will
make much longer range non-stop flights with 200 passengers, i. e., the equivalent
seating capacity of 5-6 railroad coaches. The following will illustrate what significance
this has. Let's assume that such aircraft fly regularly between Moscow and Vladivo-
stok and that their flying time per month reaches 200 hrs. In this case, 20 complete
trains, or about 200 coaches and 50 railroad engines, will be released.
Recently a group of engineers under 0. K. Antonov has designed and built a turbo-
prop passenger aircraft, the "Ukraina". It is designed to carry 84 passengers and has
a cruising speed of 600 kilometers per hour. In the very near future a new passenger
plane, the "Moskva" will go up; it is going to be equipped with turbo-prop engines con-
structed by S. V.Ryushin and will carry 75-100 passengers.
Air Force pilots, navigators, engineers and technicians, these tireless toilers,
keep adding to the glory of our Air Force. Noble qualities of the Soviet patriot's moral
make-up find expression in their exploits: loyalty to their country, readiness to sacri-
fice to her all their strength, devotion to the Communist Party. These very qualities
made it possible for our pilots to score new achievements in the years following the
war. Soviet pilots have mastered completely advanced airmanship on jet fighter planes;
they have successfully mastered the operational technique of other jet combat aircraft
and jet passenger planes.
Our air age has been in existence for 75 years. This is three-quarters of a cen-
tury. Observing this glorious date, our people take rightful pride in the fact that the
first page in the history of aviation ? the beginning of its era ? was written by A. F.
Mozhayskiy, a Russian scientist and inventor.
A.F.Mozhayskiy's name has always been cherished by our people as well as by
all progressive mankind. Scientist, creator of the first aircraft in the entire world,
his country's patriot who passionately defended his country's honor and glciry, he goes
on living in every newly constructed aircraft. He keeps living in our memory as a
man whose life is inseparable from the history of his native country, from the glory of
our people.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
TACTICS
SELECTING A TARGET-RUN HEADING FOR BOMBERS
Hero of the Soviet Union, Guards Lt. Col.N.I. Gapeyenok
With the perfection of detection and. ground control radar equipment the effec-
tiveness of antiaircraft defense systems has improved considerably. Nowadays the
enemy is able to spot the threat of an air attack even before bombers approach the front
line and their targets, and. to make timely preparations for repelling the attack.
As a consequence, bombers can no longer successfully accomplish their assigned
missions without taking a number of precautions aimed at reducing the effectiveness of
PVO [antiaircraft defense systems] facilities ? in particular of AA artillery.
One of the problems involves selecting an appropriate heading for the target run.
When selecting a heading two basic requirements must be met: a safe approach
to the projected line of the bomb run in order to successfully destroy the target; and the
establishment of conditions under which a minimum of PVO facilities will be employed
in repelling the .attack.
The first requirement may be rather easily met by using various radio and radar
facilities, by selecting typical landmarks which can be viewed from the air, as well as
by thoroughly studying the nature of the target, its configuration, dimensions, and vis-
ibility. The second requirement is much more difficult to fulfill. In this case it is
necessary to have specific data on the PVO of the target.
Selecting the run heading to a target located deep in the enemy's defenses depends
Selecting a Target-Run Heading for Bombers 13
on the number and deployment of AA artillery, the front-line contour, the distance be-
tween the latter and the target, and the sighting devices being employed.
Inasmuch as the enemy objectives are almost uniformly defended over a consider-
able sector of the front and since the AA artillery emplacements are set up at a distance
of 3 km from the main line of resistance (while the AA automatic weapons are set up
at a distance of 800 - 1000 m), it may be assumed that bombers approaching the front
line at medium altitudes will be subjected to fire beginning at a range of 8 - 10 km.
Consequently, the intensity of AA artillery countermeasures against bombers
striking at defended objectives may be characterized to a certain extent by the duration
of time spent within the range of AA artillery fire.
The minimum flying time within the zone of AA artillery fire for a single bomber
or element depends on the bomber's target-run angle relative to the front line, the dis-
tance of this objective from the main line of resistance, as well as on the flying speed
and. bank angle on the turns.
The amount of time the bomber spends within the AA artillery zone of fire prior
to bomb release will be minimal, if it makes the target run at a 900 angle to the front
line. In this case the most favorable conditions for sighting with an optical or radar
sight and. for destroying the target are afforded the crews. If the necessity arises of
using the orbits of a circling system, their heading is selected in such a way that the
bomber will be exposed to AA artillery fire for a minimum amount of time.
Let us assume that a strike is being carried out against targets 6 and 18 km from
the main line of resistance with the aircraft flying at 700 km/hr. A single bomber or
element usually approaches the target at an angle of 300, 45? , 600, and 900 relative to
the front line, and withdraws from it along the shortest route in the direction of friend-
ly troops ? maintaining a 20? and. 40? bank angle on the turn.
Graph plotting and calculations made for these situations indicate a definite de-
pendence between the target-run angles and the bomber's duration of flight within the
zone of fire of the AA artillery. Comparing the data obtained (Fig. 1), we can plainly
see that, as the distance to target location increases in depth, the most advantageous
angles for the run approximate a right angle. In this case an increase in the bank ang-
le on turns while withdrawing from the target at constant speed.is accompanied. by a re-
duction in duration of exposure to AA artillery fire by 10 - 18%.
Thus, a reduction in duration of exposure to AA artillery fire for a single bomber
or an element is achieved by approaching the defended objectives at angles of 45?- 60?
to the front line; while the requirement of minimum exposure to AA artillery fire may
be advantageously combined with the possibility of employing the orbits of a range sys-
tem for certain destruction of the target under adverse weather conditions and. at night.
On the basis of these considerations, it is recommended that, during withdrawal
from the target, the turn be made with the maximum possible bank angle, depending on
the degree of crew proficiency in coping with operations under normal and complex
weather conditions.
It is best for a bomber element to approach the target from the same direction.
In this case a crew or an element will be subjected. to the fire of only those AA. guns
which are located at a distance of 3 - 10 km from the path of the bomb run. When sin-
gle aircraft approach the target from two or three directions considerably greater AA
-artillery fire power may be employed to counter their attack. A target-run approach
from a single direction guarantees more thorough fighter cover for the bombers and a
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N. I. Gap eyenok
more defensible combat formation for the element.
In the enemy's operational depth, AA artillery is employed for defending such ob-
jectives as airfields, ports, railroad and industrial objectives, etc. The number of
AA installations employed, depends on the importance of the objective, its configuration,
dimensions, and its vulnerability to air attack.
The batteries are usually emplaced around the objective at uniform intervals. Im-
portant approaches are reinforced with a number of additional batteries. Especially
Limits of AA fire zone
Speed
km/hr
Bank
angle
Approach angles
30? i
450
1 600
1 90?
700
20?
Time
under AA fire
5 min
17 sec
4 min
48 sec
4 min
28 sec
5 min
34 sec
40?
4 min
42 sec
4 min
17 sec
3 min
46 sec
4 min
Speed
km/hr
Bank
angle
Approach angles
30*
45?
I 60?
' 90?
700
0
20
Time under AA fire
8 min
10 sec
Y 7 min
6 sec
6 min
40 sec
'7 min
38 sec
40?
7 min
6 min
40 sec
6 min
6 min
52 sec
Limits of AA fire zone
Fig. 1. Diagram of approach headings to target
a) Distance between target and main line of resistance - 6km; b) Distance
between target and main line of resistance - 18 km.
important objectives may be defended by "ground-to-air" type guided missiles. How-
ever, .it is not always possible to defend the objective with equal density on all sides.
Therefore, for approaching the objective it is necessary to select a heading which of-
fer s.the least density of fire.
If the 4rget. is defended with equal AA artillery fire density, then it should be
Selecting a Target-Run Heading for Bombers 15
approached in such a way as to minimize duration of exposure to effective fire.
In operational depth a target may be defended by AA artillery deployed over a con-
siderable area. Therefore, it is better to select an approach to it from a single direc-
tion; then only that artillery will participate in countering the attack which is located at
a distance from the flight axis of a single plane or of an element equal to the plane-of-
fire zone for a given flight altitude. Thus, at medium altitudes, bombers will be ex-
posed only to the fire of guns located 3 - 10 km from the flight axis. The remaining
artillery defending the objective will be ineffective (Fig. 2).
?
Outer limits of
AA fire zone
Limits of effective
AA fire corridor for
approach from a
single direction
Flight route axis
of single plane or
element
Fig. 2. Versions of target approach from a single direction; target
being heavily defended by AA fire of guns deployed over a large area.
Simultaneous target approaches by an element from two or three directions pre-
cludes the possibility of concentrating fire on a single target, while simultaneous fir-
ing at several targets results in a considerable lowering of fire density.
An approach from different directions should be employed only when the attack's
objective is defended by an inadequate number of AA guns or if the batteries which are
covering the object ive are deployed over a limited area and can fire at any point on the
zone-of-fire limits.
If the objective is defended by AA guided missiles, then, in selecting the direc-
tion of approach, their deployment must be taken into account. When AA guided-mis-
sile sites are distributed around the objective it is desirable to select such a flight alti-
tude at which the missiles' effectiveness is reduced. Thus, for example, it is a known
fact that certain AA guided missiles have little effect when planes are flying below
5000 m. When the altitudes_ of operations are increased, other means of combat sup-
port must be employed ? such as jamming the ground. control facilities and the missile
in flight, as well as bomber maneuvering.
In selecting the most advantageous approach heading to a mobile target, it is es-
sential to secure the element of surprise in the approach; this will not only deprive the
enemy of the opportunity to take timely and organized countermeasures, but will also
deny him the time to disperse, to take cover, to employ camouflage, etc.
It is a well-known fact that with the present-day development of radar detection
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14
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N. I. Gap eyenok
more defensible combat formation for the element.
In the enemy's operational depth, AA artillery is employed for defending such ob-
jectives as airfields, ports, railroad and industrial objectives, etc. The number of
AA installations employed depends on the importance of the objective, its configuration,
dimensions, and its vulnerability to air attack.
The batteries are usually emplaced. around the objective at uniform intervals. Im-
portant approaches are reinforced with a number of additional batteries. Especially
Limits of AA fire zone
Speed
km/hr
Bank
angle
,
Approach angles
30?
1 45?
1 -60?
I 90?
70017
20?
Time under AA fire
5 min
sec
4 min
48 sec
4 min
28 sec
5 min
34 sec
40?
,
4 min
42 sec
4 min
17 sec
3 min
46. sec
.
4 min
Speed
km/hr
Bank
angle
Approach angles
30.?
I 450 1 60?
90?
700
0
20
Time under AA fire
8 min.
10 sec
- 7 min
6 sec
6 min
40 sec
7 min
38 sec
40-,,
7 mi n

6 mi n
40 sec
6 mi n
6 min
52 sec
11111146
Limits of AA fire zone
Fig. 1. Diagram of approach headings to target
a) Distance between target and main line of resistance - 61cm; b) Distance
between target and main line of resistance - 18 km.
important objectives may be defended. by "ground-to-air" type guided missiles. How-
ever, it is not always possible to del end. the objective with equal density on all sides.
Therefore, for approaching the objective it is necessary to select a heading which of-
fers the least density of fire. ,
If the target. is defended with equal AA artillery fire density, then it should be
;
Selecting a Target-Run Heading for Bombers 15
approached. in such a way as to minimize duration of exposure to effective fire.
In operational depth a target may be defended by AA artillery deployed. over a con-
siderable area. Therefore, it is better to select an approach to it from a single direc-
tion; then only that artillery will participate in countering the attack which is located. at
a distance from the flight axis of a single plane or of an element equal to the plane-of-
fire zone for a given flight altitude. Thus, at medium altitudes, bombers will be ex-
posed only to the fire of guns located 3 - 10 km from the flight axis. The remaining
artillery defending the objective will be ineffective (Fig. 2).
Outer limits of
AA fire zone
Limits of effective
AA fire corridor for
approach from a
single direction
Flight route axis ,
of single plane or
element
Fig. 2. Versions of target approach from a single direction; target
being heavily defended by AA fire of guns deployed over a large area.
Simultaneous target approaches by an element from two or three directions pre-
cludes the possibility of concentrating fire on a single target, while simultaneous fir-
ing at several targets results in a considerable lowering of fire density.
An approach from different directions should be employed only when the attack's
objective is defended. by an inadequate number of AA guns or if the batteries which are
covering the objective are deployed over a limited area and. can fire at any point on the
-zone-of-fire limits. -
If the objective is defended by AA guided missiles, then, in selecting the direc-
tion of approach, their deployment must be taken into account. When AA guided.-mis-
sile sites are distributed around the objective it is desirable to select such a flight alti-
tude at which' the missiles' effectiveness is reduced. Thus, for example, it is a known
fact that certain AA guided missiles have little effect when planes are flying below
5000 m. When the altitudes of operations are increased, other means of combat sup-
port must be employed ? such as jamming the ground. control facilities and the missile
Tin flight, as well as bomber maneuvering.
In selecting the most advantageous approach heading to a mobile target, it is es-
- sential td secure the element of surprise in the approach; this will not only deprive the
enemy of the opportunity to take timely and. organiZed countermeasures, but will also
deny him the time, to disperse, to take cover, to employ camouflage, etc.
It is a'well-known fact that with the present-day development of radar detection
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16 N. I. Gapevenok
facilities, it is difficult to count on the element of surprise in approaching a target.
Still, employing a suitable maneuver in connection with selecting the approach heading
for attack will establish the conditions for overcoming more successfully the counter-
measure effects of the AA artillery.
In this respect both the selection of the flight profile to the target and the maneu-
ver employed in its vicinity may play an important role.
Let us assume that a bomber crew or bomber element is to make a strike against
a specific target from an altitude of 4000 m. One of the possible flight-profile variants
suitable for achieving the element of surprise in the operations will appear approximate-
ly as shown in Fig. 3.
Altitude
KM
.....:? Radar
detection
zone
ii
i
I
,??
__ V
........,
--'
,,
1
.......
--'---.'-.
._
_
The bombers fly on a route up to the
radar stations' detection zone at a low alti-
tude which insures flight safety. Sixty to
4 seventy kilometers before entering the
3 radar detection zone they pull up at the
2 Maximum possible rate of climb (so that,
1 - 2 min. before reaching the AA artil-
lery fire zone or the initial point of the
50 WO 150 200 250mm bomb run, they will have climbed to the
planned altitude). Subsequently the crews
execute an AA evasion maneuver and enter
the bomb run. In this case, the bombers
remain within the enemy's radar detection
zone for 7 - 8 min. prior to bomb release. During this time the enemy will be able to
Fig. 3. One flight profile version for
bombers.
vector only the fighters which are flying on patrol.
Repelling the attack will be considerably complicated if the target approach is
made not directly from the route but from a turn. This will deprive the enemy of the
possibility of determining in time the target-run direction and to assign batteries to the
targets. The closer the initial point of the turn is to the zone of fire, the more diffi-
cult it is for the AA gunners to guess the strike plan and to distribute their own forces.
Any change in the direction of the target-run ? say one minute before entering the zone
,of fire ? prevents a part of the artillery from participating in countering the attack.
Calculations show that, if the target run heading is changed approximately one
minute before entering the zone of fire of the AA artillery whith is defending the target,
the probability of destroying the bombers is considerably reduced. This happens be-
cause the single plane or element by-passes the zone of effective fire of a given battery.
The selection of the target run heading ought to be combined with selecting the
most advantageous flight altitude. But it must also be remembered that, as altitude
increases, bombing accuracy deteriorates ?particularly for small-scale targets; but
at the same time the effectiveness of the AA artillery fire is lowered. Whereas in
low-altitude operations the range at which the bombers are detected by the radar fire
direction stations is reduced. The AA directors can obtain firing data only after the
aircraft has traveled for some distance within the zone of effective fire.. That means
that during low-altitude approaches the radius of the zone-of-fire plane is reduced, and,
consequently the aircraft's time of flight within the AA artillery zone of fire is shorten-
ed.
The bombers' target-run heading during operations against objectives which are
i<
11.
11;
*-4
4i4
Selecting a Target-Run Heading for Bombers .17
well defended by AA fire cannot be the same in all instances. ? In selecting it, the most
advantageous altitude is taken into account. However, the chief and. decisive factor
- in this is to accomplish the combat mission and. to destroy the target effectively. When
selecting the target-run heading, the nature of the target is considered, its dimensions,.
configuration, visibility from the air, etc. Thus, when inflicting a bomb strike against
narrow elongated targets (railroad stations, bridges), effective results may be achieved
only by making the run at slight angles to their long side.
Only an accurate knowledge of the tactical and _technical capabilities of PVO faci-
lities and of the sequence of their employment, a detailed study of objectives of opera-
tions and all the conditions of an air and ground situation will enable the flying per
of bomber aircraft to execute successfully their assigned missions. ?
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
mammommiWINIfteit#6*-274110201111rOalif:Omm
ON TARGET ON TIME
(During Air Force Training Exercises)
Lt. Col. F. A. Vazhin
The bomber pilots were assigned the mission of providing air support for a
ground troops offensive. The defenders were offering stubborn resistance, and. the
combat operations were of an exceptionally mobile nature. The situation kept chang-
ing rapidly.
Sizing up the mission and. evaluating the situation, Squadron Commander Maj.
M. D. Bachilo strove to find the determining factor of the assigned mission and the spe-
cial features involved in fulfilling it. First of all he noted that the crews would have to
operate against targets located in the tactical depth of the "enemy's" defense, where
there was a large number of various objectives (upon observation from the air, some
of these were scarcely distinguishable from each other). Moreover, as reported by
air reconnaissance, they were carefully camouflaged and their Iodation was frequently
changed.
Under these conditions, the commander came to the conclusion that coordination
of bomber combat operations with the ground troops and, consequently, the success in
fulfilling the combat training mission depended. on approaching the target accurately
with respect to time and place. The slightest error would not only decrease the effec-
tiveness of the strike but would. also jeopardize fulfillment of the mission.
He recalled an instance when the bombers, in solving a similar problem, had
been late in approaching the target. The ground troops did not receive the expected
support in time, and this hampered their operations. In a short period of time the sit-
uation on the battlefield changed. And when the crews reached the target, the necessi-
ty for the strike had already passed. They had to be quickly revectored to another ob-
jective. ' This complicated the maneuver and decreased the effectiveness of the air-
craft operation. And. what is more, the aircraft necessarily were exposed to enemy AA
defenses for a longer period of time.
The importance of approaching the tactical target promptly was stressed also by
the unit commander when he assigned the mission to the crews.
The squadron commander knew how difficult it is to maintain accuracy in striking
at the correct time and place 'owing to the difficulty in spotting such objectives. In an-
alyzing past experience in carrying out combat training missions he more than once be-
came convinced that the target was found swiftly and hit accurately only by those crews
which had studied thoroughly the terrain and the characteristic ground and radar check-
points in the area of the combat operations. That is, in order to approach the target
precisely one must be well acquainted with the terrain in the area of the forthcoming
operations.
Further more; bombers provide support for an offensive by ground troops. Con-
sequently, in order to spot the target, they must also familiarize themselves carefully
with the situation both on the ground and in the air. Unfortunately we still have corn-
?On Target on Time 19
manders who do not always give this sufficient thought. On the other hand, as has been
.confirmed, by experience in the Great Patriotic War and in the postwar period, crews
would find their bearings quickly in spotting a target and would approach it promptly
if they were well acquainted with the tactical situation? the front line, the position of
their own troops and that of the enemy, their operational tactics, and the situation in
the air.
Both of these conclusions were confirmed by subsequent considerations as well.
When there is a sudden change in the situation on the ground, the necessity may some-
times arise of revectoring the airborne crews. Only a well-trained crew that is famil-
iar with the terrain and the situation both on the ground and in the air will be able to
change the flight course, spot a new target, approach it promptly, and. destroy it in a
running attack.
The commander took into account the fact that promptness in approaching the tar-
get is to a lirge extent determined by the selection of the route and the target-run head-
ing. True, when the route was selected during training exercises, the commander an-
ticipated and took into account the fact that the bombs actually had to be dropped on a
bombing range target. But in spite of that, with the situation that had shaped up on the
ground and in the air being taken as a point of departure, the course was selected with
consideration being given to the disposition of the fighter craft of the defending side,
its radar facilities, AA artillery, and, finally, the nature and location of the target.
In so doing, the senior commander tries to approximate the situation as closely as pos-
sible to that of real combat. The bombing range target which he chose was located on
the last leg of the bombers flight route towards the tactical target.
In organizing flights and the training for them, Major Bachilo and Squadron Navi-
gator Captain B. G.Ryazanov decided to give special attention to such factors as plan-
ning the route and maintaining it while in the air, precision of takeoff, and operational
sequence of the crews while in the air. And this was not accidental. Fulfillment of
the mission begins essentially from the moment of taxiing out and takeoff. A delay in
takeoff throws off the entire schedule, since the crew, in trying to make up for the lost
time, will act hastily, and this will lead to undesirable consequences.
The bomber element commanded by Capt. V. A. Butikov was assigned a surprise
combat training mission. A very limited amount of time remained for readying for the
mission. The following question arose before the element command': How could the
mission be organized so as to inflect a blow at the prescribed time? But since, the fly-
ing personnel was familiar with the general situation both, on the ground and in the air,
getting ready for the sortie was made .somewhat easier. Squadron Commander Maj.
Bachilo acquainted the flying per sonnel with the changes in the situation both on the
ground and in the air, pinpointed tile flight course and the target-run heading, and brief-
ed the personnel on the mission schedule. At this time he at once alerted the attention
of the commander and the entire personnel of the element to the main factors deciding
the success of the flight. This made it possible to organize preparation for the sortie
more purposefully.
Immediately after the mission had been assigned, the technical personnel started
to ready the aircraft. After familiarizing themselves with the situation,- the, flying per-
sonnel fiset about preparing maps. As they plotted the course they studied the terrain
and planned the course of action in executing the mission.
A large work-load was laid upon the navigators, especially upon element navigator
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20 F. A. Vazhin
Sen. Lt. G. I. Zubchenko. The flight course had to be computed accurately, and all the
necessary data for air navigation and bombing had to be prepared. First of all the
element navigator checked his watch and determined the exact time. That was a trifle,
it would seem. But under conditions where the strike must be made precisely at the
prescribed time, such a "trifle" is a very important factor.
? Then he secured information about the wind from the weather station and also
other weather data along the route and in the target area. This is particularly impor-
tant for correctly computing takeoff time, the route, and the flight profile. Let us re-
mark that more nearly exact data about the weather can be furnished, not only by the
recon man, but also by the crews which participated in the preceding sortie in the given
. ?
area of combat operations.
In organizing preparation for the sortie, important assistance was given the ele-
ment commander by Maj.Bachilo and Capt.Ryazanov. The bombs were loaded in prop-
er time, and the bombsight equipment and bomb armament of the aircraft were checked
painstakingly. The squadron commander personally checked the readiness of the crews.
At the prescribed time, the crews took their places in the aircraft. The pilots
reported to the element commander that they were ready. With the permission of the
operations officer, the aircraft taxied out to the starting point and took off one after the
other. Having become airborne on schedule, they were able to maintain the planned.
time in assembling and approaching the initial point of the flight route.
The element reached the first verified control point at the precise place and at
the assigned altitude, but a few minutes earlier than the scheduled time, due to a change
in the direction and force of the wind. The element commander and navigator had to
decide swiftly and correctly how and when to use up the extra time. They appraised
the tactical situation which had shaped up during the flight. After the first control
point, the bombers were to reach a turning point and make a turn above it at an angle
close to 90?. It was possible to use up the extra time by reducing speed. But the
navigator at once calculated that they would not have time to do this before the turning
point. Moreover, there was still another control leg ahead, where it was planned to
adjust the autopilot and take a wind reading.
Consequently, the. commander and the navigator decided to turn off to the left of
the route and approach the turning point with a subsequent turn to the right onto the
planned course. Such a simple maneuver made it possible to use up the extra time in
a small segment of the flight route, to pass the control point at the prescribed moment,
and to reach the NBP [initial point of bomb run] in proper time for dropping the bombs
on the bombing range target. To some extent this maneuver also prevented the "enemy"
from determining the bombers' true flight heading.
Before turning off, Zubchenko adjusted the autopilot and took a wind reading. Just
as he had. supposed, the data was different from that received On the ground before take-
off. In order to approach the target accurately, taking into account the change in wind,
the navigator recomputed the remainder of the flight route and the bombing data. Be-
fore approaching the bomb run he determined. the true flight altitude by means of the
radio altimeter.
Thus all prerequisites were created for hitting the target accurately: the sight-
ing data were computed according to the wind which had been read in flight at the alti-
tude of bomb release, and the true altitude had been checked.
The crews dropped. their bombs on the bombing range target as'they broke away
On Tar et on Time
21
Military Pilot First Class Capt. 1.5. Likhosenko in unit X is one of the leading
Air Force commanders who has successfully ma.stered.the use of complex combat
'equipment. For his high achievements in training his subordinates as well as for his,
personal achievements in combat skill, officer Likhosenko has been awarded the Order
of the Red. Banner.
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Photo: Yu. N. Skuratov.
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22 F. A. Vazhin
from the leader. Hitting the target depended on the compactness of the formation
and the timeliness of bomb release by the crews in trail; the element commander had
called. the pilots' attention to this fact beforehand. Before approaching the bomb run,
he reminded them once again of the necessity of maintaining their position in the for-
mation and of flying low with respect to the leader, so that they could observe the in-
stant of bomb release.
All that made a high degree of bombing accuracy possible in spite of the fact
that target visibility was poor. A check of aerial photos carried out by Sen. Lt. Zub-
chenko confirmed the observations of the crews.
Before approaching the front line, the element commander established contact
with the ground. control officer who was with the troops. Previously Capt. Butikov had
kept him informed about the flight and. had obtained from him information about the sit-
uation on the ground. Now the tactical target and. the time for hitting it had to be de-
termined, since after the element's takeoff the situation on the battlefield might have
changed.
The element navigator checked the remaining distance. It turned out that the
bombers were proceeding one minute ahead of time. It was decided to reduce speed.
When they approached the front line, the ground control officer told them that the
situation had changed and that the bomb strike had to be made on an objective located
further to the left and several kilometers closer than the one in previous plans. This
complicated. the operations of the element commander and navigator. Only a few min-
utes remained before they were to approach the target; and during that time they had
to change flight heading, spot the new target, and approach it precisely.
The navigator quickly found. the target on a large-scale map and made the neces-
sary computations. His good. knowledge of the combat operational area and of the typ-
ical ground landmarks had a telling effect.
In order for them to approach the objective exactly on time, speed had to be re-
duced. The troops of "the defenders" were covered by strong fire from the AA facili-
ties. To cut down its effectiveness, the element commander decided to resort to an
AA evasion maneuver. In so doing, he was also acting on the basis of the tactical sit-
uation that had. shaped up ip. order to approach the target precisely. The element had
to turn off its previous course at an angle of ,about.200 and reduce speed. With this
in view, an AA evasion maneuver was carried out.
The element navigator spotted the tactical target and. rechecked. the angle of drift.
At the prescribed time the element made a running approach, to the target and "dumped.
,the bombs".
During the flight analysis the unit commander noted the successful fulfillment of
the mission. The element had reached the objective at the precise place and. time and
had made its strike against it.
The success was determined above all by the fact that the squadron and. element
commanders, upon sizing up the situation, had. correctly determined. the nature of the
mission and. the special features for fulfilling it. It had been decided absolutely correct-
ly that coordination of the operations of the bombers with the ground troops depends on
the timeliness of approaching the prescribed target. In a given instance, the main
thing was to make the strike at the precise place and. time. It was on this basis that
all the operations of the crews, on the ground. and. in the air were organized; and this
made it possible to concentrate the attention of the flying personnel on the basic factors
On Target on Time 23
which decide the success of a flight, to train for the flight in a limited amount of time,
and to carry it out efficiently. The element commander and navigator skillfully de-
termined the methods for achieving precision in approaching the target. Starting from
the takeoff and right up to the landing they operated in conformance with the situation.
However, not all commanders ascribe the necessary importance to an analysis
of the situation on the ground. and in the air. Thus, in one element, when the mission
was assigned, the tactical target was not analyzed at all, but was regarded as a "prac-
tice target circle". As a result, the combat training assignment was carried out as
an ordinary exercise. Consequently, preparation for the flight. also took place in a
routine fashion. In the air, the crews operated without initiative and did not react to
a change in the situation in the air.
Of course the benefit derived from such a flight was insignificant. The tactical
thinking of the flying personnel was not being developed,' the necessary habits were not
being inculcated. The element commander did not acquire the habits of leading his
men in flight preparation and in the course of air operations. And he, after all, organ-
izes the sortie and the fulfillment of the mission. A most complex situation may be
met in the air, when bold operations, full of initiative, will be required of the command-
er.
Thus, for example, during training exercises, the element of Sen. Lt. A.G.Miklaylen-
ko took part in supporting a ground troop offensive. The target was to be bombed, use
being made of an optical sight. After climbing to the planned. altitude, the commander
and the navigator noticed that, owing to haze in the air, the ground landmarks were poor-
ly visible. What could they do? The situation on the battlefield was complicated and
the terrain was unfamiliar. Improvement of visibility could be achieved by decreasing
flight altitude. But that put the bombers into a position of tactical disadvantage. After
sizing up the situation in the air and consulting with the navigator, Sen. Lt. Mikhaylenko
rejected this method and made a bold decision ? to climb to a higher altitude. Through
experience he knew that visibility is sometimes improved that way. Moreover, a num-
ber of advantages were created, particularly the opportunity for carrying out an AA
evasion maneuver. The commander's decision proved to be correct. Visibility im-
proved at the higher altitude and the reserve of altitude was utilized for making the AA
evasion maneuver.
After' sizing up the situation correctly and making the tactically competent deci-
Edon, Sen. Lt. Mikhaylenko carried out the mission precisely. At the same time the
flight was instructive ? both for the element commander and. the flying per sonriel.
