COURSE IN AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00039R000100210001-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: R
• Document Page Count: 289
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: March 16, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: March 13, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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STAT
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REST Rid ED
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COURSE
III AGRICULTURAL SrC?TISTTCS
S. V. Si1OL'TS
Approved by the A11-'Jn::i-on Committee
on Higher Education, Council of
People' Col dssars USSR as a text-
book :.for technical schools
GOSPLANIZDAT
i\'loscow 1945
RESTRICTED
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V. STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT
1. The Concept of Agricultural Output and Its Statistics
2. Gross Output
3. Commodity Output
4. Net output
5. Monetary Evaluation of Agricultural Produoe
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.~ BASIC PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS
1. The Subject and Objectives of Agricultural Statistics
2. The Conoepb of the Unit of Observation in Agricultural Statistics
3. Classifiaation of Agricultural Enterprises
Grouping of Agricultural Enterprises
5. Applioation of Group Averages in Agrioultural Statistics
I Ie STATISTICS OF OVERALL AND SPECIFIC LAND
UTILIZATION
11
1.
Basics Objectives in Land Utilization Statistics
11
2.
Concept of Types of Agricultural Lands and Their Use
12
Concept of Conversion of Land Use
14
4.
Land Area Composition as a Basis for Determining the Obligations
lkhozes to the State
f K
o
o
5.
Initial Analysis of Land Utilization Data
17
6.
Sources of Data on Land Utilization
19
III. STATISTICS OF THE BASIC FACTORS
IN PLANT CULTIVATION
21
1.
Computation and Statistics of Sowing Areas
21
2.
Statistics on Yield Capacity
53
IV. STATISTICS OF ANIMAL BUSBANDRY
96
1.
Basic Problems of Animal Husbandry Statistics
96
2.
Livestock Population Statistics
97
Basic Indexes of Animal Husbandry Production
123
4.
Accounting and Stabistioa1 Indexes for Fodder and Livestock
Feeding
159
174
174
174
177
180
160
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6.
7,
Simplifiea.Analysis Methods for Agrioultural Output Data
182
Sources of Data on Agrioultural Output
186
VI. STATISTICS OF L&BOR AND LABOR
. PRODUCTIVITY IN AGRICULTURE 191
1. Working Level Aooounting of Labor in Sovkhozos and MTS 191
2. Initial Labor Aoaountirig in Kolkhoxes 194
Sources of Stabistioal Data on Labor and Wages in Sovkhozes9 199
MTS9 and Kolkhozes
4. Definition of "Labor ;Productivity" 201
5. Relating Various Types of Production and determining Labor Time in 203
Deriving the Index of Labor Productivity
The Use of Labor Produotivity Indexes 210
Caloulating the Etfeot&Y Use Made of Liquid Fuels
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VIIo AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT COST STATISTICS 216
1, Cost in Agriculture 216
2. Cost Components 217
30 Plan Fulfillment and the Dynamo. o s of Cost 220
4. Factors Underlying Cost Reduction 223
5. Basic Sources of Data on Cost of Output and Labor in Agriculture 226
VIII. STATISTICS OF CAPITAL ASSETS IN
AGRICULTURE
1. C1assifloation of Capital Assets
2. Monetary Evaluation of Capital Assets
3. Initial Analysis of'Data on Capital Assets
4. Sources of Data on Capital Assets
IX. STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION
Statistioal Objectives Pertaining to Agricultural Mechanization
Classification of Prima-Movers Used in Agriculture
3. Tractor Inventories
4. Indexes of Tractor Utilization
231
231
232
235
237
240
240
240
242
248
251
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Combine s, and other Maohi ne S
Xe .. THE ACCOUNTING SYSTEM IN AGRICULTURAL
ENTERPRISES
1? Standard Form:S for Agriou1Vira1 Aooounting and Statistics 270
271
Kolkhos Aoaounting
274
3+ Sovkhoz and MTS Aovountifg
277
4. Budgeting for the Individual KolkhoS Member
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Automobile Utilization IndexeS
7? Miscellaneous Typos of Movers in Agriculture; Indexes of Meohanioal 255
Traction Power Potential; Mechanical TraotiYC Foroe Indexes
'rixng the Quantity and Effective Use of Operative Agricultural 256
6~ Determ~.
Machinery; Indexes on the Effective Use of Combines
Detarraining the Degree of Mechanization ~.n Agrxaulture
260
Primary Analysis of Agr5au1tura1 Meohan.Ization Data
261
? rs of Data on the Number and Performance of Tractors, Automobiles,
U. Sau~ ?e 265
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CHAPTER I
BASIC F'ROBLLI,1S IN AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS
l e The jiDject and Objectives of y griculturai Statistics?
The objective of the agricultural statistics course is to be-
come familiar with the methods and practices of theoretical statistics
used in studying various agricultural problems, in planning agricul-
tural production, and in the operational management of agricultural
enterprises? A course in agricultural statistics should teach one
to be familiar with statistical material of agricultural production,
teach how to analyse this material, how to draw conclusions,
use them in checking up on plan fulfillment, etc?
. Agricultural statistics is a branch of knowledge on the appli-
cation of the basic methods of statistical science in the study of
agriculture, as well as on the use of statistical observations on
the organization of observations and processes which take place in
a riculture
The course of agricultural statistics. instructs us how to
determine the observation unit used in agricultural studievThich
data are to be used for various agricultural processes, and the way
such data are to be worked out. It teaches us the use of indexes,
relative weights, and average values and groupings r It shows which
elements in each individual case are to be considered basic in working
out a breakdown by groups, in order to ascertain the underlying prin--
ciples of socialist agriculture, etc,
In his classical works entitled "I)evelopment of Capitalism. in
Russiat', the ttNew Data on Natural Laws of Capitalist Develo anent in
Agriculturet' and a number of other works, tk J.I, Lenin has excel-
lent examples of statistic-economical analysis of elements relating
to the social class nature of the pre-revolutionary Russian country-
side and of elements pertaining to capitlisin in the agriculture of
the United States of America. In his work, in addition to an anal-
ysis of real dat , V.1. Lenin has given very important directives
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on the interrelationship between statistics and economical analysis,
on the use of averages and grouping of data in agriculture) and on the
use of group and combination tables, etc.
In the works of comrade Stalin we find examples analysing data
on the distribution of agricultural gross and cormnodity output among
~ f' ous categories of enterprises in pre_revolUtionary times, as well
ra,x ~.
,~
as in the Soviet State. This is extremely valuable analysis in how
to go about stud; tng the dynamics of areas, in studying the commodity
b
proportiorl of a ricultural output, and in working out moving averages,
In his lectures. treating agricultural problems, comrade Stalin has
given us excellent examples of how with few words valuable basic con-
clusi.ofS may be drawn from statistical tables. This is true regard-
less of whether this applies to shifts of the sowing time, to gross
a ricultural collections, the quantity of livestock, the number of
tractors, automobiles, etc.
2. The Oonce ~t of the Unit of Observation in ~~ri.cultural Static
The statistical unit of observation is a composite, embrac-
ing what is being observed; and which is working over the observa-
tions noted; i.s the basic unit of all groupings. An outside disting-
uishing feature of the unit of observation is that usually for each
unit of observation a separate statistical blank is drawn up in the
form of a statistical card. Otherwise, each unit of observation is
recorded on a separate line as observations are taken, using a file-
card system.
The unit of observation in agricultural statistics usually is
an individual agricultural enterprise: a sovkhoz, koikhoz, or MiTS,
whose characteristics ar pr?rented with programmed data observations.
For instance, the characteristics of a kolkhoz are given in stating
the number of koikhoz members, sowing acreage, the size of thepardel
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of land assigned to the kolkhoz for permanent use, the size of the
collective cattle herd, the quantity of different types of agricul-
tural machinery and equipment, the amount of workdays earned by kolk-
hoz raembers, etc., etc D The individual agricultural enterprise is
used. also as a basic classification unit in processing observation
material. For instance, an MTS in.ay be broken down according to the
power of its tractor park. A kolkhoz may be grouped on the basis of
fulfi lent of the State plan for animal husbandry, for com-
~eicent of
pietion of minimum breeding plan, etc.
A distinction should be made between the observation and ac-
counting or calculation units, which may be quite different depend-
ing upon the subject under observation. For instance, in the cattle
calculation unit, In accounting for
census each head of cattle is
sowing area, the accepted unit is the hectare, or square meter.
accounting for agricultural machinery, each individual machine is the
unit, etc.
A proper selection of the observation unit is important also
in worki.ng over the data observed. It is important primarily for
their correct classification.
The Populists, for instance, in several of their studies)used
an entire village for a unit of observation instead of an individual
farm. They examined the community iLth a number of considerations;
total number of households and total population; total acreage of
omed land parcels, total sowed area, livestock population, total
0
land rented, number of hired laborers, etc. In this way they made
it impossible to classify individual enterprises, and consequently a
study could not be made of the class stratification of rural life.
Classification of Aricu1tural Enterprises
Since the basic observation unit in
an individual agricultural
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classification of the agricultural enterprise. The basis for class--
ification of agricultural enterprises is property status,
The dondfl nt fornl of property throughout the USSR, including
agriculture is socialist, held in common property. This appears in
two forms : State property and cooperative-kolkhoz property.
Taking f or a basis he legal property forms determined by Stalin t s
Constitution, we first consider the sovkhozes~uState organized large
agricultural enterprises'', which are "State property, i.e, wealth of
the peaple"USSR Constitution, P, 6.). To the same category belong
also the machine tractor stations. Among estahlisbl2ents with the co-
operative kolkhoz form of property, are the kolkhozes themselves. In
this same category there should be included the agricultural enter-
prises of the various cooperative associations (like Tsentrosoyu.z,
VsekopromSovet, VsekoPromlessoyz, Vsekopinso~niz, Vsekopromsovetkassa).
Since, according to constitutional provisions, each 1rkolkhoz
household, in addition to the basic income from the common economy
of the kolkhoz, has for personal use, a not large parcel of land a-
round the household, and as a personal property the subsidiary enter-
z prise located on this land. parcel (chapter 7). The subsidiary enter-
prises of kollchoz members are to be considered separately in any
study of agricultural enterprises.
There is also, on a very insignificant scale, however, the
small private enterprise of the private peasants, which is based up-
on their own labor,
And finally, in studying a'ricuiture, the subsidiary agricul-
tural enterprises of laborers and employees must not be overlooked.
~iith respect to statistical studies, the agricultural enter-
prises and households are broken down into the following groups:
i ES TRIC TED
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State agricultural enterprises :(a) sovkhozes, (b) machine
 (a) of koikhoz members, (b) of collectivized craftsmen, and
of v~orkers and employees.
c) Small Private Economic Activity:
(a) of individual peasants, and(b) of non-collectivized crafts-
men and other groups of the population.
taking a more detailed classification, the sovkhozes may be
broken dovrn according to the administrative authorities to which
they are subordinate. Most sovkhozes are administered byffaliowing
People's Commissariats : of Sovkhozes, of Agriculture, of Food In-
dustries, of Meat and. Dairy Industries, and of Foreign Trade. With-
in each of the above commissariats (except for that of foreign trade )1
sovkhozes are classified according to whether they are directly under
the administration of their respective ai.1-union, top--level connniss--
ariat, or whether they are answerable to the union-republic level
cornrnissariats .
Into a separate group are classified the sovkhozes belonging
to the trusts of suburban enterprises under 'the Council of People's
Comnd.ssars of the Autonomous Th public, under the executive cornniittees
of the oblast(or.,kray) soviets and also the non-trustified suburban
enterprises under the Council of People ! s Cornmi.ssars of the Autonom
oLks Bepublice and under they ee,cu~tire~~.commx.ttees. of the oblast (or
kray) soviets.
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tractor stations (TS), (c~subsidiary agricultural enterprises (supply-
ing laborers and employees with agricultural products), (ci). forestry
enterprises (for forestation) (e)experirnentai enterprises. and other
agricultural enterprises,
2. Kolkhoz-cooperative agricultural enterprises Ga)1oi1c-
hones (Social production), (b)agriculturai enterprises of cooperative
as,ociations; handicraft, forest, consumer and other types of cooper-
atives).
) individual Subsidiary Agricultural Economy:
 aESTIIICTEIJ
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tIEST RIOT ED
4, Grou i.ri of ~ricultural Enter prises
For a statistical study of socialist enterprises, that is,
koikhazes, sovkhozes and L':TSs parallel th the computation of total
j
amounts and averages, it is necessary to coordinate this work, using
certain previously collected data, based upon souping the various
s
units used in making observati-O S.
In using agricultural statistics data up to to present time,
the trouping method was not sufficiently used, and when used, this
was a simple addition of unity belonging to a certain group, i.e. to
the form of a variable series.
As an example of such grouping may be used the breakdown of
ITS into groups according to number of serviced ltolkhozes, classify-
ing tractor operators on the basis of annual earnings, grouping koik-
hoses according to number of existing households, or according to
sowing acreage, etc. Such. breakdowns are very helpful., since they
make it possible to consider separately large and small economic ac-
since the, present the achievements of a ;riculturai shock
workers and uncover po ~sibil.ties :car increasing labor productivity.
On the other ?hand, such subdivisions expose backward kolkhozes, an-
:La.i husbandry farms, and. lagging tractor drivers and combine opera--
tot?s, inefficient ira1icmaiIs, etc
For a x)rafaund aricultural study however, much more important
are those basic and combine~roupirags, in which each group appears
in the chart and is Jiven more or less detailed definition in the
story told by the same chart,
Of great importance for such a grouping is the correct selec-
tiori of group characteristics. In the first place, such selection
depends urn the purpose of grouping. The most general considerations
for grouping agricultural enterprises are those determining their
size i. e. the size of these enterprises. ti'iith respect to kaikhozes,
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their - size is the number of kolkhoz households m
the basic indicator of
Other natural a.,dicators to be used to shOW the size of icolk-
n
ed to lcol.khoz, sovdng acreage, and
hones are the amount a~. la.nd assign
/rinds of livestock. hen selects-zr~: the
the nlunber of the various
~? ~rou ;yin ~ lcolk}1ozes by size, canside~^a~:~.on
natural characteYa.stn-cs for g ~ ~
~e of ar~ric-~~l~ural outr~a`t at the particr~~r
should be given to the t~
lXollthaz. For ~raln and vegetable prad.uC n ; kolkhozes, the most suit-
' n kolkhozea by size is the extent of the se_ng
able basis for roupi
zes 'which stress dairy farming the basis is the nurr
area. For lcolkho ,
? , ? ~ r f-ro~ breeding kolkhozes it is the number of
bet of milking co~'rs . Fa ~
d fnzit orchard or vineyard koikhnzes, it is the
hogs For ^ specialize
i ton mrnw1ng koilchozes it is the area of cotton
area planted. 1. or cot ~.~
plantations, etc.
cordin to particular characterisi~ics, it makes
In grouping ac
. ~: ~:'he same ~;rola.p in~terva.l. should not
sense to use a spcc~l.a.ed. range be used, for instance,
both for large grain producing kolkhozes and
sr,r-a,l_l vegetable graying kolkhozes.
to deteamJ.ne haw well supplied the kolkhozes are with means of pro-
^tion rrrust be made of the average total cost of means
duct? ~.an, a ca~lcLlla
of production per kolkhoz for all kolkhozes and MI'S in the rayon.
Lie to the fact that every kolkhoz in addition to its main
production item, produces some other a ;ricultural ;roods, therefore,
product. Another ' cator' of the carne type is the general
Another indicator'
. In kolkhazes, however this index must not be
of pZOduct~.an
considered apart from cost of means of production of S:TS. In order
~ indexes of the size of the kalk:hoz, is round to
a,;~ay one of the natu?^.,.1
ore the best characteristics for grorapa_r~zg kolk-
be onesided. ~.~~eref ,
' are cost of the gross output, fatal amount, of
hones a.ccord~.ng to s~.7,e are . more income , All of these indicators reflect
toss a.ncome;~ arzd total y
r ~ r.eWardle s s of the type of its main output
the strength of the kalkhoz n
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., average ~.eld from their cogs, ~,raup:Lr~~; cap
~nnrr~?i nsr tO the
i
oe yr
ua.l milk Leld, grouping tractor drivers and com~a
basis of ann
f the annual amount of work performed.
~~~~t,nrs on the basis a
' n of ~lrau Avera~5 i ~,.~ Ural St~atis
thod of
d:ixectly connected with th 'khe me
'she groupin~ me tl~>.od ~. s
~ESrRicaEo
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v ones accords-ni^; ta their s~,Ze, is to
'.she c~.asifica~t~.an of so
~ ~~ e (grain, milk, ho~-~
e done ~.t~l~~-n their homogen~OUS groupings by Tp
b
_p. according; to rna'Leri.a~- Cha.ra.c uer-i_s~ics
breeding, etc ,) . ahen grouping er of cattle, etc. ) it is even more im--
( :Le,nd area,, sotiva.n~ area, numb .
- o:lkhazes, to 7zse spec~.f:l-c cha.ract,eris~
partant than ws_th respect i~a k
.? l intervals. In add.ita.on to other reasons
tics a.nd special statJ~sta.ca
,. ~, characteristics, ~.~~ zllust help and
cfocan rrn cla,s help sif'~.~r~~ clarify according to natura
taa narrow specialization of
r as to whether or ntt a .
-
rd this out, for instance, it is worth
praduc'ti on c antinu.e s . `so ~'~-
Dazes of the }'eagle's ~,;a~~rnissa.riat of SOVI~-
while to Uraup the ko7.k
. the size of aoti^~-~~g axes (parta..cu~-ark-Y
haze. nOt Only 7.CCard111~ ~ ~0
' cro .~s) but also by the number of cattle, or
far areG~s so~Un tea Y.ra:>rn ~
other kind of livestock.
fain 7ro--
haraCteristics comlron to all types of ~
Those grOul- c
laborers, the cost Of basic c x7Leans of pro-
duction are the number of n~ t the
ductian, the vole o f autPut, the coirmodity proportion of ou.~ ,
extent to which production is mechanized, etc.
'e size Of Q'rTS are .,the nuraber
or shOw~..ng th
rl'he ba si_c indexes f
1 size Of the sai~~.ng' area, of those koll~hoze5,
of kolkhozes services, the
and the 'power of tractors.
done not only in USin the material from a
Grouping Can bP
group of a.uricultural cn r~~7rises, but also wiwithin indivi.dua~.:l.a?rQe
+ ~ zes subsidiary entcrpr~-zesT, ~.~r''S, and
s, grn. ~~es
?cu:~tur~al rizes (sovsl~.o ,
enterp..
fica,tion is especia:l~-Y helpful in bri.ng-?
large kalkhozes } . such cls.5s' ~.
instance
,
i' a.f~ricultu-ra]_ shack workers (for
ir~~ out the achie vents o. r,
rigades on the basis of crop yield, groul.)in- ~ n~.lkm.aids
bargrouping b~, on the
 0
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the basic way to generalize from the results of mass observations. This
method, however, often was wrongly used, to cover up those differences
and contradictions which e d st within a heterogentus grouping.
ESTR0I~TEU
calculation group average. Application of averages in statistics is
In sharp criticism of malicious use of averages; showed that
general and all-inclusive "averages" have entirely fictitious
meaning. Averages have been used extensively to characterize qualiM
tatively homogenous groups and especially the individual peasant class
groups.
it means that a correct application of averages requires the
use of actual group averages rather than all-inclusive averages. Com~
putation of group averages is the basis for studying changes in factors
from which averages are being calculated, this in connection with chan-
ges in those factors which are at the basis of such grouping.
n the article by M. E. Vlasov entitleth "Statis
tical Grouping", published in issue No.
5, 1940 of the journal "Planned
Economy"he following interesting data are given on the relationship
between the degree of utilization of tractors and combines at the FITS,
at the size of sowing area per kolkhoz. This relationship is shovo up
by using group averages. (.The presented chart contains data on Kras.nodar krai and Kalinin oblast).
Krasnodar krai Kalinin oblast
Sowing acreage
per Ko hoz
(hecta s)
Work Performed
(ha)
Sowing Area
per olkhoz
Work Performed
(ha)
Per 1 Per 1 (hectare) Per 1 Per 1
Tractor Combine Tractor Combine
419
200
75-
100 .
196
66
535
319
100-
125
213
89
574
356
125-
150
218
94
690
117
150-.
175
225
97
653
404
Over
175
250
82
. To get a correct idea of the average work done with tractors
and combines, computation should be done separately for each of their
Up to 700
700- 1,000
1, OOO~ 1,500
1a500- 2,500
Over 2,500 _
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REST KICT EO
makes. It is very helpful, parallel with the computation of group
e
averages, to show the achie*ents of individual tractor and combine
operators, milkmaids, swineherds, etc.
Test Questions.
1. What is taken as the basic unit of observation in agri-
cultural statistics, and of what importance a' a correct selection
of the observation unit?
2. On which basis is classification of agricultural enter-
prises done in a socialist country?
3. that is the purpose of grouping of socialist agricultural
enterprises?
4? What are:the\-'basic natural and price characteristics fun-
damental for grouping kolkhozes, sovkhozes and MTS according to size?
5. Why do natural characteristics have to be specific and
why do range intervals have to be specialized when grouping eft a g-
ricultural enterprises according to their size; and what common
characteristics can be used in grouping these enterprises?
6. What is the concept of group averages, and what is their
importance in a study of Socialist agriculture?
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tj EST IIICTED
S'TATI S TI CS OF OVERALL AND SPECI FI C LAND U TI LI ZATI ON
Paragraph 1. Basic Objectives in Land Utilization Statistics.
Since land is the basic element in any type of agricultural
production, it is necessary to determine its overall size by land
areas, and also noting changes in the particular use of these areas.
With respect to kolkhozes, the problem of determining the
exact size of the areas allotted to them and their division into vaa
rious farming undertakings,. has taken on special importance since the
enactment of the Central Committee VKP (b) and the Council of People's
Commissars, USSR, modifying the previous policy in the field of pro-
ourement and purchase of agricultural products. According to the pre-
visions of the above directive, compulsory deliveries of kolnhozes are
calculated per hectare of land area. For deliveries of field crops,
the calculation is per hectare of plowed field. On hay deliveries it
is per hectare of plowed fields and meadows. For animal husbandry pro-
ducts it is per hectare of plowed fields, including orchards, vegetable
gardens, meadows and pastures. A correct accounting of the actual land
utilized is necessary, since according to the order of the Central Committee,
VKP (b) and the Council of People's Commissars, of 8 July 1939, "On
Measures to Develop Socialized Animal Husbandry in Kolkhozes", the
minimum count of female reproducing livestock in Kolkhoz's animal
importance also in the fight against misapropriation and pierage of
husbandry farms is to be determined on the basis of the amount of land
attached to respective kolkhoz. There is an order of 27 May 1939, of the
Central Committee, VKP (b) and of the Council of People's Commissars,
USSR, "On Measures to Protect Socialized Kolkhoz Land from Misappropriation."
In accordance with this, a correct accounting of land use is of primary
kolkhoz land caused by illegal expansion of the household ecohomies of
the individual kolkhoz members.
The statistics of land utilization includes, in the first place
the following statistical works
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1. Collection of data pertaining to the size of land area,
broken down into basic groups of farming enterprises, and especially
collection of data on land parcels attached to kolkhozes for their
permanent use as provided by the Stalin' Constitution.
2. Collection of data on the composition of the land area,
by uses.
3. Collection of data on drnamies of land parcels occupied
by the various farming activities, and shifts from one use to another.
4. Collection of land utilization data instrumental in de-
termining a number of agricultural economic and technical indexes (an
index showing utilization; fodder supplies; existing possiblities
for expansion of plowland and meadows; index for calculation of fer-
tilizers needed; the extent of various agricultural projects; existing
needs for traction force:, etc.).
The accounting of land parcels is to be broken. down into indi-
vidual groups, according to users, in the same way as was already
described in the classification of agricultural enterprises. Se-
parately are to be accounted: state reserve lands; the extent of
State forests; lands of individual towns and urban type settlements.
Paragraph 2. Cbncopts of Types of Agricultural Lands and their Use.
Rural land is usually accounted for in terms of individual
farming uses.
By use of farm land we mean the particular productive use to
which one or another parcel of land is put. Sam?times, nattral-
historical characteristics of certain areas predetermining the produc-
tive use fib' be made of the land (for instance, flood-level meadows,
s teepe pastures, peat bogs, etc.).
For study purposes, farming enterprises are broken down into the
following groups:
ESTICTED
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1. Farmstead lands: (a) total acreage composed of: (b)
various buildings, (c) vegetable gardens, (d) vineyards, (e)
orchards and berry gardens.
2. Lands located beyond the farmstead used for (a) building,
( b) vegetable gardens, (c) vineyards, (d) orchards and berry gardens.
3. Plowland: (a) total acreage, composed of: (b) utilized
plowland (sowing area and fallows), (c) idle and unprepared fallow
land.
4. Meadows: (a) total acreage, composed of: (b) flooded,
(c) barren, (d) swamp and all other types.
5. Pastures: (a) total acreage, composed of: (b) plain pastures,
(e) bushy pastures, (d) forest pastures, (e) all other types.
6. Brushwood.
7. Forests.
8. Forest fellings and burned areas.
9. Find-breaking forestized bolts.
10. Swamps:(a) total acreage, (b) of which, peat bogs,
ll. Acreage occupied by roads, clearings for cattle passage,
streets, alleys, and public squares.
12. trnderwater (lakes, ponds, rivers)
13. Stony, pebbled and rocky alkaline areas, mountains and
other parts of the area not in agri'oultural use.
Farmstead land is used most sensibly as follows: one part is
occupy?d by buildings; part by vegetable gardens, by an o'chard, by a
vineyard, and the remaining park may be used as a meadow or pasture.
,
The vegetable garden is `a very intensively farmed piece of land,
fortified with fertilizer, carefully tended, and meeting all the de-
wands made upon the soil by the vegetables grown.
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The `vegetables are grown either on farmstead lands adjoining
buildings, or else on special plots beyond the farmstead (usually e~r
low ground neart:this land is not counted in the general field crop
turnover); or finally, as is the practice in regions of industrial
vegetable growing, the area growing vegetables is considered an in-
tegral part of the field area.
Plowland is one of the basic types of an agricultural [and.
It is a parcel of arable land subjected to periodic cultivation for
the production of various crops.
Meadows are parcels of land which yield raw fodder for main-
taining livestock in sheds. There are in general several types of
meadows. The highest output and the best quality of hay is from
alluvial meadows, located along rivers. These meadows are flooded
every year and fertilized with silt.
There are also meadows watered solely by atmospheric precipi-
tation. Such meadows yield less hay and of an inferior quality com-
pared with alluvial meadows. Of a great importance are also the for-
est meadows located in forest areas. The poorest meadows are swamps,
which arc in low areas. They yield a course type of hay.
Pastures provide livestock with green fodder, which may be of
various types. In forested locations, forest clearings and brushwood
are widely used for providing fodder.
Paragraph 3. Concept of Conversion of Land Use
In studying the areas for differant agricultural uses, it should
be borne in mind that the particular division of land for one or another
particular use is not final and irrevocable. On the contrary, over a
period of time, on a particular piece of land, one type of farming ac-
tivity replaces another.
RESTRICTEfI -4-
c; w ~
li ~r~tr :'
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Peat bogs 1,820
Other Farm Lands . 1,230
380
0
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Changing one land use for another (converting) under our
existing conditions, is aimed at the most worthwhile and expedient
use of land ( clearing brushwood and converting into plowland, re-
clamation of marshes changing them into meadows or plowland, etc.)
I-b is the task of statistics to follow changes in the use of
agricultural landby comparing the breakdown of lands by use over the
years. Statistics also check up on the fulfillment of planned culti-
vation of virgin soil, clearing bushlands, and reclamation of marshes.
Example: During the years 1935 and 1944 the distribution of land par-
cels of rayon "A" to basic farming activity was as follows:
Acreage (in hectares)
r~rpes of Farming
rious farming ac-
Increase
(#)
or
decrease
(M")
of
area used
for
va-
Enterprise in 1935 in 1944 tivities in 1944
as compared with
1935
Overall area 81,150 81,150
composed of:
Farmstead land 3,100 4,500 1,400
Plowland 12,400
Meadows 10,850
Pastures 3,540
Forest 3s c6OO
Brushland 7,960
1,100 + 300
15,620 1+ 3';220
11,830
3,900 1+ 360
3 6 3 z5O -1- G 6a
3,100 .? 4,860
Marshes 5,670 3,620
- 2,050
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REST R&T ED
During the ten year period in the above mentioned rayon, there
were claimed 2,050 hectares of marshes and 4,860 hectares of brushland
were cleared. Due to these achievments, the overall farmland area (farm
steads vegetable gardens, plowed land, meadows and pastures) rose from
;
30,580 to 36,950 hectares9 i.e. by 6260 hectares, or 20.4 percent. Par-
titularly significant, 3,220 hectares or by 26 percent, the plowed land
area increased. This represents that basic land use which accounts for
a small part of the whole land area of the rayon.
o
-- the Obligation of Kolkhozes
Paragraph 4. T,and Area Composition as a Basis for Determining
t Sta te
he .
t
The compulsary deliveries of kolkhoz output to the State
determined on the basis of land area. The basic unit of size however,
are
varies depending on the type of output to be delivered. Thus, for in~
stance, compulsory kolkhoz deliveries to the State of meat, milk, wool,
and raw hides, are corn.puted on the basis of each hectare of agriculr
owland including orchards, vegetable gardens, meadows
aural land used (P1
and pastures within th?e kolkhoz.
The same land basis is taken in working out the required minimum
number of female produc7.ng livestock on a kolkhoz farm, in compliance
'th the order of 8 July 1939 of the Council of People's Commissars,
wa
.
and the Central Committee h P (b)? This order is on ways to ex-
USSR
tend communal animal husbandry in kolkhOZOS.
Compulsory State deliveries of grain, rice, potatoes, ~regetable
oil seedsand grass seeds, are taken per hectare of plowed land, which
includes vegetable gardens, as well as new lands put into use in ac-
the State plan (plowing of virgin soil, reclamation of
cordance with
marshes, and clearing of bushland), starting with the second year
after these raw lands have been in use. On the other hand, lands
tIESTRICTEU _6-
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 characteristics, a comparison among individual sovkhozes, kalkhozes,
eakdown of the total area by individual. uses
soviets, and rayons, the br
should be presented i.n terms of relatives (i??? in percent).
essen-
Initie,l Analysis of Land Utilization. Data
paragraph 5.
sition of individual agricultural areas by
The study of the compo
? .~ the analysis of agricultural production
trlandenduse is the first stop to
ricultural enterprise.
s within a rayon or within an individual ag
? analysis of a certain area with respect
In order to faca.l~.tate the
usage and to facilitate on the basis of the above
to its agricultural land us sal
is
liarity with land distribution by agricultural use
fami
RticT~o
tiEr!
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excluded, also fruit and berry orchards,
growing indistrial craps are ~;
vineyards and subtropical crops.
c ho z '~N'o was using 450 hectares of
111ustrating Example: In 144 kolk
hrou h the plowing.of virgin soil, reclam?
plowland, of which area t g
shland, in 1943, 15 hectares in 1941
anon of marshes, and clearing of bu
? sag. The br?a.kdo~ - of crops was as follows:
25 hectares were put a.nto u
hectares. The area. of Vegetable gar-
hemp-10 hectares; sugar beet- 20
n area) was 27 hectares, and 5 hectares were
den, (outside of p1ow?~. g
to the kolkhoz amounted to 110
used for orchards. Meadows belonging
hectares, and pastures 35 hectares.
' ties of grain, rice, potatoes, vegetables,
The compulsory delly?
rass seeds, for this particular kolkhoz
vegetable oil, plant seeds and g
are determined as follows:
- 15 d 27 - 10 - .20 - 2 430 hectares.
450
The compulsory deliveries of animal husbandry output products
are determined in the following ways
450 + 27 + 5 110 + 35 627 hectares.
list of statistical-economic indexes and
tial in calculating a whole icul-
?th reflect the status of the work of the agr
planned accounts which
, has been
These indexes on the degree to whi oh plowing
total ant?rpr,~se.
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IEsraicT
done (relationship between utilized lowland
p ar?as~.i. e,)the
sum of sowed areas and unsowed fellows, and the total plowland area,
also the relationship between sown area and plowed area. the extent
of which is directly related to improved agricultural
methods crop
rotation, or rotation of fellows. This includes the indexes on the
degree to which the enterprise is equipped with traction power, agri -
cultural machinery and equipment on the amount of both manure and
chemical fertilizers needed, and indexes far, calculating the scale of
individual agriculture i undertakings, etc
The analysis of data on agricultural area uses should be done
by seperate types of agricultural economy. Each group should be
analysed to Shaw changOS over time and he pr .
ocess of rcdzs ~rjbu-
tion of uses of the land area,
The acreage of the land attached to a
kolkhoz may be consider-
ed as a useful guidepost in grouping kolhozes by size.
In grouping kolkhozes according to area of all a grieie zltural
uses, it makes sense to use a Specific range interval,
However, in
order to facilitate eventual totalling of data on the whole USSR,
it is essential to group first of all in terms of
the smaller inter-
vals, thehcombining them into larger intervals in the individual re-
publics, oblasts and krags, for the purpose of local
use.
The range intervals into which all different categories of
kolkhozes may be placed on the basis of the size of their agricultural
land uses, has been prescribed by the $ July, 1939 order of the Central
Comnu.ttee, VKP, (b) and the Council of People's Corunxa ears USSR, as
follows: Kolkhozes with a total agricultural area of up to 120 hec-
tares; from 120 - 200; 200 - 300; 300 - 400; 400 - 500; 500 - 800;
800 -1,000; 1,000 - 1,500; 1,500,-2,000; 2,000 -
3,000, and over
3,000 hectares.
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0
Paragraph 6. Sources of Data on Land Utilization
The basis source of land data and data of breakdown of land into
individual uses, grouped according to their uses, is at present the
land register of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture. This
data is forvaarded annually by rayons land offices to the krai (oblast)
land administration. ("Annual 1eport on Distribution of Land, bar Use
and Users, as of 1 November, 19nr.")
In addl.t on, this data on land area and the breakdown into
basic uses is contained in the annual sovkhoz statements.
A strict initial accounting of kolkhoz land acreage was put
into effect by the order of 27 May, 1939, of the Central Committee,
and the Council of Ministers USSR "On Measures to Protect Public
Kolkhoz land from Misappropriation."
In compliance with provisions of the above directive, there
had to be established in every kolkhoz a special land registration
book for registration of all common kolkhoz land, by uses and of
the household plots of each kolkhoz household. In accordance with the
same directive, all rayon land offices must have a State land re-
gistration book, with the following entries.,: (a) the single piece of
land attached to each kolkhoz in accordance with' the act of perpetuity,
(b) the common kolkhoz lands (entered separately); (c) the household
plots of the individual kolkhoz members; (d) land used by private
peasants and others not members of koikhozes.
Using the data contained in the State land register, the
rayon land offices compile yearly on the form prescribed by the
People's Lommissariat of Agriculture USSR, "Annual Report on
Distribution of Land by Use and Users." The above report is pre-
pared in the form of a table, with column listing the types of
agricultural economy and the breakdown giving land uses in detailed
classification.
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It should be mentioned also, that the administrative books
maintained at the village soviets contain data on land areas and their
agricultural uses. These books dive a detailed breakdown of the
household plots of the individual kolkhoz members. of private peasants
and of laborers and employees, grouped according to the way that they
0'
use their respective plots. These books dive data on land parcels
occupied by various buildings and farm-steads, vegetable gardens, orchards,
etc.
Test Questions;
1. Of what importance are statistics on land utilization
and on agricultural land uses; and what are the basic purposes of
s,toh statistics?
2. That is the concept of a particular use of farm land?
What are.the basic types of agricultural land uses, in-
dicating the production objectives of each of them?
4. In what respect is the land area instrumental in de-
termination the kolkhoz obligations to the State?
5. What is-the concept of conversion of farm land use, and
what is the work of statistics in studying conversion of farm land
.
usage?
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CHAPTER ITT
STATISTICS OF BASIC FACTORS IN PLANT CULTIVATION
I. Computation and Statistics of Sowir~ Areas
(a) Purpose of Sowin Area Calculation and Statistics
r
Data on dimensions of the sowing area are indispensable ele-
ments in the quantitative determination of agricultural production.
n
Sewing area statieti.cs include the following primary statistical opera-
tions ; (a) determination of dimensional data and composition of sowing
areas by separate categories of agricultural units (sovkhozes kolkhozes
and others), which are indispensable in checking progress of the sowing
plan, as well as in estimating agricultural production; (b) collection of
material to determine the characteristics of specialized agriculture; (c)
collection of data to determine the degree of plowland utilization; d
study of sowing area dynamics as one of the main factors in agriculture,
The concept "sowing area" at first glance appears elementary; it
is the productively utilized sowed part of plowland or of a farming area,
In the computation of sowing areas the following basic categories must be
listed; (a) seeded area, (b) spring crop producing area, (c) harvest
area, and (d) area under cultivation. In order to avoid errors in c om-
puting dimensions of sowing areas, it is important to differentiate be-
tween the above categories.
A seeded area is that on which seeds have been sown. The lost
crop part of the area is also included in the total, even though it had
to be sown over again. Areas which are simultaneously sowed with two dif-
ferent crops (for example, cover crops of perennial grasses and sub-cover
crops) are entered twice into the total. This applies also to areas wh?.ch
dESTE{ICTEO
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yield two crops in one season (for exarriple, vegetables). Such duplication
in the corrtputacion of certain areas should not prove embarassing because,
f
in defining this category of sowing areas, it is intended to treat that
total area upon which seed, labor, tractive power, sowing tools and equip-
ment were expended.
?
A seeded area can be computed either in terms of the crop in any
one given year (such as 1944), or in terms of the area seeded in a .given
year, such as the year 1944. In the first example the computation of the
seeded area includes the summer crop, sown during the given year (1944),
o
second example, the computation of the seeded area again includes the
summer crop, sown during the current year (1944), but also includes the
winter-crop sown during the current year for next year's harvest. Data
on areas seeded during the particular calendar year ind,isensable for
a number of computations necessary to fulfill the production plan.
The spring-crop producing area is that which is actually occupied
by a standing young crop at the time spring sowing is completed. Into
this category fall areas bearing the winter crop sawn during the fall of
the preceding year, excluding areas ruined during fall and winter, but
including all summer crops planted during the current year. An area sown
under two crops is included in a computation only once - under either one
of the two cultures. A spring-crop producing area is that area which is
0
expected to yield a crop during the current year; its dimensions must be
/mown in order to determ:ine the degree of plowland utilization and size
of the crop.