During Air Force training exercises, the flying personnel operates in a situation
which has been maximally approximated to that of actual combat. Accordingly, it is
with that situation in mind that the entire flight must be organized. 'A grave error is
committed by those commanders who do not take that into account when analyzing and
"evaluating a flight. Sometimes, there are still instances When a flight is evaluated on-
ly by the results of the bombing. Of course, hitting the target is a.basic factor in eval-
uating the performance of crews. However, under combat conditions it is impossible
to achieve bomb-drop accuracy without the crews' taking the tactical situation into ac-
count.
It is clear that in a training flight not all the elements of the tactical situation may
actively influence the crews and hamper them in carrying out their .mission'. But if the
crews do not take into account all the factors of the situation both on th,e ground and in
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24- F. A. Vazhin
the air which have shaped up during the flight they will become accustomed to operating
under oversimplified. conditions. That, of course, is inadequate for carrying out a
combat mission. The enemy will offer strong resistance and will in every way possi-
ble impede reaching the target. And. it is absolutely clear that pilots who have not train-
ed themselves during peacetime to operate in a tactically competent manner in accord-
ance with the emergent situation will find, it difficult to count on success in actual com-
bat.
THE COMMANDER AND THE PARTY ORGANIZATION
Lt. Gen. of the Air Force A. G. Rytov
Single command is one of the unshakable principles of troop administration. The
commander in the Army, Air Force, and Navy bears full resppnsibility for the combat
and mobilization readiness of the unit entrusted to him, for combat and political train-
ing, for the indoctrination and military discipline of personnel, for the fate and life of
his men. The,ination entrusts its most precious possession to commanders ? human
'1,ives ? and furbishes the Army with-the newest combat equipment necessary for the
arined defense of the Soviet State against imperialistic aggressors.
The very best men are trained and appointed commanders in the Armed Forces
of the Soviet \Unio\fi. In selecting its best sons and directing them to command work, the
nation is convinced of their devotion to the Fatherland, of their readiness to defend the
interests of the Workers to the last drop of blood, and of their ability to organize the
business of defending the peaceful labor of the peoples of the multinational Soviet Union.
_ High combaIt morale is characteristic of Soviet commanders. Ideological tough-
ness1 and conviction as to the justice of the Party's cause, a firm will, per sistance iii
carrying throughlto its conclusion a decision which has been reached, the capacity and.
ability to overconie the difficulties of con-that life, a high degree of personal organilation
and discipline, and exemplary behavior in service and in family? those are the funda.,
III
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26.
A. G.Rytov
mental traits of our commanders. Our commander is exacting but tactful, strict but
attentive, and just: he possesses a great deal of military knowledge, a high level of
culture, and is constantly perfecting his skill.
Tasks of honor and responsibility for each soldier in the Army, Air Force, and
Navy follow from the decisions of the 20th Party Congress: to strengthen the?Armed
Forces untiringly, and to guard in a reliable manner the peaceful toil of the Soviet
People and the security of the Socialist Fatherland. Upon officers who hold single
command positions, enjoy the deep confidence of their men, and possess important
rights, lies the full weight of ;es.ponsibility for the training and constant readiness of
their units and elements. But single command by no means excludes ? but rather it
presupposes ? consideration for the opinions of one's men and the implementation of
their valuable suggestions in daily leadership, in the decisions and orders of the com-
mander. Leadership of a military unit is unthinkable without reliance upon the Party
Organization, without making use of its power and of its influence upon all aspects of
the life of the unit for strengthening combat might and combat readiness. That is why
commanders rely upon the Party Organizations in their daily work. The local Party
Organization helps the commander actively in his important, complex, and crucial
work.
On 27 April 1957 the Central Committee of the CPSU confirmed the "Instructions
for Organizations of the CPSU in the Soviet Army and Navy", in which the tasks of the
Party Organizations were clearly defined. "The Party organizations", read the In-
structions, "are obliged in their entire work to strengthen the combat might of the So-
viet Army and Navy, to rally the personnel around the Communist Party and the Soviet
Government, to indoctrinate the servicemen in the spirit of utter devotion to the Soviet
Fatherland, in the spirit of friendship of the peoples of the USSR, and in the spirit of
proletarian internationalism".
The principles of Party development in the Armed Forces of the USSR are defined
in the Instructions, and the special features of that development are reflected there.
The Party Organizations of the Armed Forces are an integral part of the Communist
Party; they are guided in their entire activity ? as are all organizations of our Party
by the Rules of the CPSU, by the Decrees of the Congresses and of the Central Commit-
tee of the Communist.Party of the' Soviet Union, and they base their practical work on
the Instructions and the directives of the Ministry of Defense and of the Chief Political
Administration.
Consequently, the local Party Organizations in the Army, Air Force, and Navy
must steadfastly guide themselves by the Rules of the CPSU and the decisions of the
Party, and., with that as a starting point, mobilize the men for carrying out the tasks
of combat and political training, for strengthening military discipline, for mastering
new equipment and weapons, and for supporting the constant combat' readiness of the
units and elements. Assuring the constantly growing readiness of personnel for the
struggle to carry out problems confronting the unit actually means organizing the prac-
tical work of the Party Organization in mobilizing personnel to carry out the orders of
the Ministry of Defense and of the commanders.
Leadership of the Party Organizations is exercised by the Political Agencies.
That means that they are responsible for all aspects of the activity of the Party Orga-
nization. The Political Agencies have the right to form local Party Organizations, and
with their consent Party Organizations are formed in the elements. The Political Agen-
Organization
27
,C01-nr.
Lenin Prize Laureate M. G. Surgutanov, Pilot of the Ural Geological Administra-
tion air party.
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28
A. G. Rytov
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cies confirm secretaries and Party organizers, check on the activity of the Party Org-
anizations, take stock of Party members and. member-candidates, look after the qual-
itative and. quantitative growth of Party ranks, the ideological toughness and moral puri-
ty of the Communists, etc. Thus, in the hands of the Political Agencies are concen-
trated all the most important functions which make it possible to exercise direct leader-
ship over the Party Organizations.
Protecting the authority of the command cadres of the Armed Forces of the USSR,
the Central Committee of the Party in the "Instructions for Organizations of the CPSU
in the Soviet Army and Navy" defined the exact procedure for examining cases of in-
fringement of Party rules by Communists. The right to decide the question of holding
someone to account to the Party has been granted to the Political Agencies. and the com-
manders. For example, cases of Party misdemeanors by Communists of the rank of
sergeant, master sergeant, junior lieutenant, lieutenant, senior lieutenant, captain,
and lieutenant-commander, are examined by the bureau of the local Party Organization
with the approval of the deputy regimental or ship commander for political affairs and.
of the regimental or ship commander. The right to grant approval for a Party Com-
mission in the political section of a large unit to examine cases of Party misdemeanors
by Communists of the ranks of major, subcommander, lieutenant colonel, commander,
has been granted. to the chief of the political section, to the commander of a large unit,
etc.
The commander directs the work of the Party Organization. That means that he
personally and also through his political deputy exerts daily influence upon the Party
Organization activity so that it, the Party Organization, struggles to carry out tasks
confronting the unit and so that it rallies and. mobilizes the entire personnel for the most
successful solution of these tasks. The political deputy commander organizes Party
work in the regiment and bears direct responsibility for its morale.
The commander exercises his guiding role by making use of the experience of the
masses and by maintaining constant contact with Communists. Closely connected with
the Party Organization, he presents it with problems, orients, its members as to what
they must give special attention to at one period. of time or another, and where the main
efforts of the Communists must be directed.
Uninterrupted contact with the Communists is the primary task of the commander,
since the Members of the Party Organization, located as they are among the personnel,
know its needs and moods and will tell about them and, in other words,. will help the
commander take the necessary measures. The commander should understand that he
and his men are in the same Party ? a voluntary combat alliance of Communists hold-
ing the same views ? and, as members of this party, they enjoy identical rights and
bear responsibility before the Party for the cause of defense and for the morale of the
unit.
The commander must be in communication with the Party Organization Bureau
? and. with the secretary, must always know what the Communists are doing and give ad-
vice as to which questions must be gikren spectial attention in combat and political train-
ing, in indoctrination and military discipline of personnel. While speaking at Party Bu-
reau conferences, and at Party meetings, he presents the Party Organization with reg-
ular tasks.
It is quite clear that without close personal contact with the ?nrnunist,s, the com-
mander will not be able to utilize to the full the power and authority of the Party Organi-
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mmander and the Part
Or ?anization 29
zation to intensify combat readiness, the quality of training and indoctrination, and. the
strengthening of military discipline. Leading Air Force commanders are well aware
-of this.
. Unit commander Lt. Col. B. V. Sutyrin, for example, regularly presents the Party.
Organization with concrete tasks, makes suggestions as to which way the chief efforts
of the Communists and Komsomol members must be directed. - He often chats with
members of the Party Bureau, takes an interest in their Work, gives advice on how to
organize it better, and supports the initiative of the Communists and Komsomol mem-
bers. The commander regularly appears also before the personnel with lectures and.
r_eports on political and military indoctrination. For the last two months alone he has
given several reports on the combat?morale of Soviet pilots, on the role of officers in
strengthening military discipline, on enhancing the combat readiness of the unit. Be- ?
-sides that, Lt. Col. Sutyrin often reports at Party and Kam.somol meetings and attends
conferences of the Party Bureau. Recently, on his initiative, the Party Bureau con-
sidered the question of "On the work of the Party Organization in the struggle against
factors leading to flight accident". The report on this question was given by B. V. Su-
tyrin. The commanders and the Party Bureau secretaries of the elements were invit-
ed. to the Bureau.
On flight training days, Sutyrin presents the Party and Komsomol Organizations
with problems and advises them as to who must be given concrete assistance. In eval-
uating flights, he regularly sums up the Party-political support of the flying day. Of-
ficer Sutyrin is interested in all aspects of the life and. activity of the regimental person-
nel. Thus, for example, with his active support and assistance, an evening meeting
was held for officers on the topic, "For a healthy family and healthy living", which the
officers and. their families praise,highly.
The Party Organization is the reliable support of the commander. The Party Bu-
reau works actively, the Communists serve as models for the fulfillment of one's mili-
tary duty and. 75% of the Communists are Outstanding' Men.
After succeeding in closely uniting the personnel of the unit and in setting up the
? training and indoctrination of the soldiers in an exemplary manner, the commander,
with the help of the Party Organization, saw to it that the unit became the best in the '
group. The absolute majority of the pilots have first and second. class ratings, and
many have been awarded. decorations and medals for mastery of flights under adverse
conditions.
The Communists and the Komsomol Members of the unit were the initiators of so-
cialist competition for giving a worthy welcome to the 40th anniversary of Great October.
Right now the obligations which the men took upon themselves are being fulfilled: The
commander and. the Party Organization are skillfully directing the competition in Which
? the entire personnel has been joined..
If we analyze the work of unit commander Sutyrin or of other Air Force command-
ers from the point of view of their leading role in the activity of the Party Organizations,
we can observe that each one of them sets up this work in his own way, but necessarily
in close contact with the aktiv of the Party and. with the broad masses of the Communists.
Let us take Air Force commander F.P.Onopriyenko as only one example. He/ is in .
constant contact with the secretaries of the Party and Komsomol Organizations and also
I
with the members of the Party Bureau. F. P. Onopriyenko informs them in va time .
of the combat training problems to be solved next, and determines what, in his 'opinion,
is required. of the Party Organization and. Communists for overcoming some defects or'
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30 A. G. Rytov
other. A business-like contact with the Party aktiv helps the commander direct the
Party Organization in good time towards a solution of the main problems confronting
the unit.
The commander frequently attends Party Bureau conferences and Party meetings.
Recently at a unit Party Bureau conference, there was a discussion on the question of
the work of the Party Organization in training first class pilots. At this conference
Onopriyenko listened, attentively to the proposals of the Communists for eliminating
shortcomings and then he himself spoke and told of the kind, of help he was expecting
from the Communists. And very soon thereafter the result of the work which they
carried on was the awarding of the next higher rating to seven pilots.
Somewhat later, the Party Organization took up the question of improving the
quality of work with Outstanding Men in combat and political training. A proposal was
made: in qualifying Outstanding Men, soldiers and sergeants should be periodically rat-
ed. in every outfit according to individual types of combat training. This proposal was
approved by the commander, accepted, and put into effect.
Very often Onopriyenko chats with the Communists on the most varied topics in
an informal atmosphere. In one such conversation he ascertained that the Party Org-
anization was not exerting due influence on the young pilots. The Communists, as a
rule, are already experienced pilots. But the youth are, on the whole, Komsomol
members whom the Party members sometimes are apt to forget. The error was cor-
rected in due time. Maintaining constant contact with his men and officers and with
the Communists and Komsomol members, the commander daily directs the activity of
the Party Organization. Active Party work in the unit has had a positive effect on the
fulfillment of the combat and political training schedule and also on the strengthening
of military discipline.
Every Air Force commander encounters the most varied problems which require
an individual solution. Improving the quality of bomber training is one problem,
strengthening military discipline another; and they must be solved in different ways.
And this is precisely where the skill of the commander lies ? to find the most expedient
solution in each separate instance. To train and indoctrinate one's men in the right
way means to know how to select, out_of scores of possible variants, the most nearly
correct, the most appropriate solution, under given conditions.
In one outfit the crews Were somewhat behind in bomber training. The Air Force
commander, I. P. Yalovoy, together with his assistants, analyzed the causes of such
'backwardness. And in order to plan the most expedient ways of eliminating the defects
they had uncovered, he decided to consult with the Communists: A Party Bureau con-
ference was called. The secretary of the Party Bureau, A.F.Arkhipov, invited the
commanders and the leading navigator and engineer personnel. Valuable suggestions.
were made at the conference, and the commander succeeded in making use of them, put-
ting them into effect with the help of the Party aktiv itself. " ?
Another time, the commander ascertained, that military discipline in one element
did not meet present-day requirements. He suggested to political worker A. I. Lutsiy
that he make a careful study of the state of training work. Many serious shortcomings
were brought to light in the organization of political studies, and in the manner in which
men spent their day off as well as the day preceding it. Upon the advice of the command-
er, the Party Bureau helped the Party Organization eliminate the shortcomings which
had been observed. Together with the commander, A.I.Lutsiy conducted a meeting of
;1
The Commander and the Party Organization 31
the outfit's personnel dealing with the results of a month's combat training and on the
state of military discipline. Use was also made of such a form of indoctrination work
as a talk by the commander who told. (at an evening get-together to talk over old times)
about the combat feats of his fellow officers during the years of the Great Patriotic War.
The young soldiers listened very attentively to the account of the pilots' heroism, their
exploits and. their fearlessness. In reply to a question by the Komsomol members, Ya-
lovoy told why he had received the distinction of Hero of the Soviet Union.
All this taken together was conducive to a noticeable improvement in the state of
military discipline here. In a short time the outfit, which had. previously lagged behind,
assumed a leading position in the unit in combat and political training.
Officer Yalovoy's men recently took part in training exercises. The commander
and the Party-political apparatus succeeded in drawing the wide Communist aktiv and.
the Komsomol members into the Party-political work, and this was one of the important
factors that made for successful fulfillment of missions during the training exercises.
The Party-political workers and. the Party aktiv studied. problems involved in the
Air Force exercises and. the nature of flying. Officers Yalovoy and. Lutsiy personally
gave a thorough briefing to the commanders, the secretaries of the Party and Komsomol
organizations, and the Party and. Komsomol aktiv, on the nature of Party-political work
among pilots, navigators, aircraft radio-operator gunners, technicians, and. junior avia-
tion specialists, all during the period of training and. instruction.
Questions of assuring exemplary behavior by the Communists and. Komsomol mem-
bers in carrying out missions during Air Force training exercises were taken up at
Party and Komsomol meetings and. at conferences of the Party and. Komsomol Bureaus.
Carrying out the decisions that had been made, the Party Bureau organized. the
work of propagandizing and. inculcating the experience of leading Communists and. Kom-
somol members ? pilots, navigators, and. specialists who service bomb armament for
flights in an outstanding manner. On the initiative of the Party Bureau, Outstanding
Bombardier, Capt. B. G.Ryazanov, spoke to the navigators and. told how he had. received.
high ratings for bombing with radar sights. The Bureau of the Komsomol Organization
publicized. among all small-arms technicians the experience of senior armaments me-
chanic Sergeant A. F. Zhurttb, a participant in the All Army Conference of Outstanding
Men.
Thanks to the efforts of the commander and the Party and Komsomol Organizations,
the problems of the Air Force training exercises were solved. with great success.
The unit commanders of the Armed. Forces of the Soviet Union display deep Party
spirit in their work, by taking care of the defense of the socialist Fatherland, daily in-
tensification of .the combat readiness and. combat fitness of the units entrusted. to them.
They struggle persistently to carry out the orders and. Schedules of combat and. political
training, to indoctrinate and.prepare Outstanding Men in training, .and. to take care of -
their men in a fatherly manner.
However, individual commanders sometimes allow in their outfits incomplete and.
inferior fulfillment of schedules for individual phases of combat training, over-simplifi-,
ca- tion in instruction, a careless attitude to subordinates, coarseness and. tactlessness.
For example, officer A. G. Gudayev failed. to notice violations of methodological sequence
. ?
in training pilots and. did. not notice that in one outfit assignments were being given to
the pilots which did not correspond to the level of their training. Of course, one can try
to find various grounds to justify such a blunder. But such justification is not fitting for
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32 A. G. Rytov
a Communist who has been placed in a position of leadership.
In carrying out his tasks, the commander is always obliged to remember his
responsibility to the Party and to the Soviet People for the work which has been entrust-
ed to him. He must be exacting not only towards his men but also towards himself,
and he must display a high Party spirit in all his work. But the Party spirit of the
commander is tested and measured by his attitude towards carrying out the decisions
of the Communist Party, by a feeling of deep responsibility towards fulfillment of his
service duty.
The Central Committee of the CPSU requires more intense active participation
and mettleqomeness in the work of the Party Organizations, and an intensification of
Party influence in all aspects of troop life: "The Party Organizations are obliged to
penetrate competently and actively into all aspects of combat training, military disci-
pline, and personnel indoctrination" ("Instructions for Organizations of the CPSU in
the Soviet Army and Navy"). This requirement can be carried out successfully, if the
political agencies seriously intensify their guidance of the local Party Organizations,
and if the commanders, personally and through their political deputies ? who organize
Party work in the regiment directly ? guide the activity of the Communists towards
the solution of the most important problems.
By making use of the method of criticism and self-criticism, tried and tested in
the Party, the Party Organizations must acquire a deeper knowledge of combat training,
strengthen military discipline, and improve per sonnel indoctrination. On the basis of
criticism and. self-criticism, they must skillfully uncover shortcomings in the training
and indoctrination of the men and in Party-political work; they must help the commander
take timely measures to eliminate shortcomings which hamper improvement of combat
readiness in the units.
In carrying out the tasks fixed by the Rules of the CPSU, the local Party Organiza-
tions in the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union are obliged, as is stated in "Instructions
for Organizations of the CPSU in the Soviet Army and Navy", to indoctrinate Commu-
nists in the spirit of the concepts of Marxism and Leninism, and in a spirit of intolerance
to shortcomings, to strive to bring about their personal exemplary behavior in combat
training and discipline, in observance of the military oath and in carrying out the re-
quirements of military regulations and orders, and in every possible way to strengthen
the principle of single command and. the authority of commanders and chiefs.
Their primary duty is to indcictrinate in the Party members and Party candidates
a high degree of political vigilance and constant readiness to defend, the state interests
of the Soviet Union, a responsibility for mastering and caring for combat equipment and
weapons, a firm will and physical endurance, and the capacity to withstand steadfastly
all the difficulties of field and combat life.
The obligation of the local Party Organizations consists of systematically carry-
ing out the work of recr.uiting new members into the Party from the ranks of officers,
first sergeants, sergeants, soldiers and sailors, and workers and 'employees who are
conscientious, active, and devoted to the cause of Communism.
Guiding the Komsomol is the most important work of the Party. Consequently,
the Central Committee of the CPSU obliges the Army Party Organizations constantly to
guide the Komsomol Organizations, to see to the political and militarrindoctrination of
the members of the VLKSM [Leninist Young Communist .League of the Soviet Union] and
to indoctrinate the Komsomol members and youth in a spirit of devotion to the Soviet
The Commander and the Part Or anization 33
Pilots watching fighters in a.erial combat.
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34 A. G. Rytov
Fatherland and the Communist Party.
A paramount task consists of strengthening ties with the broad masses of service-
men, of explaining to them the policy and .decisions of the Party and the Government,
of mobilizing the entire personnel for successful execution of the combat and political
training schedules, of continuously perfecting their combat skill, and of striving to
have every serviceman understand clearly that the strictest discipline is necessary in
the Army and Navy.
Finally, the local Party Organization must always be familiar with the needs and
moods of the personnel, must penetrate into all aspects of the life of a unit, help the
commander and his political deputy solve problems of political and military indoctrina-
tion, and. to popularize the experience of leading officers, sergeants, and soldiers.
These tasks and duties will be carried out successfully on the sole condition that
the Political Agencies manage to guide the Party Organizations concretely and expedient-
ly, and that the commanders daily supervise their activity, maintaining close contact
with the Communists, assigning timely and concrete tasks dealing with political and
military indoctrination of personnel, the support of combat training, and the strengthen-
ing of military discipline. In organizing Party work, the political deputy must pene-
trate deeply into the practical activity of the Party Organization, and daily instruct the
Party aktiv, together with the secretary of the Party Bureau, to organize the implemen-
tation of Party decisions.
Guiding themselves steadfastly by the requirements of the Central Committee of
the CPSU as set forth in the Instructions, Air Force commanders and the PoliticalAgen-
cies will achieve an all-around improvement in active participation and mettlesomeness
in the work of our Party Organizations, an intensification of Party influence in all as-
pects of the life and activity of the outfits and unit. And this, in turn, will serve to in-
tensify further the combat readiness of the Soviet Air Force.
la
1
1
I
1
1
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1
PARTY-POLITICAL WORK IN AVIATION TRATNING
Col. A. I. Tiguntsev
Aviation training .represents a complex aspect of the combat preparation of every
unit and outfit. During the entire training period, the personnel is under tremendous
physical and moral stress.
Success of the exercise depends on many factors: -in the first place, on moral
qualities, on well-rounded specialist training and physical hardening of pilots, naviga-
tors, engineers, and technicians ? of the entire personnel of the air and engineering
outfits.
During the strenuous days of the training, activities of the Party and Komsomol
organizations usually become more intensive. All measures are taken in order to
direct Party effort towards improving personnel preflight training and preflight servic-
ing of equipment,towards raising the application standards of this equipment both on the
ground and in the air, toward providing constantly for the material well-being of mili-
tary personnel.
Party and Komsomol meetings are being held in the outfits. Ways to carry out
missions assigned by the command are discussed at these meetings. Where it is impos-
sible to organize a general meeting, sessions of Party and Komsomol bureaus, or con-
ferences of Communists and Komsomol members are held. As a rule, commanding of-
ficers deliver lectures. Thus, for example, officer N. I. Korobchak delivered a lecture
at the conference of Communists in unit X. In their speeches the Communists made
definite suggestions for setting up flying personnel training and for servicing equipment.
They spoke about maintaining exemplary military discipline and efficiency. The
secretary of the Party organization, devoted his speech to pointing out ways of combatting ?
over-simplification in training. He made an appeal to the Communists to spread more
extensively information about their advanced experience. Special attention was given
by the Party Organization to rendering definite aid to the command inpreflight training
of young pilots and navigators.
The Komsomol meeting whose agenda read "Carrying out to the letter a mission
" assigned by the command is the patriotic duty of every Komsomol member" went off in a
businesslike way. Similar meetings and conferences mobilized Communists and Kom-
somol member's for successful preflight training of the entire personnel. The gist of all
suggestions could be primarily rendered as follows: the Party bureaus should actively
assist commanding officers in familiarizing crew, flight, and squadron members, as
well as staff workers and all aviation specialists with their definite tasks to the extent
required from any specific category of military personnel.
Secretaries of the Party. and Komsomol organizations as well as Party and Kom-
somol group organizers cond.ucted important individual work. By their personal ex-.
ample and by their passionate appeal they mobilized both flight and technical personnel
'for carrying out excellently the standing orders. Since outstanding combat and political
trainees were in the majority here, they were able to give practical assistance in crew
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36 A. I. Tigtmtsev
preflight training.
Upon receiving the training orders the technical personnel began to ready the
aircraft equipment, whereas the flying personnel started to prepare maps, to study
the flight course and profile, the. flight conditions, and the conditions under which the
assignment would be, carried out. At the same time, training was being conducted in
aircraft cabins and in trainers.
At that time the commanding officers explained to the crews the mission that lay
ahead of them, bringing to their attention special points of training and planning for the
first sortie, which looked complicated to the majority of the crews because it was to be
carried out from an unfamiliar airfield on planes with maximum flying weight. The
flight itself was to take place at high altitude and to follow a difficult and unfamiliar
course. It was necessary to assist the crews in gaining full understanding of the fac-
tors involved in the takeoff, in familiarization with the course, and in making the proper
calculations needed to approach the target precisely.
While assisting the commanding officers, the political workers actively partici-
pated in explaining the assigned missions, and, at the same time, enlisted for this work
the cooperation of the best pilots, navigators, engineers, technicians, and other spe-
cialists ? every one of them an expert in his field.
The Party activists conducted discussions with the crews concerning the elements
of the flight missions and the duties which every crew member would have in organizing
the integrated and precise work when airborne. They paid special attention to new
crews who were participating in the exercise for the first time. The training standards
of the personnel and the quality of the aircraft equipment, as well as the efficiency of
aircraft and radar safety facilities were checked. before the first night sortie; measures
were taken to supply the aircraft rations on time.
One of the bomber outfits was assigned a responsible mission: energetic counter-
measures against the "enemy's" radar facilities. Political workers and the Party or-
ganization helped the commanding officer to prepare the personnel for this task. The
measures to be taken by the Party organization were discussed at a conference of the
Party bureau. In accordance with the decision of the, conference, discussions were con-
ducted with the flying personnel and., separately; with the technical personnel. These
discussions centered around the problems of readying equipment and of its proper use
in the air.
To prevent and to eliminate in time any shortcomings which had been noticed, the
Party organizations aided_the.command in analyzing all aspects of every sortie. The
navigator of the bomber outfit, Capt. A. V. Pomytkin, for example, whose group had to at-
tack the "enemy" airfield, didn't bring the element precisely onto the combat course;
because of this the quality of the photobombing deteriorated. The commanding officers
pointed out his mistake to Pomytkin.? The Party organization conducted a discussion of
the results of the sortie with Communists, and in succeeding sorties such mistakes
were not repeated.
It is known that success is achieved through persistent effort, through intensive
work to overCome difficulties, through an uncompromising attitude towards shortcomings,
slackness and oversimplifications of all sorts. Commanding officers, political organi-
zations, and Party and Komsomol organizations of the outfits which participated in the
exercises did not turn away from difficulties, nor did they bypass shortcomings, nor
put off the solution of important questions till they had more leisure and free time.
;:'arty-Political Work in Aviation Training 37
Political workers and the most active Party members mingled with the pilots
and aviation specialists when the mission was being planned and when independent pre-
flight work was under way. They helped the personnel in word and deed. At that
time, individual discussions and direct on-the-spot assistance were the basic aspects
of their work. Thus, Senior Lt. G.A. Kurdyukov, a crew navigator, fell behind his
comrades in compiling the flight data. Capt. G. L.Dushkin, a political worker, came
to his aid: he took the navigation rule and helped to calculate the flight time on all legs
of the flight course; he told Kurdyukov which radar reference points could be expedient-
ly used to check the flight path, and compiled with him the flight plan. Dushkin gave
advice to another navigator, namely, which civilian broadcasting stations and direction
finders could best be used during the flight, and how he should proceed in case of the
radar sight failure under conditions of a complete overcast.
Flights which would train the crews on an unknown airfield were planned for one
night.. The commander was absent, and his deputY was charged with supervising the
flights; of course, it was much more difficult for him to organize the flights. In a
brief period of time he had to complete a great deal of work in order to see that the as-
signed mission was carried out. Political workers rendered him the necessary assist-
ance. Officer S. S. Bulychev, chief of the political organization, himself joined in the
training and enlisted the cooperation of the entire Party political machine. The main
difficulty consisted in the fact that no night flights had been previously conducted at the
airfield, and therefore there were no lighting facilities on the landing strips and taxi-
ways.
Communists assisted the command in mobilizing the personnel for high-quality
preflight training. They also helped lay out the starting line in time, to set up guards
at the airfield, to set up communications with the CKP [alert command post] , etc.
Komsomol members were enlisted to insure illumination of the taxiways.
In another case, the commander drew the special attention of the political work-
ers to the training of the crews of the leading groups and the servicing of the planes that
were to produce radio countermeasures and carry on retransmission of radio messages.
Crews of these aircraft attended a separate meeting. The unit commander set forth a
plan for work on special apparatus and requested that a painstaking preflight training
exercise be conducted. Political Deputy Yu. M. Dubinov, as well as officers who were
navigation specialists, worked directly within the crews so as to exercise control and
to render assistance.
Navigator R. A. Mesyagutov, member of Capt. P.1. Axenov's crew, had only flown
at night with an instructor, and was now going on a sortie independently for the first
time. An experienced navigator, Maj. N. I. Fel'd.sher ov, member of the unit Party bu-
reau, came to, his aid. He informed him about some peculiar aspects of flying aircraft
at night, of working in a dimly lit cabin, assisted. him in drawing up a flight navigation
plan and in making calculations. With Such expert assistance, officer Mesyagutov car-
ried out his flight mission excellently.
In their talks with the radio-operator gunners it became evident to the political
workers that some of them had not mastered radio communication procedure. They re-
ported this immediately to the commander. By his order, all co-pilots and radio-op-
erator gunners went through additional training during which they learned correct radio
communication rules, signal and code table procedure.
The following example illustrates the efficiency of the -entire personnel. .After
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38 A. I. Tiguntsev
the bomber crews got set to taxi out for the takeoff, a higher H. Q. changed the assign-
ment and shifted them to operations on more important objectives. Takeoff time was
postponed by one hour. The time necessary to prepare new navigational computations
and to work out courses was quite limited. Besides, all work was done at the airfield
at night and in the rain, under the aircraft. Engineers and technicians secured light-
ing which helped the pilots to be ready for the sortie on time.
When. providing the aircraft with oxygen much time is spent on attaching the truck
hose to the aircraft. The driver, a Komsomol member, offered to help the aircraft
mechanic, and thus considerable time was saved. Both Party and Komsomol organi-
zations attached great significance to this fact; they discussed it in their talks with in-
dividuals and with groups, they reported about it in field papers and in radio broadcasts
to the entire technical personnel and the drivers. Practical adaptation of this method
greatly reduced the time needed for preflight servicing of the element's second sortie.
Numerous examples could be cited of well-integrated, and precise work, as well
as of mutual comradely assistance among the technical and flying personnel and the per-
sonnel of the outfits that were servicing the flights.
It would be unnecessary to try to prove that all this was the result of extensive
work done by the commanding officers, political organizations, Party and Komsomol or-
ganizations in indoctrinating the personnel in the spirit of military comradeship and com-
bat friendship, in indoctrinating every man with a deep sense of responsibility for carry-
ing out the common mission.
Much attention was given to disseminating the work experience of topnotch pilots,
navigators, radio-operator gunners, engineers, technicians, mechanics, and other avia-
tion specialists. In doing this, the Party political workers aimed at making use of all
the available ways and technical means in order to disseminate effectively and clearly
the pioneering experience, better methods and techniques of work.
Military Pilot First Class S. I. Muskantsev carried out excellently his reconnais-
sance mission of an important target. With the commanding officer's permission, the
Party bureau secretary organized a talk during which Muskantsev spoke to pilots of
another outfit who were supposed to attack the same target. The officer specified in
detail the nature of the objective, the means of approach, and the most noticeable check-
points. He emphasized the necessity of exercising caution in the air and of distribUting
one's attention in 'such a way as to secure a safe flight. All this proved very informative
and useful. for the pilots taking part in?carrying out the mission.
Fighter pilots successfully carried out their.bomber intercept mission. Outstand-
ing men made a report to the personnel. They told about the peculiarities of the attack.
Pilots asked them many questions concerning the nature of the target approach maneuver,
the bomber speed, the range at which fire had been opened, and so on. This helped
them to prepare for future flights.
In the course of the exercise the gun camera was set incorrectly on one of the air-
craft. This caused mutual bickerin.gs between armament technicians and mechanics and
specialists from the photo group. Political workers noticed this, and., together with
the armament and the photo group specialists, they organized a review of gun camera
loading instructions. Officers who made their observations informed the audience of the
correct rules and demonstrated how the magazines aie loaded and how the gun cameras
are zeroed in. Specialists were reminded that the pilot'a estimate in intercepting the
target depended, to a great extent, on their work and on the results of their photography.
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Party-Political Work in Aviation Training 39
As a result, both the group air armament personnel and the photo service did a good
job during the exercises.
The attempt to disclose the details ? the "trifles" ? in the work methods of top
pilots, technicians, and other air specialists, and to let all personnel in any given spe-
cialty share in their experience, as well as a profound study of life, made it possible
for the commanders, political workers and Party organizations to insure concrete and
effective propaganda of advanced experience and to inculcate the work of the entire per-
sonnel with it.
Propaganda work on a mass scale was greatly enlarged in scope during the train-
ing; its aim was to clarify the training problems as well as to shed light on current
domestic and international events.
V.I. Lenin said: "Clarity of propaganda and agitation is a basic condition. If our
adversaries admitted and recognized that we accomplished miracles in developing agita-
tion and propaganda, this should not be understood in its explicit meaning ? that we had
many agitators and much paper had been used. This should be understood in its im-
plicit meaning: the truth that this agitation contained penetrated into all minds. And
it is impossible to deviate from this truth."
It was this truthfulness, timeliness, and concreteness that permeated the entire
agitprop work during the training. All propaganda and agitation workers tried to con-
vince men by quoting facts and examples taken from life, and to correlate more closely
the agitprop measures with the assignments that were being carried out, to render def-
inite aid and to give proper advice to a pilot, a navigator, a technician, or any other
aviation specialist.
On the very first day of the training exercises the fighter elements carried out
successfully their assigned mission. The majority of the pilots proved to be mature
and to possess combat training of a high standard. The senior commanding officer is-
sued an order in which he expressed his gratitude and awarded citations to many pilots
and technicians. Many soldiers and sergeants were awarded Air Force "Outstanding
Man" medals for excellent maintenance of the aircraft equipment and for faithful dis-
charge of their military duties. Gratitude was expressed to a large group of officers,
sergeants, and soldiers. During the personnel assembly the political organization
chief read the order and awarded the citations.
All the agitprop work was based. on constant elucidatiOn of the Communist Party
and Soviet Government policies to the personnel, and on discussions of' the domestic
and international situation. Even on training days when tension prevailed, agitation
workers and active Party and Komsomol members conducted discussions which had for
their topic domestic and international political 'affairs.
Meetings with Great Patriotic War veterans promoted the education of the person-
nel in the spirit of responsibility, soldierly comradeship, and mutual assistance. ?
Lt. Colonels V. K. Lyalin and.V. V. Sugrin, Heroes of the Soviet Union, made a per-
sonal appearance before the fighter pilots. They told in a convincing manner how im-
portant in combat are mutual assistance, good teamwork among the crews, and true
military comradeship. They discussed in detail characteristic features of conducting
air reconnaissance and spoke about their experience.
Letters to the relatives of the most ,outstanding men were one of the devices in
the work of some units.
Daily newsreels and. newscasts devoted to personnel activities during training
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40 A. I. Tiguntsev
played an important part in acquainting as many as possible with the experience of Out-
standing Men.
Agitation through visual means was effectively used..for mobilizing the personnel
during training. Well-executed. posters, slogans, and. appeals could. be seen at aircraft
parking spaces, at the starting line, at the personnel quarters, in messes ? in one
word, everywhere. Effectiveness and actuality were characteristic features of the
visual agitation propaganda. It was always correlated. to the problems of the day, al-
ways called for tackling some practical job. In the groups briefings were published
which served as memos for the pilot, the navigator, the?technician, and other aviation
specialists. They contained the assignments for the day, formation plans, course pro-
files, etc. Here second copies of the plan tables were posted which gave the pilots
and. technicians a chance to obtain more exact specifications .of their assignment, the
time of the sortie, and to prepare properly for it.
In the course of the training exercise one of the crews completed in an excellent
manner a flight with in-air refueling. A leaflet was devoted to this flight, and special-
ly equipped exhibits depicted. in detail all phases of the complicated mission.
In the free intervals between flights and during recreation hours cleverly planned
mass cultural work was being conducted. Officer clubs of smaller and larger units as
well as technical clubs among the outfits joined in this work. The personnel being dis-
persed, club cars, which managed to visit all the outfits during a day, were used.
The work of the clubs whose workers used. to tape-record morning and. evening
newscasts is worth noticing. The news was later rebroadcast through a relay station
set up in a car. The latest news was followed by a broadcast mentioning those whose
performance was excellent on that day and propagandizing their experience. Newspa-
pers and magazines were delivered to the airfield by car.
During the entire training period serious consideration was given to insuring ade-
quate living conditions, especially to setting up food supply and organizing normal re-
creation for the personnel. Such consideration for living conditions on the part of the
Party political workers was caused by the fact that the majority of the crews were op-
erating from unfamiliar airfields during the training. As a consequence, serious 'dif-
ficulties arose in finding quarters for?them.
Both political workers and medical service officers constantly checked standards
in food preparation ana food delivery time to the airfield. Refreshment stands were
set up on all airfields.
Experience gained. during the training indicates that a quickly changing situation
and intensive work of the entire personnel do not allow the use of some of the convention-
al methods of Party-political work, since the mass of the personnel are removed for a
long period of time from their immediate activities. However, the possibilities for ,
Party-political work du' ring the training are much broader than in the usual situation.
This can be explained by the fact that all commanding officers, political workers, and
the most active Party members remain with the personnel during the entire training
period.
Direct contact of commanding officers and political workers with pilots and. tech-
nicians, reports, brief group and individual talks, short conferences, information con-
cerning.the general situation and progress in carrying out the missions assigned. to the
units, popularization of and effective familiarization with advanced experience, ?short
t)
IL
I.
Party-Political Work in Aviation Training . 41 -
meetings of the Party and Komsomol organizations within the squadrons, bureau con-
ferences ? this is only an incomplete list of the basic measures that can be applied
during training. It is natural that best results will be achieved by those commanding
officers, political agencies, Party and. Komsomol organizations?that apply similar
methods while taking into account local conditions and adapt them to the problems"to be
solved.
'
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mimignimmAnkagia**40:01Fizalmmr)smiz
COMPETITION FOR AN OUTSTANDING CREW,
A TOPNOTCH ELEMENT
Military Pilot First Class Lt. Col. B. V. Sutyrin, Maj. B. S. Serikov
One of the squadrons in our unit was the first in the group to join in the com-
petition dedicated to the 40th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution.
Under the leadership of Military Pilot First Class Maj. P.M. Gavrilov, the men of the
squadron made socialist pledges and, through the Army press, appealed to all the fly-
ers of the group to follow their example.
The men of the Air Force Bomber Squadron commanded by Maj. P. M. Gavrilov
made definite pledges. They set themselves the goal of having in their squadron by the
end of the training year 65% of the crews, 60% of the technical maintenance groups, and.
100% of the detachments rated as Outstanding.
The element pledged itself to have the following by the end. of the training year: 40%
of the navigators, and 60% of the radio-operator gunners to be First Class.
For the purpose of achieving interchangeability in the technical crews and in the
technical maintenance groups, a drive was launched with the aim of seeing that no less
than 30% of the aviation specialists master a related specialty.
In an attempt to attain further progress in mass sports work, the squadron per-
sonnel pledged itself to pass the standard tests for the first degree GTO [Ready for La-
bor and Defense] badge, to train 50% as second degree GTO badge wearers, and 20%
as rated sportsmen.
All these pledges are being successfully fulfilled. New Outstanding crews have al-
ready been trained in the squadron. The ranks of First Class military pilots and navi-
gators have been increased. The maintenance group led by Technical Lt. A. A. Popkov
and the detachment of Sgt. P. F. Presich have become Outstanding. Since the time the
pledges were made, the number of rated radio-operator gunners in the squadron has in-
creased five times over.
Why have we taken up this dismission about Maj. Gavrilov's squadron? Is it not
in a better condition as compared with others and is not that fact the reason for its suc-
cess in fulfilling the pledges made by the men? In reply to this question we must state
flatly that other outfits of ours are in no way inferior to Officer Gavrilov's squadron.
There are many experienced First Class pilots and navigators in the unit. Maj. Gavri-
lov's squadron will have to exert even greater effort, inasmuch as there are many young
crews in it. But the men of this element have a tremendous desire to achieve the best
results in training. It is precisely for'that reason that they were the initiators of the
competition in honor of the 40th anniversary of Great October.
We wish to tell about the manner in which socialist competition was organized in
Maj. Gavrilov's squadron, and in other squadrons as well, and of what difficulties were
experienced thereby and how they were overcome. We feel that this will be useful for
Air Force commanders.
When the men of the unit, moved by the patriotic feeling of giving a worthy wel-
Competition for an Outstanding Crew 43
come to this significant date in the history of our Fatherland, began to manifest active
zeal in competition, a legitimate question occurred to the Command and to the Party
Organization: What must be done in order to avoid bureaucratizing this great and im-
portant work? There was a danger that individual men might overlook the main point
or start making pledges beyond their capacity, or else compete in an area coming di-
rectly under prescribed service duties ? and then the whole idea would turn into empty
- formality.
At once a new question cropped.up: What is to be the nature of the mens' pledg-
es? And it was decided that they must be definite so that their fulfillment could be more
-readily checked; feasible, so that formality could be precluded; and expedient, so that
- the specific nature of the competition under Army conditions could be taken into account
in advance. It was with such considerations that we set about our work.
It would be wrong to think that, the organization of the competition among the men
of the unit and among the individual outfits went off smoothly without any complications.
As indeed in any great undertaking, it was often necessary to select the most expedient
forms, and, in each definite case, to find the solution which conformed to the overall
plan. At times the men had to be assisted in determining their place in the group drive
to achieve the best results in combat and political training.
Each Commander had a talk with his men, and helped them outline feasible pledg-
es which followed from the tasks facing the element and the unit as a whole. At the
same time conferences were held in the unit by the squadron and element commanders
and by the maintenance group chiefs, during which our potentialities in socialist com-
petition were defined, and preliminary points for future pledges were outlined. The
Party and Komsomol Organizations discussed practical problems in the development
of socialist competition and in the securing of exemplary behavior by Communists and
Komsomol members in combat training. Only after this preliminary work were the
pledges of individual men and elements given. publicity at meetings of the personnel where
_ they were taken up in detail and where they received legal formulation.
In conducting individual-work with the men, the commanders discovered a tremen-
dous aspiration on the part of the men and the officers to enhance the quality of their.'
combat training and of their personal combat skill. As, a rule, their pledges were def-
inite and corresponded fully to the general problems which were being worked on by the
element, squadron, and unit. For example Crew Navigator Senior Lt. V. P. Gordiyenko
_pledged himself to become a Second. Class navigator by the end of the training year, and
Pilot Senior Lt.A. S. Sevast'yanov to attain the level of First Class pilot. In addition,
as a crew commander, the latter decided to make his entire crew Outstanding by 7 No-
vember 1957. It is characteristic that Navigator Gordiyenko and Pilot Sevast'yanov
serve in the same. s-quadron which initiated the competition, and that it was they, in
"turn, who initiated the competition in the .squadron.
However not all the pledges of the men were particularly specific in their original
forth. Some soldiers and even individual officers reduced all their plans to a general
aspiration to study well. It was necessary to have special talks-with such a category
of servicemen, in order to examine what level they: had achieved. in personal training
and what specifically they could do during the current training year. The Communists
gave the commander important assistance in this work. Since they were well acquaint-
ed with the personnel of their element, with the level of combat training', and. with the
individual capacities of each man,. they assisted. the men and officers in making their
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44 B. V. Sutyrin, B. S. Serikov
pledges specific. A very great deal for the development of competition in the unit was
done by Communist B. M. Persiyanov-Dubrov. Since he was chairman of the sports
committee, he skillfully organized mass sports work among the men. It was under his
leadership that the barracks, unit headquarters, and the area of the military camp ob-
tained all necessary equipment. Thanks to Per siyanov-Dubrov's great creative initia-
tive, we ,were given the opportunity to join the competition for the best barracks and we
feel that we will not take last place in that competition.
The individual work which was carried on contributed to the fact that there were
almost no instances among us when pledges which had. been made involved problems
not subject.to competition (for better execution of the commander's orders, for perform-
ance of guard duty, and for observation of military discipline). There were such at-
tempts, but we managed to eliminate them in time. For example, a proposal was made
that a pledge be taken for flying per sonn.el to economize on fuel. Can such an item be
included in a socialist pledge? We decided, that such an item is not practicable. After
all, an aircraft is not an automobile, and no matter how hard the pilot might try to con-
sume less fuel during flight, it does not always depend. on his will and desire. It is
another matter again to be careful of fuel while refuelling an aircraft, and not to waste
it while on the ground. The attention of the engineers, technicians, and junior aviation
specialists was called to these matters.
A very great deal that was useful and interesting was provided by the discussion
of socialist pledges at general meetings of the personnel. Proposals were frequently
made here which. solved important problems connected with enhancing the quality of
piloting technique, bomber training, and. air navigation in brief periods of time. For
example, we have been seriously disturbed recently by the backwardness of some navi-
gators in the field of bombing. They had an Outstanding rating in the fall, but in the
spring they started to receive grades of three and. even two. At the same time, the
pilots were flying their aircraft in an outstanding manner under any weather conditions,
even at night. How can there be competition here for Outstanding crews, when the navi-
gators may let everyone down?. And. are they the ones who are to blame here? What
must be done for the navigator's training to be in line with the level of the pilot's train-
ing?
During the course of a lively exchange of opinions, we succeeded in uncovering
the cause of the navigators' lag and in outlining specific measures for the training of
Outstanding crews and even of Outstanding elements. Last winter almost the entire
.flight work was conducted under adverse weather conditions. This favored the improve-
ment of the pilots' habits but hampered the training of the navigators. In the crews a
gap resulted between the training of the pilots and that of the navigators,' and this was
manifested in a deterioration in the 'quality of bomber training. We now have every op-
portunity to eliminate such a shortcoming. This was given thorough consideration in
the navigators' pledges, and,we already have tangible results of the correct organiza-
tion of competition for enhancing the quality of bomber training. The number of Out-
standing crews has grown considerably and there are already two Outstanding elements.
There was a lively discussion of Socialist pledges in the TECh [Technical Electri-
cal Unit] . - Here, just as among the flying personnel, many 'specific suggestions were
introduced aimed at improving the servicing of Air Force equipment. The TECh of-
ficers calculated that if they repair Air Force equipment and carry out regulation in-
spection jobs at the same pace as before, then, in view of the increased flying time for
?
Competition for an Outstanding Crew 45
each aircraft, even a year and a half wculdnot be sufficient for them to fulfill the out-
lined plan. How then could they find a way out of the existing situation? One way of
solving the problem was to speed up the accomplishment of the regulation inspection
jobs ; but for this purpose, the men had to learn to work swiftly and, above all, well.
And it was precisely in this respect that competition was of assistance. The techni-
cians and. mechanics made specific pledges to learn to carry out various jobs on an air-
craft more swiftly and in an outstanding manner. Good equipment of the work areas
will certainly help the TECh workers' find the lacking time for the job. They included
the following point in their socialist pledge: to equip the laboratories of the groups in
such a way' that they could carry out all the jobs through their own efforts and resources.
True, this point had to be made more specific later on: -not "all" but "most jobs" (alter ?
all, with the best of intentions, it is sometimes impossible to do without plant labora-
tories), But, however that may be, the acceptance of such a point will undoubtedly be
very useful. The speed-up of regulation inspection and repair jobs will also be further-
ed by the fostering of proposals for efficiency and by a drive for the careful handling of
tools. These points of the TECh men's pledges are fully in keeping with the problems
facing the technical personnel in socialist competition.
The men introduced a large number of other useful proposals as well during the
course of considering the projected pledges. Each of those proposals is the fruit of
important work, the result of the creative, patriotic enthusiam by which our officers
and men now live.
Already during the course of discussing the formulation of the pledges, we fell to
thinking how to give more publicity to the progress of the competition among the men.
After all, the results of socialist competition are always higher in units where the men
are kept systematically informed of how pledges in the neighboring crew, squadron, and
adjacent technical maintenance group are being carried out. The proposal was made to
put out special bulletins devoted to the work of the topnotch men. The proposal was ac-
cepted. It was decided to fit out special stands "To greet the 40th Anniversary of the
Great October Socialist Revolution". Right now weekly newspapers are appearing in the
elements which publicize the progress of the competition, and combat leaflets have be- ?
come meatier. Notices are printed regularly under the heading of "Tribune of Advanc-
ed Experience". The Komsomol members proposed setting up a pennant labelled "The
Best Crew". It seems to 'us this proposal deserves attention. We would like to pause
to give further details about some forms far propagandizing the experience of top men
in the competition.
Take pilot Senior Lt. Sevast'yanov, for example. At the beginning of the article
we spoke of the fact that he was one-of the initiators of the competition in Maj. Gavrilov's
squadron. He has been successfully fulfilling his pledges. A special bulletin was put
out devoted to Sevast'yanov. It began as follows: "The best pilot in our squadron is
Senior Lt. Sevast'yanov. ". Further on, it was reported that it had not been easy for the
officer to attain this honor. Only intensive work, a realistic approa.cif to business, and.
effort had brought him to success in flight work. Sevast'yanov has mastered perfectly -
the skill of flying in the daytime during prescribed weather minimum; he has flown at
night in the clouds and has mastered instrument landing. Specific figures of his flying
time are cited, as well as the number of his landings in prescribed weather minimum
in the day time and. at night, with good and outstanding ratings. The bulletin also spoke, ?
of the fact that Senior Lt. Sevast'yanov has been successfully fulfilling the pledges he - ?
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46 B. V. Sutyrin, B. S. Ser ikov
made in honor of the 40th anniversary of Great October. The bulletin called upon the
other pilots to fly as well as Senior Lt. Sevast'yanov flies.
In other bulletins, as well, detailed accounts are given of the best men who have
achieved high results in the competition for an Outstanding crew, for a topnotch element,
and for the best technical maintenance group. And at the "Tribune of Advanced Expe-
rience" stand the participants in the competition themselves are given the opportunity
to speak'. .In a brief notice entitled "Flying in Formation at Night", Senior Lt. Nekra-
sov tells of his experience in night flying tersely but without omitting anything impor-
tant. In some notices the pilots and navigators write not only about the successes they
have achieved but also of how they procceed.ed towards the heights of combat skill, what
difficulties they encountered, and. how they overcame them. In this respect there is an
interesting article by pilot Senior Lt. V. D. Popugalov, entitled "How I Learned to Fly
as an Element Leader".
The pilot frankly admits that formerly it had seemed to him to be considerably
easier to be an element leader than a wingman because he had not flown as a leader pre-
viously. From the very beginning of flying in formation he had operated just as he had
when flying alone. "That was my first error", writes the pilot. Popugalov does not
conceal the fact that if poorly trained crews had been in trail, he would hardly have suc-
ceeded in assembling the element.. He tells about his second error also. He kept ex-
ecuting all corrective turns by using the autopilot's coordinate turn knob; but, as is well
known, these are sharper than when executed by manual control. Additional difficul-
ties were created for the aircraft in trail in maintaining their position in the formation.
"During the second leg of the flight", writes Popugalov later on, "the navigator
ascertained the time for reaching the target and reported that we were late. Conse-
quently I have to increase flight speed. And so I do. I notify those in trail, increase
engine rpm, and continue the flight at increased speed. Somewhat later I look around.
There are no aircraft in trail. What then had happened? We were flying at an altitude
of 8000 m. At such an altitude, speed has to be increased gradually when flying forma-
tion. But I had given the engine full throttle and the pilots in trail had not managed to
react to my command. swiftly." ?
There is an example of how many difficulties and. failures a pilot must experience
and overcome before he obtains the right to .be called an Outstanding pilot: Frank con-
versations concerning difficulties and errors once again compel our men to recall that
the path to the heights of combat skill is very complicated. But the more boldly, the
more confidently, and the more?persistently one proceeds along this path, the more
swiftly will one become First Class pilot and gain victory in socialist competition.
All these and other measures for propagandizing advanced experience are conduct-
ed by the Party Organization, directed by the commander. At Party meetings and Bu-
reau conferences, the Communists regularly discuss how pledges are being fulfilled
and what measures must be taken in order to make the competition even more effective.
And the Komsomol does not lag behind the Party Organization: But the work co,?rn. of
the Komsomol Organization are somewhat different. For example, at Party meetings,
we always begin discussing the progress of the competition with an analysis of the state
of affairs. But the Komsomol members?act differently. They hear each of their mem-
bers tell how he has been fulfilling the Socialist pledges he made. At some Komsomol
meetings no report was even made. The Komsomol members themselves Were both
reporting as well as speaking. We feel that such a form of accountability by youth for
Competition for an Outstanding Crew
47
their pledges is completely acceptable. Recently the Komsomol members thought of
the idea of publishing a satirical leaflet, castigating slackers and boasters. Why not?
That shows praiseworthy initiative.
Right now, of course, it is still too early to judge what results each of our men
will achieve in the Socialist competition. However, its progress cannot but gladden
our men and officers. The pledges made compel our pilots and navigators and all our
specialists to brace themselves in their personal training and at the same time to im-
prove the general state of affairs in the outfits and in the unit as a whole. All this is
felt appreciably by each of us. Let us take just one recent flying day as an example.
1t canbe called an exceptional one: all our young pilots made a night sortie as elements.
That gave them the right to participate in Air Force training exercises.
- Initial experience has already shown that Socialist competition is a really impor-
tant device in the hands of the commander, the Party-political apparatus, and. the Party
and Komsomol Organizations, by means of which they can achieve maximum results in
working With personnel.
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mgamicammgaski03116*-21MICONICONENDomm
USE OF ASTROCOMPASSES FOR NIGHT AND DAY FLYING
Docent, Candidate of Technical Sciences, Lt. Col. N. S. Sorokovik
The astronomical course-indicating instrument, or the astrocompass, allows
one to compute and maintain the true course of an aircraft by taking the bearing to a
celestial body. In the available astrocompasses, by taking the
Characteristics of bearing to- a celestial body, we measure its course angle (KU)
Astrocompasses and thus obtain the true course of the aircraft (IK) as the differ-
ence between the azimuth of the celestial body (A) and its course
angle KU (Fig. 1):
IK = A - KU.
(1)
The azimuth of the celestial body in modern astrocompasses is computed auto-
matically. However, for this purpose, we must first introduce into the instrument
the coordinates of the aircraft position 90 and X and of the geographical position of the
body; these, as is well known, are equal to the declination S and the Greenwich hour
angle tv . The azimuth of the body is a complex function of these coordinates and is
determined by the formula:
cot A = sin icp ? cot (tgr + X - cos cp ? tan& cosec (tgr + X )
(2)
Consequently, modern astronomical course-indicating instruments are rather com-
plex and require knowledge for their competent use in flight. The problem becomes
still further complicated by the fact that, due to the diurnal motion of the earth, the geo-
graphical position of the body on the earth's ,surface
shifts, while, due to the, movement of the aircraft,
its positional coordinates shift. Consequently, the
body's azimuth continuously alters.
According to the Principle of design, astro-
nomical course-indicating devices are divided, into
two groups: equatorial (AK - 53 p and DAK - B) and
horizontal (DAK - I and. DAK - DB). In the equa-
torial instruments, the direction-finding plane of
the,sighting system, at the moment of its alignment
Fig. 1. Determining the true course as the 'differ-
ence between the body's azimuth and. its course ang-
le.
KU
IK=A-KU
Geographical
of body
A
position
Use of Astrocompasses for Night and Day 'Flying
49
with the direction to the body, always coincides with the body's declination circle. This
means that a declination setting is unnecessary in these instruments. In addition,, the
mechanism in these instruments which compensates for the earth's rotation is very
simple. It consists of a clock mechanism which uniformly turns the sighting system of
the instrument around the earth's axis. The equatorial instrument in itself is an q.zi-
muth computer made in the form of a three-dimensional simulator of the celestial sphere
(spherant) which is quite conspicuous on the AK-53 p instrument.
In horizontal instruments, in contrast to the equatorial, the direction-finding plane
of the sighting system is always vertical and at the moment of its alignment with the di-
rection to the body, it coincides with its vertical circle. There is a special computer
for calculating the body's azimuth and for solving the problem IK=A-KU. A clock mech-
anism is used to compensate for the earth's rotation. However, this mechanism is
connected to the computer which converts the hour angle increment into an azimuth in-
crement.
The'theoretical principles of astronomical course-indicating instruments were
very definitively developed in 1949 by L. P. Sergeyev. On the basis of this theory, many
problems not only pertaining to astrocompass design but also to their application in flight
are being solved. The performance of an astrocompass may be evaluated by the sensi-
tivity coefficient K, suggested by L. P. Sergeyev. This represents the turn angle of the
direction-finding plane of the instrument's sighting system around an axis perpendicular
to the heading to the body for each degree of course change. The sensitivity coefficient
of horizontal instruments is expressed by the formula:
cos h
Khor =
(3)
while the sensitivity coefficient of equatorial instruments is expressed by the formula:
Keg = cosh' cos q,
(4)
where h is the body's altitude; q the parallactic angle, i. e., the angle between the body's
declination circle and vertical circle.
These formulas show that the horizontal instruments are generally more sensitive.
than the equatorial and consequently perform more accurately and reliably: However,
in-polar regions, where the angle q is close to zero, the sensitivity coefficients of the
equatorial and horizontal instruments are very close and therefore both types of instru-
ments perform there with equal accuracy and reliability. The closer the flight region
approaches the equator, the more pronounced becomes the advantage' of horizontal in-
struments over equatorial.
It is also evident from formulas (3) and (4) that the sensitivity of astronomical
course-indicating instruments depends upon the altitude of the body, h. The lower this
altitude, the greater the sensitivity coefficient and hence the more accurate and. reliable
the performance of the astrocompasses. Thus; when taking a. course bearing on the aim,
it-is most practicable to use astrocompasses in the morning and evening in polar regions
and in winter, i. e. , when the sun is closest to the horizon. 'Contrariwise, in the sum-
mer,during periods close to the moment of upper transit of the sun (around noon), the
use of astrocompasses will be accompanied by maximum errors: It should be said that
at the moment of transit, the parallactic angle of the sun is also close to .zero, and
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50 N. S. Sorokovik
therefore the sensitivity coefficient values- in formulas (3) and. (4) will be identical in
both horizontal and equatorial instruments.
Astronomical course-indicating instruments make it possible to solve navigational
problems in plotting the true course and. in flying an aircraft on a given loxodromic or
orthodromic route.
Let us now examine the special features in solving each of these problems.
When taking the fix of an aircraft, the astronomical course-indicating instrument
must be in. a strictly horizontal position. The AK - 53 p instru-
Taking an.Aircraft's ment is manually set in the horizontal position by using levels.
fix The other instruments (DAK - I, DAK - B, and DAK - DB) have
devices for automatic attitude correction. However, these in-
struments are based on the use of a pendulum or bubble level and therefore perform ac-
curately only whenever there are no external accelerations, i. e., in a regime of straight
and level flight or of uniform climb and glide, at constant airspeed.
In order to take a fix relative to the meridian of the aircraft's position, we must
first set in on the instrument the coordinates (latitude and longitude). The accuracy of
the fix in this case will be determined by the accuracy of the set-in coordinates. For
horizontal course-indicating instruments, the accuracy of the fix may be evaluated by
the following formula:
= tan h ? sin (A -0(0) ? As + tan q9 ? sin (X ? A s,
(5)
in which A and h are the azimuth and altitude of the celestial body; AS the error in the
aircraft's position, i. e., the distance in degrees between the true position of the aircraft
at the instant of the fix and the estimated position, the coordinates of which are set in on
the instrument; cie0 is the error heading of the aircraft's position relative to the merid-
ian.