The harvest area is determined by exclluding from the spring-crop
ESTRICTEO
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producing area that part bearing crop lost during the summer, as well as
as well as the winter crop, sawn in the preceding year (1943). ?In the
 planting and assuming that non-cover crop perennial grasses are not mowed
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It
as
iN1CTE4
those areas under cultivation which will not be harvested during the cur-
f
rent year (for example, non-cover perennial grasses), orwliich will not
be harvested at all (s own for green fertilizer). . On the other hand, areas
which will be harvested twice during the season are included in determin-
ing the harvest area. The harvest area defines that quantity of land which
actually produces a yield during the current ;rear and which will be harvested.
Finally, the area under cultivation must be listed in a separate
0
category in cases when, for one reason. or another, not all of the area which
was lost to crop ?n fall and winter is resown for the summer crop. To com-
pute dimensions of an area under cultivation, the area lost to crop during
the fall-winter ?period, but not that of resown winter craps (except when
in that area perennial grasses are sown),, must be added to the spring-crop
producing area. We clarify the calculation of the various categories of
sowing areas by giving examples. ?
It is assumed that in the fall of 1943 one hundred hectares of
winter crop were sown of which, as a result of unfavorable winter conditions,
three hectares of crops were lost during the fall-winter season; onlytwo
a
hectares were resown with? summer crop in the spring. In the spring of 1944,
502 hectares of summer crop were sown (this includes the area resown to
replace the lost winter crop, but excludes planting of perennial grasses).
In addition, 100 hectares of cover-crop perennial grasses and cie hectare
of non-cover crop perennial grasses Were planted in 1944. There are 90
hectares of hayfields (that is, area under grass planted in preceding years).
In the summer of 1944, 1.5 hectares of various cultures were lost. In the
fall of 1944, 105 hectares of winter crop were sown (for harvesting in 1945).
Taking into account the special characteristics of perennial grass
 1 hectare of non-covercrop perennial grasses minus 1,5 hectares
o
of summer losses equals 687.5 hectares.
Th? ~quals 690 hectarr~s of spring-
area under cultivation
area lus 1 hectare of lost but not renown winter
crop producing p
crop equals 691 hectares, In actual practice, errors are most
I,
commonly encountered when areas of perennial grasses planted during
the current year ( cover crop and non-cover crop) are classified by
elaboration is therefore needed on that point,
categories. Some
' 1 rasses are not mowed during the year in which
Cover crop perennia g
they are planted and should, therefore, not be included in compu--
tation of the area seeded for harvest during the current year (in
this cramp/e, the year 1944nor should they be part of the corn-
. putata.on of the harvest area. Nor can they be included in the corn-
puat i on of either the spring-crop producing area or the area under
~ .
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in which they were planted, we compute the areas
during the year
seeded area f or the 1944 harvest equals 100
by categories; The
cro lus 502 hectares of suer crop equals
hectares o? v~-nter p p
hectares of lost and renown winter crop are
602 hectares (the 2
twice included in this total).
area seeded in 1944 equals 502 hectares of summer crop
The
of sub--cover crop perennial grasses plus one hec-
plus 100 hectares
tare non--caver crop perennial grasses plus 105 winter crop for
harvesting in 1945 equals '70g hectares.
The 'n -cro roducin area in 1944 equals 100 hectares
~'
of winter crop minus 3 hectares of lost winter crop plus 502 hec-
tares of summer crop pins 1 hectare non-Cover crops of perennial,
grasses planted in 1944 plus 90 hectares of hayfields equals 690
hectares. The harvesting area in 1944 equals 690 hectares minus
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cultivation, because a duplication in listing of areas under cover
crop grass cultivation would result (they were included once in the
computation of areas planted to basic crops, beneath which perennial
grasses were sown - for example, underneath the winter-crop, under-
neath summer wheat or oats). Therefore, the sub-cover crop planting
of perennial grasses must be included only in the calculation of areas
seeded during the particular calendar year (in this case, the year
G.
1944).
Non-cover crop perennial grasses, if they are not to be mowed
in 'the year in which they were planted, are not to be included in the
com utation of area seeded for the current year's harvest, or in the
harvest area, on-cover crop grasses must be included in spring-crop
producing areas an in sown areas since they occupy separate and in-
dependent plots. These plots will also be incided among the areas
sown during the current calendar year.
Computation of Sowing Areas b Crop s
Sowing areas are computed by separate cultures. Comrasition of
sowing areas must be studied in order to determine crop production, to
study agricultural trends, and to clarify the problem of introduction
of new cultures, etc.
Special properties ofosome crops are reflected in the way ac-
counting is done. For instance, crops of long-staple and curled flax
siould be accounted for separately. In cases of biennial crops, seed
transplantation areas are considered separately. This applies to sugar
beets and table beets, cabbage, carrots, onions, plants with edible
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roots, etc., the seeds of which are obtained by transplanting wintered
roots, cabba_e sets, and onion bulb's. Areas planted for seeds are
accounted for separately. In addition to that, there are separately
handled areas for industrial belt crops, the production of which is
slated for processing, and seed beets whose seeds are earmarked for
seeding during the next year. In computing areas under perennial
grass cultivation, non-cover crop plantings of the current year, should
be accounted for separately. This applies also to hay fields (sown
in preceding years) which should be accounted for in the order of the
planting years (in terms of the total area) and in terms of sub-
cover sowings.
Sometimes, after harvesting early summer crops, other summer
cultures are sown in the same areas (the so-called repetitive or sec-
ondary planting); the crops which were harvested first are the basic
crops and must be included in the total of all sowing area categories.
Crops sown after harvesting the first crops - which are also harvested
during the same year - must be included in the totals of s eeded area
and harvest area, but under no circumstances can they be part of the
totals of the spring-crop producing area or the area under cultivation.
If, for example, 2. hectares of a kolkhoz were sown with radishes in
the spring and, after that area had been harvested, it was planted with
turnips, only the 2 hectares of radishes should be included in the
totals of the spring-crop producing area. The area under cultivaticn,
and 4 hectares should be included in the total of seeded area and the
area to be harvested.
In computing data on sawing areas, it is customary to group crops
by kind: (1) grain and leguminous cultures, (2) industrial crops,
(3) potato and cucurbitaceous vegetable cultures, (4) fodder cultures,
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RESTRICTED
Grain cultures, in turn, are grouped according to differing
characteristics: (a) according to time of sowing - winter grain
crops (rye, wheat, barley); early summer grain crops (wheat, rye
oats, barley); late summer grain crops (buckwheat, millet, corn);
(b) according to botanical properties oats are not strictly a spike
grain crop and tufted grain crops (millet); (c) according to end-use
- for bread (rye, and wheat), groats (buckwheat, mallet, rice), and
for feed (barley, oats, corn, etc.).
The group of industrial crops (that is, those ~thich undergo
a more or less complex processing) is quite varied and is usually di-
vided into the following sub-groups: bast-fiber (cotton, long--stapled
flax, hemp, China grass, and others) ; oil bearing (curled flax, sun-
flower, castor plant, soya, (mustard, gold-of-pleasure, and others);
sugar beets; tobaccos (Makhorka and regular tobaccos); aromatic herbs
(coriander, mint, anis, and others); medicinal herbs; rubber bearing
plants.
Potatoes are classified, according to planting time, into early
(spring planting) and late (summer planting). There are many different
kinds of vegetable crops especially in industrial farming areas.
Cucurbitaceous cultures include watermelons, melons, squash
and pumpkins.
The fodder culture group includes: perennial grasses, annual
grasses, edible root plants (fodder beets, turnips, fodder carrots,
fodder turnips) cabbage fodder and crops grown for silage (sunflower
and corn), and grain sown for pasture.
The breakdown of sowing areas will be expressed below in terms
of basic culture group ~.ercentages of total area (1913 and 1938). This
is based on data in the yearbook TsUNKbU Socialist l~griculture in the
Soviet Union, Gosplan Press, 1939 (page 58),
ESfl1CTEU
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The Importance of Basic Agricultural Crop Grou ins in the USSR
Group Designation of Cropa
Total Sowing Area Includes:
Grain Crops
Industrial Crops
Vegetable and Potato Crops
Fodder
Of' which Perennial Grasses
193
-..
A
Percent
cent
. Area Per
rea
,
(in millions
of
(in million
of
hectares)
tai
To
hectares)
Total
,
105.0
100.0
136.9
100.0
94.4
$9.9
102.4
74.8
4.5
4.3
11.0
8.0
3.8
3.6
9.4
6.9
2.1
2.0
11.1
10.3
1.5
1.4
$.2
6.0
These figures reflect the substantial changes which have taken place
in the make-up of the sowing area since the Great Socialist October Revo-
lution, changes which have resulted in the improvement of our agriculture;
namely, in the introduction of crop rotation (increase in the relative pro-
portion of perennial grasses), expansion of the raw material base of in-
dustry (growth of the relative importance of industrial crops), expansion
of vegetable farming, growth of the fodder base for expanding animal husbar.i c
Of special interest is the study of that part of the total sowing
area which is under winter grain crops and under perennial grasses, since t1
changes in the relative importance of these crops indirectly reflect changes
in crop rotation. In studying that portion of the sowing area which is
planted with winter cultures, we proceed with the following calculation:
In the three field system, the sowing area consists of two parts - the
winter grain crop field and the summer grain crop field. That is, the winter
grain crop field occupies half the total sowing area. In the four-field.
system the winter grain cultures occupy one-third of the total sunning area,
in the five-field system - one-fourth, etc. If, therefore, a decrease in
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the proportionate share of the winter grain crop area from one-half to
one-third is observed in any one region-- this reflects a change from a
three-field system to a four-field system.
Tf it is known, for example, that in prerevolutionary times in the
peasant farms located in what today is Moscow Oblast, the share of total
sowing area devoted to winter crops was almost invariably about 50 per-.
cent (47.6 percent in 1914), and comparing this with the 1935 percentage
which was 27,2, it can be concluded positively that exceedingly impor-
tant advances have been made in the technology of peasant agriculture (in
terms of crop rotation) over the years of the Soviet power, The reliabili'r
of such statistics can be distorted by the fact that in multi-field sys-
tems (seven-, eight-field systems, etc,), two fields sometimes are set aside
for winter grain crops, which increases their proportionate share of the
total sowing area. The proportion of area under winter crop cultivation
is also changed by t he use of fallow land. Pro ortiona ein~
p ~ the size of
areas under perennial grasses is also evidence of the changeover to im-
marked imporvement in crop rotation, it is desirable to specify these con-
ditions when presenting data on a group of kolkhozes,
crops and and grasses in all kolkhozes will not give a clear picture of
proved crop rotation systems. Since varying' crop rotation systems may be
practised in different kolkhozes, and the average area occupied by winter grain
By studying the c cnposition of sowing area over time, an idea may be
iESTi4CTEO
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The distribution bf sown area by crop may be shown graphically (see illustration),
clusion is drawn that there has been a decreased sowing of grain for grain,
while there is a diminished proportion of land under grain, then the con-
Live share of dig-up crops (for instance, potatoes or beets) or of grasses,
obtained indirectly of former changes, If there is an increase in the rel.a-
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(d)
In the study of changes in the size of sowing aye as, over time,
the uuual method should be used in calculating the indexes of change
changes in the size of the areas which have
This is~ in finding out tk~
taken place over the year or over a period of several years, in abso-
lute vas (in hectares), and in terms of percent (taking the base-year
Flax
Potatoes
Grain Cultures
Vegetables and
Related Cultures
Fodder Cultures
Fig 1, Composition of Sowing Area in Kolkhozes of the Bez___hetsRa...in 1934 (Left: Bar diagram; Right : Pie chart of same data)
~~-
Comrade Stalin has pointed out that me cannot be guided by round
off indexes of the changes in sowing areas of large territories, without
?
correcting these indexes by inclusion of data pertaining to individual
same territory must be observed as requisites 'for a true comparison
the
rayons, since tithe method of numerical averages if not corrected with
scientific method" (J. Stalin' ms of
data on the rayons, is not a
Lenin, 11 edit., page 256).
Homogene~8 of sowing r area categories, over all the years, and
of sowing areas.
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Selection of the sowing area category depends on the objective
which one establishes in studying changes in t he s ize of sowing areas.
If it. is intended to get an indication of accomplishments of agricultural
enterprises based on expansion of their planting, it w ould be more cor-
rect to canpare planted areas, year for year (since their size does not
depend on the winter losses). If, on the other hand, one is interested
in sowing area changes as a factor in plant cultivation, then the spring-
producing and harvesting areas must be compared. In practice, the
crop .
spring-crop producing area is used most frequently. That category is the
basis of most data published on sowirig areas. In the study of sowing area
dynamics, not only changes in area totals, but also changes in planting
of individual crops are of interest. The direction and extent of changes
in the size of areas (increase and decrease) planted particular crops.
gives an indication of the trends toward specialization in farming, and
of the introduction of new crops; the development of which indicates pro-
gress of technology; in agriculture. The indexes of change of areas under
particu1 crops can provide an indication of the changes in ciop rotation.
In his report at the 1~th Party Congress VKP (b), Comrade Stalin
presented the following data on sowing areas in the USSR over a period
fl
of years.
USSR Sowing Areas for All Crops
Total Sowing Area
193Easa
percentage
1938 .pf 1...-
Includes :
105,0
131.5
132.8
133.8
135.3
136.9
130.4
(a)
Grain Crops
94.4
104.7
103.4
102.4
104.4
102.4
.
108.5
(b)
Industrial Crops
4.5
10.7
10.6
10.8
11.2
11.0
244.4
(c)
Vegetables
3.8
8.8
9.9
9.8
9.0
9.4
24.4
(a)
Fodder
2.1
7.1
8.6
10.6
10.6
14,1
671.4
aESTRTEO
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 Analyzing the data in this table, Comrade Stalin notes the large
increase under fodder, industrial and vegetable crops and concludes t1o1
aEST 1T EU
the XVIII Part Congress on the Work of the Central Committee VKP
agriculture is becoming more and more capable and productive, and crop
rotation has been established on a sound footing." (J. Stalin, Report t,
In the study of the dynamics of sowing areas in terms of individual
rayons, attention must be paid to all crops, even though some of them
currently occupy only relatively small areas. It must be remembered that
many crops which, at the present time, are considered second-rate, may
undergo considerable development in the future.
The establishment of a wheat base area in the non-black soil belt
may serve as a case in point. The following data thereon are found in
page 25)?
the statistical collection of Central Administration of National Economy
Accounting, Socialist Agriculture in USSR (page 60).
Wheat Sowing Area in the Non-- Relative Importance of
Black Soil Belt Wheat Production in
Percent
Years Winter Crop Summer C o Total V~heat Sowin Soil Areas
USSR in nonblack
Grain1,.Crops
. Sowing of a1. l
1913
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63.9
1928 106.2
1937 1,050.5
257,4
321.3
1.0
1.7
238.7
344.9
1.2
1.9
1,679.5
2,730.0
6.6
13.9
r, The degree of sowing plan fu f ilment (by kolkhoz, rayon, oblast,
etc, is calculated both in terms of total area, as well as by particular
crops. Care must be exercised in noting whether or not certain crops have
been substituted for others in the sowing process. When determining the
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RES1R1Tto
plan fuJ,4ilment percentage of the total spring sowing area, the most
accurate method is to compute the so-called active sowing area, u ch does
not include the sowing of previous years (mowing area of perennial grasses,
etc.).
The interrelationship between the plowland area and the sowing
area,.raust be looked into in the study of sowing, area data, This inter-
relationship characterizes the degree of plowland utilization and is, there-
fore an important quality level indicator of farming. It increases in
direct proportion to advances in agricultural technology, introduction of
improved crop rotation, the intensivied practice of using fallow lands,
and the corresponding decrease in the area of unused plowland.
(f ) Inds the Degree of Plowl.and Utilization
In determining the degree of productive plowland utilization, the
0
ratio must be computed between sowing area (spring-crop producing area)
of tillable land parcels (excluding the planting on farmsteads on isolated
truck gardens and sa~ring of first crops in plowed meadows and pastures),
and that of plowland areas.
Exam, lea In the kolkhozes of rayon A, in 1944, the spring-crop producing
area consisted of 10,350 hectares; this total included a so7ra area isolated
truck gardens and farmstead lands of 2,700 hectares, In kolkhozes of rayon
B, in the same year, the spring-crop producing area was 18,900 hectares,
which included isolated truck gardens and sown farmstead lands of 820 hec-
tares, There were 150 hectares in plowed meadows aznl pastures (sown to
their first crops). It may be asked in which rayons the kolkhozes have
utilized the plowland to a fuller degree, when it is kno n that the kol-
khozes of rayon A had at their disposal g, 000 hectares, and those of rayon
EIESThICTED
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pitiEO
In the kolkhozes of rayon A, the plowland area is smaller than
the sowing area, since sawing outside of crop rotation represents a
considerable figure, Plowland souring equals 10,350 minus 2,700 equals
7,650 hectares, and the index of productive plowland utilization equals
~o
x 100 equals 95.6 percent. In the kolkhozes of rayon S eowin
5, 000 ~ g
within crop rotation amounts to 15,900 hectares minus 52O hectares minus
150 hectares equals 17,930 hectares. The index of productive plowland
utilization equals 17,930 x lU0 which 25, 200 equals 71.1 percent Acc rdingly,
the kolkhozes of the first rayon utilize their plowland to a much fuller
extent than kolkhozes of the second rayon.
Of great significance, especially with regard to oblasts of the
south-east, of Siberia, the Far' East, and Central Asia, is the index which
characterizes the over-all degree. of tillable farmland utilization.
It is equal to the proportion of the total area occupied by sowing
(excluding farmstead sowings, isolated truck gardens, and sowing of first
crops in plowed meadows and pastures), plus unused fallow land area, to
the total plowland area.
Exa ale. If the sowing area equals 15,860 hectares, and farmstead sowing
and isolated truck gardens comprise 1,960 hectares,. and if sowing of first
crops in plowed meadows and pastures equals 230 hectares, and unoccupied
fallow land area is 3,150 hectares, with the entire total plowland area
equal to 15,100 hectares; then the overall index of plowland utilization
;TqCTEO
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18,100
x 100 = 93,1 percent.
Computation of Average Size of Sowing Area for One Farm
In analyzing data on sowing areas in t]e kolkhoz, the rural soviet,
(46O _ 1g960 - 2 0 j- l80
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RESTRICTED
and the rayon, it is customary to c.anpute, in addition to other indexes,
the average size of sowing area per farm. The degree to which the kol-
khoz members are provided with sowing area is indicated by the average
size per household of community sowing in the kolkhoz and also the farm-
stead sowing of the kolkhoz members.
(h) S owing, Technology Indexes
Sowing areas must be studied in conjunction with problems of sour-
ing technology, since the yield received from sowing areas directly relates
to observance of agricultural engineering
most significance in productivity increase is the sowing of selected seeds,
whereby the seed species must correspond to the requirements of regionali-
zation. This makes it necessary to determine, with regard to each culture,
the percentage ratio of an area, sown with high-quality selected seeds, to
the total area sawn to a given crop. It is necessary also to canpute the
0
percentage of areas sown with selected seeds and seeds of other kinds to
the total selective sowing area. This index must be studied in its geo-
graphic aspects in order to determine whether seed species are utilized to
best advantage, whether seeds unsuited for local conditions are being used
0
in a given area. An exceedingly important index is also that share of the
0
total sowing area which is seeded, with t~rotrierovanni, vernalized seeds, as
well as with seeds treated with copper sulfate or other fungicides.
In analyzing data on soil cultivation technology, the following in-
dexes are computed: ratio (in percent) of the area of fallow land used
for winter grain crops to the area in which winter grain crops were sown
during the same year (which indicates the availability of fallow lands
for winter grain?crops); ratio of specific kinds o~ fallow land area (black
soil, early -=Y?~~h,Y` to the total fallow land
area; proportionate share (in percent) of summer crop cultures sown in
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13 percent of the overall fallow land area.
The availability index of summer crops plowed in the spring
1, 20~, OO x1Ofl
1,200 7,600
,50O x 1PQ
14,900
83.9 percent.
Of significant influence on the level of productivity are the
spans of the sowing period (for example, 5 day work week periods).
To determine the value of other methods of agricultural en-
sowing ods. The best index of the fuJ9iilment of sowing operations
pen L~ fl
in limited ilrnent, which
periods is found in the percent of sowing plan fuff
~
is computed from the accumulated total in terms of separate small time
gineering in srniring,the following ratios are computed: the share of
.
ized area (separately for organic and mineral fertilizers) planted
the fertil
with winter and summer crops; the share of the area sown by tractor-drawn,
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RES'TA1C3Ea
areas which were plowed for spring planting (this indicates the quality
of ground preparati on for summer crop sowing).
/ ) ./0P
Exam le : Kolkhozes of rayon N planted 1,200 hectares of fallow land with
winter crop, and 7,600 hectares in, the spring of 1944; in the fall of 1944
'~~ -) '12 500
there were hectares of summer
planted'~~ . ,,, ~
crop. For the 1945 harvest, 9,200 hectares of winter crop and 14,900
hectares of summer crop were sown excluding cover crop perennial grasses,
perennial hayfields and other perennial cultures planted in preceding years).
Based on these figures, it can be determtined that the availa-
bility of fallow land for he winter crop of 1945 harvest in the kolkhozes
of rayon N is equal to:
9`.7 percent. I Then the black fallow land
(200 + 7, 600) 100
9,200
comprises:
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~ES~Ai
horse-drawn, and hand seeders; and the share of the:':.area sown, broadcast, in
rows, crossrows, wide row seeding, etc,
(i) Calculation of owing, Areas by Categories of Economies
To the extent that the sowing area represents one of the basic
and for those of the private individual peasants.
The study of sa~ring area sizes and of the indexes listed in this
section must be carried on in tern of individual types of economies (kol-
khozes, sovkhozes). Separate treatment should. be given for the farmstead
sovdngs of individual kolkhoz members, for those of laborers and employees,
elements of agricultural production, a knowledge of it ( as well as of other
elements ) is necessary for a whole series of calculations which identify the
individual types of economic structures. Such information is essential also
in studying the redistribution of sawing pciods among themselves.
In particular, the collectivization of the sowing area, together
with the collectivization of peasant farms, represents the basic index, accep-
ted in statistical practice for determining the agricultural collectivization
level. Ths index is- equal t o the percentage ratio of the sowing area of the
kolkhozes and individual kolkhoz members to the total area of kolkhozes, kolkhoz
members and of private peasants.
In studying data sources on soi.rdng areas, a differentiation
must be made between data on the progress of the sowing and the final account-
ing for areas sowed.
During the peri od of winter and summer crop sowing, sovkhozes and
kolkhozes submit progress reports for every 5 day work week period.
The final accounting for sowing areas, starting in 1935, is made
by government statistical agencies at the end of the spring sowing. As a re-
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suit of evaluation of the final accounting, the following data are
obtained: total areas, in terms of separate economic structures, under
summer as well as under winter crops, sown during the fall of the pre-
ceding year; winter crop areas, abandoned during the fall and winter,
and the resown part of those areas; the mcw. ng area of perennial grasses,
sown during preceding years. Irrigated sowing areas are listed separate-
ly, as are areas sown with vernalized seeds, and first crop areas sovna
in plowed meadows and pastures. During the final accounting, all data
are collected in accordance with a detailed inventory listing of crops..
Kolkhozes, sovkhozes, and subsidiary farming enterprises submit
their final accounting on sowing area totals for the current year har-
vest on kolkhoz accountability form number 4, and submit these state-
ments to the sectional or rayon inspectors of the Central Statistical
Administration of the Gosplan, USSR.
One of the essential differences between the 5-day-week account-
ing for sowing progress and the final accounting (in addition to the
wider scope of content of the final accounting) is the difference in
primary source.
The primary source of 5-day reports are the daily measurements
carried out by the brigade leaders. These reports, however, frequently
are inaccurate (resulting from a lack of familiarity with measuring de-
vices, irregularity of shape of the area sown each day, etc.).
The final
accounting is accomplished on the basis of acceptance of work certificates
issued to the brigade leaders after completion of the sowing of each
individual crop. In these documents areas under individual crops are
registered on the basis of the measurement of the total area sown to the
particular crop. Such measurement.. gives incomparably more accurate re-
suits, than the daily measuring by the brigade leaders of comparatively
small plots of ground (frequently measured inaccurately), throughout the
entire sowing period of a given crop.
aEsTctcT i
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Accounting i'or sowing areas in the households of koikhoz members,
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of private peasants, workers, and employees, handicraftsmen
and other
population i s carried out by the rural soviets on rural soviet account-
ing form 17a. The material gathered, after exarn?nation and entry of data
in the agricultural record books, is turned over for detailed evaluation
to the section inspectors of the Central Statistical
dministration,
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In towns and workers' communities, accounting of individual sow-
ings is carried out by specially selected registrars. The accounts of
sowing area totals must be oarefully checked by the inspectors.
In particular, special attention should be paid to the correct,
e-s-;f'accounting for mowing areas of perennial grasses, for here most
mistakes are made. In order to check the correctness of accounting for
mowing areas (which are carried according to individual years of sowing)
it is necessary to compare them with last year's data for the same farm
ing economy. A check method is illustrated in the following example.
In the final accounting for 1943 for kolkhoz N there were listed.
62 hectares of cover- and noncover-'crop of clover sown in the given
year (1943), 50 hectares of clover sown in 1942, 15 hectares sown in
1941 and in earlier years. Obviously, in the accounting for the 1944
clover, sown in 1943, the clover must be included in the total for the
first mowing year, and the total area, if no loss or plowing has taken
place, must equal 62 hectares. If one hectare of clover was lost, then
the total should read 61 hectares. The mowing area of the 1942 sowing
oannot exceed 50 hectares in the 1944 accounting, but it can occupy a
somewhat smaller area if there was abandonment or plowing.
If the tie-up indicated does not work out, it must be determined
where the mistake lies and when it was made - whether it was in the ac-
counting for the current or.the preceding year. When the mistake is
discovered it must, of course, be porrected.
Simultaneously with submission of final accounting reports on
the total sowing for harvest in the current year, the sovkhozes and kolM
khozes must submit to the district or regional inspectors of the Central
Statistical .&dministra-tion an aooountin g of sowing by category (on kolkhoz
accounts form number 5).
The correctness of data on the grade of sowing must be affirmed by
one of the following documents: certificate of type of seed reoeiaed
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through inter-kolkhoz exchange from State Grade Supply, Grain Collection
(Zagotzerno), etc. The certificates of approval of sowing categories,
statements issued by the senior agronomist of the RayZ4 for local and
highly productive kinds of seed which are not supplied with an approval
document. One of the main tasks in approving sowings, which? is done by
agronomist personnel is establishing the authenticity of the kind of
grain and its particular qualities.
Based on the totals received from evaluation of final accountings
on sowing areas and the accountings on sowing of different kinds of seed,
a number of indexes can be arrived at (discussed above). These include
the area sown for harvest during the current year, the sprang-prop prow
ducing area, and the area under cultivation; indexes on fullfillment of
the sowing plan; indexes on the breakdown of the sowing area by crops
and groups of crops; incexes of change (to what extent is a supply of
a given culture built up over a given number of years); indexes on ful-
fillinent of sowing plan by kinds of seeds; the share of the area sown to
sorted seeds, the breakdown of sowing by kinds of seeds, the geography of
individual kinds; the share of sowing with vernalized and with soaked
seeds.
Based on the analysis of accounting totals for sowing areas, the
progress of the fulfillment of individual orders of the Party and State
with regard to sowing areas, can be checked (for example, with regard to
developing potatoes and vegetables in the vicinity of large cities,
with regard to making more fodder available, or introducing new crops, etc
Special attention must be paid to sources of data on areas under
gardens, vinyards, berry crops, and subtropical cultures. The last ac-
counting report on garden planting together with the final conclusive re.
port on sowing areas was carried out in 1937. In 1940 an all-union in-
ventory was taken of vineyard planting in all categories of farm economy.
In government economic structures and in kolkhozes, during the period of
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REST RICT ED
this inventory, information was collected on the size of vi 4ard areas,
the makeup of these plantings by age and kind, the size of vineyard
nurseries and on the gathering of grapes in 1939. Based on farm economy
of kolkhoz members, of private peasants, workers, employees and other
population groups, information was collected on the quantity of grape-
vines set out, and their distribution by age and kind.
In the kolkhozes, inventory was carried out by special brigades,
headed by experts in viniculture. In cases where the kolkhozes had
documents on the actual state of vineyard planting, the brigades filled
out the inventory forms on the basis of these documents, after prelimi~
nary examination by measuring and counting the vines in not less than
10 percent of all p bts in the particular farm economy. If no documents
were available, the brigades filled out the forms after inspection of all
vines, determination of age and kind, counting the number of vines of each
kind, and measuring the area planted with vineyards.
Carrying out of the inventory in State agricultural organizations
has been the responsibility of the administrative staffs of these. In
the farm economy of kolkhoz members, private peasants, workers, employees
and other population groups, inventory was carried out by registrars who
counted the number of vines.
In 1941 an inventory of mulberry plantings was carried out. Be~
ginningvuith 1937 and up to the present time the only source of data on
areas under garden and berry plantings in sovkhozes and kolkhozes have
been the annual reports of these farming economies. For new plantings,
books where, in addition, entries are made on the quantities of orchard
roots (by species), and of berry crops and vinyards (accounting sepa-
rately the fruit-bearing plants).
current accounting is practiced. The overall area given to orchards
plarrbd in the farmstead plots of kolkhoz members, of private peasants,
workers and employees is entered annually in the economic household
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REST ft1t% E~
In the annual accountings of the kolkhozes, areas under fruit
and berry cultivation and vineyards are listed under individual species,
in hectares, with the exception of the area under plants of fruit?bearing
age. Kolkhoz accounting form 17 contains data on the planting of or-
chards, vineyards, and berry crops (in hectares). Accounts are submitted
twice a year: for spring and fall plantings.
The kolkhozes of the Georgian and Azerbaidzhan Soviet Socialist
Republics and the Krasnodar Kray submit reports on the progress are sub-
mitted on the 10th, 20th, and 30th day of each month.
In 1945 the Central Statistical Administration Gosplan, USSR
together with the People's Commissariat of Agriculture USSR and the
USSR People's Commissariat of Food Industries conducted the first special
all-Union census of fruit and berry plants. This census included all
sovkhozes subsidiary economies, as well as other government and coopera-
tive enterprises, kolkhozes, household farm economy of kolkhoz members,
of private peasants, workers, and employees and other population groups
having fruit and berry plants in rural and urban communities. This census
. covered all plants of fruit and berry crops, in the common orchards and
also individual trees outside of the orchard.
The census was conducted between 1 August and 1 September. In
all government and cooperative fann enterprises and in the kolkhozes,
a card index system was adopted. For each farm establishment there was
drawn up a census form fr fruit and berry plants in State establishments
and in kolkhozes (form number 1). In the farm establishments of the kol-
khoz members, private peasants, workers and employees and other popula-
tion groups, the census was conducted in a listing system (form number 2:
Census list, by household, of fruit bearing and berry crop plants).
The census program in government farming enterprises and kolkhoses
envisioned the determination of the number of fruit trees which died
from frost in the years 1939/1940 and 1941/1942. It called for determining
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the areas and number of roots of fruit and berry crops by their species
grouping (seed-bearing apples, pears, quince; pit stone-bearing cherry,
plum, and others; nuts - walnut, almonds, pistachio, chestnut, and
others; eirus fruits - tangerine, orange, lemon, and others; berries -
0
raspberries, currants, gooseberries, strawberries, etc.; tea plants).
These data are classified according to the pattern of planting (row
planting, systemless planting, inter-row planting, isolated single.
trees - their number). The collection of further data was envisioned
by the census program as follows: the species and age breakdown of all
fruit cultures - by tree count, listing separately those trees of all
ages which are actually fruit bearing; the breakdown, by variety, of
fruit trees planted (by tree count); breakdown by berry cu]hires, nut
citrus and other subtropical fruit plants, information on fruit and berry
nurseries (the plot for propagation, plots for forming and planting the
0 mother stock).
The propagation plot is designated for growing unoultivated plants
(wild stock to which cultivated sorts are grafted) and of grafts. The
formation plot is further subdivided into four fields; the first one
for growing wild root stock plants, which are engrafted in the second
half of the summer (this is one type of grafting The second field is
occupied with yearling seedlings;the third and fourth fields with seedlings
of two-years and older. Mother plantings are divided into seed plantings
and graft plantings.
All nursery plantings are accounted for both by hectares and in
physical units. The census program for the households of kolkhoz members,
for private peasants, workers, employees and other population groups is
considerably less expensive. The following were accounted for: number of
fruit trees (in individual orchards as well as of individual trees by
varieties, indicating those trees actually bearing fruit, as well as the
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After the census was completed, in order to cheek on its complete-
and also by adding up to trees and bushes on the spot.
workers and employees, and of other groups of the population.
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area (in strawberries, or raspberries) or the number of bushes
(currants, gooseberries) of berry plants. Accounting also covered
the quantity of fruit plantings, planted in the years 1940/1945, the
area of the farmstead plot and the area of the individual orchards.
In sovkhozes, subsidiary economies and various government and
c op-
erative farm enterprises; carrying out the census was the responsibility
of the respective administration of these establishments. In the listing
of the documented data of the kolkhoz (inventory and registration material,
etc.) on the state of fruit and berry plantings. In oases of inacouracy
of the documents, and also when there were no documents at all, the forms
should have been filled out on the basis of area measurement and tree
count.
of documented data on the breakdown of fruit and berry plants (by species,
variety and age), the census forms were filled out on the basis of this
information. In the absence of data or in cases of inaccuracy, the age
and variety of the plants were established by personal inspection in the
field by experts.
In the kolkhozes the census was conducted by brigades under the
leadership of experts in the cultivation of orchards. They included a
registrar, member of the kolkhoz management, and the kolkhoz brigade
leader in charge of fruit growing. Forms were filled out on the basis
soviet (or town soviet) by questioning representatives of the enterprise
In households of kolkhoz members, private peasants, workers,
I
employees, and other population groups, the census was conducted by
registrars with the participation of representatives from the rural
registered enterprises of the kolkhoz members, of private peasants, of
n('.SS and accuracy, a sample was taken of no fewer than 10 percent of the
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aESTMCTED
This sample inspeotion was done by controllers with the cooperation
of the community, at control points whioh were selected mechanically so
that the number of farm enterprises in each would be not less the 10
percent of all such enterprises being studied.
Selection of control areas in each rayon was made from the register
of populated areas, in geographical order. If errors were found during
inspection, the census was again taken in the given populated areas.
Census totals were added by categories of farm enterprise. In
computing areas under fruit and berry cultivation difficulties arise
in connection with the infinite variety of plant species, distinguished
by differences in their distance apart in planting, and also by the fact
that, in addition to orchards with row planting of trees and bushes,
everywhere there are orchards with systemless planting, without the
necessary distances between roots and individually fruit trees.
In conducting the 1945 census, the central Statistical Administra-
tion, Gosplan USSR refused to consider in area units, those fruit trees
which stand alone and refused to determine areas by individual species
of plants in orchards belonging to individuals. In these cases, only a
tree count was taken.
In order to determine areas under individual species groupings
of fruit and berry crops in orchards of the State, of cooperative en-
terprises, and of kolkhozes orchards with mixed plantings, according to
the 1945 census, the following methods were recommended in the instruc-
tions:
(1) If in a given farm enterprise there are plots under mixed cul-
tivation in row planting, the distance between the rows rust be measured,
and within row the space between roots is measured. An auxiliary table
was appended to the instructions which listed the number of roots per
hectaae for different distances between rows, and between plants within
the rows.
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(2) To determine the areas under each particular stock when there
are mixed plantings set out without any system, it was recommended to
use data on the average density per hectare of individual varieties, in
terms of the norm which had been determined beforehand for each rayon
starting with available materials and based on the expert advice and inr
formation of fruit cultivation specialists. As, however, the actual plant
ing density in individual enterprises may vary from the norm in one di-
rection or the other, and since even in individual plots of the same
enterprise the density may not be the same, therefore, the total of the
areas calculated on the basis of the norm under individual varieties of
cultivation may not add up to the overall area of the plot, determined
by measurement. In such cases the parity of areas was obtained by using
an abstract method a by increasing or decreasing the area under the pre-
dominating variety group by the difference between the sum total of
computed areas and the area of the plot which was measured.
Example: On a 4 hectare plot (by measurement) there are planted at ran-"
don various fruit and berry, crops:
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 Indexes
- Total area
~ rams Total Berry
Cherries Total pit taspberrles ur ,
al seed Plums
Apples Pears Total
__..r.. , n hp~tares
fruits
r~ 1 .. m
~ V
2.96 -- _ . t ~ - -
is listed by area
In ..nts and gooseberries
_ s cooperative enterprises and kolkhozes, the size of p lantln
government, coaoerat
,ies and miscellaneous berry us berry cultures are recorded
raspberries
and number of bushes. Te size of plantings of strawberries, - ~
only by area in hectares occux~r ied.
b ~l
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1 number of roots per hec-
t
norm 150 200
tare according to the
fi
e,v
2 Roots prent:
i
a of - plantings 320 00
- reserveo
p
.b drop-outs (plants died 20 10
(3) Total (a b) 340 90
300 400
100 150
(4) Converted to area in nec- ~~3~ 3,6
0.33 0.37 0.70 0.20 0.14
tares (line 3 divided by line 1) 2.27 0.45 2.72
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Winter Crops Sown in Fall of Preceding Year
1. Wheat
end of, sumxner grain crop sowing;
(a) Wheat
(b) Rye
Sovkhoz.,& ~Sovkhoz B
1943 1940 1943
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The difference between the area of the plot which was measured
and the sum total of the computed areas in the example given, equals
4 minus 3.76 equals 0.24 hectares. This quantity is added to the total
of the area which in this example has the predominant group of seed
plantings (2.72* 0.24 equals 2.96).
(3) The width of the area of vines in the between-row plantings,
when planting bushes in one row (gooseberries, currants, raspberries), is
established at 2.5 meters. If in the between-row plantings there were
planted berry bushes in several rows, the width of the plot occupied by
berry bushes was determined by the distance between the end rows (meas-
ured from the roots of the bushes) and, in addition, one half the dis?
tance between rows was measured from both sides of the end rows.
The size of the plot under strawberries in between row planting
was determined by actually occupied area (by width and length of the
beds).
Example; In accordance with the methods discussed above, the rollow-
ing problem is to be solved.