The first member of this formula expresses the error in determining the course
due to the turning of the astrocompass's sighting system around the earth's center by the
value AS; the second member expresses the error resulting from the convergence of the
meridians between the aircraft's estimated and true positions. The maximum course
error occurs when A - 0 = 900 and CX 0 = 90 e., when A s is mainly the result of
inaccurately setting in the longitude at instants close to the body's transit. For these
conditions formula (5) takes the following form (valid also for equatorial instruments):
.AIKmax = (tan h + tan 4) ) As. (6)
, From this formula it is possible to obtain a relationship which allows us to solve
the problem of the extent of permissible errors in the aircraft's position, the coordinates
of which must be set in on the instrument:
Smax A IKmax (7)
tan h + tan 4)
If a 20 course error is accepted as the maximum permissible, then, when taking
a fix on the sun in the 'summer (with declination 6 = + zo? ) at its transit periods, we
will have the following permissible error values in determining the aircraft's position
Use of Astrocom asses for Ni ht and Da
Fl in
51
at different latitudes:
Q.40 60 ?1 80
es
As
(kjr-r B4 I 72 60 I 36 20
Thus, in order to avoid errors exceeding 2.? in fixing the true course, the air-
craft's position ? the coordinates of which are set in on. the instrument at the moment
of taking a fix? must be obtained with an accuracy of up to 40 - 70 km.
This condition becomes more rigid (less than 20 km) for high latitudes, and an
accurate fix relative to the meridian of the aircraft's position is impossible in practice.
Because of this, in polar regions the course is computed relative to any one fictitious
meridian, the longitude of which is set in on the instrument. In this way we eliminate
the error due to convergence of the meridians, i. e., the second member of formula (5).
The accuracy of such a computation may be evaluated by the formula:
si
his ffiicc= tan h ? sin(A - 0 ) S.
For less favorable conditions, when A - 0(0 = 90?,
AX terror takes on the value:
= tan 12 ? AS. (8)
Consequently, the error will depend only upon
the error in the position and altitude of the celestial
body.
In polar regions, the sun's altitude is slight;
therefore the error in determining the course by tak-
ing the bearing of the sun relative to the fictitious me-
ridian will also be insignificant: it will not exceed one
half the error in determining the aircraft's position AS
expressed in degrees of an arc. of a great circle. For
example, when As = 450 km, the course error will
not exceed 20 (since each 111.2 km corresponds to 10
of an arc of a great circle.
If we assume that the latitude of the aircraft's position has been accurately deter-
mined, then- AS may be expressed as the longitude difference between the fictitious and
true meridians, and we may thereby solve the problem of maximal permissible value
of this difference:
In Fig. 2, point B is the true aircraft position, point A the estimated position on
the fictitious meridian, the coordinates of which have been set in on the instrument.
From the triangle PAB it follows that
114;,
Fictitious
meridian
Fig. Z. Graphic function of
longitude difference between
the fictitious and true merid.
-ians.
(9)
sin = As
2(90-Lep)
By substituting here the value A S from formula (9), we obtain:
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52 N. S. Sorokovik
A), _ AlKficmax
sin ?
2(90? - ) tan h
(10)
For the least favorable condition, let us assume a close to 300 altitude of the sun in
this formula: then we can obtain the permissible longtude differences between the fic-
titious and true meridians 4X when mfixma. = 2. -
Meridians at longitudes 0? - 180? or 90? - 270? have been adopted as fictitious
meridians in the Arctic. The above permissible longitude differences confirm the pos-
sibility of using any one of the four indicated_ meridians (0o, 90o, 180?, 270? )
which is nearest in longitude to the aircraft's position at latitudes of 85? and higher. At
latitudes below 85?, the possibility of selecting one of the closest fictitious meridians
will be determined by its longitudinal distance from the meridian of the aircraft's posi-
tion and the altitude of the celestial body. The lower the altitude of the body, the slight-
er the course errors in computation relative to the fictitious meridian, and the greater
the possibilities of using the fictitious meridians in solving a given problem.
(P?
1 80 83 85 86 87
Xe 23
33
47
60
86
In computing the permissible range of longitude differences, we used the least
favorable of possible conditions. But for all practical purposes it is possible to use,
not the least favorable, but rather the average conditions. And. the permissible range
of longitude differences will be considerably broadened.
We will assume as initial data: 4= 80?, h = 20?, A -0(0 = 500
Then we obtain:
. X
133.11
Ixficmax
3
2(90 -4)) tan h ? sin(A -0(0) 20 ? 0.365 ? 0.765
Hence it follows that AA= 6407 This
means that in practice the possibility of tak-
ing a fix. on a fictitious meridian at 80? lati-
tude increases 2.5 times'. In addition, our
calculation shows that taking fixes on a ficti-
tious meridian is possible even farther south
down to 70? latitudes.
When using the DAK - DB astrocompass
with course cbrrector operating, it is necessary
to consider certain special features of aircraft
course computing. In this case, we can com-
pute accurately only one orthodromic course
which represents the angle of intersectIon of
the orthodrome ? over which the aircraft
flies ?with the meridian of the initial flight Fig. 3. Computing an orthodromic
point (Fig. 3), the coordinates of which are course by reference to the ,meridian of
set in on the instrument, the initial flight point.
,1-Kficrnax= 3? ?
AX
- O. 537; ? 32o.
2
IPM(initial
flight point)
Use of Astrocom asses for N ht and Da Fl 53
Since the movement of the aircraft is compensated in the course corrector by turning
the sighting system about the lateral axis of the aircraft from the vertical towards the
tail, such compensation is effective only for the direction of the orthodrome over which
an aircraft flies. For all other directions it will be ineffective and may result in in-
creased course computation error. Hence, it is expedient to compute an aircraft head-
ing which does not coincide with the flight heading without resorting to the course correc-
tor by first setting in on the instrument the zero values of ground speed and the distance
covered, the latitude of the aircraft's position, and the longitude of the fictitious merid-
ian. The method of computing a course in this case will be the same as for convention-
al horizontal instruments.
All astronomical course-indicating instrument make it possible to carry out a
flight over a geographic loxodrome, while the DAK - DB astrocompass with the use of
the course corrector also makes it possible to fly over an ortho-
Flying an aircraft drome. Flying with the aid of astrocompasses over a loxodrome
on a has a number of peculiarities. Let us examine these. As is
planned route known, a loxodrome is a line intersecting all meridians with the
same angle. Basically, the possibility of flying over a loxodrome
when maintaining a constant course by astrocompass is determined by the fact that the
astrocompass indicates the true course relative to the meridian being flown over ? pro-
vided the coordinates of the true position of the aircraft have been set in on the instru-
ment and there is absolutely no other course correction. Consequently, if, during the
flight, we continuously alter the set-in longitude and. latitude, adjusting them to the ac-
tual coordinates, and if we maintain the same course by astrocompass, then the air-
craft will fly along a strictly geographic loxodrome.
How' ever, the fact is that this cannot be realized with present-day astrocompasses.
Latitude and longitude on the instrument are currently being changed periodically in
flight at certain time intervals. This, of course, brings up the question: How often
should the coordinates be reset and what path will the aircraft fly if a constant course
is maintained by astrocompass on which un-
altered coordinates ? latitude and longi-
tude ? have been set in?
Let us assume that, prior to starting
the flight,' we have plotted the route along
the orthodrome AB (Fig. 4), have comput-
ed the true course from initial point A, and
have set in on the instrument the latitude
7
and longitude of this point. Let it be as-
sumed that, at the instant of reaching point
A, the geographic position: of the celestial
body was at point D. Since the astrocom-
pass has a mechanism for the correction_of
the diurnal motion of the earth ? a mecha-
nism which compensates for change in azi-
muth due to the altered geographic position
Fig. 4. ? Flying an aircraft by astrocom- of the body ? point D can be taken as the '
-pass with constant coordinates (for the fixed pole of a certain new system of spher-
midpoint of the rectilinear leg of the route). ical coordinates, and the vertical Circles
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
54 N. S. Sorokovik
AD, CD, BD, and so on, as the meridians of this new system.
Since the 'compass has a mechanism for correction of the diurnal motion of the
earth, we may assume that the azimuth of the body is constant at each point and. depends
only upon the coordinates of that point. Consequently, by maintaining a constant true
course by an astrocompass on which the constant coordinates of point A have been set
in, the aircraft will intersect all new meridians with the same course angle y. Ac-
tually, if both the azimuth and the course are constant, then the course angle equal
to y=A- IK will also be constant.
Hence the conclusion follows that flying by astrocompass with constant coordinat-
es proceeds along a certain astronomical loxodrome (curve AE) within a system of
such coordinates, the pole of which is the geographical position of the celestial body
at the instant the aircraft reaches the initial point of the route.
It is a known fact that a loxodrome is a spiral which always coils towards the
pole. This means that, if we maintain the course of the initial point of the route, hav-
ing set in in advance on the instrument its latitude and longitude, the aircraft will al-
ways sheer from the planned route toward the celestial body. It is quite apparent that,
in order to reach the planned terminal point of the route (point B), it is necessary to
lay the course by setting in the latitude and longitude, not of the initial point, but rather
of a certain alternate point C. For this purpose usually a midpoint on the rectilinear
leg of the route is selected. The flight will then proceed. along an alternate astronom-
ical loxodrome (dotted line), following which the aircraft will at first deviate from the
planned path in a direction opposite to that of the celestial body; then it will approach
the planned path and. intercept it somewhere near the KPM [terminal point of route].
Maximum deviation of the astronomical loxodrome from the orthodrome depends upon
. i?
20
40
60
80
100
100
0,4 Km
0,9 Km
1,8 ichi
2,8 Km
4,1 Km
300
1,1
1,8
4,6
9,3
14,0
50?
2,4
4,6 '
10,5
18,5
29,6
70?
5,5
11,0
24,0
43,0
63,0
the altitude of the body, h, the length of the leg, S, and attains the following maximum
val'ues when the body's course angles are 900 and 270 (See table).
It is evident from the table that when the altitudes of the body are low (up to 30?)
the maximum lateral deviations of the astronomical loxodrome from the orthodrome
on legs of up to 700 km are insignificant (less than 5 km) and they may be actually dis-
regarded ? Assuming that the flight proceeds essentially along the orthodrome. At
star altitudes ranging from 30? to 50? lateral deviations may be disregarded for legs of
Use of Astrocompasses for Night and Day Flying 55
up to 500 km, and at star altitudes of from 50? to 70? ? up to 300 km. The above
ratios are also used as a basis for the, maximum frequency of setting in coordinates:
at star altitudes up to 30?, every 700 km; at altitudes of 30?- 50?, every 500 km; and
at altitudes of 50? - 70?, every 300 km.
On the basis of these ratios, it is possible to draw certain conclusions regard-
ing the use of the astrocompass.in fighter aircraft. The fact is that any additional
computations and manipulations of the instrument are undeairable for a pilot flying a
single-place aircraft. All initial data for the astrocompass of a single-place aircraft
should therefore be set in on the ground prior to takeoff.
When setting in in advance on the instrument the declination and the Greenwich
hour angle of the body, there can be no question of uncertainty, since the declination
may be considered constant, while the change in the hour angle is continuously com-
pensated. by the operation of the clock mechanism. In evaluating the possibility of
setting in in advance the latitude and longitude of the aircraft's position prior to take-
off, we can use the permissible deviations from the planned route as a basis and, pro-
vided these deviations are less than 5 km, we may consider it feasible to set in in ad-
vance the airfield coordinates on the astrocompass for all flights to be made within a
radius of 250 - 300 km? provided, the altitude of the celestial body is within the range
of 30? - 50?.
At high altitudes the possibility of using the airfield's constant coordinates di-
minishes, while at low altitudes the possibility expands considerably; these facts are
of practical interest for a fighter aircraft which often takes off on a mission without
preliminary layout of the route. However, in this case, it is necessary to consider
all the special features of flying with constant coordinates. Specifically, if the read-
ings of the astrocompass are used for cross-checking the readings of other compasses,
it is expedient to correct the latitude and longitude on the instrument, approximating
them as closely as possible to the actual position of the aircraft. However, if the
flight follows a previously known route which runs a great distance from the field, the
coordinates of the route's midpoint should be set in on the instrument instead of the air-
field's coordinates.
Thus we arrive at the conclusion that, by maintaining a constant heading by astro-
compass, 'the aircraft will fly on the geographic loxodrome, .provided the actual coordi-
nates of the position are continuously set in on the instrument. If we set in constant
latitude and longitude values on the instrument, the aircraft will follow an astronomical
loxodrome with a turn towards the celestial body.
In order to travel over a planned route, it is necessary to divide this *route into
several rectilinear segments of 300 - 700 km in length (depending upon the mean' alti-
tude of the body); on each of these segments it is necessary to set in the midpoint coor-
dinates for the given leg while maintaining the true course relative to the midpoint's
meridian. In polar regions we may use a single grid of fictitious meridians. We
then set in on the instrument the latitude of the route's midpoint and the longitude of the
particular fictitious meridian ((P , 90?, 180?, or 270? ) relative to which the aircraft's
course is maintained.
The flight over a route with midpoint coordinates of each of its separate legs will
proceed along a broken line approximating the orthodrome in each *of its segments'. A
strictly orthodromic flight is possible only with the DAK - DB with course corrector
0-witched off. For this purpose it is necessary to set in on the instrument the coordi-
\,
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56
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
N. S. Sorokovik
nates of the initial point of the route's leg, and to maintain the course plotted at the
meridian of the initial point. When the route is broken or when any leg is longer than
1000 km, the aircraft position coordinates and the flight course should be altered cor-
respondingly and adjusted to the initial point of the new leg.
In all navigational computations involving the use of astrocompasses it is neces-
sary to take into consideration the wind just as when flying with conventional magnetic
or gyro course-indicating instruments.
Astronomical Course-Indicating Instruments
DAK- 1
DAK-I [Distant-Reading Astrocompass ?Fighter]
The cistant-reading astrocompass for a fighter is built on a horizontal system
and is used for determining the true course and for flying an aircraft over a planned
,course when the sun is visible. It is also used as a true-course transmitter for the
DG-MK [Distant-reading gyromagnetic compass] gyro system and other compasses
with magnetic transmitter switched off. Included in its basic units and. mechanisms
are: course-angle transmitter with photoelectric servo system (1); azimuth mechanism
with coordinate platter (2); operational control knob (3); course indicator (4); junction
box (5); amplifier (6); anctpower transformer (7). The diurnal motion of the earth is
compensated by a clock mechanism and a special device ? the azimuth plotter. For
compensation of aircraft bank the sighting system is mounted in a pendulum suspension.
Solar bearings are taken automatically by means of photoelectric cells having a 3600
circular scanning field. The latitude and longitude of the position, the hour angle and..
the declination of the celestial body are usually set in prior to flight but may also be
corrected in flight. The instrument is used within the range of 4113 - 90? north latitude
and in the entire range of solar declinations + 23.5?. The accuracy in determining the
true heading is within 2o - 3o.
Use of Astrocompasses for Night and Day Flying
57
DAK-DB
DAK-DB [Distant-reading Astrocompass ? Long-range
Bomber]
The distant-reading astrocompass for a long-range bomber is built on the hori-
zontal system and is used for episodically plotting the true course by the sun, for fly-
ing an aircraft along a planned orthodrome or loxodrome when the sun is in view, for
plotting the true course at night by any celestial body with conjoint use of the SP-1
sextant and with automatic feeding of the true course into the automatic navigational de-
vices and. into the radio compass.
The basic units and mechanisms of the compass are: computer with control panel
and coordinate plotter (1), course-angle transmitter with photoelectric servo system
(2), course corrector (3), amplifier unit (4).
The diurnal motion of the earth is automatically compensated by a clock mecha-
nism and spherant. ?Aircraft banking errors are compensated. in the astrocompass by
a special pendulum corrector which works out course corrections. Thelatter are fed
directly into the course indicator. It has automatic course correction for flights over
an orthodrome.
The astrocompass is coupled to the SP-1 periscopic sextant which, when pointed.
toward the, celestial body, automatically gives the true course of the aircraft in the corn:-
pass. To do this, 6. .and tgr of the given. body must first be set in on the instrument.
The instrument is used in the range of 40? to 90? north latitude and in the range of
the celestial body's declination from -300 to + 60?. The course corrector operates at
ground speeds of 200-1100 km/hr. on a rectilinear leg of.up to 1000 km. Its accuracy
of measurement is within 2?- 30
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
58
N. S. Sorokovik
AK-53p
The AK-53 p astrocompass combined with polariz-
ing attachment is constructed. on the equatorial system.
Its function is to plot the true course of an aircraft by any
celestial body in clay or night as well as in twilight by ref-
erence to plane polarized scattered. sunlight. It has three
sighting devices as well as mechanisms and scales fOr set-
ting in the latitude and longitude of the position, the hour
angle and declination of a celestial body. The sighting
system for shooting the sun is connected with a clock mech-
anism which compensates for the diurnal motion of the
earth. On top, for shooting the moon, planets, and stars,
there is mounted a sighting device, in the center of which
is installeci the polarizing attachment. It can be employed
for all latitudes from 0? to + 90? and. for all declinations
of celestial bodies from 0? to + 64 9 Accuracy in plot-
ting the true course is within 10 - 2? and by polarized
light within 20 - 3. 5?.
DAK-B
The DAY--B is a distant-reading astrocornpass for a bomber (on the equatorial
system). By using this instrument the true course is plotted and the aircraft is flown
on.a planned course in daytime by taking bearings on the sun. The whole consists of
the following basic units and mechanisms: course transmitter with photoelectric servo
system (1) coordinate plotter (2) with a clock mechanism; sun search knob and. pilot' s
Use of Astrocompasses for Night and Day Flying
59
course indicator (3); sensitivity control with sun search knob and navigator's course
indicator (4); amplifier (5); and power transformer (6).
The diurnal motion of the earth is compensated by a clock mechanism. There
is correction for longitudinal inclination made by the aid of a special bubble level with
an electric circuit breaker operating within + 8? of longitudinal inclination. Shooting
the sun is clone automatically by means of an electric drive controlled by a photocell
(at initial declinations from direction to the sun of not more than + 15?). Time for
360? adjustment is 12 seconds. It is used. within the limits of + 450 to + 90? north
latitude, and in the entire range of solar declinations + 23. 5?. Accuracy in determin-
ing the true course is within 20_30.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Co .y Ap roved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
IN THE DRIVE TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF NIGHT BOMBING
Capt. K. M. Kara s ev
In the course of training young navigators in night bombing with the radar sight,
it is quite important right from the beginning to draw their attention to the importance
of accurately calibrating the sight, knowing how to secure a clear target image on the
TKO [ PPI scope], and. accurately setting in the data on the altitude drum, since all
these factors determine, to a critical degree, the results of a bombing operation.
Accurate calibration,in turn, involves accuracy and precision of performance
on the part of the navigator, while the clarity of the image on the sight depends on how
well the receiver is adjusted, how the antenna is positioned, how the light intensity is
regulated, which image scale is set, etc. For operating aloft it is far from being suf-
ficient to know, let us say, only how to tune a station or how to calibrate it. A defi-
nite sequence of operations is very important both when switching on, tuning, and call?
brating a station, and. when carrying out duties on the bomb run.
A navigator who does not observe with a radar station the standard operating
procedure which he developed during training usually fidgets too much and. often makes
errors. He either turns the wrong knob on the potentiometer panel shield, attempts
to correct the position of the altitude drum by reference to the altitude ring with a
sighting angle of 60?, or else he shuts off power altogether instead of switching on the
"sector" control. Such a navigator is always afraid of not completing the calibration,
of not correcting the position of the altitude drum, and. of not sighting before entering
the bomb run.
We once had. a case when a young navigator, because he had assumed an incorrect
position in the aircraft cabin and. because of his excessive fussing on the bomb run, for-
got to close the potentiometer panel shield and inadvertently disturbed the calibration
with his foot. Although this error was noticed, still, in order to correct it, a repeat
run was required. Another navigator, while executing a night bombing mission, for-
got to introduce the trail into the sight and became aware of this only after the first
bomb had. been released. with a considerable short.
There are times when gross errors are made, such as calibrating on the wrong
ring, using the wrong knobs, or sighting with random settings on the altitude drum, etc.
Certain of these regrettable errors may lead. ? especially at night ? to dropping bombs
outside the bombing-range perimeter.
The lead. navigator should. be the first one to see to it that such shortcomings are
not repeated, since it is unthinkable to learn through experience of such errors at the
cost of mission aborts. If, for instance, the navigator in flight forgets to set in the
trail on the sight, then, in analyzing this flight, the attention of the trainees should. be
drawn, not so much to this fact, but rather to its causes. The causes, as a rule, lie
in the fact that the navigator is not sufficiently methodical in his work with the radar
station, has not yet learned. to organize efficiently his cabin duties ? all of which, in
the final analysis, results in incorrect distribution of attention. In the given case the
?,4
?;
?
In the Drive to Improve the Quality of Night Bombing 61
navigator lacked the necessary breadth of attention to check the setting in of the sight
data.
In our unit we train the navigators in sight calibration in stas. For instance,
after readying the sight for calibrating with respect to three points,'i. e., having set
the altitude drum at minimum value, the sighting angle /3 to 0?, the maximum scale,
the front sector, "OPB" [bomber optical sight] regime, and having turned down the
high frequency amplification, the navigator, if necessary, may divert his attention
temporarily to observe the flight regime, orientation procedure, etc. After this, he
starts calibrating zero range. When he has finished this, he diverts his attention
again, and then starts calibrating the point "10-0".
Having developed in himself habits of working aloft in stages, the navigator gains
confidence. He will no longer be confused. if the necessity arises of temporarily.inter-
rupting the calibration, since he has become accustomed to integrating the various
elements.of his work. In the course of bomber training instruction, the navigators be-
come accustomed not only to a standard. operating procedure with the apparatus but also
to meticulousness and to economy of motion. The very mode of hand and head. move-
ment when working with the radar station must stress accuracy, precision, and sure-
ness of action.
For example, having set in ? prior to calibration ? the minimum altitude with
the altitude drum and the sighting angle [3 = 0?, the navigator must without fail check
his settings by the light of an extension lamp; then, as he begins calibration, he must
carefully manipulate the different knobs on the potentiometer panel shield while facing
the latter. This seems such a trifle ?but sometimes a great deal depends on it. One
little slip ? and the efforts of the entire aircraft crew may come to nought. That is
why our experienced navigators are constantly stressing the fact that even during the
bomb run an extension lamp should always be in hand and should be used periodically
to illuminate the drift angle scale (particularly at the start of the bomb run) in order to
preclude accidental change in the BURP [bomb-run angle of the radar sight].
The necessary habits are acquired. in special trainers or in an aircraft cabin.
The attention of the trainees is drawn here to the transitional moments between stages
of operation. Sometimes it happens that, after correcting the position of the altitude
drum, the navigator forgets to set in the sighting angle A = 700, and thereupon enters
the bomb run.
Such errors may be completely precluded if the whole process of operations in
correcting the altitude is made final, not by aligning the altitude ring with the bombing
Marker, but by setting in the sighting angle p = 70?, the antenna elevation angle 10 - 12?,
and the small scale on the TKO.
By analogy with the above example, the navigator, after completing calibration
of the station, in one single complex of operations sets the switch in "operating" posi-
tion, sets the altitude drum at the bombing altitude, and. sets the sighting?angle at A = 0?.
That is, he sets everything in the initial position for the following stage: ? altitude
correction.
If it is not possible for all the navigators' to use special trainers for acquiring
and establishing correct habits, then it is recommended that special attention be, given
to instruction in the aircraft cabin when training for night bombing operations. As
necessity indicates, the radar sight may be switched on, while during the other stages
the instruction may be conducted. with the sight switched off.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
62
K. M. Kara sev
Only that navigator who does not conceal his own errors and who is able to ana-
lyze correctly the errors made by his comrades can truly perfect his combat skills
in such a difficult sphere of combat training as night bombing. The task of a lead
navigator is to assist in approximating as closely as possible the theoretical aspect
to the practical aspect of bombing; to reduce the most typical and frequently recurring
errors to common terms; and show ways of eliminating them.
For instance, after one flight the navigator reported. that the target on the bomb
run did. not initially "slip" in -any direction and about ten degrees before bomb release
it only shifted a little to the side. After a corrective turn was made with a "double
take", the target began "slipping" quickly in the opposite direction; consequently it
was necessary to make energetic corrective turns immediately before bombs away. A
considerable bomb deflection in range and direction resulted. The crew tended to at-
tribute this failure to a poorly functioning autopilot (it did not bring the plane out of the
turn, made poor corrective turns, etc.).
But after a close analysis of this flight it became clear that it was not a question
of the autopilot. It turned out that the navigator was tracking the target from sighting
angle of p = 69? - 45?, after which he attempted to correct the crosstrail setting with
a "double take". However such a procedure is incorrect, since in order to crosstrail
with a "double take" in the given instance the coefficient of multiplicity should have
been equal to:
tan/30 2.6
K = :-.?-, 1.6.
tant30 - tani3 - 7.-6
But the fact is that the sight's coefficient of multiplicity K is equal to 6. 7. There-
fore the multiplicity error came to:
,AK = 6. 7 - 1.6 = 5.1.
Thus, if the BURP error was 10, then after the corrective turn the drift angle
error is:
=
US[ drift angle] = A ABURP
KK
5. 1
1. 6
e.,i. actually the target should "slip" in the opposite direction with three times more
intensity, and at shorter slant ranges this becomes particularly marked. Forced cor-
rective turns (especially when abrupt) before bombs away lead to range errors as well,
since the autopilot in such cases does not always maintain the planned altitude, and ?
as we know altitude errors have a very strong effect on bomb range deflection.
How may such errors be avoided?
1
In order to crosstrail with a "double take", a.linear base equal to the origi-
nal distance to the target must be maintained, while range sighting requires mainte-
nance of a different base, namely, one third the bomb's time-of-fall.
For actual conditions it if possible to select such an initial sightinangleAwith
which the aircraft will travel ? the distance to the target in the time Let us
combine these two conditions 6 7
3
In the Drive to Improve the Quality of Night Bombin 63
and we find that:
tan 130
6.7 WT
3H
ON,
VT
O. 45H
{tan p o = 6. 7 (tan /3 - tanp )
H(tan/30 -tanp ) _ T
1 iiir 3
(assuming W = V).
Then Pe will be that sighting angle from which it will be necessary to reckon the
time L ; after this it will be necessary to synchronize and to crosstrail with "double
3
takes". If we calculate the numerical values of tan J3 (for altitudes and speeds at
which crews actually perform night bombing) and tabulate them, the obtained values
for bombs with 8 = 21.00 will be within the limits 2.2 to 2.8.
A navigator on a night mission does not find it very convenient to use every time
tan po which has been either specifically selected from the tables or computed. There-
fore there is good reason to examine the type of error that will occur in the drift angle
if we assume tan A:, as constant for all cases.
After the navigator switches on the ground speed servo and after the target sig-
nal reaches the crosshairs of the radar sight, and before he adjusts its position, the
sighting angle actually is 5 6cP . If we take po-..1 69?, then tan (3? = 2. 6. On the
other hand, for some bombing situations we find a table value of 2.2.
An error in tan 130 ( A tan /30 ) will result in a multiplicity discrepancy amounting
to AK. Inasmuch as
it follows that
tan/30
WT
K,
3H
.tan/30 - WT AK,
3H
or (if the obtained expression be divided by the preceding equation):
Atan i3o
tan
AK
(1)
The multiplicity discrepancy will in turn result in a drift angle error
Since US= XK (where X is the value of the target "slip"), AUS = X ? A K.
AUS AK . (2)
US
?J.
A US.
Therefore:
COmbining formulas (1) and (2) we may write:
Atanp,, _ Aus .
tanpo US 100%.
Therefore, if instead of the requisite value tan p. = 2. 2 which satisfies certain
definite requirements, actually under the same conditions the value
tan po = 2.6 ( A tan/30 = 0.4)
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64
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
? K. M. Kara sev
? is used, then
Aus _ 0.4
?27 ? No
US
i. e., the drift angle error will constitute 20% of the actual value.
If the navigator, even before acquiring the target on the radar sight's crosahairs,
selects the BURP with an accuracy of 5 - 10?, then the error AUS may only amount
to 1 - 20 after the turn; and. the navigator, besides, has the additional opportunity?of
even correcting the crosstrail several times more.
It is apparent that reckoning the time base T
3
the movements of the drift and synchronizing crank handles, and eliminates to a con-
siderable degree any disorderly haphazard movements. Our experienced navigators
such as B.I. Zhubrzhitskiy,A.G.Belotserkovets, prefer to control the base by mental
timing and they consistently achieve excellent bombing results. And young naviga-
tors who are just beginning night bombing practice are ? in their seniors' footsteps ?
also achieving good results.
The basic task of night bombing training consists of inculcating in the navigator
such efficient and theoretically sound operational procedures which will direct him
along the path toward perfecting his combat proficiency.
helps the navigator to
coordinate
mongsmowilloWl*AVOINNEWW;011111E
ELIMINATING ERRORS IN THE
PILOTING TECHNIQUE OF TRAINEES
Lt. Col. A. R. Y epifanov
In analyzing the results of flight work, a great deal of attention is allotted in
our school to a study of the experiences of topnotch instructor pilots and of command-
ers who for many years have been carrying on flight training without flight accidents.
Take, for example, instructor pilot Capt. B. P. Lupandin, who has now been pro-
moted to the position of element commander. During the course of seven years he
has been training student pilots without any flight accidents. And the flying personnel
of officer A. I. Kozlov's outfit has been also fulfilling the schedules of flight training
duty for six Tears without any accidents. We could name a number of other command-
ers and instructors who have achieved comparably good results.
But unfortunately not all instructor pilots have been training their students in an
equally qualified manner. The necessity has long since been felt for studying the
characteristic errors in piloting technique and for drawing up unified methods for
teaching students to correct these errors. On the basis of the advanced experience
at our school we have elaborated the basic principles of such a methodology; we have
discussed them at flying personnel assemblies, after which they were confirmed by
the command; and now they are being used as a guiding methodological aid. Classes
in methodology under the direct guidance of officers V. F. Anosov and. I. M. Tayver have
been conducted with the flying personnel in all the outfits, and, later, pattern and zone
demonstration flights were conducted.