Designation of Crops
2. Rye
3. of the above, there were abandoned, before
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Designation of Crops Sovkhoz A Sovkhoz B
1. YNheat
2. Oats
3. Barley
Buckwheat
5. Vetch
6. Potatoes
7. Vegetables
8. Planting for Silage
9. Fodder Root Plants
10. Annual Seed Grasses
11. Perennial Grasses of the Current Year's Sow-
ing on a separate area (non-cover crop)
1943 1940 1943
200 120 75
to 2 25
10
160 150 180
75 ? 44 420
Year in areas already occupied (bespokrovnie) 200 200 75
12. Perennial Grasses Sown during the Current
13. Lupine for Green Fertilizer
TTTm Perennial Grasses Sown Durin Precedin Years
(mowing area) 400 400 150
TV? Winter Crops Sown Durin Fall of Current Year
In Sovkhoz A)five hectares of various crops were lost during the summer
of 1943, and seven hectares in the summer of 1940.
In addition, there are the. following data on the same sovkhozes (in
hectares):
iESTRiCTED
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1.
2.
3.
40
5.
Designation of Crops Sovkhoz A Sovkhoz B
1943 1940 1943
Out of the over-all area, summer crops were
sown replacing winter crops lost (re-sowing);
Oats
7
5
Fodder Root Plants
Plowland area
1600
1200
900
Area of summer crop sowing on farms and
separately located garden land
35
10
Out of the total of summer crop area, first
crops sown on plowed meadows and pastures
Summer crop sowing plan (active sowing)
600
425
745
Based on the data given, the following is to be calculated,
Size of sowing area in sovkhozes A and B in 1943, by individual ac-
counting categories.
(2) Percentage breakdown of sowing area for both years given for sovkhoz A
and for the year 1943 for sovkhoz B; determination, based on the area break-
down, of the basic productive trend of the field cultivation of both sov-
khozes, and the change in the composition of the area of sovkhoz A in
1943 as compared to 1940. Express the composition of the sowing area for
each sovkhoz with the help of diagrams, having first decided the problem
of what type of diagram to use in the 'given case.
(3) Calculate the indexes of the dynamics of the sowing area size in
sovkhoz A for the period 1940-1943. (the absolute increase, speed of
growth, increase per hectare represented by a one percent gain) with re-
Bard to ove fall total area (having first decided tentatively which cate-
gory of the sowing area would be most suitable in the example given), by
area sown under oats, by barley area, by fodder root plants, under non-
cover .prop perennial grasses. What are the special features of the
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indexes of change of areas under these crops.
(4) Compute index of the degree. of productive utilization of plawland in
sovkhaz A (for both years) and in sovkhoz B.
What is the meaning of
the change in this index in Sovkhoz A for the
years given?
(5) Compute the index of sawing plan fulfillment of summer crops
for sovkhoz A (for both years) and for sovkhoz B
NOTE: In computing the size of Sowing area for individual ac_
Counting categories (answer to question i in the
example given), it is
recommended to first add up areas under those craps which homogena,ously
distribute themselves on sawing area categories (winter crops, summer
craps without perennial grasses anwithout sowing?s
for green fertilizer).
lli '. "ti,~l~;k }'~Y'S7r~11
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(a) Definition of "Yield Capaci.ty'~ and Overall crop Yield
Determination of capacity, lake determination of the sowing
area, is important in the computation of overall production in plant
cultivation.
Yield capacity level is one of the basic qualitative indexes of
agricultural production which reflects all methods for the improvement
of agricultural organization and for raising the agricultural techno-
logy level --such as mechanization, the introduction of advanced agri-
cultural technology, and the effective organization of labor. The yield
capacity or the actual yield of agricultural crops is the green crop
per hectare.
In contrast to this definition of yield capacity, the so-called
ttnet storage yield" is considered to be the per hectare quantity of
farm produce which is brought in by the agricultural enterprise. This
does not include the loss of grain as a result of bad harvesting, pil-
ferage, or of grain which has (for community feeding, for livestock and
poultry feeding, etc.)unaccountabla_been expended.
0
That is why the net storage yield is lower than actual yield
capacity of agricultural crops, and use of that index results in with-
holding grain from compulsory deliveries in pilferage and squandering.
,another concept in yield statistics is the "overall crop yield"
which is computed by multiplying the average yield capacity of one or
another culture by the sowing area of that culture inaccordance with
final accounting data on sowing areas. Overall crops yield gives an
indication of the gross agricultural production which is received from
the planted areas, plantings, as well as from certain other use agricul-
tural lands (haying, pastures) which are used by individual farms enter-
prises and by them.together (for a rayon, oblast, kray, etc.)
TaCTED
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(b) Objecti res of Yield Capacity Statistics
 1 ETRICiEO
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TIEST
Yield capacity statistics has before it primarily the fo11
ll
ow-
ing objectives (1) Collecting of data necessary for checking full
filmen-b of the yield capacity increase plan; (2) collection of data
necessary for determining raw materials, and fodder resources
collecting material of real importance in the campaign against losses
in agricultural crop harvesting; (4) collection of material necessary
for development and study of achievements of leaders in agri,,ulture an
increasing yield capacity and increasing potential reserves for
the pur-
pose of increasing yield capacity and overall crop yield.
(c) Area for Which Yield Capacity is Computed.
Which of the sowing area categories must be considered in de -
ternuning yield capacity? On the hectares of what specific area
should
yield be computed?
Computation of yield based on the relationship to non seeded
areas and to sown areas has practical disadvantages and ordinarily this
is not the practice.
Of the two remaining sowing area categories (the spring*cro
p
producing and harvest area), the spring-crop producing area should be
given preference.
Computation of yield capacity per hectare of harvest area gives
a distorted picture of the index of yield capacity fullfilment and in-
correctly characterizes the quality of the work of agricultural enter...
prises.
In proving the necessity to compute yield capacity per hectare
of sprang-crop producing area when determining t'rxe fullfilment
index of
the yield capacity plan, it must be remembered, that the level of yield
capacity (in centners per hectare), the size of the sowing area as
well
as overall crop yield are values which are functionally interdependent.
Therefore, there cannot be a situation where the sowing and
yield cap.
city plan would be fu11fi11ed while the overall crop yield plan would not,
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1 aiEb
but precisely such an incongruence results when the yield capacity
is computed per hectare of harvest area.
.Assuming that according to plan, 1,500 hectares of a given crop
were to be sown and that plan had been fullfilled. The yield capacity
plan equals 14 centners per hectare and, consequently, the overall
crop yield plan=14 oentners x 1,500 = 21,000 centners. Let us assume
that (1) during the summer the crop on an area of 75 hectares was~lbst
and (2) the actual harvest was 19,950 centners; that is, five percent
below the plan estimate. If the yield is computed per hectare of har-
vest area, it will in this example be equal to 1,995 1,995
1, 500 75 =1.._..425-
14 centners, that is, equal to the value foreseen in the plan.
In this manner the sowing and yield capacity plan will have
been fullfilled, and the overall crop yield- in effect, the value which
is of most interest to us will be lower than that in the plan by 1,050
centners, or by five percent.
Such an incongruity will not result if the yield is computed per
hectare of spring-crop producing area. In that case it will equal
1,500
19,950 13.3 centners, lower than that in the plan by five percent
that is relatively lower by an amount equal plus that by which the over-
all crop yield plan turned out to be under fu1fi11ed.
In order to prove that only by computation of yield capacity per
hectare of spring-crop producing area a correct reflection of the quality
of work of agricultural enterprises can be obtained, the following example
will be used. It is assumed that two kolkhozes sowed equal areas with
the same crop in the spring. It is further assumed that one of the kol-
khoz worked less carefully and, as a result, part of the crop was lost
during the summer. Such a difference in the quality of the work of the
two kolkhozes must find expression in the capacity level yield which is
i11usbrated in the following table:
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STAICTEA
but precisely such an incongruence results when the yield capacity
is computed per hectare of harvest area.
Assuming that according to plan, 1,500 hectares of a given crop
were to beosown and that plan had been fullfilled. The yield capacity
plan equals 14 centners per hectare and, consequently, the overall
crop yield plan~l4 centners x 1,500 = 21,000 centners. Let us assume
that (i) during the summer the crop on an area of 75 hectares was lost
and (2) the actual harvest was 19,950 centners, that is, five percent
below the plan estimate. If the yield is computed per hectare of har -
vest area, it will in this example be equal to 1,995 1,995
1, 5O ...7 5 ~ 1.~..T2,o
1L4 centners, that is, equal to the value foreseen in the plan.
In this manner the sowing and yield capacity plan will have
been fullfilled, and the overall crop yield- in effect, the value which
is of most interest to us will be lower than that in the plan by 1,050
centners, or by five percent.
Such an incongruity will not result if the yield is computed per
hectare of sprang-crop producing area. In that case it will equal
19,950 13.3 centners, lower than that in the plan by five percen-
1,500
two kolkhozes must find expression in the capacity level yield which is
during the summer. Such a difference in the quality of the work of the
the same crop in the sprang. It is further assumed that one of the kol-
khoz worked less carefully and, as a result, part of the crop was lost
that is relatively lower by an amount equal plus that by which the over-
all crop yield plan turned out to 'be under fulfilled.
In order to prove that only by computation of yield capacity per
hectare of spring-crop producing area a correct reflection of the quality
of work of agricultural enterprises can be obtained, the following example
will be used. It is assumed that two kolkhozes sowed equal areas with
illustrated in the following table:
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iEST RICTEB
Determination of Yield per Hectare of Spring-Crop producing and Harvest Axea
Sown in Losses during Harvest Overall. Yield
Designation spring summer area crop capacity
(hectares) (hectares) (hectares) (centners) (in cen-
Kolkhoz
tners per
hectare)
Spring Harvest
Kolkhoz A
180
Kolkhoz D
180
obtained a yield, per hectare of spring-crop producing area, of 14 centners,
es a true picture of the work of agricultural enterprises ( the first kolkhoz
Computation of yield per hectare of spring-crop producing area furnish-
10 170 2,397 13.3 14.1
- In appears that, in determining the yield per hectare of harvest area
the second kolkhoz which, having started with a sowing area equal in size
to that of the first kolkhoz, obtained a smaller overall crop yield, having
worked less diligently than the first kolkhoz. The second, however still will
obtain a higher index of its work quality (the yield capacity is 0.1 centner
higher).
while the second kolkhoz received only 13.3 contners).
(d) Sources of Capacity Data Yield
Prior to 1942, the agrarian authorities and the Central Statistical
Administration used basic sources for capacity data yield, the accounts of
kolkhozes and sovkhozes on quality of grain. milled. Accounts were submitted
of threshed grain.
produced one or another crop for threshing, as well as the overall quantity
twice during the period of threshing. These accounts indicated the area which
In view of the incompleteness and inaccuracy of these data which gave
no picture of the overall size of the yield capacity ( excluding losses),
as well as unaccountable losses in the field. On the basis of data thus
using spot check methods in determining losses during harvesting and treshing,
the agrarian authorities of the Central Statistical Administration had been
aE$TRCTtTi
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aESTRIC
obtained, they had been making corrections in the average quantity
of grain threshed per hectare.
In its decree of 6 December 1942, the USSR Council of People's
Commissars and the Central Committee of the Party forbade the Central
Statistical Administration, Gosplan, and the People's Commissariat
of Agriculture USSR to ttcoliect data on the actual milling of the yield
in the kolkhozes as misrepresenting the actual state of affairs with
regards to yield capacity." Accounts based on nulling produced largely
inaccurate indications of the actual yield capacity (not including losses
during harvest, threshing and transport unaccounted for expenditures of
the new crop in the field; for livestock fodder, for community feeding,
reflecting various reasons for the incompleteness of the accounts of
grain obtained in the farm enterprise. Frequently, the entire sowing
area figured in the accounts, and not the area which yielded the grain
which was threshed. That also resulted in lowering the average amount
threshed per hectare.
A source which distorted the actual facts as considerably could
r
not be taken as the basis in determining yield capacity. Data from
the source of such obvious shortcomings was not noticably improved by
such corrections as were made in the eooounts by authorities of the
Central Statistical Administration, as a result of spot checking defici-
encies, losses, and unaccounted for expenditures. Frequently such cor~
reetions were incorrectly based, especially since losses were determined incompletely (for example, the study did riot include losses in the
transport of sheaves and grain, which sometimes reach considerable pro-
portions),, In view of the inconsiderable extent of spot checking to de-
termine loss deficiencies, and unaccounted for expenditures, the made-quacy of the above described system for determining yield capacity was
reflected especially in the rayon indexes.
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TED
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tb1CliD
The same decree made it incumbent upon the Central Statisti?.
cal Administration and the People's Commissariat of Agriculture, to
make use in future harvest evaluation only of visual evaluation data,
obtained by organs of the Contra/ Statistical Administration before
the start of the harvest.
Visual evaluation is also called evaluation of yield estimates.
After the above decision of the Party and the government, the responsi-
1i1ity of kolkh.ozes and sovkhozes for yield estimates assumes an es-
pecially important governmental significance, since it becomes the sole
source of mass data on the yield capacity of agricultural crops.
In addition to the basic work in determining yield capacity,
checking activities are carried out in order to check the correctness
of evaluations of the yield estimate.
Such control work is currently being carried on in the form of
spot checking the accounts of kolkhozes, sovkhozes and rayon land offices
on yield estimates and taking sample measurements in order to determine
yield capacity.'
Each of these tasks will be discussed in detail.
Yield estimates are reports on yield capacity which are col.
lected for some tame before the harvest and are based on ?the outside
appearance of the fields (proximity of plants in the field, condition
of the ears of grain, density of stand and plant grovbh for plowed crop~y
and the amount of weeds). Considering the grade of seed, fertilizer
used, observance of required agricultural technology with regard to the
sowing and care of plants, etc.
Work in determining yield estimates has been carried on for a long
time in order to establish a plan for the distribution of agricultural
production by territories of the country, to plan for necessary transpo~
Cation, for storage, and to plan harvestinp operations, etc.
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4i"ESTiCTED
The same decree made it incumbent upon the Central Statisti-?
cal Administration and the Peoplets Commissariat of Agriculture, to
make use in future harvest evaluation only of visual evaluation data,
obtained by organs of the Central Statistical Administration before
the start of the harvest.
Visual evaluation is also called evaluation of yield estimates.
After the above decision of the Party and the government, the responsi-
AAiJity of kolkhozes and sovkhozes for yield estimates assumes an es-
pecially important governmental significance, since it becomes the sole
source of mass data on the yield capacity of agricultural crops.
In addition to the basic work in determining yield capacity,
checking activities are carried out in order to check the correctness
of evaluations of the yield estimate.
Such control work is currently being carried on in the form of
spot checking the accounts of kolkhozes, sovkhozes and rayon land offices
on yield estimates and taking sample measurements in order to determine
yield capacity.
Each of these tasks will be discussed in detail.
(e) Evaluation of Yield Estimates
Yield estimates are reports on yield capacity which are col
lected for sometime before the harvest and are based on the outside
appearance of the fields (proxixn y of plants in the field, condition
of the ears of grain, density of stand and plant grovrth for plowed crop and the amount of weeds). Considering the grade of seed, fertilizer
used, observance of required agricultural technology with regard to the
sowing and care of pla a-bs, etc.
Work in determining yield estimates has been carried on for a long
time in order tb establish a plan for the distribution of agricultural
production by territories of the country, to plan for necessary transpo.
Cation, for storage, and to plan harvesting operations, etc.
s
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r4TRJCTEfl
This work has assumed special significance in connection with
the order of 25 May, 1939 of the Central
Coimnittee of the Party VKP(b)
and the Council of Peoples Commissars ~SSR On placing n plac~,n~; kolkhozes into
yield capacity categories for computing in payment kind for the work of
the PATS, based visual evaluation.
*&t the present time, the basic significance
of this work is that
Y.~eld? 2stiirateS of kolkhozes and sovkhozes are (as has been stated above)
the sole source of mass data on yield capacity.
The actual yield of agricultural crops is Considered to be the
standing crop, determined primarily by evaluation
of estarnates on yield
during the week before harvesting a given group of crops.
In mass determination of yield estimates the sub'e
~ ctjve gen-
eralized method of evaluation is employed. it is called the subjed_
Live method because these evaluations are vased not
on exact measurements,
but on the personal (subjective) impressions of the
person making the
evaluation. Ad it is called the generalized observation method in
determining yield estimates because as a
result of the observations,
one generalized evaluation is given for the entire field area
under
cultivation for a given crop, even though the breakdown
of indxva,dual
plantings in separate parts of the field may be far from homogeneous.
In order to get a more correct generalization
it is recommended to
tentatively divide the sowing area of the crop which
is being evaluated
into plots with more or less homogeneous plantings. The evaluation is
made by individual plots, and only after that the weighted average e-v?.,
luatiori for the whole field is given.
Example. fter 1nspecta.on of the field, three
plots of more or
less homogeneous composition were selected. One plot of 15 hectares,
which was estimated to yield 10 centners per Nectar, a second plot
of 25 hectares with an estimated yield of 15 cen
tners per hectare, and
a th' d plot occupying an area of 20 hectares, with an estimated yield
of 18 centners per hectare. The average estimate for the whole field
in this case is equal to
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REST aiti Eli
10 x 15 15 x 25.18 x 20 885 1438 centnecentners
14.8
15-25-+20 60
estimates are expressed in centners per hectare. When
Yield
evaluating yield estimates, the full yield value must be considered
( green crop without making any allowance for losses. The evaluation
throughout the entire period of observation must be related to the
spring-crop production area. If, therefore, a part of the planting
was lost during the summer, that fact must be expressed in the esti
mate per hectare of spring crop producing area.
Example; An area of 200 hectares was sown with oats in the
spring. 18 July a hailstorm ruined the crop on an area of five
On
In an estimate made on 1 August, the crop on the unaffect-
hectares.
d area is estimated to yield 17 centners per hectare. Since the
e
estimate relates to the unaffected area, the overall size of the
crop yield expected will equal 17 x l95 3,315 centners, and a yield
estimate in relation to the spring crop producing area will be express-
ed as follows: 3,315 s 200 - 16.6 centners.
Crop yield estimates are prepared for periods determined by the
Central Statistical . dministration of the USSR?Gosplan, the USSR Peop1's
omnussiarat of ,agriculture, and by the USSR People's Commissariat for
C
Procurement (separately by individual zones of the USSR, and by indi-
vidual groups of crops).
The land offices collect information on crop yield estimates
k
of all kolkhozes on ko],hoz accounting form number eight. In this form,
,
the sowing area for each crop ( based on the final accounting) and the
anticipated yield per hectare, determined by the kolkhoz manager are inM
aced The last.column of the accounting form is reserved for the
dic
estimate of anticipated yield per hectare as determined by the chairman
the rural soviet who receives all estimates from kolkhOZQS and trans-
of
mits them to the Rayon Za.
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1ESTIUCTED
The Rayon Zo, upon receipt of the estimates must examine them
carefully (by comparing estimates of neighboring kolkhozes, consider-
ing the familiarity of agricultural personnel with the composition
of the crops in the kolkhozes, making fie1l trips to individual kol-
khozes when necessary). As a result of the check, the Rayon Zo forms
its own crop yield estimate for each crop and forwards the estimates
to the rayon inspectors of the Central Statistical Administration,
Gosplan, USSR.
The rayon inspectors evaluate the estimates and determine the
average yield capacity index for the rayon for individual crops, based
on the estimates prepared by the kolkhozes as well as estimates de-
termined by Rayon Zo. In this case the average weighted crop yield
capacity must be computed (for sowing areas of each crop)
Sovkhozes of the basic systems, People's Commissariat of
Sovkhozes, People's Commissariat of Food Industries and People's
Commissionat Meat and Dairy Indurtries must submit estimates on crop
yield to their superior organization, as well as to the competent
representatives of Oblast (Kray) of Gosplan USSR, or to statistical
administrations.
In order to check crop yield estimates, each regional in-
spector of the Central Statistical administration carries out a per-
sonal inspection in three kolkhozes, selected by the mechanical se-
lection method, Rayon inspectors. The regional ins pe ctor enters his
estimate for each crop, as well as the estimate of the kolkhoz on special
forms. The rayon inspector enters the estimates accepted by the Rayon
Zo form.
Based on evaluation of data collected from all kolkhozes and on
computation of average estimates from each source and cor each crop,
information is assembled in the light of which the estimates of kolkhoze
end the Rayon Zo can be analysed and compared to the estimates of the
regional inspectors. Since determination of the inter-relationship
IIESTRICTD
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 samples several times during the winter) of the crops, transplanting
them in a warm space, and determining the percentage of crop losses.
Selection of Control Areas Before~arvest
inspectors, as well as by appropriate representatives of the USSR Gos ; an
:l.ilpe~u
(or by the Statistical Administrations) in working oubthe final indexes
of crop yield along with personal observation on the condition of the
crop). Spot check ing of crop yield estimates is carried out also in
sovkhozes of the principal administuations.
In order to obtain more accurate visual estimates, it is nec
essary to carry out regular observation of agricultural crops. In par-
ticular, condition of winter grain crops, in addition to evaluation
,
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The basic task in selective measuring of yield capacity of the
green crop at the moment of ripeness of agricultural crops is the com-
nation of objective and accurate information in order to check the
p
accuracy of crop yield estimates determined by the kolkhozes and rayon
land offices.
addition, the difference between the results of measuring
In
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1EST RICTED
between evaly.atiozls prepared by different sources is the sole ob-
five of this work, average evaluations for each source are com-
jec
puted as simple arithmetic means (since the weights for all the dif-
ferent sources are the same).
The computed interrelationships (ratios) are used by the rayon
shortly y before harvest, is estimated at two basic moments of growth; -
before the winter snow, and after the.spring thaws. These estimates
are given by the regional inspectors for several kolkhozes in terms of
qualitat' ve characteristics ( excellent, good, satisfactory, as well as
~.
have failed to sprout, and crops which were a total loss),
crops which
indicating the area which each estimate applies. The condition of the
winter grain crop may be studied during; the winter perioda~r taking
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aEST aidED
(not counting losses) yield capacity from the green crapsin'.the
field and the actuai crop yield in those kolkhozes in which this
work is being oarried out ( computed per hectare, gives a summary
indication of the extent of all losses, the extent of underestimat-
unaccounted-for losses in the f 1e lcL This infor, rnation is
ing and
utilized in the fight to reduce losses.
Measurement of green crops to estimate yield capacity is done
on two or three basic grain crops, as well as for potatoes, sugar beets,
tong-fibred flax, and hemp. With a few exceptions, depending on special
characteristics and differences in the growth of crops, the techniques
applied with regard to individual crops are basically the same for all
crops.
Use of the selective method in measuring yield 'capacity applies
equally to all crops. This work is not done in all kolkhozes, but
only in a relatively small number of them. Kolkhozes are chosen by
the mechanical selection method. The yield capacity measuring of in-
dividual grain and industrial crops is carried out in rayons where
these crops are widespread. In individual kolkhozes, yield capacity is
not measured in terms.of the entire field. Special samples are taken
and processed. Compensation then is made for the yield capacity per
heotare of a particular crop in a given kolkhoz.
In applying this procedure whereby deductions on yield capacity
of an entire field are made on the basis of examination of crop sample
yield capacity, it is necessary to solve several basic questions first
~
(1) how many samples must be taken, (2) how the samples must be distri-
buted throughout the entire field, and (3) of what each sample consists.
The first two questions are solved in like manner when yield capacity
of a crop is measured. The answer to the third question depends on the
distribution of the crop on the sowing area under consideration.
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?IESTRICTEO
The number of samples to be baleen is determined by the theory
of selective observation: the less uniform that the crop appears over
~
t}ie entire area, the higher the degree of accuracy desired the larger
must be the number of samples.
Since the variation in yield capacity increases with the increase
in the field, a larger number of samples is taken in farms establish-
menu with large crop areas, than in those with a smaller crap area
.
The number of samples however, does not necessarily increase in pro -
portion to the increase in area. The number of samples is determined
by the Central Statistical Administration on the basis of information
collected on the degree of yield capacity fluctuation.
In order to obtain a correct indication of the yield capacity,
it is important to take samples uniformly from the whole field. To
attain such uniformity, samples must be taken at regular intervals.
In order to determine the size of this interval, the field under the
crop in question is assumed to have been divided into a number of
squares equal to the number of samples to be taken. sample must be
taken from the area of each of these squares. A side on each of these
squares is designated as X. The area of each square will, be equal
2
to X. If it is assumed, that the entire area consists of 45 hectares,
and that 300 samples are to be taken from it, the entire 45 hectare
area must be divided into 300 squares, and a sample must be taken from
each.
45 hectares
The area of each square is equal to , that is X
45 hectares
In order to express X 1n maters, the 45 hectares
300
must be converted into square meters or, 45 multiplied by 10,000.
Then: X aV1, 05 ,:. 38 meters.
r
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RESTRICT ED
The interval, bhen, is 3$ meters, and it is the distance
at which samples are to be taken in order to have the determined
number of samples distributed uniformly across the whole field.
In actual opeEation it is seldom necessary to make such corn-
putations, as there is a table appended to instructions of the Central
Statistical Administration on the selection of controle areas,which
gives interval computations for areas of varying size and differing num-'
bers of samples.
The third question is about what each sample should represent.
This depends upon the distribution pattern of the crop on the field
in question. In measuring yield capacity of grain crops sowed in the
customary rows, as well as in measuring yield capacity of flax, until
recently, samples were taken from an area. of one square meter, using a
special frome for that purpose, built of thin but strong slate (mea-
suring frame, "metrovka"). The inside measurement of the frame must
be exactly one meter. To facilitate using the frame in taking samples,
three of its sides are permanently fastened together, while the fourth
one can be freely slipped in and out. The frame looks as follows:
It was proved that, when placing the frame correctly (so that
the sides of the frame form a 45 degree angle with the planted rows,
the quantity of plants which are within the frame very closely appro-
ximates true averabe number of plants per square meter.
In wide-row planting, when the interval between rows is sig-
nificant, the actual yield capacity cannot be determined by use of
the square frame, because the quantity of plants which are then found
within the frame does not correspond to the actual average number of
plants per square meter. Therefore, the results of the measurements,
RESTRICTFU --~s'--
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REST Ri&TED
in this case would give the wrong impression with regard to yield
capacity.
Planting of corn and sunflower, for example, are made at
intervals of 60 to 90 centimeters between rows, and the intervals
within the rows, between the plants are 30-40 centimeters or, there
are an average of 1-1,7 rows per running meter, and in each row there
are 2 to 3 plants. In this case it is impossible to place the frame
in cuoh a manner as to include in it a small number of plants (3-5)
which actually correspond to the true average growth per square meter.
Enlarging the sample area is connected with a serf series of practi-
cal difficulties.
'therefore, in measuring the yield capacity of grain crops in
wide-row planting of corn, potatoes, sugar beets, etc., a sample is
taken not on the basis of the square meter unit, but based on the run-
ning meter, usually per five running meters. In order to convert
yield capacity into square meter units, it is necessary, in this case
to determine the average number of rows per running meter. In sowing
with a standard seeder, the number 'of rows per running meter is de-
termined by the distance between rows; in other sowing methods corres-
ponding methods of measurement are applied.
With the exception of these basic conditions of conducting yield
capacity measurements of green crop, the dollowing requirements must
be strictly observed in order to obtain accurate results; Measure-
ments must be started only when the crop in question has ripened. Sam-
pies must be taken accurately at definite intervals, without any pur -
poseful selection. All ears of grain must be cut off. Without fail
all potatoes or beet roots in the sample area must be dug up. All sam-
ples must be carefully preserved and processed, avoiding all losses.
'The main objective must at all times be remembered -- the, determin-
ation of crop yield capacity without losses -- and also the fact that
a small mistake which is made in measuring the yield of.one sample
I4ESTRICTEO
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ESTRiGTEO
area, is multiplied many times in the computation of yield capaci,t4r
per hectare and can greatly distort the estimate of actual yield.
In carrying out measurements of yield capacity, the persons me
measuring walks along the rows, at a distance from each other which
is equal to the interval which is predetermined ( in measuring yield
capacity of potatoes, sugar beets, the persons measuring walk across
the rows at right angles. In order not to make any mistakes in the
direction, markers are placed at distances equal to the length of in-
tervals along the sides of the area, in which the person is walking,
and which serve' as points of orientation.
Samples are taken accurately at the determined intervals, with-
out pro-selection of the space from which the sample is to be taken
(otherwise the mechanical aspect of the selection method is destroy-
ed and results received will be inaccurate).
When taking samples of grain crops, the frame is not placed
from above, but is slid in along the base ( with the fourth side remov-
ed). Aster the frame has been put in place, the fourth side is in-
serted, all plants which are not framed by it are pushed aside if
their roots are not `within the area covered by the frame.
In measuring the yield of potatoes ( or sugar beers) a five
meter long measuring pole is laid lengthwise (longitudinally along the
rows in such a way as to mark off about 2.5 meters on either side
of the path. The extension of the ends of the pole will delineate the
area from which the sample is to be taken. All potato plants or
beet roots which fall within that area must be carefully dug up.
~Uhen checking a land parcel used for cultivation of any crap
being measured, the lavorer reaches its end after the last range has
been checked, there is always a certain distance leftover shorter than
the measuring range (for instance there is a leftover of 23 meters,
whereas the range in this case is 33 meters) In such a case, walk-
ing back, this leftover and additional 10 meters of the parcel's
iIESTfIICTED
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IIESTRICTEB
22.4 x 10,000 33 m.
ao _~.._...-.-
(Yigure 3 (see page 44 of the original
Direction of Movement
Under diagram Caption;
Check Frame
Surveying Rod
length (making a complete range of 33 meters) are checked as the
first range.
For the sake of clarity, we are giving below a chart presenting
the way of checking a crop parcel 700 X 300 meters, i. e. 22.4 square
hectars, on which 200 check measurements are to be made. The checking
range in this case would be;
It is necessary to keep strict track of all sample checks for
we have to know their exact number to determine the mean weight of one
check.
Even if there would not be any plants on some spots where the
check was supposed to be made (due to oversight or damage) such samples
nevertheless must be counted in the overall survey.
In order to determine the average number of rows per running
fastened at right.ang1es. This i.s made of two wooden planks (mean-
meters long is taped on one end, at the other end of it across
vice is constructed in the following vJay: a post approximately 1.5
ed by means of a simple device for erecting a perpendicular, This de-
The direction line perpendicular to the potatoes is determin-
rows. While measuring, the number of rows is counted.
I
meters) from one end to another in a direction perpendicular to the
meter when checking potato.; output, the potato field is measured (in
ure
a ou 0.5 meter long). The plank ends are nailed et,..,.,d e
4ESTRICTEO
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ESTRCTEO
from the ends and at right angles to their surface
field the corresponding values are: 530 and S85, Accordingly, the
meters and
959 potato rows. On the opposite edge of the same
see drawing 4)
Trace sketch from p, 45 of original/
To determine the direction line perpendicular to potato rows,
the above device is placed at the edge of the field of potatoes (at
the point where it is planned to start with the measuring), One of
the planks is faced in the direction of the row of
potatoes (to get
this direction, the cross is turned in the '
aesa.red direction until
the visual line connecting both nails on the plank would fall into
that of the row of potatoes, This achieved, the other plank would
give us direction perpendiculr.r to the potato rows. Once the above
direction is established, the surveyer's assistant marks it with a
surveying rod at the other end of the field, In this
procedure it is
necessary to bring both nails on the plank perpendicular to the potato
rows, and the surveying rod into one vertical line).
For the sake of better accuracy usually two measur' f
~ngs are
taken, One on each side of the field, and based on
the results rer
eeived computation is made of the average number of rows per one
long meter of the field,
Example; Measuring results along one edge of the f'
a.eld gave
959 ~- 385 1844
average number of rows per one running meter is
In cases when there are in a kolkhoz several land parcels under
the same culture, the number of check samples to be
taken and the
length of range are determined on the basis of the
entire area taken
-----w--.-.
548 1.- 530 1078
as a whole
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For example, if rye is planted on 3 lots 20, 15 and 30 hectares,
the individual lots in proportion to their area.
among
Under these cond~. 'tions the total number of control areas is distributed
same distance interval is used for each lot equal to : \/QPP9 4Z 'n-i.
app
teen 300 control area samples should be taken from all the lots; the
Asrwne, for purposes of illustration, that a lot has the following
~
1 Figure 5 goes here/
contour like this we endeavour to reduce the problem to a
rectangular lot and for this purpose
rectangle.
The following method is
of the lot, for example E, we
stakes at points AJ EJD )
mark a
At right angles with the help of a
pendicular,
and G (line
line then the
used:
enclose our irregular lot into a
from one of the terminal points
mark the line AE D ( i.e.
we mark it with
device for erecting a per
other terminal points
this, place the
DV,. To
to a point when the
accomplish
cross head is
(it turns easily on the pole)
t
(at point D) ' s thus fixed, marked. This line may and may no pass
~
end of the pole
K ( line AYB )
instrument at point D
is sunk into the ground
at eye bevel. Rotate the cross
untii the nail of one of the planks
head
and
point E are straight line; then the other plank determines the
in one
direction, perpendicular to line DFA.
To fix this direction on the opposite side of the lot, opposite
the person with the measuring instrument at point D, an assistant with
a stake should be stationed.
The person at poi- 'ng D, directs his assistant with the stake, until
such time as the plant nails and the stake are in a straight line; then
he is directed to drive in the stake. A line perpendicular to line AED
~.
through point G, but it is immaterial.
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In the same manner, line Ai is drawn, at right angles to line
AED, and finally a perpendicular to line AKD ( at point B).
Obviously, line BLV will be perpendicular to line DV and parallel
to line Ad, Marking perpendicular lines is diagramically illustrated in
figure 6.
In this case the number of control areas and length of intervals
is determined, based on the actual seeded area, in the same manner as
with a rectangular lot.
Stakes i~'ill be driven in at specified intervals along lines 9D
and BV. The central areas are established as follows: If we start from
point M toward stake K, then as long as we are in unplowed and unseeded
area (up to point N) no account is made. At the very beginning of the
seeded area, we establish the first control area, cut the pegs, put them
in a bag and proceed, establishing central areas at definite intervals.
On reaching unplowed areas, interrupt the interval count and take it up
again only after reaching seeded areas being sampled, at point P. Pro-
ceed with calculations as if there were no interruptions. If for example
the interval is 52 meters and from the last sampling area in the segment
number to the end of the plot to poing 0 -there are 39 meters left, then
the next sample area should be established 13 meters beyond point B.
Next we move and establish sample areas in the usual manner. If
28 meters after marking off the last area in this row, we reach the end
of the seeded area, then we should proceed in the direction of 'stake a,
placed in this example 52 meters from stake R, to stake U; then the first
sample test area will be established 52-28 24 meters frolu the end of the
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a?sialtiEU
seeded area ( from point T). From then on we proceed as already des-
cribed. Similar/Y, if an unplowed plot is, located within a seeded area
(swamp: ully, wood, etc) it is disregarded entirely and the measurements
g
are resumed only after reaching the area seeded with crops under study.
The parallel lines AD and BV may be drawn at points other than
terminal points of the lot and may bisect the lot. It may be necessary
this method in cases where some obstacle makes it impossi-
to resort to
ble to walk thru the unplowed places. lowed daces. (rivers, swamps, forests, etc.).
Further analysis of the samples taken in the field depends on
the crop under studY. For example, seed crops must be dried to a normal
moisturecontent: threshed ( so that not a single grain remains on the
spike) the resulting grains should be winnowed and accurately weighed,
determining the average weight of grain per sample, i.e. for 1 square
meter. Yield per hectare is then computed. For potato samples all
earth is removed and the potatoes are veighed, their total weights di-
vided by the number of samples, multiplied by 5, and the result is the
linear meter. The result is multiplied by the aver-
average yield per
age number of potato rows per linear meter and the product of multipli-
cation is the yield per square meter. It is then simple to make the
conversion for one hectare.
illustrate with an example, the method of computing yields
Let us
after the samples are processed and weighed.
Seed crops: from 29$ samples (including empties) we received 57
kilograms 514. grains of wheat grain. Average weight of the first sample
( from 1 square meter ) ,7.~?- r _93 grads
29$
Since there are 10,000 square meters in one hectare, to compute
per hectare yield, multiply the yield per square meter by 10,000.
convert into centners, divide the product of the multiplication by 100,000.
Standing grain yield per hectare in centners is equal to:
ESTRLCTEO
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flESTB%OTEO
193 y" 10, 000 . i2 19.3 to
100,000 10
Potatoes: from 200 fide-meter control areas 1,140 kilograms of pota-
toes were collected.
Aerage number of potato rows per linear meter 1.71 Compute yield in
centners per hectare.
Yield per 1 linear meter l0 1.11 kilograms
2 Opx' 5
Yield per 1 square meter 1.11 1.71 1.949
Yield per 1 hectare in centners
194,9 centner s
L.%91_;La:opo _ 1.949 100
10o
D termini losses du_n~,_ar_rest-,nd threshing oiou *1 plants
An important function of agricultural statestics is to determine production
losses due to inefficiency or delay in,harvesting as well as poor thresh-
ing. Resultant data may be used in combatting losses.
Directive for determing grain yields, confirmed by the Economic
Council of the Council of :Peoples Commissars USSft, provide that the
following should be considered as losses:
(a) grain lost when the crop is allowed to stand too long, also
during harvesting, binding, shocking, stacking and transportation from
the field to the threshing place.
(b) quantities of grain in the cut and uncut spikes, remaining
on the stubble during reaping.
(c) quantities of grain remaining in the straw due to incom-
plete threshing.
(d) quantities of grain remaining in the chaff after winnowing.
Many of these loses do not occur in combine harvesting, as several
operations which are separate phases of harvesting with reapers are per-
formed by the combine.
Amount of loss by each operation mentioned is determined in cer-
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taro kolkhozes ( chosen by mechanical selection) also by the selective
method a- segregation and processing of a number of samples, The num-
ber of samples and types of tests conducted differ in determining each of
the above mentioned losses, but the principle in all cases is the same: by
processing the samples determine the quantity of grain lost as an average
per sample and then compute it for one hectare.
Harvesting losses may be determined not only for grain crops but
also for other crops ( potatoes, sugar beet and cotton).
For some time garden trope were included in kolkhoz yield esti-
mates together with yield and truck garden crops acid estimates were given
separately for seed, (seed fruit) pit varieties, vineyards and berries.
During the past few years estimate yields for orchard crops were
not made Only vineyards were included among the crops for which souk
hozes and kolkhozes submitted visual yield estimates.
Following the exclusion of orchard crops from among the crops,
for which agricultural enterprises were obliged to supply crop estimates,
the only remaining data sources on fruit and berry crop estimates have
been annual sovkhog and kolkhoz reports.
In the annual kolkhoz reports we find data on the planned and ac-
tual total harvest of fruit, berry plants and vineyards by varieties.
Since planted area is also noted, it is possible to compute average har-
vest per heotsre.