We consider that the basic instruction method. for correcting errors in piloting
technique is in-air demonstration.
Teaching students to correct errors directly in the air follows only after they
have fully mastered the maneuvers or elements of flying. Then they will be able more
clearly and exactly to determine the aircraft's deviations from the norm and. they will
learn to counter them correctly. The task of the instructor during the flight is to in-
troduce. the error in a methodologically efficient manner, call the attention of the stu-
dent to the aircraft's behavior and attitude in space, and demonstrate how the eontrOl
surfaces must be operated in order to correct the error competently.
We teach the correction of errors in piloting technique during instructiOn flights
provided for in the course schedule. In case of necessity, additional instruction
flights are also planned.
It is very important to stress the fact that in the process of training students,
their individual characteristics must without fail be taken into consideration. Thus,
instructor pilot Capt. A. M. Totskiy, by observing every student in the group attentive-
ly, ascertained that I.A.Shangurov mastered the flying program well but quickly lost
the habits he had. acquired. The instructor trained him to correct his errors in the
course of the entire flight training program. Student S. V. Sachkov, on'the other hand,
rearned. the flying program slowly but retained it well. A different training method,
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4.
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66 A. R. Yepifanov
therefore, was applied to him. Element commander Capt. G. P.Denisov prescribed
additional instruction flights for him, striving to see that Sachkov thoroughly mastered
any one given technique for executing advanced maneuvers and for correcting possible
errors.
Let us examine the most characteristic errors in pattern flight on a UTI [ad-
vanced fighter trainer] MiG-15, and also methods for teaching the correction of those
errors.
During takeoff from a dirt field the most typical error of students is that they
pull back prematurely on the control stick in the first half of the takeoff run. Inas-
much as the plane at this time still does not have the necessary speed and the elevators
are insufficiently effective and cannot give it the angle of attack necessary for the take-
off, the front wheel does not lift. With an increase in forward speed, the plane may
raise its nose sharply and, assuming larger angles of attack, lift off at low speed or
touch the ground with the tail section of the fuselage.
After a normal takeoff has been completed with the student, the instructor dem-
onstrates 2 - 3 takeoffs with such an error. During the first half of the takeoff run,
at a speed equal to 150 km/hr, he pulls back the stick to the position necessary for
normal lifting of the front wheel, and he calls the student's attention to the aircraft's
behavior. At the same time, pushing the control forward, the instructor counters the
tendency towards excessive lifting of the front wheel. Then, together with the student
he again carries out correct takeoffs, so as to restore correct habits before solo
flight.
Much more complicated is the process of teaching the correction of errors dur-
ing landing computation and landing. Incorrect distribution of attention, faulty correc-
tion of an error during landing can entail serious consequences. We know, for exam-
ple, that student K.K.Stepetskiy, who was trained several years ago in officer G. M.
Oleykin's group, during one of his flights after having finished school, rounded out too
high while landing and was not able to correct the error in time. That means that
formerly we did not do everything to see to it that our graduates should be able at any
moment to correct an error they had made.
At the present time, while carrying out an exercise in the check-flight program,
the instructor very attentively sees to it that the student gets ready for the landing in
time, and that in all instances, from an altitude of no less than 50'm and. up to the be-
ginning of rounding out, he glides at a constant angle at the prescribed speed; and. that
at an altitude of 30 m he shifts his glance to the ground to the left and forward.?
toward the place to which the plane is descending. Thus the pilot learns to. estimate
precisely an altitude of 6 - 7 in and to begin and complete the roundout in due time.
For the practical demonstration of the technique of eliminating errors during
landing, up to 10 flights for each student are planned at our school: for one flying day
usually 3 - 4 flights and 4 - 6 for the next. But between the third and fourth flights
a break is consistently taken and, at the flight line, a brief critique is conducted of the
exercises which have been carried. out.
During the first flight, excessively high rounding out is demonstrated and correct-
ed. For this purpose, speed during gliding is maintained at 10 - 15 km/hr greater
than that prescribed. At an altitude of 8 - 10 m the instructor begins the roundout at
the usual rate of speed and completes it at 1. 5 - 2 in.
After noticing the high roundout, the student must stop pulling back any further
Eliminating Errors in the Piloting Technique of Trainees 67
on the stick and must allow the plane to descend; or, if it does not descend, he him-
self must bring it down to an altitude of 1 - 0.75 in. Then, pulling back on the stick
smoothly and steadily, he lands the craft on the two main landing wheels. The in-
structor checks his operations and if the student is late in correcting the high round-
out, then he himself corrects the error and completes the landing without too mi.th
float at an altitude of 1. 5 - 2 m and without too great a loss of speed.
In exactly the same way, during the second flight as well (correction of balloon-
ing) after the instructor sets up the ballooning error prior to an altitude of no more
than 1.8 in, the student himself must correct it. However, if his reaction is inade-
quate, then the instructor steps in and takes over the controls.
A flight for making an exact computation and for correcting "bumping" requires
a great deal of attention on the part of the instructor. The computation is corrected
by prolonged back-stick pressure while flying in a position which is horizontal or
close td it. The pulling back is carried out by the student. During gliding the speed
exceeds by 10 - 15 km/hr that which is prescribed. Rounding out the plane at an
altitude of 0.7 - 1 m, the trainee plots a landing with a normal profile. During the
first half of the float period, the instructor delays applying back-stick pressure and
lands the plane at an increased speed (210 - 220 km/hr) with a landing angle close to
the line of horizontal flight (the front wheel is approximately 10 cm off the ground).
At the moment the main wheels touch the ground, the stick is pulled back gently ?
and a high-speed "bump" occurs.
The student must evaluate the situation and correct the error. Depending on
the speed of the aircraft, he prevents it from lifting off the ground again by gentle
and moderate forward-stick pressure, and thenlby applying back-stick pressure,
lands it on the two main wheels. It must be kept in mind that when the "bump" oc-
curs late(touchdown on the two main wheels at a normalor slightly increased speed
of 170 - 190 km./hr with forceful application of back-stick pressure), the plane bal-
loons at 1 - 1.5 m and rolls onto a wing with nose down. This is a no-speed "bump"
which can only be the result of faulty actions by. the instructor. It ought not to be
introduced for training purposes. Such a "bump" must be corrected at once by the
instructor himself.
Two flights are scheduled for the student for training in the go-around technique.
In the first one, he receives the order to go around again after the fourth turn at an
-altitude of 50 - 60 m with rpm down to idling. After receiving the order, the trainee
advances the engine smoothly to full rpm and, when the speed reaches 300. km/hr, he
begins to climb, retracts the landing gear, and,with a constant increase in speed, he
goes around again.
During the second flight, the go-around. .is made from the float altitude. 'Glid-
ing is carried out with rpm completely retarded to idling speed as far as an altitude
of 7 - 8 in, after which the student is given the command to go around again. Con-
tinuing the landing (his glance is directed onto the ground), he smoothly advances the
-engine to full rpm. The instructor observes the direction of the student's glance,
the rate of speed of the plane's roundout and smoothness in advancing the engine to
full rpm, corrects the student's actions on the SPU [aircraft intercommunication
system] or resorts to dual control if the trainee is making serious errors.
We will note, that in going around from a low altitude, students frequently make
an error? they look away.from the ground and the plane touches the ground with its
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68 A.R. Yepifanov
wheels with a subsequent sharp ballooning and a shift to high angles of attack with loss
of speed. The error is sometimes aggravated further by a sudden advance of the throt-
tle. Therefore the instructor is obliged to evaluate the student's actions critically.
After the go-around, the student carries out an entire flight, computation, and
landing with speed. brakes down and with the throttle completely retarded at an altitude
of 50 - 70 m. The instructor calls his attention to the glid.e angle and the poor effec-
tiveness of the speed brakes at low speed. The trainee must become convinced that
the computation and the landing with speed brakes down present no difficulty.
For the same purpose, an instruction flight is carried out with the speedometer
pasted over. The student comes to understand that piloting a plane without that instru-
ment is entirely possible.
In this way we analyze several pattern flights which are especially schedules for
the student in order to eliminate errors in piloting technique. Besides these, 3 - 4
flights more are given to repeat what the instructor considers to have been inadequate-
ly mastered.
During 1 - 2 flights the instructor, at any point on the route (that point is indi-
cated by the operations officer during preflight training as it applies to the flight line)
at an altitude of 500 m, reduces the rpm to 5,000 - 6, 000 and simulates engine failure.
A drop of no more than 200 m is allowed. The task of the student is to create a glide
angle and indicate the spot where he has decided to land.
In order to train students to reach a decision in case of engine failure and to cor-
rect errors in landing, we must not limit ourselves only to carrying out the flights that
have been analyzed. The training must be continued in subsequent pattern and zone
exercises so that in case of necessity each student will be able to reach a correct deci-
sion in due time and to carry it out to its conclusion in any flight.
It is quite clear that a demonstration of typical errors in the process of piloting
in the zone and the technique for correcting them are also included in the training of
the students.
Thus, for example, when turns are worked out on a MiG-15 plane, the most
characteristic deviations from the norm are inconsistancy of banking and of angular
rotation and. the failure to maintain prescribed altitude and speed. These errors oc-
cur because the extreme wing sweepback and the short nose section of the aircraft
with the forward location of the cockpit hamper the determining and holding of the bank
during a turn by judging the position of the cowling with respect to the horizon, while
the comparatively high thrust range of the engine complicates the maintenance of the
prescribed altitude and speed.
The instructors help the students overcome errors of a similar nature and, to
the extent that the technique of piloting is mastered and the special features of the
plane are learned, these errors are as a rule eliminated. However, besides these
general errors which depend on lack of experience, there are also those the mandatory
correction of which is dictated by the interests of flying safety.
Among them are: pulling too hard on the stick during a turn; "nosing down" of the
aircraft while entering a turn or in the process of executing one; a climbing turn. Pul-
ling too hard on the stick is the most frequently occurring error during a combat pro-
cedure turn as well, and it arises as the result of the inability to determine the
air-
craft's angular rate of rotation. In addition, during a combat procedure turn, stu-
dents most frequently increase the bank excessively or else recover at too low a speed.
Eliminating Errors in the Piloting Technique of Trainees - 69
The following errors are characteristic of a roll: off-course recovery; hovering of the
plane in inverted position; pulling too hard on the stick during recovery from a dive.
The dive itself may be executed. with a bank or a turn, and this too is the result of in-
correct operations. When going into a dive (this happens especially often on the bomb-
ing range during target approach) students make a steep bank.
Working out Nesterov loops with students is connected with the mandatory elimi-
nation of such errors as reducing speed at the top point, pulling too hard on the stick
during the first and second half of the loop, executing the loop in more than one plane.?
-For the Nesterov half loop the same errors are characteristic as during the first half
-of the full loop, and when the craft rolls around. its longitudinal axis at an angle of
1800 ? deflections inherent in a barrel roll, i. e., erratic rotation or nosing down of
the plane and nosing down in a belly-up position.
As an example of the methods we employ in our work, let us examine in greater
detail?the spiral and the errors connected with it. One of these is excessive increase
of the angle of descent as the result of violating the prescribed angle of bank and. angle
of incidence of the longitudinal axis of the plane with respect to the horizon, or as the
result of incorrect operations by the trainee in maintaining the prescribed forward
speed (the bank is not maintained, and the increase in speed is countered only by pul-
ling back on the stick). The characteristics of such an error are rapid increase in
forward speed and loss of altitude, increased bank, and increased. acceleration forces.
Training the student in the air in such a case amounts to the following: when
going into the spiral, the instructor increases the bank angle to 600 and demonstrates
the wrong way (by pulling back on the stick) and then the right way to bring the plane
out of the spiral (he pulls it out of the bank and, depending on the situation, continues
the descent at a gentle glide or again in a spiral). After that, the instructor intro-
duces the error and this time the student corrects it. During the established spiral
the instructor demonstrates ? and the trainee imitates ? what must be done in order
to maintain the prescribed bank and the plane's angle of descent.
Another error during a spiral is pulling back too hard on the stick as the result
of the inability to maintain forward speed. and to correlate the angular speed of rota-
.tion with the size of the bank. The plane begins to quiver and there is a tendency to
lose speed. The error is corrected by relaxing pressure on the stick until the plane
-ceases to vibrate. At first the instructor demonstrates how this is done and then he
introduces the error again for the student to correct on his own.
If the plane is put into a spiral with a low angle of descent at the prescribed ?
but not yet established ? speed, the forward speed. will drop. The same thing will
also be brought about through a decrease in the angle of descent during the spiral. The
error is corrected by bringing the plane out of the maneuver and by repeatedly bring-
ing it into a spiral in a coordinated manner. In the air the instructor introduces the
error intentionally and. the student corrects it at his command and under his observa-
tion.
In actual practise, the plane often falls into a so-called steep spiral. This oc-
curs if errors made during a sharp turn when rolling out of a combat procedure turn
during an ordinary spiral were not corrected in time. Another cause of a steep spi-
ral may be the failure to put a prompt stop to a slow rotation of the plane around its
longitudinal axis during recovery from a dive. It is usually caused. by the ailerons'
being in a nonsymmetrical position in relation to the airflow or by the .rudder in case
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70 A.R. Yepifanov
of disturbance of the aerodynamic symmetry of the plane (skin damage) or in case of
insufficient wing rigidity. It may also be caused. as the result of excessive increase
in speed during a dive.
In this connection, the spiral may be very elongated with a high angle of inci-
dence of the aircraft's longitudinal axis with respect to the horizon.
From the ground. only a discrete terminal segment of a spiral 2500 - 3000 m in
depth is visible during which the plane manages to turn one seventh or one eighth a
full coil (the time for one coil is approximately one minute) and. is consequently taken
for an ordinary dive. Such a spiral may appear to be an ordinary dive not only to the
observer from the ground but even to the pilot himself.
When recovering from an ordinary dive, the pilot sees the ground through the
cockpit canopy windshield moving from above to a direction under the plane; and. some-
time later he sees the approaching horizon. Meanwhile the AGI-1 [ gyrohorizon]
shows neither a turn nor a slip, i. e., the meridian line and the ball are in the center.
During a steep spiral the pilot sees the ground through the windshield moving also
from above in a direction under the craft, but slightly inclined (if there are no good
landmarks, this visible incline of the earth's surface to the aircraft's plane of re-
covery from a dive may even go unnoticed), and the horizon will pass to the side of
the outer wing and not approach the windshield. The meridian line will show a turn
on the bank scale, and the ball will move in the direction of slipping or remain in the
center.
If the pilot does not determine where the horizon is and does not notice a turn
of the plane (and he will not notice it by merely observing the ground through the wind-
shield instead of checking the instrument readings), he will easily take a steep spiral
for a normal recovery from a dive. This distorted perception is intensified also by
the fact that during a steep spiral, just as during recovery from a dive, the pilot is
pressed to his seat and he feels normal pressure on the control stick. Puzzled by
the prolonged "non-recovery" of the plane from the dive, he pulls back more forcibly
on the stick, whereupon he feels increasing acceleration forces and pressure on the
elevator, sees the increased motion of the earth's surface from above in.a direction
under the plane, but the expected recovery from the dive does not materialize.
Actually, however, the forward speed increases swiftly, altitude is lost very
?rapidly, and there may not be sufficient altitude for recovery of the plane (which oc-
curs very slowly) by means of the control stick alone. And, indeed, pulling back on
the stick in such a case will only speed up the plane's rotation and increase, the angle
of descent, and this Will lead to a further increase in forward speed and loss of alti-
tude, just as during an ordinary spiral. Consequently, forceful operation of the
ailerons and rudder is.necessary above all.
Thus, if the plane has gotten into a steep spiral, the pilot must reduce engine
thrust and., without letting the stick slip forward, drop the speed brakes so that the
flying speed and Mach number do not exceed permissible values. Then he must deter-
mine if there is any rotation and., if so, in what direction; for this purpose he must
check the attitude of the wings with respect to the visible line of the natural horizon
and glance towards the side: the outer wing will be slightly higher, and the inner
wing, in the direction of which the plane is rotating, will be somewhat below the hori-
zon (during a steep spiral, the horizon is usually visible only from the side of the
outer wing, and by this characteristic it is also possible to determine easily the direc-
Eliminating Errors in the Piloting Technique of Trainees 71
tion of aircraft rotation). After that, he must look at the reading of the AGI-1 and,
in a coordinated way, by using the pedal and stick, stop the rotation of the plane
around its longitudinal axis ? i. e., eliminate the bank (the control surface should be
deflected forcefully towards the visible horizon while checking the AGI-1 readings)
and, pulling back on the stick, bring the plane out of the dive while keeping an eye on
the altitude.
Students are trained in operations in case the craft gets into a deep spiral in the
zone at an altitude of no less than 4, 000 m, speed of 350 km/hr, and 6, 000 - 6, 500
rpm. The instructor brings the craft into a spiral with an angle of descent of 50 - 60?
and brings it out by pulling back on the stick. At the same time he calls the trainee's
attention to the rapid "twisting" of the plane. He then demonstrates how to determine
the bank and rotation of the plane and how to bring it out of the steep spiral. After
that, regaining the lost altitude by a combat procedure turn or zooming, the instructor
gives the .trainee the order to determine the attitude of the plane and to bring it out of
the spiral. When the students have been trained to operate competently in such cir-
cumstances, during subsequent instruction flights into the zone a check must be made
which will contribute to consolidating the habits that have been acquired.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
EQU I PMENT AND I NSTALLAT I ONS
AND THEIR
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
AERIAL ROCKET WEAPONS
Docent, Candidate of Technical Sciences, Engineer Lt. Col:V.I. Marisov
5. Autonomous Missile Control Systems
In order to guide a missile to a target, it is necessary first of all to determine
the direction and amount of deflection from the trajectory which passes through the
target.
The method of carrying out the measurements and the type of measuring devices
employed, determine the principle of controlling and the method of guiding a missile.
In order to determine the coordinates of a target, every telecontrol or homing
system is based on the principle of distinguishing a specific target contrast: radar,
thermal, optic, or acoustic. This fact greatly limits the field of application of a mis-
411
,
ttsz,
Aerial Rocket Wea ons 73
sile equipped with a specific telecontrol or homing system. In addition, the coordinate
measuring devices have a limited range which, during homing, does not exceed. 25 km
and, during telecontrol, amounts to approximately 200 - 300 km.
Hitting targets located at a distance of several hundred and even several thousand
km is possible only with a missile with a so-called autonomous control. With such a
control system, the target coordinates are not measured directly in the course of guid-
ance, but the missile travels in accordance with data programmed on the basis of the
missile's position relative to the target at the. moment of launching.
The programmed data include a number of values which determine the missile's
movement: course, direction of thenlaunching-target" path and direction of missile axis
relative to the horizon, altitude, range,
velocity, etc. These parameters are
preset in the, control system prior to
launching.
The autonomous control system
with which the missile is equipped con-
tinuously reads the actual values and
compares them with the programmed
data. If there are any discrepancies
between the missile's movement para-
meters and the corresponding program-
med data, the control system moves the
missile's control surfaces in such a way
as to reduce these discrepancies to zero.
Thus the autonomous control sys-
tem directs the movement of the missile
in such a way that the latter travels
with preset values (course, altitude, path,
etc); and, when the missile reaches a pre-
determined distance, it puts it into a target dive.
The range is determined by the capabilities of the missile itself, and is not limit-
ed by the control system. A highly valuable characteristic of autonomous control s,ys- -
terns is their practically complete invulnerability to jamming. This is so due to the
absence of lines of contact with the target or the control point.' The operation of the
autonomous control system is packaged, within the missile itself. And, should the ene-
my detect such a missile, he cannot jam the operation of the system either by camou-
=flaging the target, by setting up decoy targets, or by giving false command. signals to
the missile.
It should be mentioned that autonomous control systems, as a rule," are structural-
ly more simple than homing and telecontrol systems. But together with their advantag-
es they also have certain inherent shortcomings. The basic shortcoming is that mis-
siles with autonomous control cannot be fired at moving targets because of that same
unique feature, namely, the absence of any contact with the target.
Autonomous control systems are divided into gyroscopic, inertial, and astrona-
vigational (there can also be other types), depending upon the method of determining the
direction and. amount of deviation from the planned trajectory or program.
G?roscopic systems are analogoUs to conventional aircraft autopilots. At the mo-
/X4
Wind
Launching point
Target
Fig. 1. Drift of pilotless aircraft under
effect of cmsswind.
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74 V. I. Marisov
III???OP
ment of launching the axis of the gyroscope rotor aligns itself with the missile's axis
and the missile is aimed at the target. When the missile's axis deviates from the plan-
ned. heading the rotor axis remains pointing toward the target. An angle is formed be-
tween these two axes which is then measured. In accordance with the amount and the
sign of this angle, the control surfaces are deflected, the missile turns, and its axis
assumes the planned attitude.
The trouble is that, in a crosswind, the missile may shift without changing the
position of its axes in space. This results in a wide miss since the control system
stabilizes the missile on its course (angular value) and not on the flight path, i. e., the
trajectory (Fig. 1). When simple gyroscopic autonomous control systems are used,
then, even at comparatively short range (several hundred km), the missile will not only
miss a small-scale target, but even a target of greater area (a circumference with
5 - 10 km radius).
The flight path is stabilized in order to reduce dispersion. For the vertical plane
this constitutes no difficulty: it is sufficient to introduce a command signal from an
altimeter. This signal produces a correction and the missile moves to the desired
altitude. However, accuracy in maintaining the desired altitude has little effect on mis-
sile dispersion. Of decisive importance here is the lateral stabilization of the trajec-
tory relative to the azimuth.
At present there are two distinct trends in solving the problem of lateral stabiliza-
tion of the trajectory of an autonomously controlled missile. The first is the use of
astronavigational facilities, and the second involves the use of devices for measuring
the missile's lateral accelerations.
The essence of the astronavigational method consists in the missile's deriving
bearings from the observation of two sufficiently bright stars by means of special de-
vices.
Knowing the position of the target and the point from which the missile was launch-
ed, it is possible to preset a definite trajectory for the missile and, consequently, to
formulate a principle governing changes in bearing in reference to the selected celestial
bodies. This formulation is introduced into the astronavigational system in the form of
a program. In flight the measured values are compared with the program values, on
the basis of which a command signal is generated.
The use of accelerometers in the system allows us to compute the velocity and also
the lateral drift of the missile on the basis of the measured accelerations. As the drift
increases, the autopilot receives a correcting command signal and the missile begins to
deviate toward the prescribed trajectory, this being also recorded by the accelerometer.
As a result, the operation of the entire system is analogous to the operation of an auto-
matic regulating system which reduces to zero the lateral drift of the missile from its
prescribed trajectory.
Sextants and accelerometers function essentially as correcting devices just as the
altimeter functions as a corrector in stabilization of the trajectory in the vertical plane.
The command signals from sextants or accelerometers are transmitted to the missile's
autopilot which is, in itself, a gyroscopic autonomous control system. Under the effect
of these correction signals, the autopilot turns the missile in the required direction, and
the missile's flight path is stabilized.
Let us now discuss in greater detail the autonomous control system.
Aerial Rocket Weapons 75
The basic measuring devices of this autonomous control system are various types
of gyroscopes. A gyroscope, as is known, consists of a rapidly rotat-
Gyroscopic ing symmetrical body (rotor) in cardanic suspension. If the point of in-
systems. tersection of the axes of rotation coincide with the rotor's center of gravi-
ty, the gyroscope is called astatic.
In order to measure the angular rotation velocities of the platform (in our case
the missile is the platform), a gyroscope with two degrees of rotational freedom is us-
ed, which is called a two-degree or high-speed gyroscope.
If the rotation of the cardanic suspension gimbal rings of a three-degree gyroscope
is limited by elastic connections (springs), then the gyroscope measures simultaneously
both angular velocity and angular acceleration, and is called an accelerating high-speed
-gyroscope. When the rotation of the rotor around the spin axes of the inner and outer
gimbal rings of the ,cardanic suspension is not limited by rigid, or elastic couplings, we
then have a free three-degree gyroscope. This allows Us to measure the spacial ang-
les of orientation of the platform on which the gyroscope is mounted, and therefore it is
called a position gyroscope.
How many angular coordinates can a single position gyroscope measure? How
large are the maximum angles which it can indicate? And how should the main axis
of the gyroscope be oriented with respect to the rotation axes of the platform?
In flight a missile has three degrees of freedom in its rotary motion: around the
longitudinal axis (angle of roll); around the lateral axis (angle of pitch); and around the
vertical axis (angle of yaw).
Let us assume that a gyroscope is mounted in a missile as shown in Fig. 2a.
Since the main axis of the gyroscope is stabilized, the change in the angle of yaw is in-
dicated by arrow 1 on the dial l', and the pitch angle is indicated by arrow 2 on the dial
2'.
In case the missile rotates about the main axis of the gyroscope, its roll cannot
be measured. The gyroscope shown in Fig. 2b measures angles of pitch and roll.
These examples show that a single position gyroscope can measure two angles simulta-
neously. The missile's angle of rotation about the axis which coincides with the main
gyroscope axis or an axis parallel to it cannot be,measured.
Therefore, in order to measure all the missile',s angles of orientation (roll, pitch,
and yaw) a minimum of two position gyroscopes should be installed in the missile. -
When the angle of pitch increases to 90? (steep dive), the spin axis of the outer
-gimbal ring (Fig. 2a), which turns with the missile, coincides with the spin axis of the
inner gimbal ring. In this way the gyroscope loses one degree of freedom and its op-
eration becomes impossible. When the missile yaws 90o, the main axis of .the gyro-
cope will assume a position parallel to the lateral axis, and any further measurement
of the angle of pitch will be precluded.
Let us aaaume that the rnisoil"' has pitched lees than 9n0-- for example, 450. If
an angle of yaw is formed in this case, the angle itself will not be measured, but rather
its projection on a horizontal surface. On the other hand, with a 450 yaw, only a cer-
tain component of the angle of pitch will be measured.
The position gyroscope gives an absolutely accurate measurement of the angles of
rotation relative to the axes which are perpendicular to the main axis. This situation
requires first of all that the gimbal rings be perpendicular to each other (in our example
_this is disrupted. during pitching) and also that a corresponding position of the platforms
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76
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V.1. Marisov
relative to the main axis hold true. Should this condition be disregarded, the angles
are measured with so-called cardanic errors. In practice, a position gyroscope nor-
mally measures angles of up to + 30? from the initial position.
In order to provide for a wide angular range of gyroscope operation, some spe-
cial instruments have devices which insure that the gyroscope's gimbal rings are per-
pendicular (gimbal ring correction) and this reduces cardanic errors. Furthermore,
a
Flight
heading
Flight
heading
Flight
heading
Fig. 2. Installation of gyroscopic sensing elements on guided missiles.
the gyroscope is mounted. so as to be movable with respect to the objective.
A two-degree gyroscope (Fig. 2c) is used. for measuring the angular velocities
of the missile's rotation around the center of gravity. The gyroscope suspension has
only one gimbal ring whose rotation is limited by a spring. A missile rotation with
angular velocity produces a gyroscopic moment ME proportional to the angular ve-
locity. This moment tilts the gyroscope relative to the gimbal axis; the elastic force
of the spring produces a moment which, at a certain angle of rotation of the gimbal ring,
balances the gyroscopic moment. Thus, the greater the angular velocity of the mis-
sile's rotation, the greater the deflection angle of the gimbal. The deflection is record-
ed on a dial graduated in units of angular velocity.
A two-degree gyroscope allows measurement of angular velocity with respect to
one axis only. Its installation on a missile is determined by the following principle: a
two-degree gyrOscope measures the angular velocity relative to the spin axis of the lost
degree of freedom. In our example, the two-degree gyroscope is installed in such a
way that, it cannot rotate around the vertical axis with respect to the missile. This
will be the axis of the lost degree of freedom.,-
A problem may arise. Since the gyroscope's axis tends to maintain its position
in space, when the missile rotates around the lateral axis (in the given example), the
pointer will apparently shift with respect to the dial, and certain false readings will
appear. It appears that, when the gyroscope loses one degree of freedom of rotational
motion, this results in a loss of stability in its main axis, and the gyroscope, in re-
sponse to the effect of the elastic coupling, rotates'about the lateral axis along with the
missile.
The fact is, under the effect of the external moment produced by the spring as a
?
Aerial Rocket Weapons 77
result of the rotation of the missile, the gyroscope begins to rotate around the gimbal
axis. This rotation produces a gyroscopic moment which tends to turn the gyroscope
relative to the vertical axis.
But since the gyroscope is not free to do this, there will be no precession. The
gyroscopic moment will be balanced by the reactions of the supports (gimbal bearings),
and the gyroscope, under the effect of the spring, will turn along with the missile just
like an ordinary inertial body.
We will now discuss the arrangement of a simple gyroscopic autonomous control
system. The system includes several control channels: for pitch, course, and roll.
The layout of any one control channel can be represented schematically as shown in
Fig. 3. We will analyze it as it applies to the course channel.
fl
11
Correcting
device
1.
Measuring
device
Missile
Summing
device
Amplifier
Servomotor
Measuring
device
Fig. 3. Layout of one control channel
Let us assume that the programmed course value is 250? for the entire flight of the
missile up to the moment it goes into the dive towards the target. In practice the mis-
sile is programmed by the appropriate arrangement of the main axis of the position
gyroscope which determines the course.
We will assume that, at a certain instant, the missile axis deviates from the tar-
get heading and the missile is on a course of, say, 2250; i. e., a 50 discrepancy exists
between the missile axis and the main axis of the course gyroscope. The discrepancy
signal is picked off the potentiometer and transmitted as a voltage to the summing de-
vice. A rather weak signal comes from the measuring device and is amplified after
passing through the summing device. After this, the signal is transmitted to the con-
trol-surface actuator. The control surface is deflected to the ,required angle and the
missile begins turning around the vertical axis in a direation which tends to reduce the
discrepancy. The second measuring device is usually a high-speed gyroscope. The
necessity of measuring the angular velocity and the necessity of using this signal to
control movement are due to the fact that, when there is no signal from the high-speed
gyroscope, the missile will overshoot the position of coincidence, thus cleating a dis-
crepancy of opposite sign, and the whole process will be repeated. The signals of the
high-speed and position gyroscopes have opposite signs. This is effected by appropri-
ate connection of the p6tentiometers. Thus, due to the high-speed gyroscope, the dis-
crepancy between the axis of the missile and that of the positiOn gyroscope is smoothly
zeroed and the missile will have no oscillatory motion.