However, we do not obtain the full standing yield, but rather
"grain elevation" yield, with all losses deducted.
Kokhoz reports also show the distribution of total fruit and berry
harvest (sale to government procurement agencies and cooperatives, sale
In the annual sovkhoz reports, area and yield data of orchard crops
on kolkhoz markets, allocations for kolkhoz.~nembers by workdays, eto).
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r1EStR1CtEQ
is given as a total, without a breakdown by type, and this consider-
ably reduces their worth.
Determining Yields of a "mottled" Hectare
Yield per hectare is determined for each separate grain crop and
as an average for all grain crops. Total yield of all grains ( or as
is sometimes said, yield of a "mottled" hectare) is the weighted av-
erage from each grain crop, the weight being the area under cultiva-
tion for each crop.
Example;
Yield of Winter wheat per hectare is 18 centners; area 1,200 hec-
tares.
Yield of Winter rye per hectare is 16 eentners; area 1,000 hec-
Yield of summer wheat per hectares is 1L'.centners, area Lj.00 hec'-
Yield of oats per hectare is 13 centners; area boo hectares.
(16 (1,200) (16 A 1,000 4- (1u. r, boo) ? (l3 ~c 600) _ 15.9
-- 1,200 000loa6Oo
Qualitative Indexes of Grain
In determining the crops yield we are interested not only in the
quantity of the product but also in its quality. Basic qualitative in-
ilexes of grain, besides its most imiaortant index-grade, are: cleanness
germination, suitability characteristics, specific weight, moisture
content.
By index of grain cleanness, we mean the proportion (in percent)
of sound grain of a given crop to the total weight of the grain sample
ed grain of the crop, grains of other cultures and all kinds of ex-
under study. This sample, in addition to sound grain contains disease-
traneous matter ( earth, pebbles, weed seeds, insects, mushroom spores, E
etc.).
i$TRLCTED
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AA
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In contrast to the cleanness of grains, there is the index of.
grain impurity, i.e. percent of diseased grain of this culture, gains
of other crops, and all kinds of extraneous matter. In certain inst-
ances we determine only the non-grain impurities, i.e percentage of ex-
traneous matter, excluding grains of other crops.
Germination, in analysing a given grain sample is called that pro.-
portion of grains out of this sample, that sprouts. ,As a rule germination
is also expressed in percent.
By farm fitness of grain, we mean the product of multiplication of
tha index of cleanness by the index of germination. If, for example in
a sample there are 0.96 (96 percent) sound seeds, and germination is 91
percent, then fare fitness is equal to 0.96 0.91 0.8736 or
87,1. percent.
This means that out of 100 kilograms of seeding material we have
characteristic expresses the degree o.f fu] weight and consistency of the
only 87.11. kilograms of actually sound seeds. We must orient ourselves
on this proportion in determing screening norms (screening per hectare).
By the characteristics of grain we mean the weight by volume of
a unit of grain (the unit accepted by us now is 1 liter of grain). This
grain. To determine these characteristics other methods are also used--
weight of x,000 grains. This weight is known as the "absolute weight"
of the grain.
Grain always contains some dry matter and water, The percentage
relationship of the weight of water to the weight of the whole grain (i.e.
total of dry matter and water all together, is known as the moisture con
tent of grain. Grain moisture content is of great practical importance,
influencing the quality of thrashing, length of storage possible, etc.
Moisture.content as well as the natural characteristics of grain
is determined by means of speoial apparatus. By dry grain of spike-grain
crops we mean grain with a moisture content up to 1)4 percent average dry'-
ness is iL-15.5 percent ( for oats iL-i6 percent of moisture content.
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i ESiRICTED
grains with a moisture content of 15.5-17 percent is considered moist (for
oats 16.1 Percent). Finally, grain with an even higher moisture content
xs considered damp. In drying grain, its moisture, and consequently its total
weight diminishes. One should know how to compute this weight less due to
lowered moisture content.
e approach the solution of problem as follows: Let G stand for
grain before drying, c for percentage of moisture content before drying.
C for percentage of moisture content after drying, X for weight of grain
after drying is equal t
dry matter is
and consequently the weight of
The weight of grain after drying (x) is equal to the weight of the
of the new grain
drying is equal to the weight of grain before drying, multiplied by the
fraction the numerator of which is the difference between 100 and percents
tage of moisture content before drying, while the denominator is the difference
between 100 and the percentage of moisture content after drying.
Example. If 2001centners of grain with a moisture content of 1$
percent is reduced to moisture content of 13 percent, then the new weight of
grain is equal to
dry matter (which does not change in drying) plus c, percent
weight i.e. of X. We can no'. writhe ollowing equation:
=~ *71
toox g0OOd+
z ( .. C) (,o-')
-o
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flSTRICThD
El, amen? tary~?Analysis of Croy .Yield Data
One of the main objectives of the analysis of crop yield data is
to check on the fulfilment of yield quotas, Determining the percentage
of plan fulfillment for each crop is not tiff icult. If, for example,
the plan calls for a wheat yield of 15 centners per hectare, while the
actual harvest was equal to 17 centners per hectare, then the plan has
been met by 17 0 . 113.3 percent i,e, the plan has been
surpassed bye ~5 ~? ,
1
In exactly the same manner we determine the percentage of plan fulfill-
ment in cases where the yield plan is established not by separate crops,
but as an average for a group of crops ( "mottled" hectare) -- for
example, for all grain crops taken together,
In this case we calculate, by the above mentioned method, actual
average yield per hectare for all grain crops and compare the gigure
thus obtained with the quota ( expressing the result of comparison in
percentage). One should bear in mind that in some instances the plan
may be over or under-fulfilled, simply by planting crops other than
foreseen in the original plan ( for example, if more than planned high
yielding crops are planted at the expense of low yield crops, then the
yield may be overfulfilled` only for this reason).
If the plan is established for separate crops then to check the
fulfilment of yield plan for a group of crops it would be best to use
the index method. Then there are several different possiblitiies in com-
puting these indexes. Let us illustrate the computation of indexes with
the following example:
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Types of Crop
Seeded Areas Yield centners per hectare Total Crop M eld (centners
Planned
Actual
Planned
Actual
According to
~
According
~ to
planned yield
and area
planned yield
and actual
area
3,400
3s100
lE
17
48,000
49x600
1,000
900
14
13
14,000
12,600
200
250
9
9.5
i$00
2,250
Winter Wheat
Oats
t
v Buckwheat
Total for all crops
4,200 4,250
Let us intorduce the following symbols.
y, -- actual yield of individual crops in
centners per hectare
o -- Planned
yo yield of individual crops in ~
centners per hectare
n, -- Actual seeded area under separate crops in hectares
n, -- Planned seeded area under
separate crops ,, in hectares
6,x,800 64.450
According to
'
actual._ yield
and area
52,700
11,700
2,375
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EST RICTEO
w& = w : r (Iir ZfO r !Z':Iso36 ii
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Using the figures in the table for total crop yield we may
compute the following variation of average yield for 'a "motted
hectare"
Average yield based upon actual yields of individual crops and
of actually planted areas by crops:
j
- 66775 z 17!hnrs~h~c'a~~
Average yield based upon planned yield by individual crops and
planned composition of seeded areas by crops:
Average crop yield based upon planned yield and actual compo
sition of seeded areas:
on the strength of data in the table it is possible to compute
the following indexes.
Index of p~ an fulfillment of _crod
In computing this index one should disregard the influence of
changes in the varieties of crops planted, on the increase or decrease
of yield for a "motted" hectare compared with the plan, (i,e, compute
the actual yield on the assumption that the seeding quota by individual
crops had been fulfilled or compute the anticipated yield, weighing it
with actually seeded areas). Let us agree to denote this index by ly.
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IIESTRICTED
As weights in determining this index one way use either absolute
values of seeded areas under individual crops or proportion of area
under each individual crop in the total area under all crops of this group.
Crop composition of the area expressed in percentage of the total
in this example, is characterized by the following indexes:
Nomenclature of Crops percent of area under individual crops in re-
lation to overall total of area under all grain
crops.
,
planned
Actual
Winter wheat
71.1
72.9
Oats
23.8
21.2
Buckwheat
4.3
5.9
Going a few steps ahead of ourselves, let us point out that the
stationary structure of sowing area is used potentialy in group crop
studies of the movements of crop yields, as an index of the quality of
work performed by agricultural enterprises.
It has been mentioned above that actual overall sizes of crops
by crop groups ( in this case, grain may differ from planned figures
due to non-fulfillment of the planned breakdown seeded areas. Con-
sequently it is of particular interest to compute the index of ful-
fillment of the structure of seeded areas, Issa. In computing this
index, the value to be indexed is the seeding area, while as weights
we use the planned crop-yields of individual crops.
The index may be computed by two technical methods, giving
the same result. Using the first method, we take the relationship of
the average crop yield of a "Mottley hectare based on actual areas and
planned yields to the same average based on planned areas and planned
yield of each crop
.i!1Y?, . i: - 4 iao . : . : 0' tE
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 area under each crop to the total area under all crops, while
or the same relationship based on planned areas.
In our example we have:
If the value of this index ira more than one, this shows an
increase against the plan of relative sizes of areas under crops with
high crop yield, or in other words?'a more favourable diversification
of crop from the point of view of yield level. In instances when the
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1ESThLCTED
In the second method we weight by the planned yield, the
relative proportions (in percent) of area under individual crops
based on actual structure of seeded area, On the one side, and
based on planned structure on the other. The relationship of the
products will give us the required index,
value of this same index is less than unity, we have to state the re~
verse effect.
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IIESTRICTED
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puted by corresponding (actual for the first named average, planned for
hectare, i.e, the relationship between actual and planned crop yield, comp
Of practical importance is the index of crop-yield from a "mottled"
the decrease of crop yield as compared with the plan by 0.2 percent`
(from the view point of yield level) than the planned, which resulted in
In our example the crop composition turned out less favourable
the second average) area structure by crops Ing.
This index may be expressed by 2 primary indexes, or in other words,
index of crop yield from a "mottled" hectare (Ing) is the derivative of
the index of crop yield (iy) multiplied by the index of` the structure of
seeded areas. (Isp)
One may compute an index of the overall proportions of seeding
area under a group of crops in which we are interested ( in this exam-
pie under grain crops.)
Finally, of practical importance is the index of the overall size
of crop yield of this crop-group (Isp)
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The index system may be used in comparing crop yields for a group
of crops between individual kolkhozes, between rayons, oblasts, and repu-
blics. A. base unit should be decided upon in advance for each individual
case.
A significant part in the analysis of data on yields is the study
of crop-yield index movements for individual crops and group of crops. Two
groups of factors influence.yearly changes in the yield: introduction of
up to date techniques and agricultural engineering and meterrological con
ditions of a given year. In pre-Soviet times, yields of individual peasant
enterprises with a very low level of agricultural techniques, were determined
practically exclusively by weather conditions, with resultant sharp variations
in yield for particular years and yet an almost constant average level. Pre-
sent day growth of up to date techniques more and more serves to limit the
influence of natural factors, but nevertheless they play an important role
in determining the size of the harvest.
Further introduction of up to date techniques is leading in one definite
direction-~it furthers a gradual increase in productivity. Favorable weather
conditions in one year or another along with benefiting results of applied
agricultural measures and the achieved degree of mechanization, are instrumen-
tal for the sharp increase in yield in the particular year. Some unfavorable
natural conditions through a year may cause a delayed crop ripening and even
a certain temporary decrease in yield. The crop output therefore through a
period of several years is never on the same level, but is fluctuating. In
order to eliminate with the study of crop dinamics, the influence of yearly
meteorological conditions, one or another method is used to level off the
moving average of yield. Most common is the method of computing an average
crop output over a period of several years,
The average USSR overall grain output in 1926-1936 period was as fols
lows ( in centners per 1.heetare)
ESTRiCTEEi
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RESI'AICiED
1928
- 7.9
1932
- 7.0
1936. 8.1
1929
- 7.5
1933
- 8.8
1937
- 11.1
1930
8.5
1934
? 8.5
193$
- 9.3
1930
6.7
1935
- 8.9
There was considerable crop increase after complete collectivi''
zation, through in the second half of the above period the crop becomes
more stabilized.
To show yield increases quickly, let us calculate the average out-
of the first and second Stalin five years plan,
put through the periods
and let us compare these averages with crop yield data for prerevolutionary
years.
Years
Average annual output
(in centners per Nectar)
7.0
1900 - 1904
1905 e 1909
6.6,
1910 ? 1914
7.3
1928 1932
7.5
1933 W 1937
9.1
1938
9.3
Over the 15 years of the prerevolutionary period, there was pra
n crop output. It has grown considerably, however
ta.cally no increase i -
over the period of two Stalin five years plans.
In order to get a correct picture of a certain crap output dinamics
(for instance for all grain crops), in determining average yield to use
as weights a constant structure of sowing area, appropriate for the parti?
cular group of crops for all years of the period under review. In this
way we will eliminate influences toward a high average yield caused by
of area under various grain cultures through the period
possible changes
under reviews.
indexes is done by application of the above described
Computation of
methods used for computating indexes of crop plan as shown above.
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iEsTaLGTE1
3, of great importance is the study of geographical distribution of
crops. Based on the results of such a study, we are able to determine.
the high and low output regions, and as a result we can note those where
a particularly energetic fight should be waged for high yield. In this
respect, it is helpful to make use of map-diagrams.
4.
In order to get an idea of fluctuations of individual kolkhozes
crop outputs within an administrative rayon, it is advisable to group
kolkhozes according to their yield of basic crops and their overall grain
output,
Such a. study by kolkhozes permits us to ascertain the leading and
lagging kolkhozes, to determine measures for increasing output, which shows
up in studying the first group. It helps us to take steps to overcome the
backwardness of the second group.
On p. 44 of the statistical collection, Socialist Agriculture in USSR,
the following data pertains to the grain crop yield,of the leading kolkhozes:
Year Nwber of kolkhozes with Percentage of kolkhozes
yield of all grain and with yield of all grain
bean crops per hectare: and bean crops per hectare:
12-14 14-16 Over 16 12-14, 14-16 Over 16
cent, cent, cent, cent, cent. cent,
1936 6,505 3,115 2,627 2.8 1.4 1.1
1937 25,99 13,452' 9,259 11.0 5.7 3.9
In a study of relationship between the crop output arid various in-
fluences, compilation of group charts may prove very helpful. Using data
from the above charts, there may be determined the average winter crop out-
put from early plowed fertile soil fallows, from replowed and disced f allows,
and from late plowed.fallows; output from sections with different amounts of
fertilizer; output from weeded and unweeded areas; of summer crops cultivated
on winter and spring (allows; from early and late sowed plots, etc.
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On p, 4~ of the same statistical collection, we have the f ollavr'
Interesting group chart., com fled ~
p from data received by a special se
t.~ve stu lec
dy of kolkhazes. It gives an idea of the tremendous difference
between leading and average kolkh
ones in their agrotechnical level and in
yield, The chart reads as
follows
For 370 kolkhozes
in 9 krays and ob-
lasts
Sowed winter crops on fallows per 100 hectares of sowed (hectares)
area
Cultivated, replowed and disced winter
fellows (hectares) sowed area per 100 hectares of
54.7
For 45 leading
kolkhozes of
the same kray
and oblast
79,1
Sowed summer grain crops on ~Vinter
lows (hectares fal-
per 100 hectares of
sowed area
124.4
286.6
Cultivated, replovaed and disced winter
and spring fellows (hectares) ter
hectares of sowed area per 100
65.3
88.7
Fertili
60.8
120.9
zed grain crop area (hectar
per 100 hectares of sowed arPA es}
V~eed
d
53.2
e
winter and summer grain cr
parcels (hectares op
of sowed a ) per 100 hectares
area
Grain out
51.8
139.2
put (in centners per hectare)
1'0,1
Labor consumption
23.E
. per hectare
sowed (man-days) of grain
Labor expended
(man-days) per centner of grain
10.02 13.09
0.96 0.55
It can be seen that., the higher by 1.3 times labor expenditure per
hectar of sowing in the leading kolkh
ones has been fully compensated b
a higher yield (2.4 times higher).. Th y
is is so since labor productivit
in leading kolkhozes is much Y
higher (almost doubled),
d finally, the study and information on crop yield b ? .
dual leading kolkhaues, work' Y ~.ndxv~,-
zng brigades and squads is of
tance, great icnpar.
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Com utation of the Overall Oro Ou, i
There are two methods to determine the overall crop output.: com-
putation of total outputs received by individual enterprises, and the so-
called computing method. Using the first method we may determine the total
individual outputs of all enterprises, compiling annual statements ( sop
vkhozes and kolkhozes) only after the year's end. For a practical number
of purposes however, we must know the overall crop output much earlier than
that. The basic disadvantage then, of the first method is that it gives
only credited output, and not the full volume of yield. Therefore, the
second method normally is used.
Using computing method; overall crop output is determined by multiplying the average output of each culture per hectare by the number of
hectares used for the particular crop.
Computation of the overall crop output may be done either for the
basic, or for by-product output. The grain is the basir~ output for all
grain cultures, and the side-line output is, straw; for root and tuber type
crops, roots and tubers are the basic output, and the byproduct output
would be their tops ( may be used for silage).
In the analysis of crop volume data, we are primarily interested
in the development of cultivation which is indicative of the rising level
of our food, fodder and raw materials supplies. In studying individual
crops and homogenous groups of crops, we follow the overall changes in
volume of yield in physical terms (:in centners and in tons).
In his speech at the XVIII Party Congress VKP(b), comrade Stalin
gave the following data on the development of grain crops and industrial
crops:
dEsT:kicTED
 CTED
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REST atci U
In million centners
In 1938, in
1913
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
percent of
1913 output
Grains $01.0
894.0
901.0
827.3
1202.9
949.9
118.6
Cotton (raw)
7.4
11.8
17.2
23.9
2.8
26.9
363.5
Flax (threads)
3.3
5.3
545
5.8
5.7
5.46
165.5
Sugar Beets
109.0
113.6
162.1
168,3
218,6
166.8
153.0
Oil bearing
plants 21.5
36.9
42.7
42.3
51,11
46.6
216.7
ivlaking an analysis of the above chart, comrade Stalin notes that
"despite the great damage caused by the drought in 1936 and 1938, in east
ern and southeastern areas, and despite an unusual high crop yield in 1913
OUT gross output of grain and industrial crops through the reported period,
compared with 1913, was steadily increasing", ( I. Sta1in_?rob1ems of
Leninism 11th Edition, p, 582).
Due to its heterogeneour components, a study of the overall crop
yield developments may be made only in momentary terms. Since prices for
the different years vary, we can get a true picture of yield changes over
the time only in using base-year prices, Until the present, the base-
year prices used have been the prices of 1926, 1927.
I
In the statistical collection "Socialist Agriculture", on p. 86,
the following data on agricultural output is given ( in millions rubles in
1926/27 prices).
1913
S. O2 8.1
1932
9,779.2
1937
15,069.5
1937 in percent of 1913
187.7
1937 in percent of 1932
154,1
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IIEST atci ED
Computing the output in mometary terms, we are able to study the
breakdown of the output by individual crops in percent, as well as the breakr
down of these crops by the basic categories of agricultural economy.
Very important is the regionalbreakdown by size of individual crop
in the various parts of the territory studied. Such analysis helps to de-
termine those rayons and kolkhozes requiring special attention in making
organized purchases of agricultural products from the kolkhozes.
Making an analysis of the overall crop output, we eventually compute
the average per capita yield of grain, potatoes, vegetables, etc.. It is
necessary to follow the fluctuations of these indexes from year to year.
In his speech at the XVIII Party Congress V.KP(b), comrade Stalin has
pointed out that "the kolkhoz-sovkhoz grain commodity output question is a
very interesting orie". Commodity output is the name for the entire amount of
output realized outside of the producing enterprise. Specifically, the corn-
modity output of kolkhozes includes the compulsory produce deliveries to the
State, payment in land to the 1ViTS, goods sold to State procurement agencies,
sold to cooperatives, sold on the kolkhoz market and other sales. Products
distributed to kolkhoz members as payment for work-days earned, seeds used,
contributions to aid invalids, for nurseries, etc., are not to be considered
as commodity output.
A knowledge of the amount of commodity output makes it possible to
determine the commodity output index (the percent of commodity output to
gross output, and also the amount of commodity output per hectare of plow-
land or of the entire agricultural area).
Commodity output indexes may be computed for individual products
(like wheat, potatoes, etc), and for particular branches of agriculture
(for instance for field crops, for orchards, for vegetable crops, or for
plant cultivation as a whole. In this connection, it is evident that if
in calculating the commodity output indexes of individual products, phy-
sical units may be used on the volume of both commodity and gross output,
EST RtZTEU
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 NAND OF CROP
d -r~ +)
a)
?H U) C)
r-{
Et;-1 O
a) U) W ?r-
-4.4 o
a)
+
:i+' ?
Q ?ri 2
-pa) -4 4i
o ci. :i
o cn O
o
SOVKHOZ B_
C) ?- roa
?r-4 Q
; +3 1-40
Q4 :i
Pinter cheat 100 22 51 23 30 19 47 26 2,7LF1,. 65 18 60 18.5 -
Faye 143 17 48 18 42 16 25 19 1,820 35 16 39 15
Summer cheat 60 15 37 15 10 13 22 16 915 40 13 38 13
Barley 35 14 12 14 5 15 13 12 280 10 12 11 14
Oates 135 14 60 lb 45 14 31 15 1,030 87 13 85 13.5 2
Actualls
Planned Fulfilled
ci) a)
1-4
a
4) -p
U U
a) .. a)
ca u)
1-4 k
ctd a) j a)
-p Q4 -p
U U
-4 r
ci)
-1 -I ~i
ci)
f) ...
U 4)
-H Q4 -H
1-4
7e zi ba zo.s - 1,200 bah
38 lb 39 16.5 - 570 515
70 15 69 14.8 5 900: 686
12 13 11 13.8 - 90 473
90 14 88 13.9 - 490 432
? in sovkhoz B,
It has been determined that barley's moistur +e content after threshing an sovkhoz A was 15 percent; in sovkhoz B,
,.
1$ Percent,
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SOVKHOZ A in 1943
Planned Fulfilled Actually on
Savkhoz Lots
 lag~~~~~;~'~ ~.~~~4~Jry~~Pk$war~'x~??~~~v14~~Ir
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~EsrRaCrEo
then in order to obtain summery indexes of commodity output for a
group of products, then the volume of their production (gross and
commodity) should be expressed in a single unit of measure, (Usually
yield or output is calculated in terms of money.)
The following data is given on sovkhozes A and B (see follau-ing
table) . On the basis of this data, the f ollow?ng is to be solved:
(1) Calculate the average yield per hectare for all given
crops taken together (from a "mottled" hectare).
(2) Determine the index of crop yield fulfillment for all
grain crops in sovkhozes A and B (for both years mentioned
in the table).
(3) Derive for both sovkhozes the index; showing degree of
fulfillment of planned c anpositi on of sowing areas for
grain crops.
Calculate for both sovkhozes the index of crop yield plan
fulfillment from a "mottled" hectare.
Derive the index of the overall size area sown to grain
drops.
(6) Determine the index of crop yield fulfillment for all grain
crops by bath sovkhozes,
('7) Determine the same indexes for purposes of comparing grain
crop yields as between sovkhoz A and sovkhoz B (taking the
yield of sovkhoz A as a base).
(8) Determine the indexes of the dynamics of yield from 1,:hd
ctare
as well as from the overall area of s ovkhoz B for the period
of 1940_1943, in terms of individual crops and in terms of
all grain crops taken together.
(9) Determine variations in tke co osition of
~ th overall grain
crop for sovkhoz B in 1943 and 1940.
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aEST tCT EU
(10) Calculate the indexes shoving the commodity proportion
of the individual as well as the overall grain crops for
1913 for sovkhozes A and B (on the basis of production data
expressed in physical units, as well as on tke basis of
comparable base-year price computations in terms of pro-
duction costs).
(11) Compare the barley yield in sovkhoz A and sovkhoz B in
1943 at normal moisture content (14 percent).
Direction 1 Before proceeding with the solution of the example, the
yield f or each individual crop is to be c omputed f or sovkhoz A as a whole
Direction 2 Pertaini to question 9 The composition of the total
crop is to be expressed in percent of the v erall crop output for the
individual crop with relation to the grand total of the combined crop out-
put (in physical units).
Check Questions
(1) Into what categories is the accounting for sowing areas to
be divided, and what is the practical significance of each of these cate-
gories?
(2) What are the particular features of accounting for areas under
certain crops - perennial grasses, sugar beet and other biennial cultures?
(3) How is the index for the fulfillment of the plan for spring
sowing determined?
(4) How is the index for the utilization of a plowed area calcu-
lated?
ESTRiCTED
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EST RICTED
(5) How are the indexes for the agricultural technique of sowing
determined - as related to the use of selected seeds, tractor operated
seeding, vernalized seeds, graded seeds, copper sulfate-treated seeds,
seeds in fallow ground, and seeds in frozen ground?
(6) What IS the source of data on s owing areas; how is the final
accounting for sowing areas organized; what is the basic difference be-
tween he 5 day accounting of sowing progress and the final accounting
of same; what is the source of data for the areas of orchards, berry fields
and vineyards?
(7) What is the source of data on selected sowings?
What is the definition of the concept of "crop yield" and of
"general crop output tt ?
(g) For a hectare of wt ch area is it necessary to d etermine the
crop yield?
(10) What do we call "crop out? ooktt and what is the importance of
its evaluation?
ll How is the evaluation of crop outlook to be determined?
(12) that are the control procedures in determining crop yield?
(13) meat methods are used in the
sample measurement of crop yield,
and what is the significance of sample measurement at the time of crop
maturity?
14) What is the signifcance of determining losses sustained in
harvesting and in threshing?
(15) How is the total crop output determined?
(16) That is basic and at is subsidiary production?
. (17) How is the variation in the weight of grain calculated with
changes in its moisture content (in the ~r ocess of drying grain)?
9 EscricTEU
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EST RICTED
(1s) How does one determine the indexes of plan fulfillment for
crop yield, sowing area canposition, crop yield from a "mixed crop" hect-
are, total sowing area racreage, and of total c rop output?
(19) How are indexes worked out to show the commodity part of
plant cultivation output?
tIESThICTEa
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 EIE.STRICTEU
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aESi aiGi EU
CHAPTER IV
ANLvIAL HtJSBANIDRY STATISTICS
1. Basic Problems of animal Husbandry Statistics
The basic problem in animal husbandry statistics is determination of
the count and composition of livestock and determination of production figures
in this branch of agriculture.
The subject matter falls into two parts, the statistics of animal popu-
lation and the statistics of animal husbandry production. Inasmuch as the
proper organization of livestock feeding is the decisive factor in the pro-
ductivity of animals, it becomes necessary to include a third subdivision
of the subject into statistics of fodders and animal feeding.
Animal husbandry in the USSR faces the all-important problem of effect-
ing an accelerated increase in the numbers of all types of livestock and the
growth of commodity output to an extent that will .fully guarantee the reali-
zation of objectives.
Particular attention must be given to the development and enlargement
of the commodity farms of the kolkhoz. The 18th Congress of the VKP (b) in-
troduced the problem of raising productivity standards in animal husbandry
by breed improvement, a radical improvement of breeding methods in general,
correct area distribution of breeds, the impvement of feeding methods and
general livestock care.
Accounting and statistics in the field of animal husbandry are to furnish
the data for planning animal husbandry development by areas, regions, sovkhozes
and kolkhozes on a yearly basis - as per assignments of the Party and the
Goveriinent. These sources are also to furnish control data on over-fu1fU11-
ment of the plan as a whole, and of the decisions of the Party and the Govern-
ment pertaining to individual objectives.
Animal husbandry statistics provide data on overall output.
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aES1 attiED
The basic problem in animal husbandry statistics is determination of
CHAPTER IV
ANIIIAL HUSBANDRY STATISTICS
Basic Problems of Animal Husbandry Statistics
the count and composition of livestock and determination of production figures
in this branch of agriculture.
The subject matter falls into two parts, the statistics of animal popu-
lation and the statistics of animal husbandry production. Inasmuch as the
proper organization of livestock feeding is the decisive factor in the pro-
ductivity of animals, it becomes necessary to include a third subdivision
of the subject into statistics of fo dders and animal feeding.
Animal husbandry in the USSR faces the all-important problem of effect-
ing an accelerated increase in the nuxabers of all types of livestock and the
growth of commodity output to an extent that will fully guarantee the reali-
zation of objectives.
Particular attention must be given to the development and enlargement
of the commodity farms of the kolkhoz. The 18th Congress of the VKP (b) in-
troduced the problem of raising productivity standards in animal husbandry
by breed improvement, a radical improvement of breeding methods in general,
correct area distribution of breeds, the impvement of feeding methods and
general livestock care.
Accounting and statistics in the field of animal husbandry are to furnish
the data for planning animal husbandry development by areas, regions, sovkhozes
and kolkhozes on a yearly basis - as per assignments of the Party and the
Goveruinent. These sources are also to furnish control data on over-fulfill-
ment of the plan as a whole, and on the decisions of the Party and the Govern-
ment pertaining to individual objectives.
.Animal husbandry statistics provide data on overall output.
RESTRICTED
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a) The Grouping of Livestock
In dividing the herd into types of domestic animals by use, there are
two basic groups - working livestock and producing livestock. In the cate-
gory of working livestock, as a source of motive power, there are horses,
oxen, camels, buffaloes, donkeys, mulesand deer. Producing livestock, which
is bred and maintained for the production of milk, vo ol, meat, hides. and
other commodities, includes cattle, sheep, pigs, goats. Small animal hus-
bandry, such as rabbit breeding, poultry raising, bee keeping, fur--bearing
animal breeding, service-dog breeding, fisheries, silk-worm breeding, are
subdivided into separate categories.
Individual kinds of livestock are categorized by sex and age groups,
which is necessary for an overall planning of the herd, calculating its rate
of reproduction, computing its output, and also for working out control
figures, by which decisions of the Party and Government can be checked on
the preservation of livestock, increase in their numbers, and on the exten-
sion of animal husbandry.
This breakdown may not be very thorough. At any rate, it is at least
necessary to draw a distinction between breeding stallions, reproducing f e-
males, breeding colts (replacements of mature livestock)1 and the very young.
In the case of early-maturing livestock such as pigs, age groupings cover
shorter periods (in terms of months) than is the case with slower-maturing
livestock such as cattle and horses. Generally, age groupings indicate
the number of ears these animals have lived or their year of birth.
b) Determining, the Livestock Head Count for the Animal Average and
for Its Group Average
In many livestock calculations it may be necessary to know the average
annual, or else the group average head count (the latter being calculated
when a given age group covers less than a period of one year). The average
age of livestock within an age group can be best arrived at by keeping a
daily count by age. Adding up the total available head of livestock of a
certain group, covering all the days of the year, we arrive at a figure known
EST RCTEU
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aEST aid EU
as "feed-days'u for the given age group of livestock over a given time in-
terval (in this case, one year). Upon dividing the general number of ttf eed-
daysl' by 365, the average count over the year within the given age group is
obtained.
When necessary to calculate the average age for a group (which includes
livestock remaining in this group less than a year), the yearly number of
"feed-days" is to be reduced commensurate with the duraton...of the period.
Example : The number of "feed-days't for piglets from 2 to 4 months old
by the sovkhoz count in 1943 was 100,766; the group age average count in
this case is -
100, 766 ~
.
60 1,679
The age group average count may be computed not only in yearly terms,
but also in semi-annual, quart erly5 and monthly terms.
Computation of the age group average count on the basis of 'feed-days"
is possible in keeping with existing sovkhoz and kolkhoz records, only with-
in individual enterprises (and is done in the yearly sovkhoz reports). In
computing average age groups of livestock from overall data (all kolkhozes
of a given area), it becomes necessary to apply other methods, taking into
account the periodicity of the existing records. For example, when dealing
with sovkhoz arid kolkhoz monthly records, in order to arrive at the yearly
age averages for a given livestock group, it is necessary to add the live-
stock count of this group at the beginning and at the end of each month,
and then divide the total by 24. In computing quarterly averages from coon, try
reports, the above total sum is divided by 6, etc. 'then dealing with
guarl reports, yearly age averages are arrived at by dividing the above
general sum by g.
Exam lei As per monthly reports of all kolkhozes of a given area, 'the
count of sows over 9 months old at the first of each month in 1943, beginning
with January, stood at -
190; 205; 220; 235, 240; 225; 230; 250; 260; 25; 255; 245
dESTfflCTED
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 nEST %llCT EU
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tIESI MCI ED
(on January, 1944),
Assuming that the count on the first day of each month can at the same
time be considered as the count on the last day of the preceding month, the
yearly age average count for sows, based on the above figures, is determined
by the following computation:
210+190)+(190+205)+(205f220), j2 Q 235)?(23,5+240)+(2/01~22
24
225~r 20 ? (2 020 ~- (250 x-260 + (2601 26 ? (265255)+-(2554-245
24
234
24
The average sow count for the first quarter is~
210"19x) (1.90 205) (20 22U) 1, X20
6 6
203
Tf existing records were quarterly instead of monthly, the sow count as
of 1 January 1943 would stand at 210; as of 1 April at 220; as of
l July at 225; as of e 1 October at 260, and as of + 1 Januar 1944 at
245+ Lffoter The sow count on these days clearly in no way depends upon
the time interval used in the moving average The yearly average age grctp
would; be ;computed as follows:
210+220 ?* (220+2 5J? (225 260)-s- (260. 215)
g
c) Tndexe s for the Or
.... 161= 233
panization of Kolkhoz Collective Farms, for
their Stocking-up and he lenishment for their ansion and
f,or the Fu1.f'ilren?b of the Rc u .red Minimum Count of t o roducin
Females (as per the Decision of the Central Committee of the VYP
(b), and the Council of People's Commissars, USSR of $ July 1939)
The simplest information for organizing the above farms is t. The number
of farms to be in operation on pre-determined dates, the number of newly
organized farms by time-periods (as, for instance, by months), and the average
number of animal farms per kolkhoz. This, however, is insufficient data.
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IIESTRICTEI3
Inasmuch as the decision of July 1939 makes it desirable that each
kolkhoz have 3 animal farms, and mandatory that it have at least
two (including one cattle farm), it becomes necessary to group the kolkhozes
by various types of animal farms, as follows:
The number of kolkhozes with one animal farm for breeding cattle, pigs,
and sheep; the number of kolkhozes with two animal farms including one
for cattle; the number of kolkhozes without animal farms. The percentage
of kolkhozes in each group is to be calculated.
Pedigreed animal farms are to be handled separately wita
special
count by types of animals bred.
It is further necessary to study procedure in
stocking up, and re-
plenishing and expanding by buying animals from the Outside. The buying plan
is to be followed up currently (mon?thly reports), indicating separately tl~se
rayonesand kolkhozes which lag behand.
Uf particular importance is the fulfilment by the kolkhoz
es of the mina.-
mum count of reproducing females for the animal farms. The decision dated
S July 1939 establishes this rn%nimum with rely ion to
the kolkhoz land area,
with the tentative date of fulfj1rnent by the end of 1942, including not less
than 60 percent fulfilment by the end of 1940.
In determining the count of reproducing females (by types of animals),
when the complete minimum requirernents are reached, it is necessary to group
all the kolkhozes by land areas, with the groups arranged in conforms.ty with
the decision of e 8 July,` 7,939 (groups arran. ed w
~: by the separate ~oblas?ts"
territories and republics). By multiplying the number of kolkhozes in each
group range by the minimum count of reproducing females for one kolh
oz of the
given group, the overall minimum count of reproducing g females (by separate
animal types) for all the kolkhozes of each group and for ~
the entiretfrayon n
is established, Fox each of the land groups on a given date the actual, count
is taken of reproducing females, as well as the actual taunt of kolkhozes with
complete minimum requiremei7ts, and 60 percent of minimum
xequirements fulfilled,
by three, two, or one animal type of reproducing females. . This computation
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aESTRIC'i a
will result in determining within each land area group the percentage
of available reproducing females relative to the overall required minimum.
It will at the same time determine the percentage of kolkhozes, which ful-
filled the complete minimum, or else 60 percent of the minimum requirements -
by three, two, or one type of animal. By the end of 1940 only kolkhozes/
that fulfilled 60 percent of the minimum by three or two types of livestock
simultaneously (including cows), will be considered as having complied with
the decision of 8 Julys 1939..
were grouped by land areas. Within the groups were tabulated; The complete
minimum requirements, the available cow count, also the ratio (in percentages)
of the available cow count to the full minimum requirement - as per table
below.
the livestock and poultry population was taken as of 1 January 1941. Kolkhozes
Example: For one of the rayons of the Moscow last census of
UP j1 (J: -.,100 400_Eoo 800 - 1500 OVER. 15J0 ALL
TYPES OF DA`r& 150 HECTARES RECTARES HECTAE.ES FL C'I HECTTAS GROUPS
Number of Kolkhozes 6 42 43 16 2 109
Required Minimum
Count for cows (as
per Decision 8 July
1939) 8 16 2~ 45 60
Required Minimum Count
for All Kolkhozes of
Each Group
Actual Cow Count as of
4~ 672 1,204 720 120 2,764
1 January 1941 35 4 67 1, 0 66 1, 624 415 3, 607
Percentage i atio of
1
Actual Cow Gount to Fall
Minimum Required 73.0 69.5 8S.5 225.6 345.8 130.5
a:sr1ucrEe
-,Or -
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On the average for all kolkhozes, as of 1 January 1941, the available
above the required minimum by 30.5 percent. As a result of
cow count was
group tabulation it became evident that behind the general average there are
variations between individual groups of kolkhozes? In
hidden significant
with a relatively small land area, the required
91 out of a 109 kolkhozes
minimum was not met. It was as only due to the fact that the lg largest kolkhozes
far exceeded their quotas that the minimum overall requirements. for all the
~
on''were fulfilled.
kolkhozes of the ray
Simultaneously, it became evident that as of 1 January 1941, the
following quotas were reached by
Full minimum count by 3 types of reproducing females 5 Kolkhozes
5 Kolkho zes
From 60 to a 100 percent of full quota
60 percent and somewhat higher than 60
percent of the full quota of cows and
11 Kolkhozes
sows simultaneously
Kolkhozes
Same as above for cows arid ewes
Total: 34 Kolkho zes
Only y these 34 kolkhozes constituting 31.2 percent of the overall number
with
the l~Aoscow rayon have complied by 1 January 1941,
of kolkhozes in ~.
the deqslon of July&1939 insofar as it relates to the stocking-up and
~ ,~ ~
replenishment of the reproducing female count by the end of 1940 (to be not
less than 60 percent of the full minimum required).
of practical importance are individual studies of the kolkhozes, which
over-fulfilled quota, those which fulfilled between 60 and 100 percent
the of the quota, and those which did not corm within 60 percent of the quota..