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78 V. I. Marisov
The pitch and roll channels function in, an analogous manner, the only difference
being that a magnetic correction is made in the course channel, and an altimeter cor-
rection is made in the pitch channel.
The necessity for correction is explained by the fact that the gyroscope's main
axis, in the course of time, "drifts" from the planned heading. This is due to two caus-
es.
First of all, it is impossible to make a three-degree gyroscope with absolutely
balanced suspension. In practice the rotor's center of gravity does not coincide with
the axes' point of intersection. Consequently, there appears a force of gravity moment
relative to the suspension center which is an external moment and causes precession.
This moment is usually slight; the rate of precession is negligible; but during a flight
which may last several sixths of an hour, the gyroscope "drifts" to a considerable angle.
The moment arising from an unbalanced rotor increases if missile accelerations are
present. In addition, friction moments in the suspension axes which represent external
disturbances must not be excluded.
The second cause of the gyroscope's "drifting" from the planned heading is the
diurnal motion of the earth and the missile's motion relative to the earth.
These systems are a combination of simple gyroscopic control systems with an
automatic sextant which transmits correction signals to the gyroscopic autopilot when
the missile deviates from its planned flight path.
Astronavigational If the gyroscopic system (autopilot) makes it possible for
systems the missile to travel automatically on a planned course, but does
not provide for stabilization of the missile's center of gravity
along the trajectory, then the astronavigational system, due to astronomical measuring
devices (sextants), enables the missile to
travel automatically on a planned trajec-
tory. This is explained by the fact that
the astronavigational system is equipped
with devices which measure the missile's
position relative to the earth.
Programming is set up in various
ways ? for example, by recording on a
magnetic tape. The actual coordinates of
the missile during the latter's motion are
measured with tracking telescopes or-ra-
dio sextants.
The main difficulty during automatic
plotting of a celestial body's angular co-
ordinates lies in establishing the beginning
of reading. When operating.a hand sex- Fig. 4. Simplified diagram of tele-
tant the navigator uses a level; whereas scopic tracking device.
automatic sextants must be mounted on gy-
ro- stabilized platforms.
The gyro-stabilized platform has three degrees of rotational motion and_maintains
a fixed position with the aid of servomotors which restore the platform to this position
on the basis of the signals delivered by the gyroscopes.
Field of view
of objective
Aerial Rocket Weapons 79
A sextant mounted on such a surface has a reliable beginning of reading of the
celestial body's angular coordinates regardless of the missile's rotation around the
center of gravity.
Actually the coordinates are measured because the telescope is continuously
tracking the star. The coordinates are picked off as the telescope's angles of rotation
relative to the horizontal (altitude of the celestial body) and vertical (azimuth) axes.
Without further discussion of specific tracking telescope designs, let us examine
the simplest possible layout arrangement (Fig. 4).
In the focal plane of the lens (1) there is a disk (2) with slots (light flux modulator)
driven by a motor (3).
On the modulating disk there are two rings of alternating transparent and opaque ?
bands, the bands being narrower on the outer rings and wider on the inner ring. When
the disk rotates, the light flux is modulated at a high frequency, fi , if the celestial
body's image is above the line that separates the rings, and at a low frequency, f2, if
the image is below the dividing line.
The modulated light flux is focused by the condensing lens (4) and passes on to the
photocell. The photocurrent from the output of the photocell is characterized by the
signals which alternate with either one or the other frequency, depending on the position
of the celestial body relative to the telescope's optical axis. The amplified photocur-
rent signals are fed into filters, one of which is tuned to the fi frequency and the other
to the f2 frequency.
The signal from the filter outpit triggers a motor which turns the telescope so as
to align the star's image with the dividing line between the rings. In this case no mod-
ulation of the light flux occurs and the signal is zero at the output of both filters.
In order to track on two channels ? altitude and azimuth? two half-disk are set
up rotated by one motor. The light of flux is modulated alternately by both disks. At
the filter output a circuit-breaker is set up, rotating synchronously with the disks and
connecting the azimuth and altitude channels at the proper instants.
At the moment of launching, the missile must be so oriented in space that each of
the telescopes-set up in advance in the required position 7? point towards its own star.
However, it is extremely difficult, by mere preliminary setting and sighting, to
have the selected stars within the field of view of their respective telescopes. That is
why, at the initial moment, the telescopes .act as scanners, i. e., the telescope, with
the aid of its drive units which assure tracking under normal conditions, swings to the ?
right and to the left along the azimuth with simultaneous change in elevation. As a re-
sult the telescope's field of view is, as it were, enlarged, and an area corresponding to
5 - 70 in azimuth and altitude is spanned.
The advantage of astronavigational s}srstems is that dispersion is practically in-
dependent of range of fire. Furthermore, they correct errors in determining the point
of missile launching, which is of special importance for air-launched missiles. The
guidance error of a missile equipped with an astronavigaticinal autonomous control sys-
tem for a range of 8000 km is approximately 13 km.
The principal measuring device of an inertial autonomous control system is the
accelerometer, an instrument which measures acceleiations. However, data cannot
be used directly. This can be proved in the following manner. Let us assume that the
missile is affected by a gust of wind which produces a lateral acceleration. When a
signal is generated by the accelerometer the control surface will be deflected, the mi.'s-
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80 V. I. Marisov
sile will have a slip angle, a lateral force will appear which will balance the effect of
the gust of wind, and the acceleration will be zeroed. When an accelero-
Inertial meter signal is used, the time of the acceleration effect will equal the
systems time consumed in deflecting the control surface and rotation of the missile
to the necessary slip angle. However, after the acceleration disappears,
a missile traveling at a constant velocity (without taking into account air resistance) de-
viates from the planned trajectory.
Thus, making use of the signal directly from the accelerometer is not expedient.
We are interested in zeroing, not the lateral accelerations of the missile, but rather
the lateral deviations from the planned trajectory? for which the accelerometer signal
must be integrated twice.
Missile
HDevice for
measuring
lateral
deflection
j....._41
s Integrating
device
0-t
_,v6
Autopilot I
4
Integrating L.6
device
Fig. 5. Layout of an inertial control system (at the top is shown
the basis scheme of an accelerometer).
A diagram of an inertial control system is shown in Fig. 5.
A signal, proportional to the lateral drift of the missile, is fed to the autopilot
which acts upon the missile's movement. As a result, there is a change in the magnitude
of the acceleration fed to the accelerometer.Here, just as during control of the missile's
rotational motions where not only an angle signal is used but also an angular velocity
signal, the autopilot also is fed a signal which is proportional to the velocity of lateral
drift (broken arrow line).
The most widely used acceleration device
scheme is an inertial body whose movement is
limited by springs. During acceleration of the
platform the inertial body, which tends to re-
main in position, becomes ,displaced with respect
to the instrument frame. This displacement is
proportional to the acceleration and is read by
the potentiometer.
At the instant when the acceleration of the
inertial body equals the platform's acceleration,
the inertial body's displacement with respect to
the instrument frame will no longer take place,
? Flight
heading
Fig. 6. Gyroscopic linear accelera-
tion measuring device.
#
Aerial Rocket Weapons
' 81
since, within equal time intervals, the body and the platform ? together with the in-
strument frame ? will be equally displaced.
Besides the inertial accelerometer, for measuring accelerations the so-called
"heavy" gyroscope can be used; its center of suspension does not *coincide with the cen-
ter of graility (Fig. 6). For the sake of simplicity, we will assume that the frame mass
is insignificant in comparison with the rotor mass.
During lateral acceleration, j, the gyroscope will be affected by an external mo-
ment, the vector of which is directed along the axis of the outer frame facing us. The
effect of the external moment produces precessional rotation about the axis of the inner
frame with an angular velocity Wr proportional to the acceleration Wr = k.
The voltage picked off the potentiometer is proportional to the angle of rotation.
The angle of rotation is the result of the integration of the angular velocity and the time.
If we integrate both parts of the preceding equality, we will obtain the angle of ro-
tation on the left and on the right, as a result of integrating the acceleration, we will
have the velocity.
In this way the instrument makes the first integration automatically, and the volt-
age, proportional to the velocity V1 of the missile's lateral displacement, is picked off
the potentiometer.
The above-described autonomous control systems are in use. The astronaviga-
tional system, for example, is installed in long-range air-launched and ground-launch-
ed missiles, particularly in intercontinental rockets and pilotless aircraft.
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'14116.**41400.0.10moimz
EXPERIENCE OBTAINED IN SERVICING
FIGHTER AIRCRAFT `FOR NIGHT FLIGHTS
Engineer Lt. Col. G. A. Davydov
Servicing night flights has its own unique and. specific features. A certain
amount of experience has been accumulated in our unit in the technical operation of
highspeed fighters during night flights. This is what we should like to discuss.
Servicing a supersonic aircraft for night flights is organized in much the same
way as servicing other types of aircraft; it consists of a preliminary and preflight
check. Upon receiving instructions regarding scheduled flights from the commander,
the engineer of the unit prepares a servicing schedule in which he makes provisions
for the required support facilities (KZ[tank truck unit], APA [aircraft preheating
unit], oxygen apparatus, etc.).
The technical personnel assigned to servicing night flights studies the flight line
area layout, the airfield traffic lanes, the disposition of the aircraft on the flight line,
the setup of receiving procedure after landing, the regulations governing request for
special equipment. Furthermore, the personnel studies the takeoff sequence, the
personnel stations, and the location of spare parts stores.
The preliminary servicing of the aircraft is done, as a rule, the day before the
flights. At that time we inspect the planes and engines and we repair the malfunc-
tions which we spot. Seemingly this work differs very little from that which is done
when servicing the aircraft for routine daytime flights. But it also has special fea-
tures of its own. Thus, electrical specialists check the lighting equipment more care-
fully; they check the operation of the aircraft navigational lights in three positions of
the switch (for 100, 30, and 10%); they examine the glass surfaces for damage as well
as the rubber sealing under them. Sometimes at high flight speeds the glass cracks
and the rubber seals are sucked out.
An. especially careful check is made of the operation of the outside signal system
when the landing gear is extended. The fact is that when the plane is flying with ex-
tended landing gear, the wiring on the struts vibrates and the wires may be ripped off.
Once one of the electricians, while servicing aircraft for night flights was in pro-
gress, switched on the outside signal system and began checking it. While moving a
wire on the right-hand mount of one of the machines he discovered that the light went
off. It turned out that the negative lead had snapped at the point where it was solder-
ed. The trouble was quickly eliminated.
On another aircraft the outside signal system did not function and the retracted
and extended landing-gear position lights did not go on in the pilot's cockpit. Officer
N.A.Korneyev established the fact that the positive lead wire on the right-hand mount
of the landing gear signal.System was broken off. But how could the fact be explained
that the lights in the cockpit did not go on? The cause was located. There had been
a short circuit which had disconnected the AZS [automatic circuit protection].
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
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Experience Obtained in Servicing Fi hter Aircraft for Ni ht Fli hts 83
These two cases have led us to conclude that, when inspecting the outside land-
ing-gear signal system, it is imperative not only to switch it on, but also to check the
electrical wire connections to the mount by moving them about.
In the process of servicing aircraft we also pay special attention to the worka-
bility of the taxiing and landing lights. Sometimes it happens that the landing light
does not fully retract. But why this happens baffled us for a long time. Group chief,
officer S. N. Trusov, established that a malfunction of this type is possible for two
reasons, namely, a break in contact in the plug-type connector No. 35 or bridging of
contacts in the RP-2 relay.
Now whenever we inspect a landing light we examine the condition of the braces
with which the landing light is mounted on the front landing gear strut. The fact is
that we have had several cases of brace breakdown. Once mechanic Sgt. V. M. Glas-
tritskiy reported such a defect to officer M.K.Kuznetsov. Upon inspection it was
determined that the trouble was caused by a damaged shimmy damper rod.
In inspecting the cockpit lighting fixtures we ascertain that lead connections to
the mounts are secure, check the inside illumination lights, the signal system lights,
and the condition of the coating (luminescent compound) of the instrument scales and
control levers, as well as the correct functioning of the light intensity control device.
Once after a flight the pilot reported that one of the light mounts was going on
and off. The light was checked. It lit up normally but whenever the wire was moved
it flickered. It was obvious that, due to vibrations and bending when the lights were
used, the wire had ripped loose. Checking the cockpit equipment precludes such de-
fects.
In our opinion aircraft equipment should be serviced in the summer in the morn-
ing,while the technical personnel should leave for the airfield in order to service night
flights about 40 min. prior to their beginning in order to avoid hustle and bustle.
Immediately prior to the flights we once again inspect all the lighting equipment
because there have been cases when lights burned out during inspection. All the light
mounts are set for night lighting. For the convenience of the flying personnel, in
order to shade the signal lights on the landing gear fairing, we make an attachment out
of paper with special slits.
In order to reduce glare on the Cockpit canopy we fit a blind individually for each
pilot. In this way the upper rows of instruments are less shaded and their readings
are clearer.
Nor can we disregard such a problem as checking the speed indicator as well as
the dynamic and static line. This is particularly important in winter time when the
temperature drops and there is the possibility of moisture freezing in the static tub-
ing which, in consequence, will lead to incorrect instrument readings. The dynamic
line may clog if the air pressure intake has over it a. dirty and defective cover.
There are also special features in servicing the aircraft for a repeat night sor-
tie. When flights start directly from the parking area the aircraft are concentrated
in one place and are placed in a row, but at slightly greater intervals than in daytime.
This assures safety and reduces unnecessary vehicle traffic.
When the aircraft is taxied to the refueling 'station, we switch on the aircraft's
navigational lights in order to designate the parking area.
We also take into account that the aircraft has a special rod for the air pressure
intake, that the engine gives off a rather powerful exhaust stream from its jet nozzle,
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84 G. A. Davydov
and that a strong vacuum is produced in the intake ports. All this demands additional
safety measures. Thus, in order to avoid colliding with the rod, we lower it before
the pilot climbs into the cockpit, after which we turn on the taxilight and the naviga-
tional lights.. This shows that the given aircraft has its engines running or about to
start.
We must also speak about the aircraft inspection procedure at night. While the
technical personnel can see clearly in daylight all the units and assemblies of an air-
craft, at night ? even under electric lights ? these are not too plainly visible. It
is difficult, for example, to inspect such assemblies as the landing gear even though
they demand more careful checking, since rough landings occur more frequently at
night than during the day..
Refueling an aircraft is also inconvenient when the mechanic works with a flash-
light. An innovator in our unit, mechanic A. G. Prasolov, has suggested a simple
device. He mounted a flashlight bulb on a head gear (on the principle of a miner's
lamp). This contraption is very convenient both when refueling and when inspecting
an aircraft's units and assemblies.
After the aircraft taxies to the parking area, we cut the engines and check the
combustion chambers for the presence of fuel that is still burning. In daylight this
is quite plainly noticeable from the smoke and steam emerging from the inlet section
and the jet nozzle, but at night it connot be seen. Therefore, after we cut the engines
we avoid placing on a cover immediately, and if there is any residual burning we give
them a cold start. We also pay attention to the jet nozzle flaps. There are cases
when, after the engines are cut, the flaps remain in the position for nominal work re-
gime; this may complicate starting again.
After each flight we check the amount of oil remaining in the fuel-oil system.
We have good reason to do this. Thus, once when taxiing to the parking area a pilot
noticed that his "No oil" warning light went on. After inspecting the plane, officer
N.I.Chistov found. that oil consumption was above the norm but that there was no dam-
age in the lines and no leakage. Officer N. V. Borisov carefully inspected the oil sys-
tem and gave instructions to test the power plant. When the engine was started it was
found that at increased rpm the oil leaked out of the drainage line of the bypass web
cylinder, because the diaphragm of the centrifugal valve was damaged.
Experience with, the technical operation of aircraft at night enables us to conclude
that adherence to instructions,and directions, a thorough knowledge of aircraft equip-
ment, and skilful organization insure uninterrupted operation of aircraft under any con-
ditions.
4.
SAVING TIME IN REFUELING AN AIRCRAFT
Technician Senior Lt. N. V. Maksimov
Refueling an aircraft is one step in readying it for a repeat sortie; and the fast-
er the aircraft is refueled, the sooner it will be able to take off again.
In our unit frontline bombers and reconnaissance aircraft have been used for
a good number of years, and we have a certain amount of experience in refueling them.
It must be said that refueling time is not always given due consideration. Usually an
aircraft is refueled in a manner as follows. The tank truck pulls up to the right of the
P ???? --------
I
I......0
A
___, / I
......? ?o, 1
....
Fig. 1. Aircraft refueling by conventional methods.
nose section of the fuselage and fills the main groups of tanks as shown in Fig. la. But
occasionally it is necessary to fill the wingtip tanks as well, and in this case the tank
truck must make two maneuvers. Additional ,time is needed to do this and fuel is wast-
ed on the truck's engine (Fig. lb).
We know that it takes about 10 - 15 min.. to refuel one wingtip tank. But how
many additional minutes are 'consumed in dealing with stopping the pumps, winding hos-
es, and moving the tank truck? If all this time is added up, if one considers too that
a good number of refuelings are carried out during a flying day, then one has hours to
reckon with and not minutes. Consequently, such a method is far from perfect.
When intensive flight activity is going on in our unit, certain mechanics occasion-
ally proceed in a different manner: they park their tank truck in front of the aircraft's
nose about 40 - 70 cm from the navigator's cockpit. In this way refueling time is con-
siderably shortened; but the use of such a method is undesirable since the slightest
lack of coordination in the work of the mechanic and the driver may result in damage
to the aircraft.
Refueling time may be halved if the tank truck's hoses are lengthened by only 1 m.
Then the truck makes one maneuver and fills two tanks at the same time. In so doing,
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N. V. Maks imov
Fig. 2. Refueling with lengthened K 2 hose.
maximum pump output is used, i. e., the highest permissible pressure at the filter
and in the hoses (Fig. 2 a). Another version allows all the tank groups of an aircraft
to be refueled from one position of the KZ [heavy tank truck]; but in this case one of
the hoses must reach the left wingtip tank (Fig. 2 b).
By halving the refueling time, we enter a correction in the schedule table for
the flying day and keep the aircraft in the air longer. This allows us to increase the
time in the air for each aircraft ? without altering the amount of starting time ? and
to raise the combat-readiness level of the whole unit.
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOGRAPH
By using the ENO-1 oscillograph it is possible
to observe the waveform of low-frequency electrical
oscillations and also to examine the waveform and
to meter the basic parameters of pulses of long dura-
tion. The ENO-1 replaces the obsolete apparatus of
the EO-7 and 304-I type.
The vertical beam deflection amplifier is a broad
band unit with an irregular frequency response of 3 db.
The oscillograph has two types of sweeps: a con-
tinuous sweep and a slave sweep with a wide range of
subbands.
Sweep synchroniza.tion is accomplished either
by using the test signal or one from an external source.
In the instrument there is a means for actuating
the slave sweep ? a pulse generator which delivers to
the external output a pulse which had been delayed with
respect to the start of the sweep-. The amplitude of
the delayed pulse changes evenly from 5 to 50 V. with
?
Saving Time in Refueling an Aircraft
87
a load of 10,000 ohms. Delay time is regulated unevenly.
The apparatus provides for measuring with sufficient accuracy the amplitude of
test signals from 0.05 to 250 volts.
There is provision in the oscillograph for modulating the intensity of the beam by
using an external signal.
N.
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FROM THE HISTORY OF SOVIET AVIATION
COMMUNISTS ARE CLOSER TO ME THAN ANYONE
I. U. Pavlov
From the very first days of the Great October Socialist Revolu-
tion, Military Pilot I. U. Pavlov appeared with weapon in hand to de-
fend its achievements. He formed the first Soviet air group, com-
manded it skillfully, and himself carried out dozens of combat sorties.
For bravery and heroism displayed. during battles with enemies during
the years of the Civil War, I.U.Pavlov was awarded three Orders of
the Red Banner.
In...due course a book written by I. U. Pavlov was published post-
humously, in which the author gave a brief account of the combat feats
of Soviet pilots during the years of the Civil War. Now one of the ver-
sions of his manuscript has been discovered. Below we give an abridg-
ed excerpt from this manuscript in which the author tells about the un-
forgettable days of the birth of the Soviet Air Force, and about the de-
fense of the achievements of October.
The Fall of 1917 was beginning. Our air group was located approximately thirty-
five kilometers from the front, in the village of Kovalevka. This was a completely
solitary spot where for weeks on end not a single person would. turn up from the front.
Nevertheless, exciting news kept seeping through to us. A considerable element of ten-
sion was felt within the Army and throughout the entire country. An obvious watchful-
ness and a sharp estrangement in the relations between soldier and officer were obvious.
The air group had regularly conducted combat work right up to the retreat of the armies
of the Southwestern Front to the Zbruch River and the transfer of the group to the small
town of Dunayevtsy in the province of Kam enets-Podol'sk. There was no political pro-
paganda in. the air group, and indeed this was understandable: for its combat work it was
considered to be the most illustrious group in the Tsarist Army and it was a unique sort
of air 'guard. with the toughest pilot personnel. There is no doubt that there were many
arrant members of the Black Hundred [an ultra-reactionary group] here.
The news reaching, us had a telling effect on the morale of our unit. Frightful
drunkenness flared up among the officers.
No one, of course, does any flying nor does anyone have any intention of doing so.
Group Corrunaniier Kazakov is not heard from at all,. He doesn't even show himself in
public. There is a feeling that a dreadful time is approaching. Something must be
done. But from casual .conversations and. encounters it is impossible to find out a thing.
Under guise of a leave, I decided to get to Kiev and there orient myself as to the situa-
tion.
?
? u_
On the very second day after my arrival in Kiev, I started going to all kinds of
gatherings and meetings. Among the railroad workers at the depot, among the arse-
nal workers, on the streets ? everywhere there were meetings and gatherings. I
was carried away by the clarity and. persuasiveness that distinguished the Bolshevist
orators. Furthermore, these were men to whom I felt close in blood and. spirit ?
workers and soldiers exhausted by the war. During those days, I read scores of leaf-
lets, appeals, and newspapers in which extensive clarification was given as to the mean-
ing of Soviet power, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and. proletarian revolution.
More than once I attended gatherings of a different type where other forces operated ?
the forces of the counterrevolution. The Bolshevik slogans and appeals became all the
more significant and convincing. It became clear to me that among the officials and
hucksters, and. among the upper and petty bourgeoisie there reigned a blind fear of los-
ing their privileges ? and this meant, in the first instance, the Bolsheviks.
But I had scarcely managed to loOk around and. to organize and -somehow to exam-
ine the thoughts raging within me when my leave drew to a close and I had to leave Kiev.
Upon returning to my group by 1 October, I found the same savage drunkenness there as
before.
Kazakov kept aloof and did not take part in this dissipated company. He apparent-
ly harbored within him the thought of how best to revenge himself upon the "ignorant
brutes" for their mutinies. At the same time I became completely convinced. that in
the event of decisive operations we would easily succeed. in dealing with these wearers
of gold epaulettes.
The news about the events of October in Petrograd and Moscow was unexpected
for us. None of the men in our group was able to report anything of how these events
had unfolded. Nothing definite could be found. out even through the workers and acti-
vists of the local textile factory whom I met almost every day. Nevertheless we decid-
ed to be ready in the course of thirty to forty minutes to sabotage our entire equipment?
aircraft, engines, and machineguns? in the event the officer-pilots became involved
in counterrevolutionary action. This question was thrashed out thoroughly several
times at restricted. conferences with the engine mechanics. We made a plan to handle
the matter in such a way that the officers would not be able to suspect it ? namely, one
part of the aircraft was to be kept in such condition that takeoff from the airfield would
be impossible altogether; another part in such condition that the engines could be start-
ed up, but, once tested at high 'speed prior to takeoff, would fail immediately; and. a
third part (for the most inveterate counterrevolutionaries), in such condition that the
aircraft, after having taken off, would crash after ten to fifteen Minutes of flying.
Someone suggested that we steal up to the tents at night and. burn up all the equip-
ment. I objected categorically to that measure both as a pilot (the best aircraft in the
entire Tsarist Air Force were in Kazakov's group) and because of the fact that some-
how I felt instinctively that these weapons would yet prove useful to us.
Order No.1 appeared. concerning the removal of epaulettes and the abolition of
officer privileges. Commanders became elective.
It turned out that there were only two candidates for the office of commander:
Kazakov and I. As a result of the voting, the majority remained with me. I became
the democratic commander of an Air Force group of the armies of the Southwestern
Front.
Tremendous responsibility devolved upon me. As my first order, I demanded s?
that those officers who had not yet removed their epaulettes do so at once. "banned
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90
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I. U. Pavlov
the issuance of alcohol to anyone whatsoever without my personal authorization. I
began introducing order in the performance of guard duty in the garrison.
I had. to go to the Seventh Army Revolutionary Committee in Proskurov in order
to obtain the necessary instructions concerning my rights and duties and to find out
what else should be done with the group. By that time the pilot-officers had virtually
fled. They were leaving quietly, alone, usually at night.
Except for me, there remained only one pilot, Morkovnikov, a very young soldier.
He had been in the group for only two or three weeks, was living like some sort of a
groundhog at the edge of town, and did not appear anywhere. He was not interested in
anything, it seemed; whereas during those days it was hardly possible to find a person
who could gaze with complete calm and impassivity at the events which were unfolding.
. The question of nationality had taken on exceptional sharpness among us in the
group. The main bulk in the group was made up of Russians, followed by Ukrainians
and Caucasians. At meetings allclamored unanimously that all the aircraft had to be
divided up equally among the national groups. My Ukrainian fellow-countrymen put the
question pointblank. They announced that if they were not given.their rightful share of
the planes they would pour gasoline over them and burn them before the eyes of all ?
"so's no one should feel hurt". The quarrel went on in such a spirit for almost an en-
tire evening. My speech proved. to be decisive. I told of the danger threatening the
revolution and of the necessity for uniting the peoples of all nationalities for the strugg-
le against the bourgeoisie.
Something practical had. to be suggested, and I concluded: "Comrades, until there
is a decision by the Seventh Army Revolutionary Committee, there can be no sharing of
aircraft. We must all of us do everything possible to leave here directly for Moscow
with the planes and. there place them and ourselves at the disposal of the Revolutionary
Government. And. if it tells us to share the planes among ourselves and go home, then
there'll no longer be anything for us to argue about. But until that happens, we must
keep firmly in mind. that our enemies are not asleep. Tomorrow I'll go to Proskurov
and take all steps for us to be evacuated. a little faster to Moscow."
Towards the end of the meeting, two workers arrived, members of the local
Municipal Soviet. They gave decisive support to my proposal.
Early in the morning on 30 November I left by car for Proskurov. After, attend-
ing to matters and taking along about a pood and half [60 pounds]. of all kinds of litera-
ture, I hurried. back. -
On.the evening'of that day we had. a conference in the Soviet. There was one
question on the agenda on intensifying the revolutionary vigilance and combat readiness
of.the garrison. After the conference, all my friends ?most of then-i already Bolshe-
viks ? started to say to me with one voice: "Well, Pavlov, now you've joined up with -
us in a reliable way? or as the saying goes, intimately ? in the struggle for the rev-
olutionary-cause. You're a good pilot and. comrade. - Tomorrow the revolution will
without fail need. loyal pilots. So here's the story. You think it over carefully, and
give us an answer tomorrow. It's time for you to stop going. around among us as a
non-Party man. If you join the Party our cause will be stronger andyour work will
be easier. And. as far as sponsors are concerned, don't worry".
I fell to thinking very seriously about this question. The Bolsheviks are follow-
ing the-teachings of Marx, Engels, and. Lenin. They have a program and statutes. I
know about this only through hearsay but I feel that they are closer and more akin to me
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4
Communists are Closer to Me Than Anyone
. 91
than others. I made my decision?I'll become a Communist-Bolshevik, I'll devote
myself completely and without reservation to those honest men, deeply loyal to the rev-
olution, who are inviting me to join them.
The formal aspect of the matter was very simple. I had. only to write my auto-
biography. On 2 December 1917 I joined the revolution ? now as a Bolshevik. From
that day on a new youth began for me, with new storms and joys.
We continue besieging the Seventh Army Revolutionary Committee and even Mos-
cow with requests for the speediest evacuation of our air group, since otherwise we
will end up in a situation where no men will remain to disassemble the aircraft and load.
them onto the flat cars. Flight from the front is constantly on the increase. Nothing
can be done against the desire to return home a little sooner.
Finally, information was received at the Revolutionary Committee that Nikolay
Vasiryev, a representative from Moscow who had been appointed chief of the Air Force
-in the Ukraine, had arrived in Kiev, and that consequently we now had. to address our-
selves directly to him.
February 1918 arrived. We received intelligence that to the north of our army
the Germans advanced and were conducting an offensive against Kiev. Under their
protection, the village kulaks were organizing Haydamak [Ukrainian counter-revolu-
tionary cavalry] detachments as a battle bulwark for the Ukrainian bourgeois Rada
[Ukrainian parliament]. With the capture of Kiev, we might be left in the rear with
the Germans and the Haydamaks. We quickly load. a freight car with gasoline and
spare parts for aircraft and engines, send along three engine mechanics with them, and
dispatch all swiftly to Kiev. A day later, I leave for the same place in my aircraft,
with a stop-off landing at Zhmerinka where the Sixth Air Force Supply Depot was station-
ed. Here I was told that Comrade Vasillyev, the present chief of the Air Force in the
Ukraine, was a former worker at the Sixth Air Force Supply Depot, an engine fitter by
specialty. That made me very happy. In four or five hours I land in Kiev at the Vo-
lynskiy station. It was muddy. After fruitless attempts to find. out where the chief
of the Air Force in the Ukraine was located, I walked around. my plane and tried. to fig-
ure out what I should do. Who was an enemy here and who a friend? At that time a
light "Fiat" bursts onto the airfield completely enveloped in smoke. The car stops not
far from me, a man jumps out of it quickly, comes straight towards me and while-walk-
ing flings a question at' me: "Comrade, are you the one who just flew in? Who are you
and where are you from?"
At first glance I determine that he is one of -us. I gave my name and. asked.
whether he couldn't point out to me where Comrade Vasil'yev, the Air Force command-
er, was located.
"I'm Vasiryev", he answered.
? Before me stood a man with light.brown hair, tall, with pleasant features, in old
torn boots and the same kind, of overcoat. A dark blue coloration was noticeable be-
neath his eyes, indicating that he had not rested for a long time. By his face, his con-
versation, and his movements, it was evident that he was an energetic and restless per-
son.
It was here that we started to become acquainted with the situation. Vadl'yev
- pulled a map out of his pocket and informed. me that by tonight our troops would have
to surrender the Fastov station. It was possible that German troop trains were already
approaching the station. .It was necessary to fly there; find out what was going on, and
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92 I. U. Pavlov
drop a few bombs on a troop train.
In twenty minutes I had obtained gasoline and Comrade Vasil'yev had brought
five ten-pound bombs from somewhere. During the course of an hour I carried out
my mission and returned, to the airfield. Vasil 'yev was awaiting my return. Unusual-
ly joyful and gay, he took me down to the hotel and. he himself went off to the Revolution-
ary Committee.
When Vasil'yev returned I told. him about our situation, started to ask insistently
for help, and I got ready to fly back to Dunayevtsy. But Vasil'yev explained the situa-
tion to me and ordered me to remain at his disposal in Kiev until it would be possible
to commence the evacuation of the air group. During this time I would have to con-
duct air reconnaissance in the Kiev area every day. He would send a wire to the Sev-
enth Army Revolutionary Committee and to Moscow with regard to the fact that I had
been detained here.
Thus I remained in Kiev, where,to my great joy, the freight car with the equip-
ment and the engine mechanics had already arrived. It had successfully slipped by
the Fastov station which had right after that been occupied by German recon troops.
Under pressure by the Germans, we were forced to leave Kiev. Vasil'yev order-
ed that the freight car with the equipment be dispatched to Nezhin, and I, selecting air-
fields at my own discretion, had to move, maintaining contact with the Red Guard De-
tachments of Kikvidze and Chudnovskiy. Vasil'yev himself remained in Kiev for illegal
Party work. The encounter with him played an important role in my development as a
Bolshevik. His conversations on various political topics, his warm, comradely atti-
tude, and his great confidence quickly drew us close to each other, and while still in
Kiev we made a close combat alliance.
While carrying on combat work with the Red Guard Detachments which had left
Kiev I was not able to go far away from them. I usually chose landing surfaces in the
following way: knowing full well at what station the headquarters of my Commander in
Chief was located (operations were being conducted chiefly along the Kiev-Poltava main
RR line), I would look closely at the surrounding terrain and I would settle down on the
first clearing I ran across.
My engine mechanic Ilyusha Ivanov (he was also chief of liaison with higher troop
headquarters, chief of supply, and my headquarters commandant) would quickly appear
at the landing site and inform me about the latest events at the front and about the mood
of the local population.
We were always received warmly in-the units, all conveniences set up for accom-
modating and feeding us, and? the main thing ? they considered us as their own pi-
lots and liked us: In cases where our units would get into difficulty, I would make a
sortie to drop a couple of bombs on the Haydamaks and the Germans, fire my machine-
gun at them, and afterwards roll a few times over the heads of our troops. The Red
Guardsmen saw me run down a-Ger an a couple of times who had been dropping bombs
on our men and who did not show up for a very long time after that. This circumstance
was a very good indication of.the fact that the Germans were after all rather afraid of
,us. Many of the commanders and Red Guardsmen who appeared at detachment head-
quarters made it a rule for themselves to see their pilot without fail and confirm their
friendship far him.
Near Mirgorod the gasoline and castor oil supplies were already beginning to give
out.- The fiercest dogfights had started up and the situation required more sorties. Out
Communists are Closer to Me Than Anyone ? 93
of the fifty poods of gasoline which I had. taken along there remained only eight to ten,
and about two poods of castor oil. But these two had been driven off to Poltava together
with the freight car. What was to be done? The situation was such that about all one
could do was to burn the plane. I reported this to Kikvidze when he came galloping up
to the plane on a dashing horse at the Romoda.n Station (Ilyusha and I were together oc-
cupied with some minor repair work on the plane).
"That's no calamity, comrade pilot. We'll get you some petroleum and fuel 'oil
right away, ,as much as you want. Will she fly on that?" ? he pointed to the plane with
his hand.
"No, she won't, Comrade Kikvidze. You see, she's a very noble and capricious
creature, she loves only high-grade gasoline and castor oil, and doesn't use anything
else."
"And if we threaten your bourgeois lady with execution, perhaps she'll agree to
petroleum and mazut?" asked Kikvidze, smilingly.
I sincerely liked this fearless man. For me he was the living embodiment of the
revolutionary heroic spirit. During the most dangerous moments of battles, when the
Red Guard units, surrounded on all sides, were threatened with destruction, Kikvidze
would appear among the soldiers, who had already lost all hope of being saved, as though
he had sprung up out of the ground, and by his very presence alone would raise the men's
combat morale. They would fight like lions and usually win. I didn't feel like distres-
sing this remarkable man, but still I repeated: "Comrade Kikvidze, without gasoline and.
castor oil, it's impossible to take off."
At that time, the orderly who was accompanying Kikvidze, a Petrograd worker,
all wrapped around with machinegun cartridge belts, somehow changed countenance, as
though he had recalled some joyous event in his life. Interrupting me, he reports to
Kikvidze: "Comrade commander, I'll get both gasoline and castor oil within an hour.
I know where they're to be found. Allow me to request them in your name."
"Wait a minute, wait a minute!" First tell me, who's hiding these supplies?"
"We'll requisition all the gasoline and castor oil in the pharmacies, where they
are always to be found."
That was a clever idea and it made me very happy. It made Kikvidze even hap-
pier. He ordered a dozen or so soldiers to be outfitted on carts and that they at once
make the rounds of all. the local pharmacies and confiscate the supplies, of gasoline 'and
castor oil there, and further- that they should deliver it all at my request which I was
to hand in to his headquarters in advance.
In two hours three poods of gasoline and. twenty pounds of castor oil were delivered
to me.. We at once refueled the plane and in ten minutes, after rocking slightly on the
poorly surfaced field, it took off into the sky taking -with it three ten-pound bombs. 'I
knew with what toil the gasoline and castor oil had been obtained., I understood fully - .
well how important my work was right now, and consequently I tried my best to drop all
three bombs exactly on the heads of the Haydamaks and Germans. Not one fragment
missed the target. In such cases I always dived loW, with the engine running, onto the
enemy group and., levelling off at a hundred meters from the ground, would-drop the
bombs. The hit was faultless.-
When we had been pressed back towards Mir'gorod, there were: several heavy
spring rains. There was impassable mud. everywhere. Ilyusha Ivanav and I set up,
our headquarters in one of the small huts at the very edge of the city. In the same spot
.4,
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94 I. U. Pavlov
we also placed our aircraft, fastened to the rear wall of the hut. It was late. evening.
Above us stretched a clear starry sky. There was a slight frost. Sitting in the hut,
we were carrying on a conversation about how we would get to Moscow, tidy up, and
set off again to fight? not the same way as now, but in an organized manner, as part
of a whole unit:
Someone knocked at the little window of our hut. By his voice I recognized that
it was Nikolay Vasil'yev. More than two weeks had gone by since we had parted. All
.this time he had been conducting illegal work, carrying out the most dangerous assign-
ments of the Party. It was obvious to me how tired he was. After supper we started
lip a conversation about the fact that in the event Poltava was surrendered, we would
move to Moscow, in order, after organizing ourselves there, to return to the front
again, to a place where our work would be the most useful.
Vasil'yev, who understood better than I the ridiculousness of our position, agreed
with me. But he was always drawn to places where it was most dangerous. In telling
me about his underground work, he would become so carried away, his eyes would
flame up to such an extent that it seemed he was on the verge of catching on fire from
the fire raging within him.
From everything that surrounded us, it was becoming clear that the forces of the
revolution were still insufficiently organized in a military respect. The Germans were
slowly but surely pushing us out of the Ukraine, and we, while retreating, were con-
tracting ourselves, as it were, in order to take a jump afterwards which would smash
our present conquerors to death. I was still comparatively young, could fight rather
well, and somehow I felt deep down that there was nothing to show off about, nothing
which I could point out to my combat friends to show what my weapon and the man who
could wield it skillfully were worth in combat. My solitude in combat weighed heavily
on me, in spite of the fact that I did. everything to help the small groups of heroes who
were fighting up front. Still, it was clear that the forces of the revolution would
swiftly become organized and that we would again move forward. But, where were
these forces? Nikolay always told me that they were in Moscow. Only in Moscow
would we find the pilots, the planes, and everything necessary to crush the enemy.
FROM ORDER NO. 529 OF THE
REVOLUTIONARY WAR COMMITTEE OF THE REPUBLIC
9 November 1920
The Order of the Red Banner
is herewith awarded for the second
time to:
Assistant Chief of the South-
'western Front Air Fleet, Red Mili-
tary Pilot Comrade Ivan Ul'yanovich
Pavlov because, during the offensive
by our troops in the Thirteenth Army
area...he, while leading group flights,.
organized these flights so well that in
the course of a month the group chalk-
ing up as much as 500 flying hours
Communists are Closer to Me Than Anyone
95
and 200 poods of bombs dropped, was able to furnish excep-
tionally valuable information about the enemy. In spotting
groups of large enemy combat units, the Red military pi-
lots would carry out flights at minimum altitude and more
than once scattered a concentration of White troops with
bombs and machinegun fire. In this work, Comrade Pav-
lov, by his energy, intrepidity, and bravery, aroused his
comrades to carry out flights in any kind of weather, and at
any time of day and night.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Co .y Ap roved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/06/27: CIA-RDP81-01043R002100130005-5
READERS SUGGEST
A NEW TOWING DEVICE
? The towing gear in existence at the present time ? or, as it is customarily
called, the "hitch" ? is a very bulky and. heavy device. In addition it is not standardiz-
ed.: every type of aircraft must have its own gear, adapted to a definite wheel base of
the aircraft landing gear. This creates a number of difficulties during the landing of
aircraft of other types on the airfield, or in moving the aircraft unit to a different base.
Transportation of towing devices from one airfield to another requires additional trans-
portation facilities. When flights are in progress on the field they seriously jam the
starting line, the taxiway of the runway and obstruct the movement of trucks, especial-
ly at night.
A reader of our journal, Engineer Lt. V. V. Koryakin reports that an innovator in
his unit, officer I. F. Galanin, has proposed a new design for the towing device, different
in principle from the old one.
The greatest advantage of the pro-
posed device is the fact that it is an in-
tegral part of the GAZ-153 tow truck and
thus is eliminated from the equipment of
the aircraft.
Such a hitch consists of three prin-
cipal parts: the wheel fork, the guide pipe,
and the power pulley assembly. The
wheel fork (1) has a pintle for attaching
to the axle of the front strut of the air-
craft landing gear (Fig. 1). Its dirnen-
sions and form are the same as those of
the former hitch. A shank-like gusset plate
is welded to .the front end of the fork, at the Fig. 1. The wheel fork with guide
end, of which is located an opening for the pipe of the towing device..
bolt (2) which connects the fork to the body
of the retainer, the guide pipe, and the slot for the tooth of the spring retainer. The
swivel joint is necessary here to make it possible for the tow truck to approach the air-
craft at any angle within 180?. This makes it possible to couple the fork to the wheel
axis on the first approach of the truck tractor. The retainer keeps the guide pipe ac-
curately perpendicular to the wheel axis in the process of towing the aircraft. A chan?
nel bar is welded across the top of the gusset plate and to its ends are attached shackles
with guiding pulleys. Tl v &sign of the shackles is such that tlie pulley has three positions
of free movement. This gives the wire cable a considerable degree of proteCtion from
wear. The gusset plate ,and bar together provide the required rigidity for the fork as-
sembly.
Readers Suggest 97
The body of the retainer is mounted on the guide pipe (the pipe is slid over the
body and is then welded at the junction). In front of this an arresting ring (3) is fasten-
ed with the aid of a through bolt which prevents the guide pipe from slipping backwards
out of the clamp. Two horizontal holes are drilled in the pipe perpendicular to its axis
for a ringbolt (4) to prevent the aircraft from com-
ing up against the tow truck (two holes are made for
two types of aircraft with different wheel base).
The assembly of the power pulley (5) and of
the thrust guide clamp (6) of the towing device is
fastened by four tie bolts to the rear cross bar of
the tow truck frame (Fig. 2). The assembly con-
sists of two plates, a bracket (7), the power pulley,
and a thrust clamp. The clamp is fastened to the
upper plate and the bracket by trunnions. The pow-
er pulley is free to rotate on the lower trunnion of the
clamp. In mounting the assembly on the frame of the
truck tractor, the bumper brackets are shifted 1800
and the truck tractor hook is turned 905,(or is com-
pletely removed).
The towing pull is transmitted from the truck
tractor to the aircraft by a chain, the cross bar of Fig. 2. Power pulley and thrust
the truck tractor, the plates and brackets, clamp, clamp assembly (mounted on
power pulley, towing cable, and main landing gear frame of the truck).
struts of the aircraft. The guide pipe and the wheel
fork of the hitch do not transmit any pull.
In the idle position the hitch is located under the body of the tow truck on its frame.
The body is free and can be used for any other purpose.
Officer Koryakin's outfit has been carrying out combat training work for a long
time with the use of the new towing device and there was no disruption of scheduled flights
during all this time.
However in Koryakin's opinion, the design of the wheel fork lock should be modi-
fied in such a way as to enable the mechanic to remove the fork from the lock and move
it to the wheel axis. This was not always possible.
It is desirable that no great effort be required to separate the fork from the lock
and that the lever of the lock be convenient and durable. In operation the following
characteristics of the hitch were observed. For instance, when the truck tractor ap-
proaches the aircraft at an angle of 20-30 degrees the hitch. fork, after it has been fasten-
ed to the wheel axis, does not rest on the lock and remains so during the first moment
of taxiing. No force sufficient for turning the front wheel of the aircraft's landing gear
is applied to the guide pulley and the danger arises that the aircraft will move in a large
To avoid this, the wheel must be lightly braked in the direction of the desired turn;
this is done only in the fir st moment of taxiing until the fork moves to the lock.
The device described above still requires a great deal of work, but its concept is
rather interesting.
/ \1_
/
S. ?
to-
+,
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98
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Readers Suggest
-LAP PLOTTING BOARD
The qualities of lap plotting boards in existence do not satisfy the flying person-
nel. The pilot must have data on the operation of ZOS [ ground navigational aid] faci-
40h414
fi? eld
SKP[ alertCP] call sign
KP [ CP] call sign!
39AMI -01
35MM
Radio direction finder
Outer FRS' t
ra_ito sta.]
Inner PRS
Landing course
.Cour Se to airfield
Challenge
Code sign
1FF Code no:
Aircraft call sign
Wind. pots vet.to/sec
FLIGHT LOG
195
Duration of flight
Flight route
14=
Sunrise Sunset
' Computed diata
Trve
data
Meg.
count
COM f.
caws(
comp.
course
Takeoff
IMP{ initial point of flight]
-K.MP[ term. ?point of flightl
\\...........
.....Pilot' s signature
Total
14
7.%
Fig. 1. The overall view of the pilot's lap plotting board.
lities of the home and alternate airfields, .on radio communications, etc. They all
must be arranged in. such a way that they can easily be found and read; otherwise the
pilot, occupied with flying the plane, especially at night or under adverse weather con-
ditions, will not be able to use them.
Military Pilot First Class Lt. Col.A. M. Kobyakov has devised a new model of the
lap plotting board, a drawing of which is shown here. It consists of an outer part,
Readers Su? ? est 99
made of white opaque celluloid 1 mm thick (see Fig. 1); a revolving disk of the same
material (see Fig. 2); a steel or duraluminum holder 1 mm thick which fastens together
the assembled outer part and disk; support plates (brackets) of celluloid 1. 5 mm thick
(attached to the bottom of the outer part of the blotting board) or of duraluminum (attach-
ed to the holder) designed to prevent binding of the revolving disk; brackets of wire.
2. 5 mm in diameter for attaching a belt or a rubber band.
The use of such a plotting board enables the pilot to find the necessary flight data
easily.
If the plotting board is illuminated by "UFO" [Ultraviolet light] bulbs, notes made
on it can be read even during night flights.
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AIM
DA360
R$SMS
Fig. .2. Drawing of the revolving disk of the pilot's lap
plotting board.
[This drawing is one half size of the preceeding]
43
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FROM THE EDITOR'S MAIL
The reader
continues
the discussion
"BEARING" IS THE BEST COMBAT FORMATION
The letter from Engineer Maj. A. M.Mikhaylov,"Front or Bearing?" published
in the issue No.5 of "Herald of the Air Fleet" has caused animated discussions among
officers.
We are in complete agreement with the author on the point that the "front" combat
formation of a pair for aerial target sweep is inefficient and that "bearing" is the most
suitable method for this purpose. The advantages of the latter have been aptly pointed
out. We would just like to bolster the arguments in its favor.
It is well known thattin flights at speeds close to maximum and at high altitudes,
maintaining one's position in combat formation becomes difficult. It is clear that the
thrust reserve of the engine decreases with increasing velocity; also, the greater the
altitude, the more sluggish is the aircraft. This fact may lead to an uncontrolled clos-
ing in on the leader, force the pilot to check his position more frequently, and, conse-
quently, devote less time to the sweep.
Besides, it is easier for the pilot to maintain distance than interval. Therefore
it is less dangerous for the wingman in a pair to be at some distance from the leader.
Even when the interval suddenly decreases to zero, the danger of collision can be avoid-
ed and the pilot has considerably more freedom; hence, he carries out the sweep much
better.
The wingman, who is in a position to change the interval to zero at any time, can
carry out curvilinear maneuvers with a radius equal to that of the leader without losing
sight of him. This increases the maneuverability and. the combat potential of the pair.
In the "front" combat formation the maneuver is more rigid and less safe, since
the pair must bank by the "all at one" or "one after the other" method. In banking by
the first method the wingmen frevently lose their leader- temporarily from the field of
vision. On banks of less than 9() a greater reserve of engine thrust is necessary to
maintain one's position than that needed by the. leader. But since thrust reserve dimin-
ishes in flight at high speeds, it is possible that the wingman will not have enough and
will drop back, forcing the leader to reduce speed.
In our opinion, the "front" combat formation is more defensive than offensive. At
low flight speeds, when the main task of the wingman was to cover the leader during an
attack, the formation was justified. In jet aircraft, the wingman is capable of-carrying
out this task only by dropping back considerably or by moving aside. But then the com-
bat formation is disrupted.
Besides, the tasks of the wingman have now changed. and multiplied. He takes part
in the attack together with the leader. And such an attack is less dangerous and more
effective in combat formations extended in depth and narrow in,front. This is the rea-
son why "bearing" lends itself more to offensive action.
Lt. Col. D. F. Goldyrev
From the Editor's Mail 101
Review of the Readers' Mail
CONCERNING THE INFORMATION GAINED FROM EXPERIENCE
IN OPERATING GLIDER TARGETS
Our journal published articles in issues No. 6 and No. 11 for 1956 and No.3 for
- 1.957 summing up experience in operating aerial glider targets and tow equipment:.
N. P.Marchukov, "Utilization of Aerial Targets", N.S.Veligin "Repair and Maintenance
of Targets on the.Ground", S. G. Sheluachenko, "Lifting the Target with the Rigid Cou-
- pling'! and V. N. Sandulov "On the Winch Braking Clutch".
In response to these articles many officers enter into discussions with the authors,
tell of the experience in their work, write about the creative,efforts of innovators,
make proposals and suggestions on the improvement of methods of maintenance of glid-
er target and elimination of design and production shortcomings.
Officer G: Y. Lebedev reports in his letter that in his unit they use a method of
painting the heads of the shells different colors beforehand (a certain color is' assigned
to each gunner) to determine the individual fire results for each pilot in group gunnery
practice when using the same target.
Furthermore, to retain the traces of paint on the target and to prevent the latter's
disintegration in flight from breaks and. cracks, the unit's innovators have proposed that
a cover of ADO linen be glued over the target and its extremities (or wingtips) be paint-
ed black or red to indicate contours.
As a result, the life of the targets was prolonged 2-3 times. Now, even with a
large number of hits the ADO material protects the glider from disintegration. With
the application of enamel paints of different colors to the ammunition, six pilots can
shoot at the target in one run.
Officer V. A. Gun'ko tells in his letter of the difficulties met by the engineering and
maintenance personnel of their unit in operating glider targets. For instance, he ana-
lyzes in detail a case when the one-way clutch of the winch friction brake failed. This
is how it happened. When the target is rigged on a six-roller rigid coupling, at first
only two of the rollers engaged and took all of the load. As a result, the rollers were
deformed, and this led to an uncontrolled reeling of the tow cable when the electric mo-
- tor of the winch stopped.
Officer Gun'ko does mot confine himself to the description of this failure but pro-
poses methods for its prevention. Deformation of the rollers of tha one-way clutch and
its faulty operation can be determined by testing the winch on the ground. With faulty
coupling of the rollers of the one-way clutch, when the target is rigged on a rigidCou-
piing, the tow arm moves back 10-15 cm and. sometimes returns to the catch. The mal-
functioning of the one-way clutch roller coupling, can be determined even with the fric-
tion brake removed from the winch. It is necessary to grasp the cllitch body with one
hand, grasp the gear with the other, and turn the latter this way and that. If the gear
slips in the payout direction, the normal coupling of the rollers is defective. In such
cases Gun'ko recommends that the friction brake be removed from the winch, the one-
way clutch be forced out, the coupling rollers, their pins an4 springs be inspected, the
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102 From the Editor's Mail
necessary repairs be made and the grease changed.
When the target is towed, the cam of the carriage sometimes disengages from
the screw of the cable drum due to the loosening of the lock nut. To eliminate this de-
fect it is suggested to drill holes in the carriage body and in the end nut of the cam catch
for additional locking with soft wires.
Officer V. V. Semin reports that a great deal of time was spent in his unit on chang-
ing the cable. The cable was wound onto a hand winch and. then, after removal of pro-
tective coating, onto the tow-truck winch. To speed up this time-consuming operation
a horse with planking was constructed in their unit. Corn. Semin also relates that in
lifting the target off the ground. its wingtips are often broken. To avoid this they have
reinforced the wingtips with.plate braces: But such modification was accompanied by
a new complication, namely extensive vibrations of the wingtips. But here a solution
was also found. In order to eliminate vibrations T-braces were used and rubber pads
were inserted under the bolts. .
Good organization of operation and repair of targets allows for prolonging their
useful life and increasing the reliability of the tow equipment.
REVIEW AND PUBLICATIONS
A NEW TEXTBOOK ON AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS
I. V. Ostoslavskiy "Aircraft Aerodynamics". Oberongiz
Moscow, 1957. 560 pp. Price 15 rubles 50 kopeks.
A new textbook by Professor I. V. Ostoslavskiy has appeared in print under the
title "Aircraft Aerodynamics". It gives a comprehensive treatment of all subjects
included in a course on flight dynamics: aerodynamic design, elements of dynamics
in which unsteady and curvilinear motions are treated, as well as flight at greater than
critical angles; spin, and longitudinal and lateral stability of the aircraft.
The text is the result, as is mentioned in the preface, of many years of experience
in teaching on the part of the author at the Moscow Institute of Aviation. Materials from
the books "Aerodynamic Aircraft Design" and "Longitudinal Stability and Controllability
of the Aircraft" written by I.V. Ostoslavskiy in collaboration with V. M. Titov (the first
text) and G. S.Kalachev (the second) are used in the book. We assume that these books
are widely known to the reader of books on aviation. It is stated in the preface that the
main sections of the course must be presented in a definite sequence with a unified. meth-
odology. The author points out that "...this book is an attempt to create a text which
satisfies these requirements".
Without minimizing the difficulties in writing a comprehensive treatment of such
a difficult course, we must mention, however, that this attempt is not the first one. In
1943 a text by,V.S. Pyshnov was published under the title "Aircraft Aerodynamics" in
which the ,main branches of the discipline were also presented comprehensively.
It is quite clear that the book by I. V. Ostoslavskiy represents an important event
?in the life of aeronautical institutions of higher learning. I. V. Ostoslavskiy is not-,only ,
an excellent pedagogue, but an exceptional research scientist who has devoted a con-
siderable share of his efforts to the post-war development of our jet aiicraft. In our
review, however, we would like to devote most of the space to critical remarks and. the
formulation of 'several debatable questions which rise during the reading of this new text.
The first remark concerns the disproportionate difference in space devoted to the
treatment of different subjects. In the above-mentioned book by V. S. Pyshnov, the
chapters on aerodynamic design, dynamics and stability-were almost equal in length
(the chapter on stability being somewhat shorter). The same applies approximately to
the texts used in the Zhukovskiy VVIA [Air Force Engineering Academy] even now:
the length. of B. T. Goroshchenko' s "Aerodynamic Aircraft Design" and "Dynamics of
Aircraft Flight" is about equal. The text by V. S. Pyshnov on "Stability and Controlla-
bility of the Aircraft" is somewhat shorter'. In the work by Ostoslavskiy the material
on stability and controllability occupies more than one and. one-half as much space as
do aerodynamic design and dynamics combined. The problems of dynamicei had, in
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d Public ion
general, bad. luck. They are excessively condensed and represent a little more than
10% of the book.
Another remark. One might expect the presentation of the special features of
supersonic aircraft in a text published in 1957 to be more prominent. Here, however,
there are unfortunately no sections devoted to the analysis of such special features.
The author can obviously be rebuked for the fact that ten years after the appearance of
his book "Aerodynamic Aircraft Design" the materials for the chapters on this topic have
hardly been elaborated on in the present text.
The total lack of information on the special features of formation laying and. com-
bat maneuvering of aircraft is somewhat surprising. They are treated in textbooks by
B. T.Goroshchenko, and the practical aspects of the course gains from this. In the
work under review these new and rather vital questions have been ignored. As a result,
the work appears drier and. more academic.
Finally, our last general remark concerns the fact that the widely accepted prin-
ciple in aviation? "from simple to complex" ? is not followed. The author often be-
gins with Complicated equations which are at first difficult to grasp. Simpler and eas-
ier-to-grasp alternatives follow as simplification of the more complex. It suffices to
mention that the description of steady horizontal flight is not stressed in the text; cases
of flying at an angle to the horizon are given right at the beginning. Let us proceed
with a more detailed review of the text chapters.
The preface gives a concise historical review of the development of the course,
and scientists, both here and abroad, through whose work the course was mainly creat-
ed, are mentioned. In our opinion, Otto Lilienthal, after whom the polar of an aircraft
has been always called, and Tsiolkovskiy, who has far outdistanced other researchers
in the treatment of the basic problems of aerodynamic design, have been undeservedly
forgotten.
The author points out in the introduction the two main problems arising from the
study of aircraft motion:
"What is the connection between the external forces acting on the aircraft and. the
trajectory of flight, and what is the connection between external forces and the kinemat-
ic parameters. of motion (velocity and. altitude of flight, angular position of the aircraft
in space)?
"What is the stability of various kinds of aircraft motion and. what is the controlla-
bility of the aircraft?".
It seems to us that herebegins already the minimizing of dynamics whickis clearly
manifested' later: on.
The first part of the text is called. "Dynamics of the Aircraft as a Material Point".
This title, in our opinion, is not quite appropriate. It is true that it closely conforms
to the remailk made by V. P. Vechinkin that the aircraft is regarded in dynamics as a
material point (center of gravity) on which all the forces are applied. But in this re,-
mark the conventional nature of such a point of view is stressed. When this concept,
on the other hand, is included in the title of an entire unit ? so to speak, is exaggerat-
ed? a series of puzzling questions arise. For instance, how can one speak of angular
position of?i point in apace? (While angles of attack, slipping and banking are treated.
in the fir sk pat) :-How can longitudinal and. lateral 'motion be differentiated? And.,
finally, how can the concept of a lifting force be formulated., if the existence of the plane
of symmetry.of the aircraft is neglected.?
?
Review and. Publications 105
In a number of places I. V. Ostoslavslciy formulates the problems of aerodynamic
design. But this formulation is not always convincing. Thus it is pointed. out at the
close of the introduction that aerodynamic design is reduced. to the calculation of the -
motion of the aircraft under the action of external forces, independent of the function of
the empennage, when it is not required. to take into account the equilibrium of moments.
Aerodynamic design will then include cases of unsteady motion, which is already con-
trary to the terminology of Vechinlcin, who included. in the aerodynamic design only prob-
lems of unaccelerated. flight. On page 29 of the text I. V. Ostoslavskiy also makes the
remark that "... often in practice only the calculations of steady flight are called. the
aerodynamic design of the aircraft".
On page 60 the possibility of dividing aerodynamic design into two parts is empha-
sized. again, i. e., into that of steady and. unsteady motion. Here we 'already have a
sharp deviation from Vechinkin's terminology, who regarded. aerodynamic design a part
of dynamics, but not vice versa.
This is not simply a discussion of terminology. The fact is that the cases of un-
accelerated. flight progressively lose their importance for modern aircraft. Therefore
even the familiar concept of maximum velocity becomes sometimes vague. At the same
time the treatment of simple cases of rectilinear flight with constant velocity is the
foundation on which more complex formulations are based.. It seems to us that it is
necessary to abandon the title "Aerodynamic Design" since the contents are not deter-
mined. by the title. It is better to use the title "Design of Flight Regimes" to be follow-
ed by "Dynamics of Flight". In passing, let us note that the term "steady regime" is
sheer tautology, since a "regime" is something definite, something established. It is
furthermore clear that the expression "unsteady regime" should. not be Used. at all,
since it combines two contradictory concepts.
The surprising figure of 5 m/sec. for vertical speed. for service ceiling meets the
eye on page 66. The increase of this figure as compared to the previously recommend-
ed figure of 0.5 m/sec. is correct. Some time ago we came to the same conclusion
from the analogy between the flight of a single aircraft near the ceiling and. of a wingman
in formation. But it is more correct to speak, not of the absolute figure of vertical
speed for the service ceiling, but of the value of the angle of climb.