?
As an example two extreme groups of the same Moscow t'rayonwith reg.
lat the minimum quota for cows were taken. The group of kolkhozes,
~.on to t
which 1941, fulfilled the minimum quota for cows, amounted which by 1 January'.
26.6 percent of the overall number of kolkhozes, with 74.5 percent of the
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1ESTRICTED
overall number of cows. On the other hand, 50.5 percent of the overall
number of kolkhozes were short of the 60 percent minimum quota of cows. The
full minimum quota called for 1,307 cows. Actually the count stood at 549
COWS, 22E calves and heifers over one year old,,and 300 heifers less than one
year old. If until the end of 1942 not one cow was .rejected, and all the
calves and heifers on hand on 1 January 1.941, survived and grew to be cows,
even then the given group of kolkhozes could not through internal repro-
duction alone develop the full minimum quota of cows required by the end of
1942. The said group of kolkhozes had to be taken under special observation,
and the purchase, of heifers and cows on the outside had to be arranged.
Thus, the construction of group tabulations and the computation of group
averages was instrumental in establishing the factbhat there was a serious
lag in stocking-up and replenishing some of the animal farms to comply with
the minimum quota, in spite of the fact that the quota average was overful-
filled.
the given t~rayorr (particularly reproducers), and underscoring the rayonst ~.
count (by individual types, sex1 and age groups of livestock). Thoroughbreds
aril half-breeds are placed in their respective categories in percentage terms,
with due consideration to the relative importance of the breed planned for
centage of thoroughbreds and half-breeds is determined relative to the overall
d) Indexes for Improvement of the Livestock__ Breed
The very best and most graphical indexes for improving livestock breeding
may be obtained by classifying livestock by breed, with the segregation of
thoroughbreds and half-breed animals by generations (degrees of pure-blooded-
ness)? By analyzing complete data on the count of breed animals, the per-
where individual breeds are dominant.
e) Tndo, f State F'1an'ulfa.l,ment in Develop ink Animal Husband
for the year under review from stock bred during the same year, and preserved
census or count of livestock is compared with the planned count of offspring
To compute these indexes (usually expressed in percent), the overall
~HESTUCTED _a3-
 f) How to Indicate Ohan~es iri the Livestock Po~ula,t~ ion
Tn studying changes in the livestock count, it is necessary to bear
mind that in addition to variations due to the general expansion of in-
there are seasonal variations in the size and composition of the herd.
dustry,
Selective livestock rejections are made mostly in the fall, prior to assign-
ing stalls to the animals for the winter, while the appearance of offspring
, cattle and sheep takes place mainly during the late winter months As a
result, the count of livestock in the winter is smaller than in the summer.
Cows subject to rejection, are mostly counted out also at the end of
the grazing period, whale the replenishing of the herd, as a result oft the
appearance of the offspring, takes place mostly during the latter half of
the winter.
Thus the cow count toward the middle of the winter, let us say on
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tUttLtt
to the end of the year. It is also compared with the planned count of mature
livestock for the end of the year (the so-called i1outgoing livescockil )
during the accountable year there were meat deliveries to the State
~
for next year's account as planned (ttadvancett deliveries), it becomes necessary,
in reviewing the control figures for the fulfilment of the plan, to add to the
overall census of livestock popelation the number of head delivered to the
State to the account of next year's plan.
le. According to the plan for 1943, the kolkhozes of a certain
1 JanuarY1944, a count of 3,200 sheep. The census
rayori were to have by
for 1 Januaryl944counted 3,120 sheep. 130 sheep were delivered in advance
,
to the State to the account of meat deliveries for 1944? Under these con-
ditions the index for plan fulfi ment by the count of sheep in the kolkhozes
will be4
(3,120+130) 100 :: 101.6 percent
3,200
When the livestock expansion plan is not fully completed by any group or
for that matter, if there is a substantial over-fulfi:
groups of animals, or,
merit, the causes of this must be clearly ascertained.
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HESTRiOT?u
1 January, is the lowest, while it is highest toward the summer To avoid
erroneous conclusions in the analysis of the dynamics of herd expansion on
shrinkage, it is necessary to take account of these seasonal fluctuations,
by making comparative studies of the available livestock count in terms of
comparable periods of time.
It is essential also to make a comparison over time of the results of
the livestock registration and count, making corrections for undercounting
(based upon the results of sampling; surveys made after the count is completed).
In the statistical symposium of TsUNKhU (Central Administration of
National Economy Accounting) of GOSPLAN, USSR -
Socialist Construction in
he_USSR (1933 - 1933), GOSPLAN Press, 1939, page 103, the following data
is given on the available livestock count of the USSR, as of 1 January 1934,
and as of 1 January 1938 (ii million head):
YEARS
1934
193
CATTLE
HOGS
SHEEP and GOATS
HQRSES
33.5
11.5
36.5
15.4
50.9
25.7
66.6
16,2
1935 in percent of 1934 1519 223.5 132.5 105.6
the only source of replenishment stock will be the raising of the offspring.
If the aggregate of all agricultural enterprises is considered as a whole,
replace the old mature animals which leave the herd.
assured by having enough young animals (Ureplenishment stock") to more than
of mature livestock, the necessary reproduction rate of the herd can only be
Since, due to rejections and waste, there is a yearly decrease in the numbers
for the growth of the livestock population (expanded reproduction of the herd).
g) Indexes for Herd Reproduction
4
The most important factor in animal husbandry expansion is the provision
Each individual enterprise can also obtain replenishment stock from other
present, where kolkhozes of rayonsrthat were occupied `temporarily by the
or, as is now mostly the case, from kolkhoz members, workers and employees.
1.
units, as, for example, a kolkhoz from.a
 I4ESTRICTEB
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s are busy with rehabilitation, the acquistion
;Fascist German aggresso r
sources is particularly important for stocki.ng-up
of livestock from outside
er often the replenishrtient stock from. the o f f-
indreplenishing herds' V y
spring of the current year is acquired.by entering into preliminary con-
tracts on pre-determined conditions'
s a result of this, the study of the problem of plvviding the herd with
,A
replenishment stock must be preceded by a calculation and analysis of in-
and in some cases (mostly for the kolk-
formation on the. incoming offspring,
hozes), also information acquisition of replenishment stack from out-
side sources, The birth on the o offspring, in turn, is the result of the mating
f
campaign and propagation of female reproducers'
index for the mating carllpaign is the ratio (usually in
A more reliable
percentage) o the number of coverages and artificial inseminations of female
f
h overall count of female reproducers to be covered in a
reproducers, tot e
given year, as planned (the so-called planned mating contingent)' :fn a herd
of cattle, the mating contingent consists of cows (except those due for re-
jection this year), heifers and calves over 6 months old belonging to the herd
~
at the beginning of the given year, as well as those acquired from the out
side during the same year.
data on the mating. contingent is available, it is worked
Wiien no complete
In the
an a rox'mt basis in terms of the information on hand.
out on pp ~ 4
case of cattle, a mating contingent usually includes cows, heif ers)and calves
over one year old at the beginning of he year, or possibly only cows and
heifers (in cases where calves over one year old 1~ere not segregated). In
the case of pigs, the possible mating contingent takes in all sows over 9
case of sheep and goats, all the reproducing females,
months old' In the
and lambs over one year old are included. In the case of horses, this in-
udes all the mares over 3 years old at the beginning of the year.
c
a conditional one,
Such a determination of the mating contingent is only
distorted indexes, particularly, relative to fast-maturing
and can lead to
animals such as sheep and hogs. In these categories, with the rapid herd
expansion now taking place in the liberated areas, the number of reproducing
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HESTRI
For Cattle 1,600 x_100 94?x, percent
1,'00
For Pigs
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females covered during the year may be considerably higher than the number
availablea the beginning of the year.
When there is a large degree of. variation in the count of hog and sheep
reproducing females, it is appropriate to consider the mating contingent by
the average count of reproducing females for the given mating period.
The most suitable way to indicate the utilization of female reproducers
is the ratio of the count of calves, piglets, lambs,and foals to the count
of reproduction-capable females, available at the beginning of the year plus
the number acquired from the outside during the year. In the case of cattle,
it is the ratio of the count of the offspring to the number of cows, heifers,
and to the portion of calves marked for coverage in the first quarter of the
year. In the case of livestock otherthan cattle it is the ratio of the
. ~
count of offspring to the number of female reproducers in groups comparable
with these which are used in working out the indexes for the mating campaign.
When complete data is not availabJ, in this case, as before, approxi-
mate indexes for the utilization of female reproducers are computed. For
instance, in the case of a herd of cattle, the basis of computation is usually
the count of cows and heifers at the beginning of the year.
When the basis for computation is incomplete, the ratios obtained are
for computation only, but they do riot furnish detailed characteristics of
the noted phenomena. .
ExilIn the kolkhozes of 4ayonN' on 1 January 1944, the live-
stock count stood at 1,200 cows, 500 heifers, 600 sows over 9 mon'uhs old, and
980 ewes and lambs over one year old.
During 1944, 1,600 cows and heifers, 960 sows, and 1,120 ewes gave birth
to young.
The computation data for the utilization of reproducing females in this
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RESTAIc ~ e
114 percent
Results in terms of the young which are born depend upon the use made
of the reproducing females and upon their fertility. The offspring yield
is expressed by the ratio of the number of offspring born in a given year
to be count of reproducing females. This is taken as a basis for calcu-
lating the degree of utilization of the reproducing females. The index for
the offspring yield, by types of reproducing females which usually give birth
to one young (mares, cows), closely approximates the indexes for calving
and foaling
Aihdication of how much livestock is gotten from outside, (particu-
the yearling procurement plan, also the number of acquire earlings relative
to the overall number of yearlings (propagation and acquisition).
For the propagation of the herd) the production of offspring and the ac-
larly yearlings), it may be useful to take the percentage of fulfilment of
r
quisition of yearlings from outside sources are not enough. It is necessary
to raise the offspring and the acquired yearlings to an age when they enter
replenishment groups, from which the mature and producing part of the herd
is directly filled.
Thus, survival of the young becomes a decisive factor in expanding animal
husbandry. This is particularly true immediately after birth, when it takes
the greatest amount of care to keep the animals alive.
The most important negative index characterizing the quality of the work
in preserving the young, particularly, immediately after birth, is the per-
centage ratio of the number of offspring perished to the overall number of
offspring for a given period of time. For foals, calves, lambs,,and kids it
is customary to calculate the percentage ratio of offspring perished to the
overall number of offspring born during the time intervals, from the beginning
of the year (for the first month, for two months, for a quarter of year, for
4 months, etc.), and finally for the whole year.
For the mortality of offspring, obtained by reproduction within a given
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H [ST RIGOtu
tESTRUEdt
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economy or within an agglomeration of economies, plus offspring for the given
year acquired from outside sources, it is most appropriate to compute two
indexes: (a) Mortality index for offspring born within the economy unit
(percent of the number dead to the number of the newly born), and (b) The
same index relative to the total number, i.e. the offspring born within the
economy and the offspring acquired from the outside.
In addition to mortality, the livestock young may leave the particular
economy for other reasons: Compulsory deliveries to.the State, sales or
distribution to kolkhoz members, mutual-aid transfer to kolkhozes that suffered
under enemy occupation, transfers to the defense fund, sales to State pro-
cerement agents and sales on the kolkhoz market, also on account of inter
ruptions in the economy, etc. By a decision of the Central Committee of the
VKP (b) and the Council of Peoples' Cromndssars USSR, 13 April 1943 (t1On
measures for increasing the number of livestock in kolkhozes and sovkhozes,
and on increasing their productivity),the kolkhozes were forbidden "for the
duration of the war to slaughter and sell young cattle less than one year
old, with the exception of obvious rejects, and only after the actual rejection
was made by veterinary zoo-technical personnel and with the approval of the
Eayo n
~'bre interesting and actually more appropriately indicative, as compared
with indexes for the mortality of the offspring as well as losses through Other
causes, are the direct data on the numbers and percentages of the offspring that
survive. Such data for a group of economies may be cbtained by special account-
Ling, special examination, or by herd turnover reports (to be discussed below).
When these sources are not available, the index for the rate of preservation
of the young may be computed from the available periodical reports.
In accordance with such data (for a kolkhoz or a group of economies), the
number of newly born animals for a part of the year or for the entire year is
known. Also, the number is known of young animals up to the age of one year,
that were purchased on the outside, and the number of these at the end of the
year. Then, the survival rate of offspring for a given period will.be the
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RESTHitaitu
number of those which live, divided by the overall number of offspring (born
within arx purchased from without).
were born 5,430 calves. During the same period, 720 calves were acquired
from the outside. By l January 1944, the cattle herd contained 5,930 year-
. w.
lings up to one year old. If all the young animals (those born within and
those acquired from the outside) had survived, there would have been avail-
able by the end of the year 5,43O3- 720+- 6,150 calves. Thus, the index for
the rate of survival for calves in this example will be
Exam le In the kolkhozes of some 'rayon'-4 during 1943, there
The raised young livestock enter into the category of replenishment stock-
reaching a certain age which varies with different types of livestock.
As underscored above, expansion of the herd is made possible only wthen the
count of replenishment stock is in excess of the count of rejections.
The calculations for propagation of the herd can best be illustrated by
a study of cattle herd.
The productive use of a cow runs for a period of a certain number of
years, depending upon her breed, her individual characteristics, and the care
she receives. On the average, this period fluctuates between 10 and 12 years,
i.e. until the cow reaches the age 'of 14.
Thus, it is necessary to reject yearly 1/12, or somewhat over 8 percent,
of the cows. In addition, a certain number of cows is lost to the herd during
the year through sickness or other causes (1 percent). In this case, to
keep the herd at a constant level, it is necessary that it have from 9 to 10
percent heifers and calves, which will be covered Lmate7 during the year.
VNhen it is desirable to increase the size of the herd, it becomes necessary
to have a greater proportion of young animals/than is required for keeping
the herd at a constant level. The part of young livestock, in excess of the
number needed for the contemplated herd expansion, is called the ''reserve
replenishment stock~I. This serves as the source of meat; and it is necessary
always to be on guard against premature slaughter from this group.
fiCIRUait:E ?- .
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RESTRICTED
In calculating the ratios between the available count of replenishment
stock and the available count of mature livestock, using census and accounting
data (for example, the number of heifers and calves over one year old per each.
100 cows), the actual possibilities for reproduction of the herd are under-
stood.
Below is an example showing how to calculate the replenishment stock
for a herd of cattle.
ISI ~Ii i N 1' STUCK PROVISION FOR ~l'HE CATTLE HELD o?F KULKHOZES AND KGLKHO
L
N
_
REP
E
calves over Heifers
l Year old And Calves
360 3.6 4.4
950 1,816 15.2 16.7
It is obvious that ^ayon t'A~I is ntot sufficiently provided with re-
plenishment stock, *hilerayona~'Btt, on the contrary, is fully provided far
an expanded reproduction of the herd. By taking into consideration the number
of calves up to one year old, it becomes possible to judge not only the immedi-
ate, but the more distant prospects for propagation of the herd.
Similar calculations can be made regarding horses. It must be remembered,
however, tha the useful life of a horse (normally up to 17-18 years) is more
than that of a cow.
It is understood that such computations are applicable only to larger
economy units, as, for instance, all koikhozes of a given rayon4. For
individual kolkhozes, in which, for instance, the livestock farm has been
recently organized, and the entire herd consists of young cows, the above
computations are not applicable, since no rejections are expected for several
years.
In addition to replenishment stock, the herd requires for it s repduction
the availability of an appropriate number of mature male reproducers. A short-
age in fully matured males and their substitution by partially matured ones
RESTRICTED
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QUANTITY
Calves Over
-_Year Old Total Heifers
PER EACH 100 COVES
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tESifliCTEO
leads to the sterility of the female reproducers, which, in turn, not only
decreases the birthrate of the offspring, but reduces the milk production
as well (due to the fact that sterile cows give less milk). The normal ratio
between the number of reproducing males and the number of reproducing females
depends upon whether the mating takes place in the common herd (males and
females grazing together), or the males are kept separately, and the mating
is effected under the observation of an attendant (so-called supervised
mating).
The index of male reproducers is the number of female reproducers (cows
and heifers in cattle: herds, female sheep, and ewes over one year old in sheep
herds) per one mature male reproducer. The adequacy of the number of male
reproducers is judged by comparing the indexes obtained with the normal ratios
between the numbers of male and female reproducers.
The Central 'Cornittee of the VKP (b) and the Council of People's Con-
missars USSR in their decision of 13 April. 1943, "On measures to be taken
.
to increase the count of livestock and its productivityU made the following
obligatory for the kolkhoz managements.
In order to do away with livestock sterility, animal farms are to be pro-
vided with one bull per 30-40 cows, one boar per 10-12 sows, and one ram per
20-30 female sheep.
::n analyzing the indexes for providing the kolkhoz herd with male re-
producers, the fact must be taken into accountTthat these males cover not only
the ferriale reproducers of the general herd, but also those belonging to the
personal herd ofkolkhoz member.
h) 'aie Conceptof Herd Turnover
The livestoc1 population in individual agricultural enterprizes is sub-
ject to fluctuations, by the overall count, as well as by the type of live-
stock, and particularly by age groups. These fluctuations are continuous,
practically from day to day. Some of the variations are in the nature of an
increase in the livestock count (offspring, acquisition from the outside
, etc.;
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lIES TRIG TED
also, young maturing into higher age groups)) decrease in the livestock
count, overall or by age groups, such as deliveries to the State, sales, un-.
avoidable slaughter, special slaughter for internal needs, passing into a
higher age group, straying, plague casualties, sickness~or accident
Linking-up the items of increase and decrease in the livestock count
for a given period of time, i.e?1preparation of the ;livestock count balance
control of the debit and credit items, the study of herd propagation, and
determination of the volume of productionall this is embodied in a distinct
statistical operation, known as the 'sherd turnover".
The herd turnover for a given period is determined by the following
basic requirementsa
(1) The livestock count at the beginning of the period;
(2) Incoming livestock for the period (such as newly born offspring,
purchases, growing out of younger age groups, etc.);
(3) Outgoing livestock for the period (such as deliveries to the State,
slaughter, plague, passing into older age groups, etc.);
(4) The livestock count at the end of the period.
These divisions of the herd turnover have to be in mutual balance. For
example, if to the livestock count available at the beginning of the period
is added the count for all the incoming livestock for the period, the result
must equal the sum of all the outgoing cattle for the period and the avail-
able count for the end of the period.
If, for instance, at the beginning of the year, the count of cattle is
given as 200, the incoming count from all s urces during the year 100,
the outgoing count due to all causes 80, and the available count at the end
of the year 22Y then the herd turnover was constructed correctly, since:
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200 + 100 04 220
Figures for the herd turnover by separate economies for a period passed
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a ESTRICIEO
can be arrived at on the basis of accountable data (offspring count,
purchase count, slaughter count, losses due to plague, etc.).
In addition, the turnover for planned herds is constructed for a period
depending upon the animal husband:? assignments of a particular kolkhoz, or
of all of them collectively within the limits of a territorial unit (a
N~,r
Q' y
rayon`or an 1(Ob1astt~ ) ?
In studying the herd turnover, a series of essential indexes can be
computed. Computation methods are shown for a sample herd turnover in one
of the SOVkhOZCS in the Moscow troblast'.
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E1ESTiCTED
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LIESTRIcTED
Unavoidable slaughter is the slaughter?of animals that are sick,
weak, ugly, or those that sustained serious injuries and have thereby be-
come worthless as productive units. then the unavoidably slaughtered ani-
mal does not pass the health inspection for meat, it is set aside as
"perished".
In all columns of the herd turnover sheet, the items "incoming" and
Poutgoing" must balance. Thus, the available count for the beginning of the
year (item 1) plus the total incoming count (item 6) must equal the total
outgoing count (item 18) plus the count for what animals remain at the end
of the year (item 19).
It should be noted that the figures for offspring count are given not
by age, but by year of birth. Therefore, the above turnover sheet reflects
in its items "passed into other groups' and "transferred from other group&t,
merely the movement from the yearling group into other productive groups (such
as bull-reproducers, cows, heifers), or heifers which become cows. There is
also reflected the transfer to grazing of all age groups. Thus, under the
items ltcalves born in 193911 and "bullocks born in 1939, there are no figures.
Out of the 76 calves born in 1938, there were already 7 head (obviously, born
in the beginning of 1938) that passed on into the group of heifers. Out of
the number of calves born in 1937, by far the greater part of them (27 out
of 32) available at the beginning of the year passed on into the group of
heifers. Accordingly, on the line for heifers under the item "transferred
from other groups", we find 7t27'34 head. On the same line for heifers,
under the ltoutgoing11 item ''passed into other groups,', we find 33 head which
are listed on the ttinconung" side, on the line for cows, under the item
"transferred from other groups". Since on 1 January 1939 the Sovkhoz had
a total of 25 heifers, and during the year one heifer was ."unavoidably''
slaughtered, it is obvious; that 33 - (25 - l)t 9 head, entered into the
count of 33 head which at the beginning of the year were counted under the
item ''calves''. These were covered (or mated) during the first months of the
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year, and. brought forth offspring LcalveJ within the same year. From
~
out of the count of cows, 4 head were transferred to grazing.
When the herd turnover sheet is properly constructed, the cattle counts
"cattle to tals~~ ,under the items Itpassed into other groups It and
on the line
tttransferred from other groupstt have to tally, as can be seen from the above
example (72 and 72).
On the basis of the herd turnover the following basic indexes may be
completed, which describe the qaalitative aspects of animal husbandry, essential
for any kind of accountings
1) Yield of calves to the number of cows;
tIESTRICTELJ
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Percentage of cows rejected;
herd reprocu~ ion. indexes;
Percentage of slaughter for internal consumption;
cr
Percentage loss through death and plague.
If the turnover sheet gives (as in this example) figures on the v~eight
of livestock delivered to the State and also of that slaughtered within the
economy, it becomes possible
livestock delivered, and the
slaughtered.
The yield of calves
per 100 cows and heifers
to compute the average live-weight per head of
average slaughter-weight per head of livestock
as of the
of use, however, only for purposes
is usually calculated
beginning of the year. It is an indicator
of computation. When in addition to it,
the overall figures for the available cows and heifers for the beginning of
the year are known, the yield of calves can be computed.
In the example ~ of calves per 100 cows and heifers
on a p g e~'. the yield
~
for the beginning of the year, is coinputed as follows:
The percentage of cows rejected is a figure needed for various kinds of
calculations, for building up the planried herd turnover. Cows are rejected
on account of over-age and non-productivity. Rejections are made almost ex
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elusively from the count of cows, available at the beginning of the year.
Expressed in percentage, this would be
17 4' 4 f-1) x 100.2 200
170
170 12.9 percent
To determine the reproduction indexes for the herd, it is necessary
to calculate the provision of the herd with replenishment offspring and
reproducers. In the given example supplying the herd with replenishment
offspring at the end of the year is s}:~own as follows:
Heifers per 100 cows
25 x 100
13.3
Calves born in 1938
per 100 cows 50 x 100 27.8
180
In the sovkhoz) expanded propagation of the herd is provided for, as
confirmed by the internal growth in the number of cows during 1939?
The sovkhoz is also provided with an adequate nu1nber of reproducers:
For each reproducing bull at the end of the year there were available 41
cows and heifers.
The index for the slaughter of livestock /excepting unavoidable
slaughter) relating to the yearling group born before the current year (the
group being fluid), is usually calculated on the basis of available data on
the yearling count at the beginning of the year. It would be more appropriate,
however, to compute this index with relation to the count of yearlings t'in
the turnovers' (the available count at the beginning of the year plus the
count of all yearling arrivals during the year).
Both indexes can be computed on the basis of the turnover chart given.
The percentage of slaughter of bullocks born in 1938 within the economy
and available at the beginning of the year is:
7: percent
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Inasmuch as there was no addition from outside the herd of bullocks
born in 1938, in this instance the index corresponds with the slaughter in-
dex relative to the number of bullocks in circulation. The first of these
is a computation index only.
For calves born during the current year, the percentage of slaughter is
calculated relative to the part of the livestock, from which slaughtering
may be done during the year, i.e. the number of calves born during the parti-
cular year within the CQonomy plus arrivals from the outside. In this
case this index for all calves born in 1939, is:
1 x 100
90 P- 81
2.9 percent
Then adequate data is available for a given type of animal husbandry,
the above index is calculated not only for all the calves born during the
year, but is broken up into a;. separate index for calves, and an index for
bullocks;
Slaughter percent of calves
born in 1939
Slaughter percent of bullocks
born in 1939
1.2 percent
The mortality indexes for maa`ture livestock. (a count which remains most
stable throughout the year), is calculated with relation to the average
yearly count for yearlings over one year old -with relation to the count
of those in circulation. When this is not possible, then in order to get
an indication of the count at the beginning of the year, for the young born
during the year, this is expressed relative to the number of calves born
and bred in the economy plus the number received from outside.
Let us calculate the mortality indexes from our example;
Percentage of cow mortality l x 100 100
,.0.6 percent
R
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group of reproducing bulls. 'rurning to he latter, it is verified/ that
since at the beginning of the year there were
available 4 reproducing bulls, there were no arrivals from the outside,
and at the end of the year the count stood at 5.
The count of calves born in 1938 stood at the beginning of the year at
~.
r16, there were 2 arrivals from the outside, the outgoing count plus mortality
stood at 21. There should have remained in the group 76t2 - 2l ' 57 head.
Actually, remaining count stood at 50, which means that 7 head passed
,
the current year into an older age group. 3y the same sort of calcu--
during
lation it is established that from the group of calves born in 1937, 27 head
passed into older age groups. The total count of calves passed into older.
age groups stood at 27+734 head. At first they 'could only pass into the group Of heifers. adding to the available count of heifers at the
j'q
(25 fi3~~
beginning of the year the count of heifers is
obtained for the year's turnover. wring the year one heifer was 11.navoid
ably slaughtered" , which should have left the count in this group at the end
those animals which have passed into other groups) at 58
of the year (except
head. Actually, there were left only 25 heifers, from which the conclusion
is drawn, that 58 -- 25 :- 33 heifers which became cows. Adding this count to
the available count of cows on 1 January of the year, under review, a corr>
on the line of the table marked cows ~t . Thus,
plate balance is obtained
the conclusion can be made that the herd turnover was properly developed.
In certain cases such detailed information on herd turnover, as given
the above table, is not available Instead, there is overall data on the
in
available livestock count for the beginning and the end of the year (or parts
of the year, such as quarters, months), and on the count of the offspring born
within the economy and the livestock obtained from outside sources during the
current year. An example was given for such data applied to the calculation
of indexes for preserving th~.~ yearling group born in the current year. Ana-
logmusly, the indexes for the preservation of the livestock count during
the year for the entire herd can be determined.
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Exam 1e: In all the kolkhozes of a given rayon on 1 January 1943,
the available count of cattle stood at 7,268 head. The number of calves
born during the year within the kolkhozes was 3,940. The number of cattle
purchased from outside sources in 1943 (from kolkhoz members, sovkhozes,
workers and employes, private peasants) was 1,752? If the full count of
hi~
tlie cattle were r?airita~.ned, the kolkhozes ofts rayon would 1 January
1944 have a cattle court of 7,268+~940fl,75212,960 head (the count in
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the turnover). Actually, this count stood at 11,353 head. the outgoing
count for the year was 12,960 - 11, 353 1, 60'7 head, which is 12.4 percent
of the count in the turnover. Thus, the index for the preservation of the
herd is expressed as (100 - 12.4)' 87.6 percent.
Indexes for the actual rejection of cows and adult horses can be arrived
at with a simplified computation.
Lxam le: On 1 January 1943 all the ko Lkhozes of a rayon counted 2,504
cows and 549 heifers, which during the year became cows. Outside purchases
accounted for 30 cows. Presupposing full preservation, the count for cows
at the end of 1943 wrou1d stand at 2, .504 X549+30 =3,083 head, Actually, the
count stood at 2,840. The difference (3,083 - 2,840S243 head) accounts
for rejections and mortality.
Inasmuch as rejections are made from the number of cows available at
the beginning of the year (without counting the mortality figures, which are
insignificant in this case) the percentage of rejections is determined relative
to the count of cows at the beginning of the year, i.e.,
243 x 100
-- --' 9.7 percent
2,504
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If the offspring yield and the count of female reproducers for the
beginning of the year are known, it is possible to ccmpute the yield per-
tentage without considering the complete herd turnover.
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Basic Indexes of Animal Husbandry Produon
a) Basic T es of 1 nimal Husbandry Production
For a correct understanding of what is meant by the volume and contents
of animal husbandry output, it is necessary to realize the dual significane
of livestock in the agricultural economy.
Based on this premise, animal husbandry output as a branch of agricultural
productionjis composed of two basic parts.
(1) Non-processed products, obtaining which is not contingent upon the
slaughter of cattle and poultry, and which, in their primary form or after
processing, are routed for consumption br the populace or for manufacturing
purposes. Such products are milk, wool, down, hair, eggs, comb honey and
(2) Output expressed in terms of offspring, increment in the live
weight of animals (in, the raising of yearlings as well as in the increase
in the live weight of adult animals), and weight added as a result of
fattening.
The products of slaughter (meat, animal fats, hides, etc.) are relegated
to the industrial rather than to agricultural output, particularly since the
tendency is to slaughter and then process the meat outside the kolkhozes and
sovkhozes, in a special branch of the food industry.
In this case, the assignment for agricultural statistics is to account
for the numbers of livestock raised and fattened for slaughter, as well as
for the products, which go into meat processing.
The inclusion of meat production into overall animal husbandry output
does not correspond to the dual significance of livestock in an agricultural
economy, as noted above.
Should the products of livestock slaughter (meat, hides, etc.) be..in-
eluded in the agricultural output, it will result in a distorted picture for
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the anirnal husbandry output in the years of,increased livestock slaughter,
when the livestock count will be at its lowest, and the output, in terms
of the slaughter products, will be at its highest, at the expense of a de-
crease in capital assets. By the same token, during the years of upswing,
when the numbers of livestock are on the increase, the output would show
decrease if only the products of livestock slaughter were reviewed, with-.
out including all the other c~mponen-ts ?
This method would create a contradiction in the records for animal
husbandry output, inasmuch as a positive index for the increase in output
would be the result of a negative index for the decrease in capital assets
(livestock) and vice versa.
In order to avoid this, all the following items are relegated to ani-
mal husbandr T output: (1) the count of the offspring; (2) yearly increment
in the live weight as a result o: the increased weight of adult animals, the
raising of yearlings, grazing, and fattening; (3) milk; (4) wool, down, and
hair; (5) poultry products (eggs), bee-keeping products (honey); (6) manure.
The indexes for livestock productivity, such as the milk yield per
head, wool sheared per sheep, the live weight, etc., are of great importance
in the qualitative rating of animal husbandry enterprises conducted by
sovkhozes, kolkhozes and koli hoz members, since they reflect he accomplish-
ments in improving the breed, in feeding; aintenance and housing of livestock.
b Metr.~ods for Detezmi.nin the Yield of Anama]. Husbandry Products
The general yield of products of animai husbandry may be determined by
economic categories within one or another territorial breakdown, just as the
general crop yield in. plant cultivation. This may be determined in two ways
-, directly and by computation.
Using the direct method, the general annual yield of a certain product
(for example, milk) Ls extracted from the annual report of an economy (for
example, a kolkhor~)? Summing up these individual yields within the limits
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If, for instance, in January there were 2,213 forage caw-days and 1,484
milking cow-days, the productivitY index for the cow herd for January equals
percents During the mass estabion of cows, this index
1 44x .
2,213
varies abruptly for sport time periods, being the highest during the summer
and the lowest by the end of he fall and the beginning of winter.
The indexes for milk productivity are the average milk yield per one
forage cow and per one milking cow.
The last of these two indexes determines the productivity level of the
cow herd while the first one gives a generalized concept of the production
,
activities of economies, since it is a result of the milk productivity of
cows and of the degree to which they are used to produce milk. It is easier
to determine the average milk yield per forage cow., This simpler method
usually is applied in all calculations with mass data, particularly, in view
of the factthat the computation of such yield indexes simplifies calcu-
lating overall milk production.
The average milk yield of a forage cow for the calendar year, or for
t
any other time period, is the general amount of milk obtained during the period
for a particular economy, or an agglomeration of economies (for a rayDn,
oblast territory, etc.) divided by the average nirlber of forage caws for the
,
given ecoromy, or agglomeration of economies, for the same period of time.
The general milk yield is determined on the basis of initial reports within
the economy ark established accounting procedure. To obtain a correct index
for the average milk yield, it is necessary to include as part of overall
milk production all the milk actually obtained. This calls for including milk
consumed by calves and piglets, milk lost for various reasons, milk spoiled
i.n storage, milk supplied to anyone whatsoever, etc.
method for determining the average cow count for given periods of
The
time was discussed above. 1Nhen the average milk yield per one forage cow
is learned, let us say, an the basis of a selective study of cow herds in
kolkhozes and data is also available as to the general number of cows in all
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Cow after nine calving
. after cne calving is 29 percent below that
Thus, the rru.lk yield of a cow a
? ~. milk yield of a cow after two calvings is
of a cow after six calvn.ng~ ? The ter six calvings, and so on. Upon reaching
l6 percent below tl.i~ o f a c ow of
milk productivity of a cow is practically the
the age of nine calvings, the
same as that of a cow after the first calving ?
se results are averages ? In idividl Cases, It must be noted 7 3n), or in other words if there is an increase of reserves, the
(3n - 3k) is a negative value, and consequently the increase in the reserve
is to be extracted from the value of gross output. In the reverse case, i.e.,
if reserves at the end of the year are smaller than those at the beginning
There is a decrease in reserves, the (3n-3k) is a positive value,
(31t < 3n)
and consequently y the decrease in reserves is to by added to the value of gross
output.
ratio of commodity output should be computed separately
Indexes showing
by individual categories of the economy.
rk1 yy w wy pd~ ~p r 1
'. , Lu:u
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Sources of l ata on Agricul tonal ' utPut
f'he sources of data on agricultural output are the annual. s taternents
of sovkhozes arid koikhozes;
In these yearly reports there is the follov;ink; data in annual sovkhoz
statements; actual exper:ditures on plant, cultivation and animal husbandry
production costs (i.e., production volume expressed in cost); nonwcornplete
plant cultivation output (ide., expenditures made for crops for future years);
on the realization of output of plant cultivation and of animal husbardry?
It should be emphsized that out of the entire utilization of output as
presented ire charts of bhe annual stabrnent er:Ltitled: Stater Tlenb of but
r2
I?
1?.ea1ization and utilization acrd ()utput itealizati~z~ ides lts, there may be
included as corrmrodity output amounts delivered to the state and atr~ounts shown
under "other realizationtt . In no case should amounts of produced goods con-
sunned as seeds and fodder (shown jn the _t'irst of he above mentioned charts)
be considered as parts of commodity output.
Data contained in annual k.olkhoz . statements include the v~lorth of the
gross harvest and of all products of plant cultivation and animal husbandry
gross outputs (for each group t; their individual types) at State procurement
prices. There also are data on monetary profits realized by kolkhozes through
State deliveries, sales ore the koikhoz markets and all other sales of crop
and a:.imal husbandry products. In the sarrre statements are entered deliveries
and sales of products out of blie fiscal year output, reserves from the past
year's outpub, as v~ell as the estirrra.ted ,profit to be gained on goods earmarked
for sale during the following year, as evaluated at the general meeting of the
kolkhoz members. And finally, there are in the annual kolkhoz statentents, de-
tailed data of crop arid animal husbandry produce distribution, on the base
of which we rna:r determine the annual commodity output with a breakdown of
individual produc-ts (actually, only in terms of natural producti.orr units).
_f8G_w
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f or sovkhozes, kolkho zes, kolkhoz household econonu es and f or private in-
d?viduaI f'arraers, the gross output is initially computed in units of actual
production and eve7.rtualiy evaluated and expressed in rnorletarir terms on the
r
basis of available price data (in 19262'7 base-year prices and in prices
In the process of computing b a unified method the overall totals
a .ricultura:l output (prior to compilation of annual statements)
of g gross ~
The concept of kolk1ioz members' household gross and co~iimodity out-
put may be obtained through a sample analysis oi" their annual statements.
On the basis of material presented in Chapter VI, the fol iov~in?, pro-
blem 15 to be solved: Sovihozes A and E have achieved grain output indicated
c-\.,.,......_.~....
in example &? p, &g. _,.. 2, Chapter IV (Statisl4cs n1 - Capacit) LSlrauld
read: Chapter II7
In addition to thLS, the same sovkhozes had obtained the follovling
output (sovihoz A in 1943, and sovkhoz B in 1940 and 1943):
By SovkhozA
B ovkhoz
ducts
P
4
:2i lg
ro
_
,
Potatoes
1,800
3,500
5,100
Vegetables
900
1,600
2,400
Fodder Foot-Plants
270
560
750
Hay From Sown Grasses
7,500
6,800
8,000
I-lay oi' ~yild Grass
420
500
540
V~Inte r- Crop Straw
4, 8 60
3,460
4,156
Sunnier-Crop Straw
3,5Y10
2,656
2,460
Milk
3,871
14,914
15,200
Prices ~n Rub1es Per
In addition to Bilk, the following output of animal husbandry products
is received (in monetary terms expressed in base-year units of price);
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OU `f'P U'fI Tip h 113L1i;S ll~~ B ~-YEAR
PR~CCES
BvSo_vkho~A
jtr SOVkhOZ,
l,~pe Uf i~u~tt
Offspring and Weight Increase
194
194 ~~
of Cattle
453,400
1, 3 X0,1-QUO 1,695,/400
Cattle Jiarijie
20gs000
416,000 520,000
Hog Offspring and 'eight Increase
159,800
2,203,400 2,755, 000
J:io g 1i1anure
15,600
195,000 221,000
Horse Offspring
92,000
40,000 45,000
Horse l'ianu.r'e
(JUTFiJT REALIZED
SOLD
Cattle Ofr'sprin
Sovkho z, ~,
Sovkho z~?~,..
1
l~0 ---
62,400 31,200 32,500
.
350
~~~ SuV~a1~0~ES
1,00
2,900
1,150
1,960
10,500
12,100
120,000 2x10, 000 320,000
Hog Offspring and Fattened Hags Sold 15,000 9 60, 000 1,250,000
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In Centner s Realized: Grain
(See Lxa,nnle Given in Chapter
Potatoes
Prices):
Vegetables
50
Milk
In Monetary Amounts 'Realized
(In xZubles in 'l'ertTlu of Base--Year
2,000
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ESTCTfl:
Based on the above data (and grain crop data from the example in
Chapter the following are to be solved:
1. Calculate the relative weights (in percent) showing the composition
of gross and commodity production of sovkhozes A and B (for individual crops
and for separate groupings of cattle
2. Ysor out the indexes showing the ratio of commodity output for in-
dividual crops, and for overaJ.l plant cultivation output; for each group
oz ar.ima:t husbandry, for overall animal husbandry output; and for agri-
cultural output as a whole .
3. Based on results fron iterrls 1 and 2, determine the difference in
agricultural production policy at sovkhozes, A and B.
4.
Derive indexes shOVaing changes in output at sovkhoz B, giving
separate indexes for eachh group of Products, and group indexes for plant
cultivation, for each group of animal husbandry, and for entire animal hus-
bandry as a w1!ole; also the overall index for all branches of agricultural
output.
Test Questions
1. that measures o1' agricu.ltural output are used in agricultural
statistics`?
2. U'ihat is the concept of tthe gross agricultural output and what
should be included in the gorss o rtput of plant cultivation and animal husbandry?
3 , Vhat is the cance Jt of commodity putput, its importance in agri-
culture, and what enters into it?
4. Ythat is the net agricultural output, and how is it calculated?
5. ;Ybat types oil prices are used for the monetary evaluation of agrL-
cultural output?
6. What is the way to determine the agricultural comtnodity output indexes?
r
~
j tea I~a
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containing n~ornlat1or1 on agricultural
~, 'ruhat are the sUarces
output exa~ressed in units of production and in monetary terms;?
((~~ S yy z 44
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y
=}Y
y~ 4
Stu: a
C
CHAPTER VT
STATISTICS OF LABOR AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IN AGRICULTURE
1. Working Level Accounting of Labor in Sovkhozes and MTS
labor productivity. The study of these above problems is based upon
working, competition, Stakhanov movement in agriculture, (6) indexes of
(4) wages - general wage fund and wages by professions; (5) shock
position and turnover; (3) utilization of work--time, reporting to work;
the following basic problems: (1) manpower count; (2) manpower com-
Statistics and accounting of labor in sovkhozes and MTS deal with
data of working level accounting in the enterprise, which accounting is
indispensable for a proper administration of agricultural enterprises
and the basis of accounting and labor statistics in our national economy.
Let us see how labor accounting is done in sovkhozes.
The basic document in accounting for the number of employees in
sovkhozes is the personnel card, which is made out by the personnel sec-
In addition to this personnel cards make it possible to explain
for any particular time.
manpower strength (by various groups, professions and other break-downs)
The personnel card gives all information pertaining to sovkhoz
respect to changed duties and service, use of accrued leave, etc.
operator, dairy-maid, etc.) The card contains also information with
5?011 (for laborers, for instance: tractor operator, chauffeur, combine
party affiliation and other general data, also labor category and profes-
Lion, on each laborer and office employee when they start work. The
personnel card gives the employee's full n.ame, marital and family status,
fluctuations and turnover of manpower for the desired period of time
(day, ten days, month quarter, year) by adding up the number of workers
at the beginning of a particular period, those who have started work and
i ~ ,r {
'tT'
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those who have left during this period, also those present at the end
of the period.
On the base of above data may be computed the manpower turnover
index. When computing this index, usually there are taken into account
only those who left and must be replaced, not counting of course, per-
sonnel who left on account of natural causes (death, incapacitation, etc.)
In order to determine the number of needed replacements, usually
the lower turnover number is taken (either the number of new employees or
the number who left, whichever is lower).
Example: There were hired 10 workers during one month. Eight
workers left. Replacement was needed for 8. Two additional workers
were hired due to production expansion. In case 8 workers were hired
during one month and 10 released, it means that the above 8 were hired
as replacement and the remaining two were released due to reduction of
production.
The manpower turnover index for a certain time period is always
expressed in a ratio.. (percentage)of number of departed workers to be
replaced (or, in other words, number of replacements hired to take
the place of transferred workers) to the average manpower strength
through the same period.
The average listed number of workers for a particular period of
time is equal to the total of the number of workers for each day of the
period (resdays and holidays including) divided by the number of calen-
dar days over this period.
The8bove descrived method of calculation of workers replacements,
and consequently the manpower turnover index is not quite an exact one.
In order to determine a more exact manpower turnover index, rather com-
plicated methods must be applied.
A snore precise manpower turnover index would be obtained if there
would be determined the percentage ratio of workers left without permis-
sion and fared from the sovkhoz for infringements of labor discipline
over a p tcu x? d of time, to the average manpower strength
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;3tSi ~aIGICU
through the same period.
Work-time accounting in sovkhozes is done separately for laborers
and for sovkhoz employees. A so-called "attendance sheet" is kept for
employees, where the daily attendance for those working on the basis of
an undetermined work-day is merely indicated when the workers show up
on the job, whereas for those with standard work-day (determined number
of work hours) every day an entry is made of the number of regular and
overtime hours spent on the job.
The basic document for work-time accounting for laborers con-
tains information as to work attendance, number of hours actually worked,
time wasted, amount and quantity of performed work or output, and wanes
earned. Such basic document is called "the account sheet." It varies,
however, and varies in form depend,ing upon the type of work. It is
obvious that for accounting for the work of a combine operator, differ-
ent indexes are needed, than for instance, for the work.of milkmaids.
A very important item in accounting, is accounting for absentee-
ism and its reasons (attending to State and social obligations, vacation
time, authorized absence, or loafing) Data on absenteeism and its
reasons are forwarded daily by sovkhoz's sections to the administrative
sovkhoz office where this information is recorded.
Approaching the wage accounting problem, it should be mentioned
that in sovkhozes (as we1.1 as in any other enterprises and establishments)
there are two types of wages: by time and by piece-work. Wages based
on time are computed from time actually worked. In addition to the usual
time wages, moreover, additional pay is earned for working over and above
the usual work day (that is, for laborers whose work performance is com-
puted on the bases of the normal work day).
Piece-work may be either direct or progressive. Direct pay means
that each unit of output is paid at the same rate as the proceeding one.
Progressive piecework is contributing to a great increase in the produc-
tivity of labor. With this system, for every piece turned out above the
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 daily quota of every type. of work, and grouping of tasks according to
ganization of piece-wage work in a kolkhoz requires a pre established
work done there is performed on the basis of piece-work. An adequate or-
In compliance with provisions of the charter of agricultural ttartels,"
not only in every work brigade, but even in every squad.
with the kolkhoz. For this purpose the labor accounting is to be done
and accordingly show up those who in fact have severed their connections
kolkhoz members take part in fulfillment of the kolkhoz production plan,
of data given by aocounting, it can be established to what extent the
of participation of each kolkhoz member in kolkhoz output. On the basis
kolkhoz discipline has been violated and for determining the extent
for correct organization of piece-rate work, to uncover cases where
production plan. The above accounting should provide necessary data
in a way to permit a close supervision of fulfillment of kolkhoze's
The organization of labor accounting in kolkhozes is to be done
month.
2. Initial Labor Accounting in Kolkhozes
and employees payroll. Payrolls are prepared and wages paid twice each
The data contained in pay cards are used for preparing the workers
counting sheets.
data of performed work are daily entered onto these pay cards from ao-
wage computation purposes there are pay cards for each worker. The
In order to keep track of earned wages of sovkhoz workers and for
other laborers involved in threshing.
drivers and combine operators in sovkhozes and ACTS, also machinists and
ressive piece-work pay system is in the payment of work done by tractor
g
used lubricants when operating tractors, etc. An example of the prow
quality of work, for economy in liquid fuel consumption, for salvaging
ditional pay is earned. Apart from this, bonuses are granted for high
established quota (for the day or for the entire period of work) ad-'
,.. ask ~ ~ hN' C
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ESTIUCTED
their importance, complexity and demands upon skilled manpower. For
each work group there is to be fixed a daily quota in terms of work-
days, as well as an appropriate equivalent in terms of workdays for
each basic unit of performed work.
In determining the work quotas there should be taken in considera-
tion existing local conditions and characteristics, previous work experi-
ence sand achievements of leading kolkhoz members. The quotas are pre-
pared by the "artels" administration subject to approval by kolkhoz
general membership meetings.
According to what was said above, it is evident that the workday
unit is not to be confused with man-days. The workday is a basic quali-
tative and quantitative unit of labor, which determines the share of
kolkhoz members in the distribution of kolkhoz income. At the same
time a workday in a kolkhoz is the basic unit for work-accounting pur-
poses.
For work accounting purposes each kolkhoz has to prescribe the
basic work units expressed in terms of workdays, for each type of work.
When various jobs to be done in a kolkhoz are grouped, and the
daily work-quotas are determined for each group, and expressed in terms
of workdays, then it is not difficult to compute an equivalent in work-
days for a unit of each kind of work.
Illustrating example; A particular type of work is classified
as paying 1.75 workdays per day of normal work. If, let us assume, the
daily quota for one workday is 0.8 of one hectare, the completion of
each unit of w rk (each hectare will be equal to 1.75 ; 0.8 2.19
workday's.
Having at hand such calculations, the brigade leader should not
have any difficulty in determining the number of workdays to be credited
to individual kolkhoz members for the actual number of completed work
units.
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An adequate work organization in a kolkhoz, and improvement of work
discipline depend very much upon the work performed by production bri-
gades and pe rmanen.t squads. A mass introduction of these working units
was indicated as a necessity at the XVIII Party Congress VKP (b).
The organization of production brigades and squads (type of
brigades field cultivating, vegetable planting, hot-house planting,
orchard, animal husbandry) may be indicated through the use of the fol-
lowing indexes; number of brigades in a kolkhoz; percentage of kolkhozes
with two or more brigades; the average number of kolkhoz members (male
and female) over 16 years, and the number of adolescents in a brigade;
the ercentage of kolkhozes which work with permanent squads; percentage
of brigades which use permanent squads; the average number of squads in
a brigade; the average number of adult kolkhoz workers in a squad; the
average a`c'erage of sowing area assigned to a squad; average harvesting
of various crops by squads; percent of brigades and squads with pay
bonuses; the average pay bonus for high crop yield in various cultures,
per squad. In addition to this the outstanding brigades and squads are
to be given individual efficiency ratings (determined upon the average
crop yield, upon granted pay bonuses per workday and also upon other
bonuse s~-q)j
In as far as in the agricultural artel, at the present time the
basic form of kolkhoz organization, in the best way correlates the in-
dividual interests of kolkhoz members with the social interests of
kolkhoz itself, and since the basic objective of the artel is to develop
its socialized economy, therefore very great importance is attached to
the problems of relationship between the personal subsidiary enterprise
of kolkhoz members and the socialized economy of the kolkhoz, the prob-
lems of kolkhoz's discipline, and degree of participation of kolkhoz
members in work done within the socialized economy of the kolkhoz The
't r
,;w
y
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sent by kolkhoz members in work at a kolkhoz
number of days actually p
and number of earned workdays is a very important index of the partici-
tubers in the communal kolkhoz activity. It is an
pation of kolkhoz me
e at the same time. The number of actual
index of kolkhoz d~.sclpl. ~
days spent in work is to be correctly accounted for in order to be able
ed for averfulfilment of the production plan.
to determine bonuses earn
accounting and study of the above problems group
For a proper
The selection of intervals for grouping kolkhoz mom-
charts must be made. ~ hould corre-
to the munber of days worked on the kolkhoz, s
spond according
which in terms of the order on additional
ond with that ma.nlmum period :
khoz members, establishes rights in the receipt
pay for the work of kol
for overfulf filling the plan. The grouping
of full-pay and of half-pay
es for various types of
is to be done by assign3t.ng specific group rang
kolkhozes; vegetable te (no less than 5 hectors), flax type, animal
husbandry brigades, etc. In the Moscow oblast the kolkhoz members of
workin in the kolkhoz through the period March-
Vegetably type kolkhozes ( g
Oc?t. incl. ) are to be broken down at least into three groups of the fol-
u to 110 days of work; (2) from 111 to 139 days;
lowing ranges: (1) p
(3) 140 and more days.
According to the present policy of work accounting, there are
to be sy re gated; kolkhoz members with no workdays;
the following groups g.
with less than the fixed minimum of days; those exceeding the minimum,
cordin to a number of intervals. All able-bodied
to be classified ac g
male and female) living in the kolkhoz are grouped
kolkhoz workers over 16
isabled old and sick kolkhoz members, kolkhoz members
separately; so also d ,
` those employed elsewhere by State agencies and
drafted into the Red Amy:
enterprises, and minors from 12-16 years.
In addition to their actual purpose, the above charts may give suf-
ficient of participatian of kolkhoz members in the kolkhoz
~,nformat~.on
Bible to ascertain those kolkhoz members who
communal work, to make a.t pas
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tE
have not worked the minimum quota required during the respective year, as
well as those who have lost contact with the kolkhoz and are subject to
expulsion. The problern of supervision of fulfilment of minimum workday
quotas during the Great Fatherland War, when the quotas were increased,
was a matter of special importance.
Apart from segregating the kolkhoz members according to amounts
of earned workdays, there is to be computed the average workdays amount
per kolkhoz member. Such an index analysed for a period of several years
(in its dynamics) may give a pretty good idea of kolkhoz work activity
fluctuations.
The best index of improving living standards of kolkhoz members,
reflecting exactly the development of socialized kolkhoz enterprise, is
the increasing amounts of grain, potatos, other goods and money, paid as
compensation for earned workdays. In addition to computation of overall
kolkhoz average indexes for a certain rayon, for a more t1 'ough study of
these indexes, the kolkhozes must be grouped according to amounts of
payments in goods and money received per workday. More desirable even,
would be a computation of the average workday compensation within a group
of kolkhozes, determined on the basis of gross kolkhoz income, from the
yield of basic crops, milk, etc. It is very important also to account
for bonuses granted for overfulfillment of he production plan. The in-
crease of kolkhoz members" living standards may be noticed through the
indexes of purchase of industrial goods and better nutrition.
Basic initial documentation accounting for labor and the distri-
bution of workdays in kolkhozes is as follows; the record account of
workdays and the workbook of the kolkhoz member. The workdays record
is filled out daily by the brigadier for the work performed and the
equa. 'va] n'~ number of workdays to be credited to each kolkhoz member. Each
~
job is entered separately. The column "total" in addition to number of
workdays credited to each individual kolkhoz member, contains also the
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3. Sources o -
f Stab stieal Data on Labor and Vages in Sovkhozes, MTS, and
ing kovkhozes but on animal husbandry kolkhoz farms as well:
The piece-rate wage system is adopted not only in plant cultivatM
quotas for every five-day period.
annual production plan for the particular work and the fixed production
work performed and credited workdays). Such rosters contain data on the
and an overall record for the kolkhoz (entry is made of the amount of
this is maintained for each type of work the brigade's workdays record
In kolkhoze s where there is a doubleaen try bookkeeping, in addition
individual working kolkhoz member.
the workdays accounting register, containing personal accounts on each
ual. The record of workdays helps the kolkhoz's bookkeeper to maintain
kolkhoz member, and amounts in money and in kind credited to the individ-
week. Entered also are all advanced and regular payments received by the
books. The entries are made personally by brigadier at least once a
success of the job and attendance. The performed work and number of
credited workdays are entered into individual kolkhoz members' work-
viding the different jobs are credited separately) and facilitates the
The workdays record insures a proper accounting of workdays (pro-
ment of bonuses.
number of days actually spent at work, which data are important for pay-
Monthly reports contain the basic data on the number of workers
use the above reports for statistical purposes.
forwarding them to their higher organizations and to TsSU agencies which
compile monthly labor and wage reports (standard form 62, agricultural)
Kovkhozes.
Using working level labor accounting data, the sovkhozes have to
With this monthly data, the completion of labor and wage plan can be closely
average earnings of sovkhoz workers; and on the number of female workers.
and employees (breakdown by categories and skills); on wages; on the
supervised, following seasonal fluctuations in the number of workers;
$ r 4 1! t Y,V ' T t
P' ~. R I F n, n, h
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changes in average wages (for various categories and skills); and average
number of man-days actually worked per worker. The same report may give
ing days (days worked to the total). The total number of man-days may
even such important indexes as the percentage of utilization of the work-
to show absenteeism (the ratio of loafed man-days to overall absentee
on account of rest days and holidays. Further, indexes may be worked out
overall quantity there should be subtracted the number of man-days lost
number of days of the respective month. For greater accuracy, from this
be obtained by multiplying the average daily number of workers by the
man-days, as well as to the total number of man-days worked
Monthly labor and wage reports may provide indexes of fluctuation
listed number of regular laborers throughout the respective month.
left and those fired for violating the work code, to the daily average
of permanent workers by determining the percentage ratio of workers who
When compiling labor and wage reports the sovkhoz personnel is
usually broken down into the following basic groups: laborers, ap-
personnel, office employees and clerical assistants. With respect to
prentioes, agronomists, livestock technicians, and engineer-technical
employment period, the laborers are divided into permanent, seasonal
and temporary groups. Permanent are those hired for an indefinite time
and are on the staff of the sovkhoz. Seasonal labor includes those hired
for seasonal work up to 6 months. Laborers hired for 2 months and less
and not belonging to the sovkhoz staff, are called temporary. Classi-
fication of personnel into the groups; agronomist, livestock technician,
engineer-technical, personnel, and clerical assistants, is done according
to standard classification charts determining positions and jobs within
various groups. Apart of basic production personnel, there are in
sovkhozes laborers maintaining and servicing various sovkhoz facilities
such as living quarters, dining rooms, snack-bars, etc.,, also schools,
educational institutions and sovkhoz training courses.
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khoz labor statistical data on matters of labor are their annual state-
do not maintain any current labor accounting. The only source of kol-
wage reports (standard fore No4 7). In contrast to the above, kolkhozes
reports are applicable to MTS, which also compile monthly labor and
The majority of the indexes presented in sovkhoz labor and wage
see page 141 Russian text).
for computing the productivity of labor indexes (to be discussed later,
cultivation and in animal husbandry branches. These data are essential
(planned and actual), specifying the number of man-days used in plant
annual statement contains data on the actual number of man-days worked
production plan and actual employment of laborers in various groups, the
amount of wages paid through the year according to provisions of the
The annual sovkhoz statements contain also data on laborers and
kolkhoz members which worked in a brigade and a squad, and on the number
on the number of brigades and squads within a kolkhoz, on the number of
workdays, on bonuses granted for overfulfillment of the production plan,
of ablebodied kolkhoz members employed elsewhere, on the number of earned
ments. Out of these annual statements may be obtained data on the number
done by hired laborers; on the number of work-'hours spent in work in the
on the number of days and hours worked in the kolkhoz and MTS; on work
specifically male and female adults, children, youngsters and old people;
labor and its activity. They contain data on kolkhoz member dependents,
kolkhoz budgets provide also very good data on utilization of kolkhoz
Th.e monthly and semi-annual reports on sampling inspections of
of squads and kolkhoz members credited with additional earnings.
individual merribers household economy, on days of absence from the kolkhoz
reasons); and on the number of workdays aooountecl for over the month re-
(in connection with working for hire and with the MTS, or for any other
ported.
4. Definition of "Labor Produotivt 1?
$IESTRJCTE?O
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Direct and Derived "Labor Productivity" Agricultural Indexes.
roductivity in agriculture as we11 as in industry is
Labor p
u ut per fixed time unit. Consequently, the index
determined by the o tp p
of ],shot productivity IS represented by a fraction where the numerator
is the output and denominator the time unit used to produce it. In
be computed an overall agricultural index, branch in
the above way may ~ or cvcr7 u~de:
(f~elc~ cvitu~r.s~vegeir>Ir, CuvJAi! rt~anm,alkuabondr.
oducts (i.e., grain output, milk output, etc.) in
exes~for vara.ous pr
a time unit.
Due to the seasonal character of agricultural work and the fact
that the amount of produced goods can be determined only at the year's
e no direct indexes may be obtained in the course of the
end, therefor ,
year.
There are therefore in agriculture, in addition to direct labor
exes the derived indexes as follows; (1) labor needed
productivity lnd ,
on of a certain type of output from 1 hectare of sowed area,
for complets.
from 1 hectare of one or another field cultivation crop. For animal
husbandry, the index is for one head of cattle (very often such indexes
ete indexes of labor productivity); (2) period
are referred to as lncampl
com 1tion of a work unit for various types of work,
of time spent for p ,
it;' for instance, the number of Nectars
or output achieved in a txrne un
10-hour workday, or the number of hectars harvested by
plowed during a
combine in a workday, etc.
the above indexes has its own sigziificance. Thus, the
Each of
total quantity of output (expressed in monetary terms) in terms of units
of time, should be considered the basic labor productivity index. Such
a synthetic index is the most important qualitative agricultural index
of the level of agr' cultural production. It is essential in studying
~
of labor productivity in agricultural production.
the dynamics
for individual products (expressed in physical
The index of output
a rest importance in planning and operational
amounts) in a time-unit is of g
ches of agriculture. The indexes of output in a
work in the various bran
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definite time unit give us the data for determining the technical working
quotas in sovkhozes and kolkhozes. We must use the above computed in-
dexes also in order to get as idea of labor productivity for a particu-
lar time of the year before the crop is in (for instance, during the
sowing campaign, harvest, etc.).
The same incomplete indexalso important because an increase in
the coefficient of labor productivity, expressed in terms of work done
per unit of time, is directly related to a reduction of the period of time
used for production. The index of work performed in a time unit, however,
cannot replace an absolute labor productivity index. It happens often
that even with increasing work-time, as compared with previous years,
for the same amount of production, the absolute labor productivity index
instead of decreasing shows an increase. This may happen if the additional
work time spent on certain a;rioultural improvement measures (as on
thorough cultivation, extermination of field pests, etc.) brings about
such a crop increase, and consequently, such an increase in output that
this more than covers the additional expenditure of labor and is instru-
mental in increasing output per unit of time expended (i.e. raises the
overall labor productivity index). In this way, relative to changes
over former time with complete and incomplete labor productivity indexes,
we obtain this result without any change in the scope or quality of agro-
technical undertakings. In this case, with a rise of the incomplete
labor productivity index, caused by reduced time for individual operations
( sowing, cultivation, harvesting, etc.), there may be a rise in the volume
of output, and thus also in the magnitude of the absolute labor productiv-
ity index.
5. RiatingVariOU8TYP es of Production and Determining Labor Time in
Deriving the Index of Labor Productivity
In section 4 it was shown that in the formula for the complete in-
dex of labor productivity, the numerator of the fraction is output, and
the denominator the time used to produce it. Let us see in which way the
tr
11
:2O3
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Eti
ctESi tO% numerator and denominator of this fraction are de to rmined.
determine the labor productivity index in
If our objective is to
for instance ,rain output, or milk out -
an,y basic production branch (as
e co uting of labor productivity is rather
put in a time unite, then th -
1 to divide the actual physical quantity of out
easy, and we have situp y
' e used. Such labor productivity indexes are re-
put by the amount of tlm
ferred to as "natural.
ocedure becomes more complicated if there is a
't'he computing pr
roductivity Index far all field cultivatlan,
need for an overall labor p field
tbon all animal husbandry, or even for the entire
all plant cultiva
'f there is a need for a so_called sumrr~ary ro-
of agriculture as a whole (l
dex of labor productivity . ssed
t variety and multiplicity of production, expre
Due to the Brea
or of labor productivity fraction (~;raln
in this case through the n?aerat
otatocs, Vegetables, grass, milk, wool, liTYe-
cultures, industrial crops, p
of directly add up all these types of pro-
weight increase, etc, ), we cann
e to express them tentatively in unified, com-
duction, unless we are abl
parable units.
ible wa s of measuring different kinds of
'I~.ere are several poss Y
r escribe three of thems (a) the method of re-
output together. Vie wall d evalu-
c t accounting) units, (b) the method of
acomputing output in abstra
Cant rites, and (c) the method of computing
non output in terms of cons p
the group index of expended labor. b
The first method conslstS of recounting the various output in a -
h certain coefficients. By this method for
stract units, computing wit
'ssariat of Savkhozes in computing milk out-
instance, the ~'eople s Coxe 'on
centner of milk to one calf. For converse purnoses
put has equated one
n one or another product is selected to use as
in the field cultivat~.o,
for instance, summer grain, and on the basis of this
an abstract unit
c f ado tod coefficients, al]. other products
rop, with the application o p
above coefficients usually are caloulated on
are converted into it (the
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the basis of the amount of labor-time normally required in output etc.
In the process of calculating the labor productivity index, as
a quantity of labor done in a unit of time, use often is made of the
method of converting individual operations of labor into abstract units
of soft plowing.
The main disadvantage of this method is its abstractness~goften
poorly justified, resulting in the arbitrary character of certain con-.
version coefficients.
Often in actual practice, the overall gross output and at the
same time the labor productivity index are determined by the price method.
By this method prices are multiplied by corresponding unitof individual
products of the gross output. The resulting products are summed up, and
the total is divided by the number representing the amount of labor time
needed to produce the overall gross output. Since prices are subject
- ,~ to
fluctuation over time, therefore, in order to compare labor productivity
over different periods, production is evaluated in terms of constant
prices (usually those of 192627). The gross
output for each period, ex-
pressed in terms of constant prices, is then computed as an average per
unit of labor time, and the resulting indexes may be compared with one
another.
As simple as it is, this method has the following disadvantages;
(1) 192627 prices have changed considerably up to the Present time and
not in the same way for various products changed, (2) by the application
of this method, the nominator of labor productivity index fraction is
influenced by prices of individual products. Therefore, with changes
in
the structure of production, with the substitution of cheaper products
by more expensive ones, or vice versa, the labor Productivity index de-
rived rived by this method, may rise or fall with no 'eiation
ship to actual
changes in the level of labor productivity. In this way it may happen,
for instance, that cultivating wheat instead of rye, or more expensive
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vegetables instead of cheap ones, eto., the value of gross output would
rise (and consequently, the labor productivity index determined by
the above method would also rise), at the time when the actual labor
productivity may remain unchanged. Application of the above method may
even result in such nonsense that (following changes in the structure of
production) there may be overfulfillment.of the labor productivity plan
for each individual branch of production; while the plan. for all pro-
duction taken together is unfulfilled, or vice versa.
In order to eliminate the lager disadvantage, the index method
should be used in comparing indexes of labor productivity for particular
periods or in comparing actual indexes with planned ones. Use of the
Index method eliminates the influence of changes in the structure of
production. The following example will clarify the above explanation:
60,000 12,000
Type Amount of'C on sumed
5 97,200 118,000
of Output Time in l Man-da4 Output
f
Output expressed; Man-Daysin rubleexpressed+Man-Days
in con-
stant
A
70,000 5,000 14 j64,000
First Period Second Period
,
Earned iniAmount ofi Consumed j Earned Change of Labor
i ~
Time in in one Productivity Index
Man-Day in the Second Period
in as compared with the
rubles `first
start
prices
t
_________- i
Total :130,000
17,000
4,000
7.65 L61,200 22,000
5.4 108.0
16.0 114.3
7.33 95.3
The data presented in the above chart lead to the following quite
absurd conclusion:
with a rise of labor productivity in each individual
branch, labor productivity is decreasing for all production taken as a
whole.
This has been caused by modifications made in production structure;
namely, increase of the cheap and reduction of the more expensive output.
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REsrR1cTEU
Applying the index method we will avoid the above absurd. results, since
then we shall be basing ourselves on the assumption that the production's
structure remains unchanged. Applying the data on time consumed during
the second period as weights, we get the following labor productivity in-
dex:
Index 5.4 x 18,000 ? 16 x 4,000
5 x 18,000 +14 x 4,000 146,000
There is no necessity to apply monetary terms, if when analysing
between actual indexes and those planned, we use for computing the labor
the dynamics of labor productivity indexes, or in making a comparison
output expressed in physical terms and with the amount of time spent on
productivity index the expended labor method. This method deals only with
index of labor productivity.
its production, i.e., those factors which go into the formula for the
Application of the above method may be seen in the following
example :
Y
~
Unit
`YA
`
Planned for 1944
161,200 110.4
Actual Results in 1944.
of of Amount' Consumed time Output Consumed timeTime Spent
Output Measure of in terms of Received in terms of per Unit
OutputMann-Days Man-Days of Output
(as Planned)
A
Centners
15,000
18,000
16,000
17,600
1.2
B
Centners
28,000
22,400
127,000
20,200
0.8
a
Centne rs
4,000;
6,000
4,200 ;
6,400
1.5
44,200
The objective is to determine the relationship of the overall actual
labor productivity tothat planned. We know that a computed labor produc-
tivity index is often presented as the amount of labor time expended per
unit of output. Applying the above form of relationship and applying the
(~ Ay
.- -c 1 .w
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rule for computing the index of labor productivity, the index would read:
Index 1.2 x16,000 + O.S x 27,000+ 1.5 x4,200 _ 106.1
17,600 + 20,200 + 6,400
The result shows that the planned labor productivity quota has been
overfulfilled for 6 percent.
The same method can also be used for computation of the abstract
(incomplete) labor productivity index. In this case, output is replaced
by amounts of completed individual work, expressed in physical. units.
In order to obtain the unified formulas of complete and incom--
plete labor productivity indexes, let us indicate expenditures of labor
time for a unit of output in the base period as Labor time spent
per unit of output in the current period is "t1". The amount of output
of the current period is "q1". Labor time spent for completion of a
work unit in the current period is 1'ml". Labor time spent for completion
of a work unit in the basic period is "m0". The volume of work completed
in the current period is'~1"? Using the above designations we have as
follows:
the individual complete labor productivity index - to
-- t1
the complete average labor productivity index ? ~ _ _o
~~1w1
the individual inoomplete labor productivity index _ m a
the average incomplete labor productivity index . ~ __Q! ?
Applying the above formulas we can obtain formulas for the indexes
of economized expenditure of labor.
According to the formula of the complete labor productivity index,
the labor time expended in production of output in the current period based
on quotas prescribed for the basic period, would be: th ~~
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iESiRCiED?
Actual labor time spent in the current period would be:
t i
Consequently, saving of labor-time spent during the current period would
be: tU $-~ . Its relationship to work-time consumption based on
quotas prescribed for the basic period (the index of labor time saved)
would be q~, Taking the incomplete labor productivity
index instead, the above index would --
v1o `i
The index method is very helpful in determining the degree of
fulfillment of planned quotas. In spite of its exactness, however,
the practical application of this method meets with difficulties due to
the lack of available data (it must be known how much time is spent on
each type of production or on each job, which data are not given by
accounting).
And now, let. us turn to the denominator of the formula for the
labor productivity index. The most accurate measure of labor-time spent
is the number of man-hours expended However, since no accounting state-
ment contains such detailed information, we have to use instead the data
of man-days worked Here data come in 'very handy on the over-all number
of man-days worked by all laborers (separately for plant cultivation and
animal husbandry) contained in the annual statements of the sovkhoz. In
time worked there must be included the entire consumed times including
idle time and time spent nonproductively (referred to as gross-hours or
gross-days).
In the process of det~rrining the annual labor productivity index,
when data on the number of man-days spent is not available, then use is
made of the amount of average output per worker (for this purpose the
amount of output obtained in a sovkhoz is divided by the annual average
number of permanent, seasonal and temporary laborers). The index which
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results is considerably less acourate than the previous one.
6. The Use of Labor R roduc tY Indexes
Labor productivity accounting is important in working out a num~
bar of most Important pradical agricultural problems. We shall describe
the use of labor productiVaty indexes in solving some of these problems.
At the XVII Party Congress VKP (b), comrade Stalin pointed out
~'
that: "an abundance of machinery in kolkhozes frees part of rural popu-
~ ~
late.on from agricultural work," which makes it possible for kolkhozes
to release "to expanding industry, annually about one and a half million
young kolkhoz members?11
In order to determine how much labor power can be spared from
the amount of labor saved should be determined, as a result
kol]rhozes,
tian. This is usually done by comparing data on mechanized
of mechanixa
labor with labor spent on the saDie^ jobs performed with horse traction
and manual labor. As an example we are going to present the chart con
tamed in the statistical collection entitled "Socialist Agriculture in
USSR," P* 50.
The data used in drawing up the tables was subject to a special
study conducted in 1937. As far as the household economy of private
farmers is concerned, their budgets were inspected up until 1925.
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IES1TrIICTE
Labor Economized in Kolkhozes by Using ITS Tractors and Combine
Manidays Annual laborers
(in millions) (in millions)
Actual labor expenditure in 1937 for
tractor work performed by MTS
220.8
1.9
Labor expenditure for the same work if per--
formed by horse traction and manual labor
1,070.6
9?1
Labor expenditure for the same work if per
formed within private peasant farms
1,5O58
12?8
Compared with labor
expended on kolkhozesg
Labor economized without use of tractors
on work performed and combine'harvesters.
by MTS tractors
Compared with labor
and combine- expenditure on private
harvesters
peasant farms
849.8 7.2
1,285.0 10.9
The above chart reveals how there is a saving in the use of labor
on one and the same round of work in the socialized kolkhoz economy as
compared to private peasant farms; also as a result of the mechanization
of agriculture. According to the chart, mechanization frees a considera-
ble amount of manpower from agricultural work. Since the chart contains
data on the same round of work under differing conditions, the above data
may be used to determine the labor productivity index under mechanization
(work performed by MTS tractors), compared with labor productivity for the
same work done at kolkhozes with horse traction and by manual labor, and
also in contrast to that expenditure of labor which would be needed to do
the same job on private peasant farms.
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8)100
.8 220,8)100
~8 85.3 percent.
A clear concept of the increased labor productivity end lowered
1505.8
esul?tin~' From the mechanizatien of agriculture,
expenditure of labor r
bor roductivity indexes (per one Nectar of
is given by the incomplete la p
field labor) computed for the same jobs, but with production done by a
is in the same pei?iodiaal (page 49, Russian
variety of machine s a There
other chartp which we may use as an example:
Text) an
r e;
r u et' Yee
H {' ,
1+u l~
ar
' 2J 2-
0.....
Computed$ she first index would read. 1220a.8
seoond one: 6 4X85, and. the
J-4 .8 = 6.82 , which means that after completed mechaniZa-
20 at kolkhoZes subjeoted to the above study
Lion, the labor praduot' ~v~-tY
nd campa,rod with labor productivity level
has increased to 485 percents a
at private peasant farms, 682 percent
Using the data contained in the chart we are able to determine
saved The index of labor economised with
also the indexes of labor
. action compa~~ed with the labor expended in
the mechana.zat~ ~.on of prod ~
~ ractors and combine harvesters, would read:
kolkhoZ es not us' ~.nb t
(1070e6 220.8 100 = 79.4 percent.
1,070.6
ed in the mechanized agriculture, compared
index of labor sav
The
expended by private peasant farms, would be:
labor
with the
(1505
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ESTiJCTEO
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Labor Consumption per 1 Hectare of Field Work (in man-days)
At Kolkhozes in 1937
Using track Using
l
laying trac- 1Nhee1ed
tors (Che1ya tractors
bin.sk Tractor'
Plant manu~
facture)
At private
Using horse 'peasant
t rac ti on farms through
and manual 1922-1925
labor
Plowing
0.25
0.41
2.04
2.55
Harrowing and Cultivation
0.05
0.10
0.36
1.15
Sowing
0.10
0.20
0.81
1.81
Harvesting with Combines
(at the enterprises using
horse?traction power and
manual labor-u-h arve s tin g
and threshing together)
Om32
0.48
9.49
14.16
Flax Hackling
---'
6.27
13.25
18.98
The data contained in the above chart also are results of the
special study conducted in 1937 and budget accounting inspections of
private peasant farms.
Example for Chapter VI. The following problem is suggested
for chapter VI. In sovkhoz "A" during May 1943, 56 new laborers were
taken on while 12 lefts During October of the same year 8 laborer~l
were taken on while 49 left. The average listed number of laborers
lasted in May was 411 persons, and in October 504, In the same sovkhoz,
in fulfilling individual jobs in the spring of 1944 and 1943, the fol.-
lowing amount of labor-tune was expended:
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iESTRiC
Type of Work
Units of
1943
1944
Measurement
Scale
of work
Time
Spent
Scale
of work
Time
Spent
(man-days )
(man-days)
A
heotare
1,020
275
1,130
265
B
h &re
1,020
153
1,130
205
C
bteL
670
74
720
72
0 '
l u11.~
'
760
25
3'875
3,680
29,266
,
3, Succulent
1,800
1,967
18,706
9,920
4, Green feed
386
150
5. Other feed
ata iven it is roquirod that the following
On the basis of the d g
questions be answered. sts for the mi7k
(a) To what was the change due in the structure of ca
ing herd in 1943 over 1942? in 1943 and
has the cost of a kilogram of milk changed
(b) In what way
o taken place (show the part played by the
as a rr,sult of what has this 'chang
individual factors)?
(c) What is the index of plan fulfillment on the cost o
of one of the NIxS in 1942 and 1943 we have
3. In the annual reports
the fo11owin, data on the cost of tractor work.
~
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RESTRICTED
ITEMS OF EXPENDITTIRE
Total Expense
Average Expenses
1942
1943
per 1 hectare plowed
as Planned 1943
1, Fuels (for motors)
200,220
200,300
14.07
2. Repairs
113,600
75,640
6 45
.
3. 1Aages to Producing Laborers
72,420
87,865
5.66
4, Wages to Other Personnel
99,420
84,222
6.86
5. Miscellaneous
29,820
20,176
1,87
TOTAL
515,480
468,203
34,91
The total work done is expressed in terms of average hectares of soft
plowing; in 1942 as 14,200 hectares, and in 1943 as 15,370 hectares.
(a) Are the cost factors or are common expenditures brought out in the
enumerated items of expense?
(b) How has the breakdown of cost expenditures changed in 1943 over
1942?
(c) Derive the index for planned cost fulfillment in 1943,
(d) Calculate the percentage of planned lowering of cost and the actual
index of lowered cost in 1943 relative to 1942,
(e) Calculate the planned and actual amount of economizin{ in cost of
production in 1943 as compared to 1942.
(f) Indicate the relative importance of the various factors in lower-
ing the costs of tractor work at MTS, calculating on a basis of 1 hectare of
soft plowing.
TEST QUESTIONS
1, What is termed cost and of what significance is the study of the
factors which indicate cost?
2. V')hat are the characteristics of the factors which indicate cost of
production in agriculture?
3. Of what basic components are costs of production made up, and what
are factors of expenditure and of connon expenditure called?
RESIIICTEO
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4. What are termed the direct and indirect, the constant and propor-
tionate expenditures?
5. How is the index of cost plan fulfillment and of decreased costs
computed?
6. How do you calculate the planned and the actual amount of econo-
mizing in cost of production?