? The interesting rule of controlling speed. with the elevator and. the trajectory angle
of inclination by the use of the throttle is stated on p. 75,(and supra). It is correctly
emphasized that this holds only for steady Motions. But the trouble is that the interven-
tion of_the pilot in the control will itself- cause a disruption of the steady regime. In
this, dynamics is always manifested. Therefore the correct statement that the control ?
of the trajectory angle is accomplished with the aid of the throttle, and. not with the aid.
of the stick, appears incorrect.
-In the presentation of the rpm method for an aircraft with a'turbojet engine we read.
on p.94: "Very recently Prof. V. S. Vedrov and. M.A. Tayts have employed the rpm method,
in the analysis of test flights of aircraft with turbojet engines..." Justice demands that
we mention that these ideas were developed in a thesis by S. Sh.Eracikov; topnotch engi-
neer of HQ, Air Force Scientific Research Institute. This thesis also indicated a-direct
connection between these concepts and. the rPrn method developed by V. S. Pyshnov and
S.G.Kozlov for aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller.
The treatMent of the power method in a separate chapter was not really. necessary
in oiir opinion.
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106 Review and. Publications
Surprising also is the assertion (p.100) that, with increased altitude, the thrust
of a turbojet engine drops in a 0. 87 proportion to the relative air density. It is true
that this is quoted for constant Mach numbers, not speeds. Nevertheless, the drop
appears to be too sharp.
The treatment of flight range is presented mainly in analytical terms without il-
lustrative examples and. reference figures. The emphasis on the advantage of jettison-
ing the load at the terminal point of flight before returning is unnecessary, it seems to
us. This may lead to the erroneous conclusion that large bomb loads are desirable.
Unfortunately absolutely nothing is said about the flight range of supersonic air-
craft and about the estimate of fuel consumption for acceleration.
A short analysis of the increase of range achieved by in-air refueling gives a good
impression. However, the dynamics of such refueling are not mentioned.
At the beginning of the chapter six it is mentioned that, previously, cases of flight
were examined for which the force of inertia could be neglected. It should be stated that
at peresent the treatment of the basic aspects of dynamics (in particular those of turning)
without taking into account the inertial forces, proposed by V. S. Pyshnov as early as
1938, is gaining wider acceptance. Anticipating ourselves somewhat, let us say that the
statement (p.166) on the need in the turn "of a centripetal force, directed towards the
center of the trajectory curve and balancing the centrifugal force" can cause confusion.
The centripetal force is always. equal to the centrifugal force, since the former is the
reaction to the latter. Experience in teaching shows that it is more convenient to use
the term "the curving force" and to regard. it as unbalanced., leaving the problem strict-
ly in the realm of dynamics.
On p.158 an example is given of an aircraft's "settling" when coming out of a dive.
The combination of a speed of 404 m/sec. with an angle of attack of 100 in this example
is somewhat frightening; it is done to obtain a considerable speed of descent (70 misec.)
at the beginning of "settling".
A strange impression is made by the remark on p. 162: "The loop was executed
for the first time by the Russian military pilot P.N.Nesterov in 1913 over an airfield
near Kiev. From that time the maneuver has been called. the Nesterov loop". Readers
know well that this term stems not at all "from that time", because the tsarist military
clique could. not fully appreciate the innovational work of Nesterov. The term "Nesterov ,
loop" was introduced comparatively recently at the request of public opinion in Soviet
aviation.
We have already pointed out that the problems of dynamics are less extensively
developed. in the book as compared. to other topics. In particular the timely question of
the possibilitY of raising th'e aircraft above the service ceiling by the use of high veloci-
ties ? characteristic of modern aircraft ? is completely neglected. The problems of
combat maneuvering ? a practical application of dynamics ? have riot been discussed._
Turns are treated only insofar as they apply to a single aircraft.
The treatment of stability and controllability, as we have already mentioned, is
too unwieldy: out of 556 pages in the book, 350 are devoted to these topics.
Let us not discuss these chapters in as Much detail as the previous chapters. We
would just like to make one remark. The arrangement of material is more successful,
in our opinion, in the book "Longitudinal Stability and the Controllability of the Aircraft",
where the problems of dynamic stability are dis,cussed. somewhat further on.
We have enumerated, the basio questions that come up when reading the new text.
Il
Review and. Publications
107
On the positive side can be mentioned the high overall scientific level of the text,
the good arrangement and clear presentation, the inclusion of practical problems il-
lustrating the main sections.
Undoubtedly the new text will be of great use to students of aviation schools of
' higher learning, as well as to students of engineering academies and schools.
Professor, Doctor of Technical Sciences,
Engineer Col. V. F. Bolotnikov
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I MUST MAKE IT...
Military Pilot of the Chinese Peoples Republic Cheng Yu-kwi
The 30th anniversary of the Chinese Peoples Liberation
Army falls on 1 August. Founded and led by the Chinese Com-
munist,Party, it has had a great and glorious past. The Peoples
Liberation Army.secured an historic victory of the Chinese People
over the combined forces of imperialism and internal reactionary
forces. The Chinese Air Force also added a glorious page to its
history. The pilots of the Peoples Liberation Army bravely fought
the Japanese, the American and Chiang Kai-shek's air pirates who
were raiding peaceful cities and towns. Chinese volunteer pilots
set an example of courage and bravery in combats with the Amer-
ican interventionists in Korea. '
The soldiers of the Peoples Liberation Army faithfully guard
the sacred boundaries of their country. "We do not intimidate any-
one nor do we threaten anyone," editorialized the newspaper Tse-
fangtsunpao recently, "but we will not allow anyone to claim our
territory, to violate our peaceful border!"
We are giving below a story told by the pilot Cheng Yu-kwi
which is a testimonial to the courage and skill of the men of the
Peoples Liberation Army.
On 17 December 1952 we took off to intercept hostile F-86 aircraft. Having spot-,
ted them, , our element swung to the left and started the attack. I was the commander 's
wingman., At the moment when my lead plane headed towards the enemy, one F-86,
after a maneuver, began to close in on him in an attempt to break up the attack. The
commander, in the heat of combat, made a turn to the right and thereby placed himself
in disadvantageous 'position. The enemy plane kept dosing in on him unhindered. 1-
warned the commander by radio and immediately made a turn myself, ready to strike
first at the enemy. When the American pilot saw me he declined the attack, .made a
roll, and tried to get away by dropping. But here I caught him in my sight: . one or two
seconds later a burst of guiifire would riddle the enemy aircraft. A thought flashed
through my. mind: "You have just one idea right now ? to escape, but I won't let you do
it!" I didn't want to let the enemy slip away and., having dived sharply, I started after
him. The enemy plane began to pull out of the dive. The distance diminished quickly.
I could see the cockpit distinctly, and the man who was sitting there. One burst of fire,
then another.
But as a consequence of too tight a maneuver, the sight reticle image "washed'
out". I had to cease firing while the enemy kept going. Whenever he zoomed I followed
him. . Whenever he darted, to the left I turned after him, pressing him from the rear.
1.
1
Review and Publications
10
All of a sudden several enemy planes jump-
ed. me, trying to help out their pilot. Like a
pack of ravenous wolves they kept pressing me
from all sides from above, from the rear,
from the right and from the left. I was very
close to the enemy plane, and since the others
apparently were afraid to hit it, they didn't dare
open fire, and only kept pursuing me stubbornly.
I fired a long burst at the enemy and, with a
right turn, tried to shake the pursuers.
But my plane was "clamped in a vise"; the
enemy took advantage of his position and opened
fire.
Several holes appeared on the wing of my
plane. I mustn't wait any longer. I jerked the
stick energetically and zoomed. At this moment
the bullets pierced the fuselage of my aircraft,
the plane shook and suddenly pulled up ; because
of the increased G-force, I blacked out momen-
tarily. After some time I came to and became
aware of an icy wind whistling by: the glass of
the cockpit canopy was shattered.
I looked around; there was no trace of the
enemy. The plane kept climbing steeply and the
speed kept decreasing. I tried to recover from
pitching, but the control stick didn't move. The
plane didn't obey the controls and kept climbing. Another second and it would loose
speed and go into a spin. "Then I won't have any chance to right the aircraft at all" ?
this was the thought that crossed my mind. The control stick didn't move forward be-
yond neutral. The only thing left was to bail out. "Bail out! That means losing my
favorite partner in battle which belongs, not only to me, but to my country and to the
people! The people built it with their blood and sweat, and then entrusted us, the sol-
diers, with it. I mustn't give up, mustn't lose the aircraft under any circumstances.
Ws absolutely necessary to find a way out and to get back," ? I thought and at once
had a plan: how about making a half-roll?
. Without any further deliberations I kick the rudder, pull the stick to the left, and
pull up into a turn. The plane rolled over, slowly dropped its nose, and started to de-
scend, gaining speed all the time.
This success inspired me, strengthened my faith in the possibility of setting my
plane down on my home field. I'll bring it in without fail, this was my firm decision.
After gathering speed in inverted flight I brought the plane into the normal posi-
tion again. A prolonged inverted flight is not particularly pleasant. Cold wind was
blasting into the shattered cockpit, stinging my face, and I could hardly keep my eyes
open. I leaned forward in order to hide from the Itinging wind.
I kept on going, now in a normal, now in an inverted position, and was slowly
.nearing the airfield. It was located in the midst of extremely hilly terrain. I had al-
ready descended to 3000 meters, and couldn't roll over any more or I would crash into
Pilots of the Chinese Peoples Re-
public are constantly improving
their combat readiness and flying
skill. They learn to fly and to car-
ry out complicated missions under
various weather conditions and at
night. In this picture pilots are ex-
changing information concerning night
flights on instruments.
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110 Review and Publications
one of the high hills. But I had to go down. So I banked the plane about 450, and.
spiraled down to 1000 m. It was dangerous to go any lower; I had to maintain this
altitude. I kept banking the plane 60-70? to the right. and then to the left, and snaked.
my way to the field.
A new difficulty loomed: How to make the landing approach and how to land. the
aircraft? My mind was trying to find, a solution, and here it was! I would approach
for landing with a side slip, and before touchdown I would eliminate the bank.
. But I had. to carry this out with great precision, Since if I were to touch down
even with slight drift I could smash the landing gear or even the entire plane. This
was very risky, but I had no choice. I pull down the landing gear, extension lever,
but without any result. There was no pressure in the hydraulic system. I pulled the
emergency landing gear handle, and after a short jerk forward the landing gear was 'ex-
tended.
I had a feeling of a tremendous relief. Now everything was going to depend on
my skill in eliminating the drift. I banked the plane to the left and descended with a
slip. The aircraft obeys my will and holds steadily on the landing course. A few
tormenting moments go by, and my aircraft with its perforated wing, its riddled fuse-
lage and cockpit, touches down at its home airfield.
4'
AVIATION ABROAD
AIRCRAFT MONOPOLIES IN THE USA ?
THE ENEMIES OF PEACE AND DISARMAMENT
Capt. S. M. Yermakov
The 20th Congress of the CPSU presented an exhaustive analysis of the interna-
-tional situation and took a stand on crucial questions in the present international situa-
tion. Having reiterated that the Leninist principle of the peaceful coexistence of states
of cliff erent social regime was and still remains the general line in the foreign policy of
the Soviet Union, the Congress pointed out realistic possibilities in the present inter-
national situation for preventing the aggressive forces of imperialism from involving
nations in a new war.
On the other hand, the resolutions of the Congress emphasize the stand. that "since
imperialism is in existence, there exists an economic basis for the occurrence of war.
That is the reason why we must maintain utmost vigilance. As long as capitalism re-
mains in existence the reactionary forces which represent the interests of capitalistic
monopolies will strive toward military adventures and aggressions in the future as well,
and may try to provoke a war."
Experience clearly corroborates the truth of the Marxist prognosis of the Com-
munist party.
In striving to prevent lessening of international tension, the imperialists of the
'USA, England, France, and other capitalistic nations, try to cast asper sions. on the
peace-loving policy of the USSR; they deceive public opinion by all possible means; fps-
ter war hysteria in their attempts to justify their policy of further armament races and
of preparation for a new war.
Reactionary circles of the USA are headed by the aggressive forces of imperialism.
With their approval, the governments of England, France, and Israel, have precipitated.
war against 'Egypt, making an attempt to subject the freedom-loving Egyptian nation
once again to colonial slavery. With direct moral .and material support of the imperial-
ists, uprisings were started by the counter-revolutionary underground in Hungary in
order to overthrow the lawful people's government and. to create in the center 'of Europe
a. nest of fascism and. aggression.
The sorties. of the enemies of peace collapsed ignominiously. The international
reactionaries were forced to withdraw. But they have not laid down their arms and'
are persistently seeking new ways of fostering the cold War and. of increasing' tension.
On.5 January 1957 President Eisenhower; in his message to Congress, formulat-
ed the basis of. the imperialistic policy of the USA' towards the countries of the Near and.'
"Middle East. This so-called "Eisenhower,Doctrine" is designec1 to effect far-reaching ,
economic expansion and. direct military aggression. The US imperialists, by using the -
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112 S. M. Yermakov
old. methods of colonialism, want to seize important strategic areas, rich in oil, there-
by displacing their "partners", England. and. France.
The government of the USA has already begun to carry out a series of military
measures which, in the opinion of their reactionary politicians, will make sure that the
"Eisenhower Doctrine" is carried out successfully. The USA is concentrating Air Force
units in the vicinity of the Mediterranean and at a number of points in the Near and Midd-
le East. From the news in the American press, the 6th US Mediterranean Fleet has
already been issued atomic armament; in January battalions of Marines landed in the
Gulf of Persia and on the shores of Africa. Again, in April a task force of the US 6th
Fleet left Italian and. French ports and entered the waters of the Eastern Mediterranean.
This action was directed against the independent Arab country of Jordan. The United
Press agency cynically calls the American 6th Fleet the "prime weapon of the Eisen-
hower Doctrine".
The events in Jordan_and the serious worsening of the situation in the Near and
Middle East caused by the USA illustrate the widely publicized "Eisenhower Doctrine"
rather well. Its imperialistic content has been proved to a sufficient extent.
The US Air Force organized a non-stop flight in January 1957 of three B-52 bomb-
ers over a distance of 24,325 miles (39,147 km). The route ran over the countries of
the Near and Middle East, which represented a "military demonstration", by admission
of Maj. Gen. Old., commander of the flight.
Refueling Of the B-52 aircraft took place from one of the US military air bases lo-
cated in the Middle East. This, in the opinion of observers in Washington, was an at-
tempt on the part of the "US government to convince those Congressmen, who take a
skeptical view of the American policy in the Middle East, of the necessity of maintain-
ing a net of bases in that region".
Former US Air Force Secretary Quarles stated in his speech to the reserve of-
ficers of the Air Force in February 1957 that it is necessary to "banish every thought
that the USA will not use atomic and thermonuclear weapons in the war against the USSR':
He added further that in the event the USA entered any "little war", they will also em-
ploy atomic weapons. Quarles has not deemed. it necessary to dissemble before the
reserve officers the imperialistic policy of the USA directed towards provoking a war
against the Soviet Union, the countries of people's democracy, :and also against former
colonies, now 'on the road towards independent development.
This policy was reflected in the US budget for 1957/58. In his message to Con-
gress, President Eisenhower considers the main function of the budget to be that of
supplying the atomic air forces of the USA with all the necessary materials to demolish
the enemy before the commencement of hia attack. The message contains unconcealed
threats towards the Soviet Union and the countries of people's democracies. The pro-
posed US budget earmarks 45.3 billion dollars for preparation for the new war; this
? amounts to 63% of the total budget and is almost 3 billion dollars more than last year.
The course of action of the imperialistic circles in the USA towards the prepara-
tion and provocation of a new world war is a direct consequence of the politics of mono-
polies which are vitally interested in the armament race. It is these selfish interests,
the desire to receive maximum profits, which completely shape the policies of a capi-
talistic country.
Recently the position of aircraft monopolies in the USA engaged in manufacturing
of aircraft, power plants, and equipment, has become especially strong. Military air-
4
Aircraft Monopolies in the USA the Enemies of Peace and Disarmament 113
Craft monopolies have, been bitterly attacking for several years the principle of "balanc-
ed development of armed. forces" formulated by the military circles of the USA. They
achieved. a victory by moving ahead of other military and technical monopolies. This
is how the results of this "victory" are manifested in competitive struggle.
In the US budget for 1957/58 the appropriations for the Department of the Air.
Force increased almost five-fold. as compared. to the year 1949/50, and amounts to
17,472 million dollars, which represents 46% of the total military appropriations. In
the last six years a huge sum of almost 100 billion dollars was appropriated for the
Department of the Air Force, and this without taking into account multibillion spendings
on the air forces of the Navy and the Army.
Particular attention is given in the 1957/58 budget to strategic aviation: of all
funds appropriated for aircraft construction a good. half is intended for construction of
strategic bombers. By the end of the year it is planned to have only B-52 jet bombers
in all of the 45 wings of the Strategic Air Command. The Air Defense Command of the
USA is to have 32 wings, tactical aviation 51 wings, a total of 128 combat wings (without
naval and army aviation).
No less attention is paid to guided and ballistic missiles. The appropriations for
their construction amount to 2039 million dollars, which is twice the sum in the budget
for the last fiscal year.
The main emphasis on the Air Force is also seen now in the formulation of the
military doctrine of the USA. The "Military Review" pointed out in April 1956 that
the statement of President Eisenhower on the "shift in the direction of full utilization
of air power" has become the "philosophy of national security". After the President,
Secretary of State Dulles and Secretary of Defense Wilson made statements on the ne-
cessity of directing the main efforts towards the development of the Air Force, guided
and. ballistic missiles, and. other destructive weapons of warfare.
This change has drawn sharp protests from the military leaders of the Navy and
the Army. Nevertheless one thing is certain: the USA exhibits now a transition. from
the principles of balanced development of the armed forces towards the building of super-
powerful means of destruction for long-range aggression: the Air Force, guided and
ballistic missiles, atomic and hydrogen weapons as the first order of priprity..
The increased influence of military aircraft monopolies is also manifested in the
'General
that their henchmen are appointed to key military positions. Thus, Air Force
General Nor stad has been appointed military commander of the aggressive North-Atlan-
tic Alliance. Twining, former US Air Force Chief of Staff, became Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff, The appointment of Twining is the first instance of an Air Force
General's being appointed head of afl military services. The American press reports
that the most probable successor to retiring Secretary of Defense Wilson is former Air
Force Secretary Quarles.
In developing reactionary policies of provoking a new war, the Wall Street magnat-
es cooperate closely with the military leaders of the USA. They are united by extreme
aggressiveness and mutual interests in speeding up the armament race and increasing
military spending. Their interests are tightly knit. Let us look at the facts. Former
Air Force Secretary Talbot is one of the biggest capitalists of. the USA. He had close
ties with the "North American Aviation" aircraft company, with "Chrysler" company,
was director and co-owner of a number of financial and industrial corporations. His
successor, Quarles, is vice-president of "Western Electric" .a.nd. president.of a: large
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114 S. M. Yermakov
atomic firm,the "Sandia Corporation". Murphy, the newly appointed. Special Assistant
to the US Secretary of Defense on the problems of guided and ballistic missiles, is
president of "Esso Research and Engineering".
For services rendered the aircraft monopoliee in awarding military contracts,
many generals and officers of the US Air Force, upon leaving the service, occupy high
positions in the administration of aircraft firms, with huge salaries, bonuses and pen-
sions. Generals and officers in retirement are the link between the monopolies and
the top of the military echelon.
According tO "Economic Notes" (Sept. 1956) the "Boeing Airplane" aircraft com-
pany and its subsidiary "Convair" have each on their staff 67 generals and officers,
whose status is not clearly defined, but who are kept in highly paid positions because
of extensive connections in' the Defense Department. Retired Lt. Gen.McNarn.ey be-
came president of the "Consolidated Vultee" aircraft firm (a subsidiary of the "General
Dynamics Corporation"); General Eckert became vice-president of the "Hughes Aircraft"
company; General Devers became technical consultant for "Fairchild Engine and Air-
plane"; General Quesada became vice-president and. manager of "Lockheed Aircraft".
Even the American press feels forced to point out the fact that often "a general
of the Supreme Headquarters of the Air Force openly advises purchasing the product of
a particular aircraft firm, even though the quality of their aircraft gives rise to a multi-
tude of objections from the experts. Then, some time later, you will meet the same
general in retirement; he has become a highly paid president of a corporation which
manufactures aircraft".
Over one hundred aircraft companies in the USA (aircraft construction, engine and
power plants, helicopters, guided missiles, etc.) are combined into an Association of
Aircraft Industries. This powerful monopolistic combine plays a rather important role
in the economic and political life of the country. This is the organization which deter-
mines the policy in regard to the Air Force and the preparation of a war of aggression
by the United States in general.
The first place among the aircraft suppliers belongs to "Boeing Airplane" whose
share of the military contracts was almost one billion dollars.last year. Because of
strengthening of ties With the top echelon of the Department of the Air Force, the com-
pany has displaced from first place, as far as military contracts are concerned, even
such a company as "General Motors". According to the press, in 1957 "Boeing Air-
plane" will produce monthly 20 B-52 bombers, 20 KC-135 air tankers and. will manu-
facture the "Bomarc" guided missiles.
The second place in the size of military contracts is taken by the "North American
Aviation" company which produced the F-86 ("Saber")fighters in 1955, and in 1957, the
F-100 fighters. In addition, it has under development a twin-engine aircraft for the
Navy, as well as the "Navaho" guided missile.
Next comes the. "General Dynamics Corporation" which, in the opinion of the
American press, has a great future. This' is a powerful military-industrial concern
which produces aircraft, power plants, and equipment; they own atomic energy and in-
dustrial electronics plants; their subsidiaries are scattered throughout the USA, Canada,
and Europe. The "General Dynamics Corporation" concern is building fighter-inter-
ceptors, bombers; is readying for production a sea based fighter-interceptor; is work-
ing on secret guided missiles. The concern puts especially high hopes on their B-58
("Hustleilliomber which will replace the B-52 bomber.
?
Aircraft Monopolies in the USA ? the Enemies of Peace and Disarmament 115
Among the largest military suppliers are the following companies: "United Air-
craft" (jet and turbojet engines), "General Electric" (atomic turbines for aviation, elec-
tronic equipment and communication), "Lockheed Aircraft" (fighters and military trans-
ports), "Douglas Aircraft" (military transports), "Curtiss-Wright", "Glenn-Martin",
and others.
All of these companies receive huge excess profits from Air Force contracts. This
is the reason why they are vitally interested in the armaments race and especially in
the increase in spending for aircraft and guided missiles. Thus, the profits of "Cessna
Aircraft" have increased in only one year (September 1955 to September 1956) by 148%.
The "General Dynamics Corporation" concern has made almost twice as much clear prof-
it in the third quarter of 1956 as in the same period for 1955. Other aircraft companies
have also substantially increased their profits. And yet the year 1955 was regarded in
the USA as a bocrn year for the military industry.
On the basis of the profit analysis of various companies, some American periodi-
cals came to the conclusion that profits made by aircraft firms on military contracts
were three times as great as those made on commercial non-military orders ("Econom-
ic Notes", September 1956).
The US government, which represents the interests of the capitalist tycoons; in.
turn extends firm support to the military aircraft companies in the form of accelerated
amortization of equipment (in 5 years instead of the usual 25). The government finances
the scientific research work of the aircraft companies, supplies them with specialized
equipment and trained manpower, extends guaranteed loans, gives them all kinds of ad-
vantages, protects them in every way. With the present situation in military procure-
ment, practically all equipment for the Air Force, spare parts, aircraft and airfield
equipment are obtained only by direct negotiations between the central procurement
departments of the US Air Force and a selected circle of suppliers. Monopolies pre-
fer to work secretly; they do not like it when the facts about their huge profits on mili-
tary contracts made at the expense of the taxpayers, i. e. the working masses, are made
public. It was on their demands that the Defense Department established these closed
negotiations. By obviously minimized official reports alone, 94% of all contracts placed
by the Defense Department in the past two and one half years were awarded through
direct negotiations.
The prices of military aircraft in particular, are rapidly rising as a result of
machinations by the aviation monopolies, which can "get away with. anything". The cost
of the B-29 bomber was 629 thousand dollars at the end of W.W.II, whereas a B-36 cost
3.5 million dollars in 1951; and now a B-52 already costs about 9 million dollars. Out
of these huge sums the lion's share settles in the safes of the largest manipulators of
the monopolistic business whose profits increase very rapidly. Thus 100 shares of
"Douglas Aircraft" cost 1150 dollars in 1950 and now are valued. at 49 thousand dollars
(43 times. as much:).
Sometimes the politicians in the USA are not averse to "making noise" about mil-
itary profits, especially in the year of a presidential election or an election to Congress.
But this noise and commotion are used. to lull public opinion and to cheat the people. In
1956 a special committee of Congress was studying the question of the excess profits of
aircraft companies. After many months of work, the committee reported that the prof-
its of aircraft companies on military orders were on the same level as those of other
branches of industry and did not give cause for undue concern..
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A
116
S. M. Yermakov
Even the American press could not stand such falsification and has exposed. the
findings of this committee. The journal "Economic Notes" wrote that the committee
(of course not accidentally) has not taken into account in the analysis of profits the fact
that equipment sand complete plants belonging to the government and. worth a huge sum of
money are used gratis by aviation monopolies without any payment of rent. Military
aviation monopolies have capital investments of 200 million dollars, but they are using
government shops and equipment to the amount of 900 million dollars.
Thus huge profits, created. by the working masses in the government factories
which are built with their money, go tojinilitary aircraft monopolies. Is this not an
example of "national capitalism" which; is so assiduously praised by the reactionary
ideologists of the USA?
Military aviation monopolies in the USA are trying to increase 'production and ob-
tain additional profits by filling orders of other countries, members of aggressive mil-
itary bbcksheaded by the USA. This is the reason why the policy of increased consign-
ment of weapons to the allies of the USA, the policy of further armament racing was so
diligently formulated at the last NATO session by US Secretary of State Dulles and Sec-
retary of Defense Wilson. Immediately after the NATO session, the voice of the busi-
ness circles of the USA, the newspaper "Wall Street Journal" (21 Dec. 1956) noted with
satisfaction that the meeting would be followed by rush orders to the American industri-
alists for guided missiles, rockets, jet aircraft, the most mod'ern radar installations.
The paper further stated that in conjunction with the production of guided missiles
of the "Matadoi" and "Honest John" type there is talk id certain technical circles of pro-
duction of "more modern, ultrasecret weapons".
The events in international life again and again bear witness to the fact that the
reactionary clique of militant US politicians in carrying out the will of their bosses, the
powerful monopolies, is violently attacking the simple and. clear proposals of the Soviet
government on arMament reduction.
,The freniiitd armament race and the policy of provoking aerial-atomic war by
US imperiklists are the links in one and the same chain. It is quite clear that in these
conditions our armed forces and, above all, the Air Force must be constantly prepared
to frustrate every machination on the part of the enemy. Constant vigilance by the So-
viet Armed Fortes, high technical preparedness and military skill of all military per-
sonnel is a safe absurance of peace, a guarantee of the fact that the .endeavors of capi-
talistic monopOie-s to provoke a new world war will be a complete failure.
21
4
117
Officer A.I.-Kabanov, one of the leading military navigators first class, who has
mastered to perfection precision navigation at various altituc4s and in adverse weather.
He has been awarded by the government the Order of the Red Star for his skill and
superior performancp in combat training.
Thoth: , Yii. N. Skuratov
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CONCERNING THE READERS' QUESTIONNAIRE
In the December 1956 issue of the journat"Heraid of the Air Fleet" there appeared
a "Readers Questionnaire".. During the first months of this year the editors r__eceived
a great number of replies to these questionnaires in-which readers pointed out positive
qualities, of-the journal and expressed their observations and suggestions.
The majority of articles published under "Tactics" have been favorably evaluated.
Reader I. S. S-yrovetnik has singled out the article by I. G. Ponomarev. "Concerning the
AA Evasion-Maneuver by a Single Bomber" as the most useful, while officer L.P.Ne-
chayev has singled out the articles by L.I.Savichev "Interception of a Maneuverable Tar-
get" and by D. F. Goldyrev on "Simultaneous Attack of a Skigle Bomber by a Pair of Fight-
ers" and a number of other articles on the tactics of fighters and bombers at low and
high altitudes.
-
Many readers (V. M. Pugachev, P.A. Davydov, R.A. Zazolin, and others) express
the same view that the series of articles appearing in the journal under the title "From
the Experience in Pedagogical Work of Squadron Commanding Officers" has proved to be
quite useful to Air Force commanders. At the same time, reader M. M.Fenin, for ex-
ample, thinks that the journal gives insufficient coverage to the experience of top-notch
Air Force officers in insuring accident-free flying.
A number 'of readers consider it imperative that the treatment of the problems of
night andlligh altitude training of pilots be extended, as well as that of flights under ad-
verse weather conditions and of the physical training of crews. "In the articles on flight
training under,adNierse weather ConditionsV Com.V.V.Popovich writes on his question-
naire, "fevi_examples are discussed of competent action by pilots faced with 'the failure
of air navigational instruments in a given weather minimum."
Judging by the questionnaires, articles by V. S. Pyshnov and A. P. Melnikov on
various problems of aerodynamics at supersonic speeds proved to be quite useful for
most reader's. This opinion in particular is expresiedbr A. NI; Baranov, V. N. Shilo,
A.G. Tarasov, E. L. Golidberg, N.A.Royenko, and others. In the opinion of these read-
ers, articles on similar topics must be published more frequently by the journal because
of the lack of popular books and. texts on supersonic flight speeds.
Critical remarks and suggestions are contained in the questionnaires returned by
readers V. G. Vorob'yev, S. K. Rapoport, V. I. Lyamets , 1.1. Shur gin, V. A. Shtal' , N. S.
Kartavenko, and others.
Remarks and suggestions by readers were analyzed and discussed at the meeting
of the editorial staff. " .A"number of proposals made by the readers have already heen
implemented; other proposals have been incorporated in the plans of the journal for the
second half Of 1957.
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