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ESTRWTEB
Chapter VIII
STATISTICS O CAPITAL ASSETS IN AGRICULTURE
1. Classification of Cap t l Assets
Capital assets or basic means of production are products of the past,
of already expended labor. Means of labor are the implements of labor
(machines, implements, inventory, working and producing livestock, etc.),
and also structures, buildings, etc.
The extent and structure of capital assets is one of the most import-
ant factors determining the degree of power, the size and nature of the
activity of agricultural enterprises.
It is the task of statistics to indicate the extent of capital assets,
to study their structure and change, etc. Since there are various categor-
ies of agricultural enterprises and since there is variety among; the assets
themselves, therefore in studying the basic means of production it is nec-
essary to classify them. Assets in agriculture may be variously classified.
The basic division is into assets according to property form and according
to intended use.
There are the following property form groups of assets in keeping
with the Stalin-Constitution;
1. Assets which are State property, the wealth of all the people
(sovkhoz assets, MTS, and the subsidiary economies of State enterprises
and offices).
2. Assets held as cooperative-kolklloz property (assets of the kolkh-
ozes, and also the assets of agricultural enterprises of cooperative organ-
ization).
3. Assets making up the personal property of the kolkhoz members, the
maximum extent of which is taken into consideration in the charter of the
agricultural artel (kolkhoz).'
4. Assets which make up the personal property of the laborers and
employees.
5. Assets belonging to the private non~coilectivized peasants and to
the non-cooperated artisans.
1ESTRiCTEiI
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TRICSEU
According to intended use, assets are divided first of all into two
basic groups:
1. Capital assets used in production
2. Capital assets for uses other than production
Production capital assets in turn are subdivided into active and non-
active capital assets. A detailed classification of active production
assets is given in the annual reports of the sovkhozes and MTSo (For a
classification of capital assets which is given in the annual reports of
sovkhozes, see the example below, which is given for solution in connection
with the subject under discussion).
Non-active capital assets of productive uses are: (a) capital assets
to be saved or kept in reserve, which are kept out of use, over one or
several production periods, (b) basic assets for transfer, being; taken
over by one sovkhoz from another at the time that the final balance is
being drawn up, and (c) young plants for setting out.
Capital assets for uses other than production are composed of (1)
living quarters; (2) buildings of public utility and their equipment
(restaurants, baths, laundries, etc.).; (3) buildin.g,s with equipment for
cultural and educational uses and for health (clubs, libraries, schools,
hospitals, nurseries, etc.),
2. Mo v,ion, of Caoital Assets
To determine the overall extent of capital assets these funds must be
expressed in terms of money.
A monetary evaluation of capital assets may be accomplished in one of
three ways: (1) in terms of complete initial cost; (2) in replacement cost,
or; (3) in terms of initial cost less depreciation.
Initial cost is derived from an evaluation of assets at those prices
which wore current at the time that these assets were obtained.
The overall cost of capital assets used in production in socialist
agricultural enterprises in the USSR in terms of the balance evaluation
without subtracting for the cost of depreciation at the beginning of 1935
amounted to 30,568.2 million rubles. Of this sum, 25,351.3 million rubles
iil:S1 &Bt1TEfl
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r4EST}UCTED
went for assr sed in a.riculture. 2,016.9 million rubles of the totaiets u
assets ere for subsidiary and auxiliary production. The assets of agri-
v~
use are made up of the following basic parts: buildings and struc-
turecults ura (8,334.3 lusemillion rubles), tractors (2,499.4 million rubles), combines (9B5.4 million rubs), bs), agricultural machinery and instruments (3,303.2 mil
vestock, birds and bees (3,491.4 million rubles),
lion rubles), productive li -
wor.~~il livestock (3,076.1 million rubles), reclamation installations
(2,091.5 million rubles) and others.
tical collection, Gosplan press, 1939, page 22).
Replacement Cost is arrived at in evaluating assets in terms of those
prsc ich new capital assets of the particular type and quality
prices at which -
be purchased at the present time. In order to evaluate capital funds at
cost minus deterioration, original cost must be taken less amortization
covering the period that the capital assets have been in use and adding
the cost of capital repairs.
TO call attention to a simple example of how to work out all the three
ways of va.lua Ling capital assets in production. Let us assume that at the
e
beginning of 193 a sovkhoz acquired some sort of agricultural machinery
..
for 10,000 rubles, The amount of work which the machine must accomplish
over the entire period of its usefulness (in hours, hectares, etc.) is
iv?n as 12 000.. The total cost of necessary capital repairs during, the
,
life of the machine) let us assume, is 4,500 rubles. The worth of the
scrap at the end of its period of usefulness is given as 500
machine as
rubles.
the cost of ..this same machine new, was lowered to 9,000
In 1939,
rubles. In this example the initial cost of the machine was 10,000 rubles
and the replacement cost in 1939 was 9,000.
In order to go about calculating; the cost taking depreciation into
it is essential first of all to calculate the amount of
consideration,
amortization. The requiremen"t that amortization be excluded from initial
cost in order to arrive at cost with depreciation all stems from the fact
that capital assets in production participate not only in one but in sev-
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" k 0}1 Ypp11 ~1pp 4, }" ~I
1k 41.1 9: '1 n~Pl
eral production processes, and their cost is carried over into the cost
of the product not in entirety but only in part. The cost of that part
of the means of production which goes into the output product is what is
termed amortization. The amount of amortization to be subtracted depends
upon the initial cost, capital repairs during the entire period that the
assets exist, on cost when assets are liquidated (scrap value) and on the
volume of work which the machine must accomplish during its entire period
of service.
If we designate initial cost as with representing the cost
of capital repairs over the life of the assets, "SV'T final scrap value and
'tTt1 the number of work units which the machine must turn out over its en-
tire period of service, then the amount of amortization removed on the
average from one unit of work must equal:
IC + CR - SV
w
The rate of discount for amortization as a percentage of initial cost
is established by the respective People's Commissariats (People's Commissariat of Agriculture, People's Comrnissariat of Sovkhozes) for the parti-
cular types of assets. Funds for the reproduction of capital assets are
built up from deduductions for amortization. In accordance with the orders
of People's Commissars USSR of S IVlarch and 15, April 1938, 55+5 percent
(Cor sovkhozes under the People's Commissariat of sovkhozes) and 57.1 per-
c,net (for sovkhozes under the People's Commissariats of Agriculture and o
L
Food Industry) of all amortization deduction .11 s on all types of capital
assets (except for working and producing livestock) are left at the dispo-
sal of the sovkhozes and are used by them for capital repairs. The remain-
der of amortization deductions is taken over by the agricultural bank.
Using this procedure explained, let us calculate in our example the
average amount of amortization deduction per unit of work: The amortization
12,000 12,000
1.17 rubles.
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Let us suppose that up to the end of 1939 a machine accomplished
7000 units of work. Then the sum of amortization deductions equals l.l7
rubles X 7,0008, 190 rubles. If it is given that 2,750 rubles were
spent on capital repairs over a sax--year period, then the cost of the
machine taking depreciation into consideration, atLhe end of 1939 is ex-
pressed as follows: 10,000-?$,190*2,750 4,560 rubles.
Cost, taking depreciation into account, gives us the degree to
which capital assets have been depleted, which is necessary to know in
0
planning assets. In determining amortization discounts, it should be
borne in mind the.t with perennial plants (trees and shrubs) only those
old enough to bear fruit are subject to amortization calculations. Of
livestock, only those are taken into consideration which are part of the
capital assets of production, i.e.; fu1l~grown working livestock and
producing cattle (except animals being fattened up). Yearlings and live-
stock being fattened are considered as operating funds anda re not sub-
jest to amortization.
If we wish to study changes an the overall natural size of cap-
ital assets (summed up for all types and groups) over time, then it is
essential to express the cost of assets in constant prices. For con-
scant prices, in actual practice 1926.1927 prices are taken or those of
1923. The capital assets of the sovkhozes of the People's Commissariats
of Agriculture and of Sovkhozes were recomputed an terms of 1934 prices.
3. In Analysis of pica on ca i? t~~s
For an initial analysis of data on capital assets, the foillow-
ing minimum number of statistical indicators are calculated.
(a) indexes of plan fulfillment of capital investment for the
fiscal year;
(b) indexes of the change of capital funds, by their individ-
ual types, by groups and in sum total; (in studying changes in the in-
dividual kinds of funds, we can use data expressed in physical units.
~'ti`',>
it y ,??
..`ti ? ?l . $' ..
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ESi RtCTEB
In calculating indexes of change of the capital funds by their respec-
tive groupings, and particularly for the sum total it is necessary to
evaluate the funds for each year in constant prices);
(c) indexes of the distribution of capital assets (in percent)
for productive and non--producing capital, and for productive assets by
the particular types and groups
(d) a distribution r~fassets `(in percent) by basic types of
property, that which indicates the degree of socialization of partic-
ular types of property in the kolkhozes is of special interest and
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significance since the kolkhoz members can have (within established limits)
personal property - dwellings and useful structures, livestock, fowl, bees
and sma11-size farming equipment,
Indexes of the degree of socialization of property can be expressed
as a relationship (in percent) of particular types of socialized kolkhoz
property to the total of socialized property together with that property
which is for the personal use of the kolkhoz members. Examples If in the
kolkhozes of any particular region there are 10,120 head of socialized
kolkhoz cattle and 6,500 head for the personal use of the kolkhoz members,
then the index of socialization of cattle is the equivalent of
: SourceS_9 f Data on Capital Assets
r
Speaking of data sources for capital assets, first of all, attention
should be called to the annual reports of the sovhozes, lVITS and kolkhozes.
The cost of capital assets is given in the annual reports in terms of
initial valuations. In the annual reports of the sovkhozes and MTS we find
data on the cost of assets at the beginning and at the end of the year, on
the shifting around of capital assets during the year among enterprises, on
the depletion of assets becoming dilapidated and worn out, on existing capi-
tal by various types at the end of the fiscal year, on capital repairs
tal
( plan and actual), on new construction, and on calculated amortization.
In the annual reports of the kolkhozes we have information on shifts
in capital assets throughout the year. In addition to data on capital
sets within the economy, the annual reports also contain detailed infor-
as
mation on the capital investments made during the year under review. We
,
can get certain data on the capital assets in the economy of the kolkhoz
members (expressed in kind) from their budgets.
Finally, it ' s necessary to point out that data on livestock assets
~.
( working and producing livestock) for all categories of the economy can be
obtained (expressed in units of kind) from livestock census and livestock
count information.
flEST 14101 ED
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%t R1GiEQ
Classification of Assets On Hand as of
1 January 1943,
(expressed in
initial cost)
A. Capital assets of
production use,
in use
1. Buildings and structures
(except for reclamation) 1,745,608
2. Reclamation structures
and planting set out
Plantings which yield
50 Tractors
70 Other agricultural
machines and instruments
Classification of Assets On Hand as of
1 January 1943,
(expressed in
initial cost)
B. Capital assets of
production use,
. in reserve
Including young
plants (trees and
shrubs) set out
C. Capital assets for
residence culture
and welfare public
services
14 Residence buildings
38,204 15 Public welfare
(restaurants, baths,
laundries, etc.) 79,940
18,203 16 Cultural, educational
and health (clubs, libra-
ries, schools, hospital,
30,893 nurseries, etc.) 180,774
8. 1viiscellaneous agricultural
inventory and implements 19,425
90 General inventory 26,581
10. Transportation;
(a) mechanized
(b) horsedrawn et a1~ 8,942
11. Working livestock (adult) 143,363
12. Producing livestock (adult),
except that being fattened
or on the range exclusively
for meat (for slaughter) 374,406
13, Buildings, equipment and
inventory of technical and
auxiliary enterprises;
(a) repair shops
51,827
(b) electric stations
187,032
(c) miscellaneous indus-
trial enterprises
59,225
r,,..... ------ ..~- -- t_._.w.-._._..._____.-__......_.____ - ...~
SUM TOTAL
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on capital assets?
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On the basis of the data given, it is required that the cnposition
(structure) of capital assets of sov_khoz "A" be worked out in terms of
relative size,
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Into what groupings are agricultural oapital assets divided?
2. What methods of evaluating capital assets are used?
3. What is meant by amortization and how is amortization calculated
per unit of work?
4. What in agriculture is useful as sources of data on capital assets?
5. What principal indexes are worked out in studying (analyzing) data
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CHAPTER IX
STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION
1. Statistical
Basic objectives of accounting and statistics of agricultural mechan-
ization are: collection and processing of data for the analysis of the
degree of plan performance covering the overall scope of tractor operations;
to analyse the degree of plan performance of output by tractors, combines,
and other agricultural machinery to analyse the increasing complexity of
agricultural mechanization; to bring out and study the achievements of
agricultural leaders in using machinery; to expose lagging sovkhozes, MTS,
and kolkhozes; to analyze the degree of plan fulfillment for fuel consump-
tion; and to analyze cost indexes of tractor operations.
2. Classification of Prime-Movers Used in Acricu1ture
All machinery, used in agriculture should be divided into two basic
groups: prime-movers and operating machinery.
Prime-movers, the source of power used in agriculture, in turn are
divided into two basic groups - primary and secondary movers. Tinder
secondary movers we include electric generators and electric motors.
They are called secondary, because in order to obtain. the type of power
they generate, another source of energy is required. Thus, an electric
generator, which converts mechanical power into electric power is motivated
by mechanical power. In contrast, an electric motor is driven by electric
current and converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Primary
sources of energy should be divided into sources of live energy and sources
of mechanical energy.
Primary mechanical movers are subdivided into (1) heat engines, liquid
fuel operated (fuel oil. and other petroleum products); (2) gas generators,
converting solid fuels, lumber mill scrap, agricultural refuse, etc into
gas generating fuel; (3) steam engines (4) hydrolic water and (5) wand
movers.
HESTRICTED
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HESTRICTEI)
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Thus the classification of prime movers in agriculture may be sum-
marized in the following breakdown:
A. Prime Movers
I . Live motive power (draft animals) :
(1) work horses (2) oxen (3) camels (4) other draft animals.
II. Mechanical Movers
(1) Liquid fuel operated engines with low compression:
(a) tractors ('0) automobiles (passenger and trucks), (c) combine
movers (d) stationary movers - petroleum, gasoline.
(2) Liquid fuel operated engines with high compression - diesels.
(3) Gas generators: (a) gas generating tractors (b) gas genera-
Ling automobiles (c) stationary gas generating movers.
(4) Steam movers: (a) stationary steam engines, steam turbines
(b) locomobiles
(5) Hydraulic movers: (a) wheel (b) turbine
(6) Wind movers
B. Seconda y Movers
T. Electric generators
(1) Di..rect current dynamos
(2) Alternating current generators
II. Electric motors
(1) Direct current electric motors
(2) Alternating current electric motors
In measuring the power of the mover we must know the unit of measure
employed. The power of all the above-mentioned mechanical movers (excluding
electric movers) used in agricultural production, is usually measured in
horse power; This technical power unit expresses the capacity of a machine
to produce work, equal to the effort of lifting 75 Kilograms to a height of
one meter (75 Kilogram-meters) in one second. This unit is customarily ex-
pressed in Russian by the letters "l,s," or by letters of the Roman. alphabet
~1HP", The parer of a tractor is customarily indicated by a fraction, whose
numerator is the draw-bar capacity (i.eI the power available when the tractor
is used as a tractive medium) while the denominator is the pulley capacity
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ItEST iC1EO
(i.e, the force of the tractor when used as a stationary mover, as during
threshing)
Draw-bar capacity is lower than pulley capacity, because in using the
tractor for traction, part of its power is utilized for its own locomotion,
for towing, friction of parts, etc.
pou'rer of electric movers is usually expressed in Kilowatts (101.9
The
Kilogram-meters per second), then 1 Kilowatt is equal to
101.9 1.36 HP
75
The power of a horse in mass calculations has been accepted convention-
ally as 3/4 (0,75) HP, This correlation, however, may change depending on
the type and quality of the horses. For each individual enterprise the
conversion coefficient may be calculated more precisely, if it is known
that power is equal to the product of tractive force multiplied by speed
of movement per second. Tractive force (which is expressed in kilograms)
in turn depends on the live weight of the horse, representing 13-15 percent
(average 14 percent), The average speed of a horse at a walk may be consi-
dered 4 kilometers per hour or 1.1 meters per second. Thus, if for example,
the live weight of a horse' is .400 kilograms, tractive force represents
l~00 x :t4,~, 56 kilograms, while its power is equal to 56 x 1.1 62 kilo-
100
gram-meters per second, i.e. t~ 2 ~ 0.E33 1.s.
75
For converting into mechanical units the power of an ox is considered
equal to 2/3 of that of an average horse, i.e. in round numbers 0,5 HP.
Subsequently we shall dwell in more detail on those things that indi-
cate the presence and use of tractors_prime-movers, which have played an
important role in the technical reconstruction of our socialistic agricul.-
Lure,
3, Tractor :Inventories
The f ollrndng basic types and makes of tractors are used in agriculture:
RESTRICIE
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Tractor Types and Makes
Nominal tractor power
in HP draw-bar
I.
Wheel-tractors
Pulley
f~
1. SKhTZ /30
Plowing ;
2. uUniversalt' - Y--1
10/20
3. "Universalit - Y-2
T
l
i
II
10/20
rac `-
ng
ay
.
1.
Stalinetz ChTZ - ligroin
48/60
2,
Stalinetz ChTZ - diesel
50/65
3,
Stalinetz ChTZ - has generating
35/50
4,
SKhTZ-NATI - Kerosene (carburator)
32/46
5.
SKhTZ-NATI - gas generating
27/40
These types and makes serve as a basis for accounting in a tractor park.
In studying the application of mechanical tractive power in agriculture
we are interested in two basic groups of indexes: indexes showing reserves,
that is, tractors on hand, and indexes of their utilization.
Tractors on hand may be expressed by various indexes;
(a) A register. (counted in the balance of the establishment) or a count
of physically present tractors at a given time (at the beginning and end of
a year, at the beginning of a quarter, month, start and end of an agricul-
tural period, etc) is considered. the simplest form of index.
draw-bar capacity in horse power (HP).
To express the power of an entire park in HP? one should group all
tractors by makes, multiply the power of each make by the number of tractors
(b) The preceding index is inadequate, in as much as the tractor park
contains tractors of various makes and consequently of varying power capacity.
Therefore to determine the total power of a tractor park, it is expressed in
of this make and add the results.
To facilitate computation it is now accepted practice to express tractor
power in conventional units of 15--power tractors. To determine the size of
a park in terms of conventional 15-power tractors, the total power of the
entire tractor park should be divided by 15.
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RESTRICTED
Example ; On 1 JanuL.ry 1944, MTS had 15 ligroin ChTZ Stalinetz!1 tractors,
10 diesel ltStalinetztt tractors, 12 STZ-NATI tractors, 20 KhTZ and STZ wheel
tractors and S "Universal" tractors. Knowing the draw-bar power of the
tractors, we can carry out the following calculation;
Tractor Make
Total Power
Draw-bar of all tractors
Number of Power in of every make
Tractors HP in HP
1, Tractors ChTZ "Stalinetzf ligroin
15
48
720
2. Tractors ChTZ TtStalinetzlr diesel
10
50
500
3. Tractors StZ NATI
12
32
384
4. Tractors KhTZ and STZ - wheel
20
15
300
5. Tractors plowing -- Universal
10____
SO
TOTAL
65
984
On January 1, 1944 the MTS park had 65 tractors with a total of 1,984
horse power. The number of tractors converted into conventional 15-power
tractors is equal to 1,984 , 132,
--
15
Note: There is another method to convert the count of the
tractor park into conventional 15-power tractors, i,e, by multi-
plying the number of tractors of each make by calculated, con-
version coefficients, and adding the rc:sults. As conversion co-
efficients one may use the ratio of the power of each make of
tractor to 15 (drav'i bar capacity) . For example, the conversion
coefficient for the ligron~'Stalinetz~~ tractor is equal to
48- 3.2, for a "Stalinetzu diesel tractor 3.33, for STZ and
15 ~.1.
KhTZ wheel tractors 1, for 'tUniversal" tractors0,67 etc),
RESTRICTED
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(c) The preceding two indicators do not reflect tractor movement during
g
the year, although their number may fluctuate considerably (new tractors
come in, some tractor `s are disabled, some are transferred to other estab-
lishments, etc). For various computations one should know the number of
tractors for this or that period (month, quarter, season, year) and their
movements. As a result it is necessary to calculate one more index -
average registered. number of tractors for this or that period, using this
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incI x it is possible to calculate the average output of one tractor per
season.
To arrive at the averse registered number of tractors, it is neces-
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sary first to determine the number of tractor-days, i,e, total number of
days all the tractors were at the disposal of the enterprise, during a
specified period of time, This figure will be obtained by adding the num-
ber of tractors at the enterprise every day of the period. The quotient
of dividing the number of tractor-days by the number of days in a given
period will be the average registered number of tractors for that period.
Example: Let us assume that on April 1 a given sovhoz had 10 K1-TZ tractors,
on April 5 two tractors of the same make were added, on April 16 one was
withdrawn and on April 25 three more tractors came in. We want to determine
the average number of tractors for the month of April. Let us perform the
followi-ng calculation,
number
of days
Number of tractors
present during
that period
Number of
tract or-days
(col.3 x col,2)
1
2
3
4
1-4 April
4
10
40
-
5--15 April
11
12
132
16--24 April
9
11
99
25-30 April
6
14
84
TOTAL
30
--
355
Average number of
KhTZ tractors dur-
ing April in a
given enterprise
equal to 355, 12
If a sovhoz or lvrrS park has tractors of various makes and if we wanted
to have an idea of the park's power for a year, it would be necessary, first,
by the above mentioned method, to determ:i.ne the average seasonal number of
tractors by make, considering as a season the working period, i,e, that period
of time (in days) from the start of spring field operations to the end of fall
field operations; the entire number of tractors listed in the inventory books
of the enterprise should be considered (include the inactive tractors). Know-
ing the seasonal average number of tractors of each make it is possible by one
of the two methods mentioned to calculate the power of the tractor park
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N ,.z %icc
index it is possible to calculate the average output of one tractor per
To arrive at the avera~e registered number of tractors, it is neces-
sary first to determine the number of tractor--days, i.e, total number of
days all the tractors were at the disposal of the enterprise, during a
specified period of time. This figure will be obtained by adding the num-
ber of tractors at the enterprise every day of the period. The quotient
of dividing the number of tractor-days by the number of days in a given
period will be the average registered number of tractors for that period.
Example; Let us assume that on April 1 a given sovhoz had 10 KhTZ tractors,
on April 5 two tractors of the sine make were added, on April 16 one was
withdrawn and on April 25 three more tractors came in. We want to determine
the average number of tractors for the month of April. Let us perform the
seasons
following calculation.
number
of days
Number of tractors
present during
that period
Number of
tract or-days
(col.3 x col. 2 )
1
2
3
4
1-4 April
4
10
40
5-15 April
ll
12
132
16-24 April
9
11
99
25-30 April
6
14
84
TOTAL
30
--
355
Average number of
KhTZ tractors dur-
ing April in a
given enterprise
equal to 355, 12
...~_ ~,
If a sovhoz or IV'PS park has tractors of various makes and if we wanted
to have an idea of the pL:rkts power for a year, it would be necessary, first,
by the above mentioned method, to determine the average seasonal number of
tractors by make, considering as a season the working period, i.e, that period
of time (in days ) from the start of spring field operations to the end of fall
field operations; the entire number of tractors listed in the inventory books
of the enterprise should be considered (include the inactive tractors), Know-
ing the seasonal average number of tractors of each make it is possible by one
of the two methods mentioned to calculate the power of the tractor park
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iESTRiCTED
Seasonal average
registered number
of ~tStaluletz" ligroin
tractors 661 3.3
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average number of tractors converted into 15-power units. In a given
fin example is given below of the calculation of registered seasonal
tractors.
tered seasonal number of tractors converted into conventional 15-power
fCT
ED
converted into 15-power tractors. As a result we obtain the average regis-
sovhoz tractor spring
field work started on April 15, autumn field tractor
work ended on November 2. At the start of the field ~'rork the enterprise
had 2 '1Sta1inetz~' ChTZ ligroin tractors a.nd 11 STZ and KhTZ wheel tractors.
The following changes took place during the work period.
Stalinetztractors : One tractor was added on 2 May and one onj~July.
One tractor was withdrawn on 15 September.
STZ and KhTZ tractors; 3 tractors were added on 25 April and one tractor
was withdrawn on 3 June. 2 tractors were added on 12 July and one tractor
was withdrawni on 1 October. In addition, on 1 July 2 STZ NATI tractors
were added.
Let us first determine the average seasonal registered numbers of
tractors by make.
Number of I\Turber of tractors Number of
Date days in the present during eh Tractor-
period period days
34
192
288
14'7
TOTAL 202 - 661
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STZ and KhTZ - WHEEL TRACTORS
period
15/4-24/4
10
25/4.-z/6
39
3/6-11/7
39
12/7-30/9
g1
1/10-2/11
33
TOTAL
202
period days
11
110
14
546
13
507
15
1215
14
462
---
2, 840
STZ NATI Tractors: Two tractors of this make were received on 1 July
(up to 2 November) 125 days each. Inasmuch as the entire work pc,riod
was 202 days, the seasonal average registered number of STZ-NATI tractors
is equal to
2 x 125 1.2
We now are able to express the seasonal average registered number of
tractors converted to 15-powered units,
Draw bar Seasonal average Total Number of tractors
Tractor ke power rogisteredmunber converted into 15-
in III' of tractors Power powered units
ChTZ-Stalinetz
li r oin
48
3.3
158.4
STZ-NATI
32
1.2
38.4
STZ-KhTZ wheel
15
14.1
211..5
TOTAL
--
15.6
408.3
Seasonal average
registered number
of STZ and KhTZ
wheel tractors
2840 14.1
10.6
Seasonal average number of all tractors, converted into 15--power units,
based on the data in the above tables maybe calculated in two ways; (a) by
converting into 15-power tractors, separately according to make and adding up
the results (last column in the table); the total is 27.3; (b) by dividing the
sum total power, of all tractors of all makes (total of column 4) by 15.
Number of Number of tractors Number of
Date days in the present during each Tractor-
The difference is 0.1. The second method 1s more accurate;
Ti(CTEt
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:a~'fld.T~D
besides it is not necessary to do the calculations shorn in column 5.
To characterize a tractor park from the standpoint of quality it
is very important to show the mechanical condition of the tractor park.
To this end, tractors should. be divided into serviceable and those requir-
ing current repairs, capital or replacement repairs (i.e, necessitating
replacement of basic parts),
4? Indexes of Tractor Utilization
Tractor utilization in an enterprise is characterized by two basic
indexes : index of utilization of the tractor park and average production
of one tractor.
The index of utilization of the tractor park is equal to the average
number of tractors, opEaarated during a given period of time (arrived at in
the same manner as the average registered number of tractors, but only with
machines that performed work), expressed as a relative to the average regis-
tered number of tractors for the same given ~xeriod of time
In determining tractor output during the tractor operating period of
a given year, one should bear in mind that had the tractor during the en-
tire period performed only one type of work, we could express its output
in numbers of physical units of work performed (for example, numbers of
hectares plowed).
However, during the course of a year a tractor performs various types
of work, therefore to arrive at a summary index of its yearly output, it
is necessary to express the different types of work in homogen4ous units
and sum up the work performed during the years in these units.
The unit used in expressing each type of agricultural work, for their
comparison and summing up of all work, is the plowing of 1 hectare of soft
land (or i.n other words, 1 hectare of conventional soft plowing), Definite
coefficients have been established to convert all agricultural operations
into units of conventional soft plowing, These coefficients may change de-
pending on a number of conditions. As a rule, tractor narks in MTS and
sovhozes, and particularly those in all MTS or sovhoes of a rayon or oblast
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of a tractor ' s
'riY',~~' y'pp J
y~~if~8 ti
li~w ~a I'~rY? "`x ti~ar(r a~7t~+.4 Vy~;`Nt 14
k
Coefficient of
conversion in-
to units of
Work performed
in conventional
units 'of soft
soft plowing
plowing
1
6,000
0.6
2,80
output one should coisider the ex-
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taken as a whop have tractors of various makes and the number of tractors
varies with the work p'':riod. Therefore, in order to characterize the
average output of a tractor, in any one enterprise or group of enterprises,
one should divide the total quantity of work performed by the tractor park,
converted into hectare soft plowing units, by the average registered number
of tractors, converted into conventional 15-power tractors,
Tn determining the average outj:ut, one must base oneself, specifically,
on the tractors registered and not only on those that actually performed the
work, Othenirise the degree of utilization of all the park tractors would be
in correctly reflected and there would be no incentive to increase such utili-
sation.
Let u.s illustrate this situation. Suppose in a given MTS, average yearly
registered number of tractors converted into 15-power units was 116 units and
that during the year this MTTS performed the following work (work performed by
:rr'S during the year expressed in physical units and converted into convention-
. ,
al units of soft plowing);
Type of work Unit of Actual work
l\tleasure performed in
physical units
1. Ply~wing hectare 6,000
fall ows
2e Cultivating hectare 4,00
fallaws
3. Winter . hectare 14, C)00
f allows
4.Plowing hectare 6,000
cloves,
etc.
14,000
8,400
TOTAL WORK PERFORMED - -- 74,143
Average output of one conventional 15-power tractor is 74,13 639.1
As final indicator
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distance travelled.
Let us establish the following conventional designations:
N - power
P - tractive force in kilograms
S - distance in meters
T - time in seconds
R - work
V - speed per hour in kilometers
Using these designations, we may express:
x
determing the percentile relation of the average factual yearly output
to the planned output.
A very important index, characterizing the degree of effective use
of tractors and necessary for the correct organization of tractor work,
is an index of the utilization of the tractor's tractive force.
Tractive force (or power) is the quotient of dividing power by speed,
while power in turn is determined by the amount of work per second (equal while po
to the quotient of dividing work by time). The work of the machine (in this
case the tractor) is equal to the product of multiplying tractive force by
meters per second, therefore power, expressed in horsepower is equal to:
P x s, therefore N P s (1) i.e. P S kilograrr)nete.rs per
. T
Since, as a unit of power we accept a horse-power equal to 75 kilogram-
second,
.T(75
Using tractor speed equal to V Kilometers per hour, we have:
N ~. P V'( 1, 000 : P_. .V.~
75 ,c 60 60 270
This deduction is a result of the following considerations:
Kilometers p;r hour. To express V and m in the same units, we should:
S in formulas (1) and...(2) speed in meters per second, V speed in
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in Kilometers; (2) divide V by 60 X 60 to convert to seconds and not per
(1) multiply V by 1,000 in order to express the result in meters, and not
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f AICiED
From formula (3) we obtain the following equ
atian of tracbhve force:
Pp NX2'70
(4)
This formula enable ~
.s us to determine the tracttive force of a tractor,
if we know the draw bar capacity (N) and r,
) speed (V), 270 + a constant multi -
plier,
V/hen traitor attacl~rn.ents are used the tractive force of the tractor
must overcome the tractive resistance of the attachment
, In operation
the attachments encounter soil. reshstce and the resistance of plants
(in clearing work), etc . Resistance ry~
p~..r 1 Centilneter of Operating width
of the attachment is called specific resistance
, while the r?sistance of
the entire attaclirnent is called -brae '
ta.ve resistance and is measured in
Kilagr, arras , In figuring out the tractive s ' -
re,. a.sl~ance of a n1aw one must
consider the depth of plowing,
If we designate the attachment operating width by A Centimeters,
specific resj_stanco by K Kilograms, then the tractive
resistance will
be K x A Kilograms, If we talk about
a plow9 the K will be k x B,
where k is resistance per 1 square centimeters and B depth of furrow.
Special tables are available for calculating tractive force and
tractive resistance of various attachments
She higher the tractive force
of the tractor and tractive resistance of
the attachment, the higher the
Utilization of tractor efficiency. The ratio o (in ,percent) of tractive
resistance of the attachment to the tractive
force of the tractor is
called the coefficient of utilization of tractive force of a tr~C'h, nr
GLGGacnlnents hs im-)era.tive, The tractor will be eff ,~,
r or the maximum utilization of tractive force of the tractor
a suitabl
e
not be overtaxed, while on the ~ ~ s could
other the load should not be rn?r~, h~7 ?,..:.L.
"".+-J YY1 ujl L correct selection of attachments . On the one han
d at 1
5. Ca~.culatil the Effective Use Made of
Fuels
The amount of i'ucal (.kerosene liE~rro:in
~ these] oils) and lubricants
used in operating a tractor is of signifhcan
importance, The actual,
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iES1RiCTEfl
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consumption of fuel per hectare of conventional soft plowing (by each
make of tractor) is calculated and compared with established quotas.
The extent to which agriculture is supplied with truck transportation
may be expressed either by the number of cars on a certain date (for exam-
pie on 1 January), grouped by rnak,s and their total tonnage, or by the num-
ber of machine-days the trucks were in the enterprise, or by the average
registered number of automobiles during a given period (by makes, with
total tonnage indicated). These indexes are calculated in the same way
as comparable indexes showing adequacy of tractor supply.
The number of machine-days worked and the percentage ratio of this
number to the total number of dams the automobiles were available at the
enterprise all serves to indicate the effective use of automobile parks.
The work of an autopark may be characterized by a number of indexes,
basic among which are the total tonnage transported and the distances
covered. A composite index of tonnage and distances is c ,he number of
ton-kilometers, ioe. work-units required to transport one ton over a
distance of one kilometer.
To determine correctly the total number of ton-kilometers covered by
all the automobiles, it is necessary to determi..ne this number for each in-
dividual trip and then add those together for all the trips over a given
period, The number o1 ton-kilometers f or each individual trip is equal to
the product of tonnae moved multiplied by the number of kilometers covered
with this tonnage.
Example; An automobile f.:r sovkhoz A carried 2 tons to a point B
(3O kilometers) and returned empty. Then from the same sovkhoz, this car
delivered to a point C (l8 kilometers away) a load of 1,8 tons. From point
C to point ID (8 kilometers away) 1,5 tons are delivered and from point D to
sovkhoz A (22 kilometers away), a 1,2 ton load is carried,)
It is required to determine the total number of ton-kilometers for
these trips, Our calculations are as follows;
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~ES1~~C3Efl
Trips
From A to B
From B to A
From A to C
From C to D
From D to A
Distance
(Kilometers)
Tonnage
carried
Number or
Ton-Kilometer
Worked
30
2.0
60
30
18
1,E
32.4
1.5
12.0
22
1.2
26.4
TOTAL
10E3
6.5
130.$
It would be incorrect to compute the ton-kilometers by the totals
of distance covered and quantity of goods moved. Thus, if in the above
example, to arrive at the total number of ton-kilometers we would multiply
6.5 by 103, the product (702 ton-kilometers) would be f'ar removed from the
truth (130.8 ton-kilometers).
Let us name a few other indexes, characterizing automobile utilization:
(a) Index of utilization of automobile perk, is determined by calcula-
ting for a given period, the percentage ratio of the number of machine-days
of work performed by the automobile to the total number of machine-days the
automobiles remained in the farm enterprise.
(b) Index of pay-load runs,
a load.
ftTrRcTEn
(Example: Two automobiles each covered 120
of which with a load; 3 automobiles each covered
a load of 140 kilometers; one automobile covered
80 kilometers was with a load.
Coefficient of pay-run
72.3 percent. )
kilometers, 90 kilometers
130 kilometers, carrying
160 kilometers, of which
0
loo
14O3 ? 8o x 1o0 6
++ 180'3 + 160 940
(c) The index of effective load is equivalent to the ratio (in percent)
other words, it is the ratio of the actual ton-kilometers to the load-caps...
of the total tonnage carried to full load capacity of the automobiles.
city ton-kilometers
i.e. the part of the distance covered with
- 2i
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(Example : The following table shows the load-capacity, actual work performed
and calculation of effective load capacity).
Automobile Make
ZIS -5
ZIs-5
GAS AA
GAS AA
GAS-AA
Tonnage Distance covered Tonnage Number of Production
in kilometers moved ton-- Capacity
kilometers with a full
load
3
50
2 0 8
110
150
3
50
2.6
130
150
1.5
20
1,3
26
30
1.5
5
0.8
4
7.5
1.5
23
1.4
32.2
34.5
TOTAL
--
14
8.9 '
332.2
372
Based on the above we: are in a position to compute the index of effec-
tive load by make of car and for the park as a whole.
Index of effective load for ZIS-5 automobiles
(140 t- 13 0) X 100 27,000 90 percent
150+150 300
Index of effective load for automobile GAS AA
., (26+4t-32.2) X 100 ,,. 622o X6.4 percent
Index of load capacity for the whole automobile park
220 . $9.3 percent
d) Average technical speed of the automobile is equal to total dis--
tance covered (kilometers) divided by the actual hours of running time
(including stops for whatever reason). This index shows the degree to
which the operating time of the automobile was effectively~ wed.
(e) Average commercial speed is distance covered (in kilometers)
divided by the total number of hours the car had been in use
all stops for all and every reason) . This index gives the degree of ` ef1'ec.
Live time use of the automobile,
(f) Average performance of one average registered 'automobile and
one average registered automobile ton is given in ton-kilometers f
given period of time.
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To obtain these indexes, we first divide the total number of kilo-
meters covered in a given period by the average registered number of
automobiles, Then this is divided by the average registered number of
automobile-tons (i,e, total tonnage of the average registered number of
automobiles),
Exam: At the beginning of May a sovkhoz had 3 GAZ -AA automobiles
(1.5 ton capacity) and 2 ZIS automobiles (3 ton capacity). On 1$ May one
AMO automobile (2.5 ton capacity) was added, During May a total of 3,614
ton kilometers were produced.
The average registered number of automobiles for the month under the
given conditions is equal to:
3. _ lam} - 169 w 5.45
31 31
Average registered number of machine-toms for the month in the given
example is:
1.5 x 3) .- (3 x 2)7< 31 t (2.5 x 14) 360.5 11.6
-66 7: -tan k dome tars
Avers a rfa:r~nance;r for one, c:
Each enterprise with automobiles, keeps a record of work performed
with trip-sheets. Information in these trip-sheets enables one to calcu-
late all the enumerated indexes as well as fuel consumption,
Miscellaneous Types of Movers in Agriculture;
Indexes of Mechanical Traction Power Potential;
As mentioned above, besides tractors and automobiles, other types of
mechanical mgrs are used in agriculture; kerosene, "gasolene, petroleum,
steam, wand, water, electrogenerators and electro-motors
native-power is extensively used in agriculture
movers gives us an indication of the overall power
To ascertain the overall power potential, with
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~'aiCTEB
movers, however, it is necessary to express this in homogeneous units.
In agriculture, as mentioned before, such a unit is mechanical horse
power (HP). Tractor power, as we know, is expressed in these same units-
HP. Power of motor-combines and automobiles, is also measured in HP.
Power of other mechanical movers is also measured in these units, Power
of electrical installations is expressed in kilowatts. Power of wind-
driven motor is determined in HP; In this case the capacity depends on
the diameter of the wind wheel and wand velocity. Capacity of wind-driven
prime-movers should be based on the average yearly wind velocity in the
given area. The power of water-driven prime-movers may also be computed:
in horse--power. Conversion of live and electrical motive-power into HP
was discussed earlier.
By expressing the power of all energy sources employed in agriculture,
in HP jt is possible to compute total power potential One should keep in
mind, that adding up all available energy sources, belonging to a given
enterprise or a group of enterprises, may in some cases result in duplica-
tion, while in other cases, on the contrary, may fall short in the estimate
of energy consumed by the enterprise. A double count may occur in enter-
prises with secondary movers through the inclusion of their capacity into
the total power potential. To avoid duplication, one should deduct from
the total power of the prime-movers the power of m.overs serving electro-
generators and exclude from the total the energy of electrogenerators
(in as much as their power will appear in the form of motor power, run by
electrical generators). On the other hand, we should add to this total the
power of electric motors and electric apparatus run by outside power, i.e.
those working on current received from outside.
In the final analysis, the total power potential o agricultural enter-
prises is equal to the sum of the power of prime movers (mechanical and live
motive power), less those serving electrical generators, plus the output of
electrical motors and apparatus run by outside current, as well as lighting
equipment used for technical purposes and the lighting of working space.
The same conditions apply if we want to determine the total power pro-
duced by agricultural enterprises (total parer produced is equal to the
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product of the power of prime-movers multiplied by the hours of work. In
the case of mechanical movers it is measured in horse-power hours; and f or
electrical movers, in kilowatt hours. To convert kilowatt hours into horse
power hours, we use the same coefficient as when converting kilowatts into
,
horse-power: 1.36).
In spite of the rapid growth of agricultural mechanization, live motive
power, and in the first place, the horse retains its importance.
ccounting and statistics of horse work power should show the availabil-
ity of such Force and indexes of its employment.
In each separate enterprise the reserve of live tractor power may be
determined by the average number of days that all work animals are actually
. with the enterprise during given period of time (i.e. by the number of feed-
days of the work-animals, which is determined in the same manner as cow. feed-
days).
If we know the number of work horses ( or other work animals ) for each
day, we are in a position, 'for a given period of time (for example, month,
quarter, year), to determine the average registered number of horses by
dividing the number of horse feed-days by the length of the period in days.
For determining the live traction power potential in a given rayon,
oblast, etc, registration and livestock accounting data are used. Besides,
at sovkhozes and kolkhozes, sources of information on work animals are the
periodic reports (monthly and quarterly) on the strength of which we may
compute the average yearly number of work horses and work oxen.
In consideration of the role of live motive power in agriculture,
considerable importance is assumed by the index of the degree of chaniza-
Lion of power potential, which is equivalent to the ratio of the power of
mechanical and electrical prime-movers to the total power of all motive forces.
5 Tractors -- total power
2 Cornes - with prime-movers
2 Automobiles - motor capacity
3 Stationary prime-movers
1 Electrogeneratar
2 Motor-generator sets.
Electric 'motor.
92 HP
38 HP
6 Kilowatt
5 Kilowatt
at sovkhoz "A".
or 8,16 HP
or 6.8 HP
3 Kilowatt or 4,.08 HP
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ream le; On 1 January 1945 the following prime movers were
158 HP
6O HP
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The electric generator is served by a prime-mover of 10 HP. On the
same date, the sovkhoz had 40 work-horses with an average live weight of
390 kilograms. Tractive ve force of each horse 390 ~( 14 54.6 kilo-
~.
100
?ram~ meters per second, or
grams, s, power 54.6 1.1 ~ 60.06 k1 ' log
60.06 0.$ HP. The power of all 20'Nhorses z 0.$ $ 40 : 32 HP.
75
is
1L)
+? 60 ~ 92 `t? 3$ 10 +- 6.$ .s- 140$ + 32) !M 3$0.$$
(15~ ., (Q!:'
Index of mechanization of power potential w. (3
3g0,gg
Index of electrification of power potential ~. (6.8 t ,O$) 100
91.6 percent.
3$0.$$
operate A ricuZtural Machinery.
the Effective Use of Combines.
Indexes on
determining the quantity and effective use of agricultural machin-
In
tESTfliCiED
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2.$ percent.
Of great interest in agricultural production is the coefficient of
of tractive power. To illustrate the computation of this
mechanization
let us convert into HP entire tractive power potential
coefficient,
on a given date in MTS and Kolkhozes of a rayon. Assume that on that
date we had 250 tractors with a total draw-bar capacity of 5,6O HP, and
6,030 head of work horses. Using 0.75 HP as the power of each horse, we
?
determine the total power of all horses as 0.75 6, O$O = ,560 HP.
Total mechanical and live tractive power is equal to 5,6O HP =; 4,560
HP 1 10, 420 HP while the index of mechanical tractive power in the rayon
~
The t otal power Potential in the given sovkhoz on 1 January 1915 was;
~, 5,$60 x 100 56.2 percent.
~. 10,420
Indexes of mechanization of Dower potentials and tractive power may
not only in accordance with the power structure of the prime-
be computed
movers but also in terms of the composition of the power produced.
,
$, Determinin7 theuaritit and Effective Use o
ery and implements they are as a rule grouped according to use. Agricul-
tural machinery and implements may be divided into the following main groups;-
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1. Soil cultivating machines and implements (plows of various types,
surface plows, harrows ) .
2. Sowing and planting machinery (seeders of various types, potato
planters, planting-setting machines and others).
3, Machines and implements for plant care (various cultivators, hoes,
hullers).
4. Machines for harvesting and. processing grass crops (hay mowers,
horse and tractor rakes, clover-hullers, hay presses).
5. Machines for harvesting grains (combines windrowers, reapers,
reaper-stockers, binders and others).
6. Grain threshers, semi-complex and complex.
7. Sorters and winnowers.
3. Machinery for harvesting and processing other crops (potato diggers,
beet pullers, flax drawing, flax scutching,, cotton pickers, etc.).
9. Special equipment for vegetable raising and gardening.
10. Machines and equipment for roadbuilding and reclamation (rollers,
swamp plows, bush rooters, brush cutters, grubbing machines).
ll. Machines and implements for anima. husbandry (hay cutters, root
cutters, silo cutters and other machines for preparing fodder, separators,
milking apparatus).
12. Special implements for poultry raising, bee keeping, silk-worm
breeding. .
13. Apparatus for combating agri cul dal pests.
Individual types of agricultural machinery and implements are grouped
according to the types of tractive power, for which a given machine or im-
plement is designed (tractor, horse). Larger machines are grouped by make.
Inasmuch as combines of different make have varying operating widths
(15 foot combines have an operating width of 4,6 meters, 20 foot combines -
an operating width of 6.2 meters, northern - an operating width of 2.5 meters), to arrive at an overall index of sufficiency in combines, the entire combine
park is expressed in terms of conventional 15-foot combines.
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ote : By mu7.tip1Y~-ng the number of combines of each make by the
corresponding conversion coefficient ~5 foot - by 1; 20 foot - by
northern - by 0.54]).
s the degree t o
he revalence of combine harvesting i
An index of ~ p
:n
ich combines are used in harvestg spike grams, sunflower and other
/
th combines. This coefficient is equal
crops which may be harvested
harvested by cornbineS to the
to the ratio (in percent) of the acreage total acreage under the above mentioned crops.
of agricltural m.achires and in par a.-
The coefficient of util~.~at~.an of machine s
~ by the ratio of the average nur~ber
cular combines j is determ~-nee ~ start of the
to the total number of machines at the
which were in aperata.on
harvest .
routput of a combine, when used as a
basic indexes for deterrr~.na.ng
(and not for stationary threshing) are
harvesting machine ~ he seas an, based
e harvested (in hectares) during t
(a) Average acreage
arately.
combine and on each make of combine sep
on the canven'ta.onal 15 f oat sted acreage
at by dividing; the total combine harve
This index is arrived
converted into con-
. seasonal registered number of combines, c
by the average
entional 15-foot combines, by the number of combines of corresponding
v
makes. ste per day. With
importance is the average acreage
Of primary
harvested, the period of harvesting
an increase in average daily acreage
ortance in overcoming lodes of grain,
decreases. This is of great imp
ed rain during the season, based. on
b Average quantity of thresh g
d on each make of combine separately..
one conventional 15-foot combine an
D ree of Mechanisation in A rum
g the e
i
n
rmin
C) Dete
f this word we
d sense o
cul. ure in the broa
tion of Agra.~
hanisa
By mec mean dvanced
a xicultur. e in terms of embracing new a
the reorgani~at~.on of g
bines and other up_
com
s and other methani.cal movers,
t
or
trac
i ues - hn-
tec q
s The mechanization of agricultura produc~
to-date agricultural. chl.ne .
tion is achieved through machine-.tractor stations.
REST R1CTE
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AESTRICTEIJ
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Basic index of the nichanization of separate agricultural operations
is the percentile ratio of a given operation, performed by mechanical trac-
tive force, to the total volume of the same operation, $Exarnple: If the
total acreage plowed for summer planting (winter planting, spring planting
and fallows and summer crops) was 6,000 hectares, including 1,800 hectares
tractor-plowed, then we may say that plowing for summer planting is mechan--
machines.
of the work has been performed using complex horse-drawn agricultural
same inner. In addition to these indexes, to evaluate the qualitative
level of agricultural labor it is very important to establish what share
80 percent,
Indexes of mchanization of other operations may be computed in the
10. Primary Anal sy is of Agricultur~pchanization Data
caterpillar tread and wheel tractors, and the different makes within their
It is of interest to study changes in the composition of the tractor
park (dividing the total number of tractors and their total power into
bons, degree of mechanization of tractive power etc).
tractor, combine, automobile, degree of mechanization of individual opera--
The dynamics of all qualitative indexes is also very important (output per
total tonnage, combines, other agricultural machines and implements,
dynamics of tractors, their total power, number of automobiles and their
The second phase of the analysis is a study of the quantitative
mechanization of the various operations,
a position to judge the extent to which there is a properly coordinated
agricultural operations, On the strength of such an analysis we are in
In analysing data on the mechanization of agriculture one first
analyzes data pertaining to the degree of mechanization of individual
these resources. For this purpose, the energy potential of all these power
in agriculture (in percent), also the mechanization and electrification of
Another phase of the analysis should be examination of energy resources
basic divisions,)
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RlrjTEU
Basic index of the mechanization of separate agricultural operations
is the percentile ratio of a given operation, performed by mechanical trac-
five force, to the total volume of the same operation. Example: If the
total acreage plowed for summer planting (nter planting, spring planting
and fallows and summer crops) was 6,000 hectares, including 4,800 hectares
tractor-plowed, then we may say that plowing for summer planting is mechan-
ized to the extent of 4800 >(l00
6,000
80 percent,
Indexes of mychanizat ion of other operations may be computed in the
same nir ner, In addition to these indexes, to evaluate the qualitative
level of agricultural labor it is very important to establish what share
of the work has been performed using complex horse-drawn agricultural
machines.
10, Primary Analysis of A~;riculfural~1 chanizati on Data
In analying data on the mechanization of agriculture one first
analyzes data pertaining to the degree of mechanization of individual
agricultural operations. On the strength of such an analysis we are in
a position to judge the extent to which there is a properly coordinated
mechanization of the various operations.
The second phase of the analysis is a study of the quantitative
dynamics of tractors, their total power, number of automobiles and their
total tonnage, combines, other agricultural machines and implements.
The dynamics of all qualitative indexes is also very important (output per
tractor, combine, automobile, degree of mechanization of individual opera-
Lions, degree of mkchanization of tractive power etc)
It is of interest to study changes in the composition of the tractor
park (dividing the total number of tractors and their total power into
caterpillar tread and wheel tractors, and the different makes within their
basic divisionsr.)1
Another phase of the analysis should be examination of energy resources
in agriculture (in percent), also the mechanization and electrification of
these resources. For this purpose, the energy potential of all these power
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is expressed in units (in HP). These are summed up and then
resources
the relative wieght of the power of each unit is determined as related
to the total; so also the relative importance of the power of mechanical
and electrical prime-movers to the total.
of the amount of power available to labor is very important.
An index
either as the relationship of the overall power of all
It may be calculated
movers, servang the operating machines (in HP), to the average yearly number
of operating workers (potentiai: index of degree. of ,power equipment ) or as
the amount of ener gY produced during a year (in horse-power hours) per one
-
man -hour .
Groups of MTS should be analyzed according to tractor park capacity,
average output per tractor and per combine, groupings of tractor and combine
by seasonal output. All these classifications nable us to express
operators Y R
various aspects of the problem in relative values (in percent). In analysing
tions for each separate year and overtime, a number of important
the tabula
can be made. Specifically, both outstanding and backward MTS
deductions
should be singled out for further study. In particular the greatest accom-
plishments of individual tractor and combine operators should be brought
out . It should, be possible to gain an idea of the additional results which
could be obtained from more effective use of tractors and combines. It is
determine how the productivity of labor changes overtime, as
possible to
applied to the MTS as a whole and to individual tractor drivers and combine
operators as their output increases and they are promoted from one group to
another, etc.
In group analysis we calculate certain group averages; for example -
average seasonal output of a tractor or a combine, grouped according to
ordinary and leading tractor and combine aperators, and also acc ording to
the basic types of tractors and combines. Based on such analysis of the
material in the statistical collection "Socialistic Agriculture of the USSR",
yields interesting data, not only on the overall average output of the trac-
tors and the combine, but also on the output per tractor or combine according
to groups of leading MTS. Analysis of this data also givesthe picture for
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outstanding ITS and tractor and combine operators, For example, in 1935
with an average output for all MTS in hectares of conventional plowing
for one wheel tractor as 476 hectares, and 1,229 hectares for one cater-
pillar-tractor, in Aktanysh MTS, Tartar ASSR; 1,417 hectares were worked
over. In the Mazharsk MTS, Ryazansk Oblast, 3,754 hectares were worked
per caterpillar tractor, etc. These results represent material for
determing potential increases of machine utilization,
11, Sources of Data on the Number and Performance of Tractors,
Automobiles, Combines and Other Machines
Basic sources of statistical data on the number and performance
of tractors, automobiles, combines and other agricultural machines are
the yearly reports of sovkhozes, MTS, and kolkhozes, as well as special
accounting data on tractors and combines which is collected by the TsSU
(Central Statistical Administration), Gosplan USSR. Annual reports con-
taro information on the shifts during the year on the number of tractors
and combines; while in the sovkhozes, in addition to this, automoiles
are accounted for. Here we also find figures on the average yearly num-
ber of tractors converted into 15-power units, and (in MTS accounts) on
the average yearly number of combines converted into 15-foot units, aver-
age yearly registered number of automobiles and their total tonnage.
These same reports show average tractor output (in units of soft plowing)
and data on fuel consumption.
Kolkhoz annual reports give the number of automobiles, agricultural
machines and implements on a certain date -- the end of the accounting
year. Aside from the annual reports there is an additional source of in-
formation on the number of tractors, combines, automobiles and their per-
formance. This is the account of current operations on the sovkhoz and
Branches of TsSU Gosplan USSR annually count the distribution of
tractors on January 1 and July 1, This is of particular importance, in
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the first place because the count covers all kinds of establishments
tractors and in the second place, because it gives a picture of
having
the overall mechanical condition of all the tractors. Accounting for
combines by year of make and mechanical condition was first initiated
on 1 November 1945.
In agricultural enterprises tractor output and that of the tractor
operators in MTS is accounted for by the report sheets of the tractor-
operator. On these sheets entries are per shift and by separate opera-
tion. Each operation is described by type of soil, nomclature and
number of attachments, depth of cultivati on, quality of work, volume of
work performed per specifications and actually (in natural physical units
and converted into conventional units of soft plowing). In addition we
find here fuel consumption (measured at the start of each shift and at
the end of each operation performed during the shift) and lubricant con-
sumption. The report sheets of the tractor operator provide f or cumula-
tive record work-days, and also give the reasons why tasks were
recording of
not accomplished together with the rema~rs of the sectional agronomist.
Performance of combines and combine-operators is accounted for on
the record sheets of the combine operator. Records on these sheets are
kept by work-dates, by individual fields of crop rotation, and separate
crops and operations. On these sheets we enter assignments and their
execution, fuel consumption (which is measured the start and end of
trip sheet of the automobile, which includes the name of the driver,
The principal accounting document for automobile operation is the
the operation) lubrication consumption, and a computation of the combine
operator's earnings.
time of departure from and return to the garage, assignment, gasoline
covered and ton-kilometers, time on the road and delays.
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consumption, place of pick-up and load destination, number of kilometers
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Example for Chapter IX.
Solve the following example based on chapter IX.
Tractors STZ and KhTZ, wheel (15/30 HP)
Tractors plowing (10/20 HP)
Tractors ChTZ-S 60 ligroin (48/60 HP)
Inventory of trucks on 1 January 1940 was:
GAS AA - load capacity 1,50 tons
ZIS-5. - load capacity 3 tons
ZIS-21 -- load capacity 3
At harvest time, the number of combines was:
15-foot (Kommunar)
Northern
During 1940 the following changes took place in the tractor and
automobile parks (number of combines remained constant throughout the
year).
Tractors STZ and KhTZ
2 May received 2 tractors
14 July received 1 tractor
3 October checked out 2 tractors
10 November checked out 1 tractor
Plow ng Tractors ;
10 June received 2 tractors
5 August checked out 1 tractor
ChTZ -$ -60 Tract ors :
12 September checked out l tractor
Besides, on 29 July 2 tractors SKhTZ--NATI checked in
(32/48 h,f ).
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In sovkhoz A during the year 1940, field operations started on
18 April and ended on 2g October. At the start of field operations
the sovkhoz had the following tractors (by make) :
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Automobile Park; One 3-ton (gas generating) automobile ZIS-21
was received on 15 July.
In addita. on, the f ollo vi:ng yearly average number of prime movers
of ormation is available regarding the performance
The following i
of tractors, automobiles and combines during 1940?
Tractors: Average seasonal number of tractors actually employed
1g1L0 was 450.
total capacity 70 ~
Petroleum prime movers 5,
total capacity 75 HP
Hydraulic prime movers 3,
3 Kilowatts
Electric motors 1, total capacity
6 Kilowatts
Electric generator 1, total capacity
of horses in the sovkhoz during 1940 was. 5$,
Yearly average number
the.. hoof per horse was 110 kilograms , Yearly
whereby average weight ,on.
r of roduction workers in the sovkhoz during
average registered numbe p
were in the sovkhoz:
16 e2
Fallows plowed by tractor 300 hectares
C1over . plowed by tractor 5~O hectares
Double harrow plowed by tractor 1,520 hectares
Other work performed in conventional units of
~,, ,552 hectares
soft plowing
Output quota per season per conventional
350 hectares
15_pcrnrer tractor
A,ltomobiles : machine-days actually employed 920
EST R CT ED.
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165,600 Kilometers
total distance covered
which with load 136,500 Kilometers
of who
Carried .ed from ovkhaz A to point B (40 Kilometers) 2.2 tons of load
`s
From sovkhoz A to point S (2S Kilometers) 5 tons were moved
35 Kilometers) the automobile was empty
Fri C to s ovkhoz A
1.9 tons of joaa
om oint B to point C (10 Kilometers)
Fr p
sovkhoz A (2~3 Kilometers) 3.5 tons were moved
From point S to
in the year amounted to 2~36,305 ton-lcilometors
All other trips made dur g
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111111EV
-'?-
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T
GTEd
Combines; 3 combines worked on harvesting;
spike grains harvested by combines 640 hectares
threshed during harvesting 10,310 centners
Total acreage under spike grain crops in the sovkhoz during 1940, -
720 hectares. Output quota for 1 conventional 15-1oot combine, - 240
hectares.
It is required; 1. Determine index of the degree of utilization
of the tractor park.
2. Determine average yearly output of one average seasonal 15-power
tractor in hectares of soft plowing.
3.
Compute the percentage of fulfillment of the tractor output plan.
4. Determine the degree of effective use of the automobile park.
5. Compute the coefficient pf pay-load trips for automobiles.
6. Det.errine the total number of ton-kilometers performed by the
automobiles,
7. Determine the performance per one average year automobile and
per one average year machine-ton in ton-kilometers,
8. Compute the coefficient of the extent to which combines have
been used in harvesting spike grain crops..
9. Determine the coefficient of the effective use of combines,
10. Determine average output per combine and quota execution.
11. Determine the components of power potential in horse-power
and in percent to total power potential (average for 1940).
Show graphically the composition of energy potential (using bar
charts or pie diagrams).
12. Determine the degree (in percent) of mechanization of all
energy potentials and the degree (in percent) of mechanization of trac-
tive force.
13. Compute the coefficient of the amount of energy available for
one yearly production worker in the sovkhoz.
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plowing,
machinery by application?
(1) Coefficients for converting work into hectares of soft
Motor power of combine Kommunar
Motor power of automobile ZTS-21
Motor power of automobile ZIS-5
(2) Motor power of automobile GAS-i
single harrowing
clover-field plowing
fallow plowing
tons, 60 HP
tons, 38 HP
3011P
CONTROL QUESTIONS
(1) Into which two groups do we divide all machines used in
agriculture?
(2) Into which groups do we divide prime-movers used in agri-
culture?
(3) What indexes are used in expressing the availability of
tractors? .
(C) How do we determine the index tractor park utilization and
the index of tractor output: what conventional units are used to ex-
press tractor output?
(5) UVhat basic indexes are used in determining the availability
and utilization of automobiles?
(6) Into which basic groups do we divide agricultural working
(7) Yhat is known as the coefficient of use of combines?
(8)What conventional units are used to express the number of
available combines of different makes?
(9) How do we compute an index of utilization. and indexes of
the output of combines?
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1.4
0.11
1.5 tons, 32 HP
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(10) How do we determine the indexes of irneehanization and
the extent of tractor use for particular agricultural operations?
(11) How do we compute the size and composition of power
potential?
(12) How do we determine the index of mechanization of all
energy potentials and tractive power?
(13) now does one compute the index of power at the disposal
of labor?
(1L.) How do we determine the degree of planned performance
for liquid fuels and lubricants?
(15) Of what significance is the grouping of firms by indexes
of utilization of agricultural machines?
(16) What are the sources of data pertaining to availability
and utilization of agricultural machines?
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Branch offices of the TsSU(Central Statistical Administration)
Josplan USSR provide metnodological management over the work of agri-
cultural accounting departments. Actually they supervise and cheek
their work; through statistics they arrange agricultural accounting.
At tree same time these brancn of'f'ices of TsSU, themselves carry out
various phazes of agricultural statistics; They conduct census
(for example, live stock inventory, current tractor inventories, and
the count of combines). They make special selective investigation
(for example, studies of productivity in kolkhozos, studies of kolkhoz
livestock husbandry, studies or foader supplies in the kolkhoz, current
studies on the budgets of kolkhoz members, etc). Branches of TsSU anal
yze the annual reports of sovkhozes, MTS, and auxiliary enterprises. As
of 1935, TsSU branches have been responsible for establishing the size
of sown area for the particular year.
It is the duty of TsSU branches also to estirre. to yields for all
types of crops. To this end trey analyse sovknoz and kolkhoz accounting
data on trio prospec;;s for agricultural crops and check these reports
through selective evaluation made by inspectors of trio various land sec-
Lions and rayons. This is done also by taking sample measurements of
the crops before harvest time.
The People's Commissariat of .Agriculture, the People's Commissariat
of Grain and live stock, Sovkhozes and other administrations engaged in
agricultural production,. keep primarily operational records, required
for daily operational guidance of their subordinate enterprises,
The People's Commissariat of Agriculture and its local branches,
organize, receive and summarize reports on the operations of Kolkhozes
THE ACCOUNTING SYSTEM T V AGRICULTTJRAL ENTERPRISES
1. Standard Forms for Agricultural Accounting and Statistics
end MTS.
~EyrRsGrEO
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EStRICIED
A close liaison exists between the work of TSSU (Central Statis-
tical Administration) and the work of the above mentioned organizations,
TSSU branches make extensive use of the operational accounting for sta-
tistical analay~sis, and TSSU branches produce final summation figures
on basic elements of agricultural production (areas under cultivation,
crop yield, number of cattle). The quality of. these summaries often
depends upon the soundness of the reports and accounts on which TSSU
branches base their figures (for example, statements on approval of
work done, five--day reports preceding the final accounting of areas
seeded, inventory of cattle preceding live stock census, etc), On
the other hand, agrarian organizations are interested in timely and
exact determination, by three TSSU branches of the final figures of
agricultural production or of the particular relevant factors; knowledge
of which is essential both in planning and in operational work,
2. Kolkhoz Accounting
The accounting system of agricultural enterprises consists of
agricultural enterprises consists of an annual accounting and periodic
reports during the year, Annual reports are a basic source for a
thorough knowledgeof the organizational-economic well-being and work
kolkhozes, sovkhozes and MTS.
The Kolkhoz annual reports supply information on the number
of households in a kolkhoz, actual and registered; on the population--
adults, able-bodied and youth 14-16 years old; on the number of able
bodied kolkhoz members, engaged in industry, transport, etc? but resid-
ing at the kolkhoz; on the number of work days performed by all kolkhoz
members; on their grouping by work-day performance, on shares received
per work-day both in kind and in money; on the number of production
brigades and sections including those who received additional pay; on
the number of ko hoz members who received additional pay, an the ful-
fillment of crop plans; on gross harvesting broken down by individual
IIESTRIGTEtI
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crops and their distribution; on livestock inventory and fulfillment
of the State plan for developing animal husbandry; on production in
animal husbandry; on kolkhoz fulfillment of its obligations to the
State for deliveries and payment in kind to MTS; on the number of
individual agricultural machines and implements;
come of kolkhoz members and its distribution among them; on capital
investment; on expenditures of funds for cultural and welfare needs;
and on the financial balances of the kolkhozes.
Annual kolkhoz reports are prepared under the guidance of
agrarian organizations. Primary objectives of annual reports are to
summarize the annual operations of the kolkhozes, control of their
managements, and proper income distribution among the kolkhoz members.
annual reports are subject to statistical analysis by agrarian organ-
izations, The analysis is rather detailed. In addition to adding up
direct totals of all data in the report, in working over the material,
kolkhozes are grouped by various characteristics.
Grouping characteristics may be summarized into the following
main classifications;
(l) Characteristics describing kolkhozes by power, by size; grouping
kolkhozes by the number of households per kolkhoz, and by monetary in~
come per kolkhoz.
(2) Characteristics, describing individual elements and achievementsof
agricultural production in kolkhozes; grouping kolkhozes by average
yearly milk yield per forage cow; the number of kolkhozes, paying addi-
tionally for achievements in individual branches of agriculture, etc.
(3) Characteristics showing the distribution of kolkhoz income; group-
ing of kolkhoz by percentage of monetary income allocated to the indi-
visible fund, by the percentage of monetary income allocated by work-
days.
(Li.) Characteristics showing kolkhoz members' participation in the commun-
al economy of the kolkhoz and level of work discipline; grouping by num-
ber of..,wa? a ,performed by the kolkhoz members, by seeds, potatoes and
Li
tip, aye
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money distributed as earnings per work-day.
The existing system of periodic kolkhoz accounting was approved
by order of the Council of People's Comrnissars of 28 April 1938. Eleven
accounting forms were confirmed for all kolkhozes and three additional
forms only for cotton and flax producing rayons.
Subsequently several additional accounting forms wore introduced:
Form #15 - "Progress report on soil preparation, planting of subtropi-
cal crops and nurseries." Form 716 "Kolkhoz report on the organiza-
tion of animal husbandry farms and properly supplying them with live-
stock" Form #17 - "Report on planting gardens, vineyards, berry fields,
and availability of plants in nurseries." Form j'l8 - '1Progress report
on the preparation, use and building of nurseries and hot houses."
Form 4/19 - "Progress report on pest and disease control of agricultural
platns.rt Form #20 - ''Report on 'insecticides for combating pests in agri-
cultural plants.' Form #21 - "Report on sowing care and harvesting of
seeds and harvesting of rubber bearing plants." Form X22 - "Progress
report on fodder preparation." Form 7,23 - "Report on sewing, planting
and agricultural-technical measures in the care of mulberry trees.`'
Form ~25 - "Report on sowing, care and harvesting of coriander." On
the other hand Form 7~9 was revoked - "Progress report on the threshing
of grain and vegetable oil crops. (already discussed in Chapter III).
As of May 19L42, animal husbandry reports form 7f ll (quarterly
accounts) and Form 7/-16 (monthly accounts) have been replaced by a single
monthly form #2LI. - "Kolkhoz reports on the state of animal husbandry."
Time limits have been set up for sending in each accounting
form. Kolkhozes must channel their reports through rural Soviets to
the rayon zoological authorities, with the exception of form (final accounting of total planting) No 3 (kinds of sewing for current
year crop) and No 21., which are presented to the TsSU inspectors.
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money distributed as earnings per work-day.
The existing system of periodic kolkhoz accounting was approved
by order of the Council of Feopl& S Commissars of 28 April 1938. Eleven
accounting forms were confirmed for all kolkhozes and three additional
forms only for cotton and flax producing rayons.
Subsequently several additional accounting forms were introduced:
Form #15 - "Progress report on soil preparation, planting of sub-tropi-
cal crops and nurseries,t4 Form ib Y- "Kolkhoz report on the organiza-
tion of animal husbandry farms and properly supplying them with live-
stock" Form #17 - "Report on planting gardens, vineyards, berry fields,
and availability of plants in nurseries.' Form J/18 - 'Progress report
on the preparation, use and building of nurseries and hot houses."
Form #19 a "Progress report on pest and disease control of agricultural
platns.`t Form #20 - "Report on insecticides for combating pests in agri-
cultural plants? Form #21 - "Report on sowing care and harvesting of
seeds and harvesting of rubber bearing plants." Form x'22 - "Progress
report on fodder preparation." Form #23 - "Report on sewing, planting
and agricultural-technical measures in the care of mulberry trees."
Form X25 -. "Report on sowing, care and harvesting of coriander." On
the other had Form 9 was revoked - r'Progress report on the threshing
of grain and vegetable oil crops. (already discussed in Chapter III).
As of May 19L~2, animal husbandry reports form }ll (quarterly
accounts) and Form x'16 (monthly accounts) have been replaced by a single
monthly form r`L~ ?"Kolkhoz reports on the state of animal husbandry."
Time limits have been set up for sending in each accounting
form. Kolkhozes must channel their reports through rural Soviets to
the rayon zoological authorities, with the exception of form j/1.
(final accounting of total planting) No 5 (kinds of sewing for current
year crop) and No 2L~., which are presented to the TsSU inspectors.
;4 p AUC TEll
}bi' `-w-
i:
~P,~9#~t -
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Organization and development of kolkhoz aocounting on the
state of animal husbandry (form #2L.) is entrusted to TsSU Gosplan
USSR and its local branches. The primary objective of periodic
kolkhoz accounting is to prooure data required by the agrarian or-
ganizations in their operational guidance of kolkhoz production. At
the same time these reports may be used for statistical analysis, for
index computation showing the work of the kolkhoz.
X11 kolkhoz reports should be thoroughly checked' at the rayon
zoological headquarters (forms :11:14.5 and 21. - by TsS1J inspectors) which,
in addition to operational use by individual kolkhozes, summarize the
reports by rayon and present totals for the obl ast (krai) agrarian or-
ganizations a
Control may be exercised by inter-connecting data of each report,
by comparing reports of different kolkhozes, through personal acquain-
tance with the agricultural specialists in each individual kolkhoz and
with those conditions which show up through the reports.
Sovkhoz and MTS Accounting
Sovkhoz annual reports as compared with kolkhoz reports present
a fuller picture of the organizational-economic condition and work.
Sovkhoz accounts contain information on the basic means of pro-
duction and capital investment; annual variation in the number of trac-
tors, combines, automobiles, end of the year inventory of all agricul-
tural machinery, indexes of utilization of tractors, combines, 'truck
transportation, information on the state of the agrarian fund, acreage
under crops, gross harvest of plant cultivation, on herd turnover, ful-
fillment of specifications for the development of animal husbandry;
yields of products of animal husbandry; fertility and milk yield of
cows, number of kolkhoz workers at the end of the year and average reg-
istered number for the accounting year; number of work-days performed
separately for plant cultivation and for husbandry; plant cultivation
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and animal husbandry cosh; index of utilization and costs of live
tractive power; production sales, and deliveries to the Government;
profit or loss of the enterprise and a number of other data.
TsSU branch offices analyze statistically the sovkhoz annual
reports, prepare summary tables and compute a number of indexes. This
analysis is not devoid of a grouping plan, since the figures are added
by individual People's Commissariats, and by production grouping of
sovkhozes.
However, this is far from adequate use of the wealth of material
contained in the annual reports. It is advisable within the classifica-
tion plan of the sovkhozes, to group the information both along lines of
organization and production,(by size of land area, by the number of work-
ers, by cost of basic means of production, by power of tractor park, by
labor efficiency indexes, by production costs, by proportion of goods
for marketing, by yield level, by milk yield etc). It is essential that
group averages be computed from these groupings,
During the course of a year, sovkhozes supply their associations
with periodic production-statistic accounting covering separate phases
of their operations. Branch offices of TsSU Gosplan USSR receive and
analyze monthly reports on labor and wages (form 4/-62 agriculture) and
a number of other reports.
MTS annual reports give us an indication as to the number of
kovkhozes served; the variation in the number of tractors, combines
and automobiles during a year; number of workers, and wage funds;
availability of basic facilities, prime-movers, buildings, storage
capacity for petroleum products, number of agricultural machines; the
extent of operatons done by tractors, combines and prime movers; degree
of performance of planned output, by operations and in totals computed
in hectares of soft plowing; performance per average yearly tractor in
hectare of conventional plowing, per average seasonal combine, average
performance (in hectares) of tractor and combine operators who during
the entire season drove tractors of the same power, or a combine of
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one type and the number of tractor drivers, and comb~.ns operators who
have done over the seasonal quota of work; liquid fuel consumption;
delivery of payment-in-kind to the kolkhozes; cost of tractor, combine
and prime-mover operations; maintenance of tractors, combines and other
agricultural machines, capital investment, etc.
Branch offices of the TsSU analyze MTS annual reports for each
separate M.TS and summarizing by oblast (kray). This gives the basic
indexes of their work and service to the kolkhozes. This includes the
number of households in each kolchoz, sowing area, work horses and oxen;
number of tractors by type and make; number of combines by type and other
agricultural machines and automobiles (indicating total tonnage) at the
end of the accounting year. These annual reports also indicate the num~
ber of tractors (converted into 15-power (units) and average seasonal
number of combines (converted into 15-foot units). They show tractor
performance in hectares of conventional soft plowing, and the performance
per one average yearly conventional 15-power tractor (in hectares of soft
plowing); also grain area harvested by combines, and the quantity of grain
harvested by combines and the average production. for one conventional 15'-
foot average season combine. The number of workers is given (average reg-
istered for the year and at the end of the year); also the cost per hec-
tare of conventional soft plowing. These indexes give an idea of the
degree to which tractors and combines have been put to use by individual
MTS and by all of them together. They show fuel consumption and the cost
of work undertaken.
In addition, MTS are grouped on an oblast (kray) level, by power
of tractor park, by the number of kolkhozes served, by the land area
under crops, by the production per tractor and per combine, by the cost
of operations in units of plowing, and by fuel consur~p~ion per hectare
of soft plowing. These indicative considerations are not combined with
other indexes of MTS performance in preparing group tables; nevertheless
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4ESTllCTED
they are important in bringing out the larger and smaller MTS, in
determining the number of leading and lagging MTS in the use of
available tractors and combines, and in pointing to the achievements
of those who have taken the lead.
periodically, SITS present reports on the state of repair of
available., tractors and combines on tractor performance (converted
into soft plowing and in natural units for the basic work), on the
performance of combines and on the number of workers and wage funds,
etc.
24. Budgeting for the Individual Kolkhoz Member
An analysis of the budgets of the individual kflkhoz member is
the only material for a detailed study of the economy of the individual
kolkhoz member, his connection with the cooperative kolkhoz economy,
which can show how the living standards of the kolkhoz members are
rising.
From the budgets one mar obtain, monthly, the following infor-
mation; number of members per family, utilization of the kolkhoz men-
bergs labor (number of days the kolkhoz member was absent from the kolk-
hoz, number of days worked at the kolkhoz, number of hours worked at
the kolkhoz and on his personal subsidiary enterprise), number of accu-
mulated work-days, monthly turnover of cattle, milk yields, quantities
of wool shorn, eggs collected, honey yield, fodder consumption; monthly
turn-over (income and expenditure) of agricultural products (with indi-
cations as to income from kolkhoz from ones own subsidiary enterprise,
acquisitions, expenditure for personal use; for animal fodder etc,); ac-
quisition of industrial products; nutrition; monetary income from diverse
sources and disbursements for different needs,
TsSU branches examine the budgets of the kolkhoz members only in
some rayons, and in each selected payon - in "nests" usually of three
kolkhozes. In each kolkhoz the budgets of 12 kolkhoz members are exam-
fined. The kolkhoz members keep books which record the amount of pro-
duce used for food and all monetary expenditures, showing exactly for
what the money was spent.
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cultural enterprise, work of the kolkhoz members during an accounting
month in his kolkhoz, accumulation of work days, products delivered to
the kolkhoz members from the kolkhoz, changes in the livestock count
in families, work at MTS, outside the kolkhoz and outside their own agri-
A special instructor works in each budget "nest". He helps the
kolkhoz members keep their records and he himself keeps monthly records
by enterprise, on special blanks, information on the number of members
over the month, turnover of farm products, etc.
The forms drawn up by the instructor are sent to the oblast (kray)
representative of Gosplan USSR or to the Statistical Administration, where
they are analyzed.
CONTROL QUESTIONS
9. What is the method of examining the budgets of individual kolkhoz
8. How and according to what pattern are the annual MTS report analyzed?
7. What basic information is contained in the annual MTS reports?
6. How are the sovkhoz annual reports analyzed?
5. What basic questions enter into the program of sovkhoz annual reports?
).. How is the periodic kolkhoz accounting system built?
analyzed?
7, How and according to what program are the annual kolkhoz reports
2. What are the basic questions in the annual kolkhoz reports?
1. How is agricultural statistics organized in USSR?
members?
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/03/16 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000100210001-7