GEOLOGY AND THE SCIENCE OF EARTHS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: R
• Document Page Count: 125
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 20, 2012
• Sequence Number: 10
• Publication Date: June 10, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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GEOLOGY AND THE SCIENCE OF EARTHS
authors ; V. L Bezruk and
M. T. Kostriko
CH xt
I
Geological Cha
-pd -
CONTENTS
Brief History of the Earth's Crust and the
AFTER VI
CHAPTER XIV
CHAPTER XVI
CHAPTER XVIII
CHAPTER XXI
ys1c rope es o ar s
he Cal Properc1cs
Earths'
SOURCES: eo oglya i Gruntavedene Geology and Ground Lore 191
~,y
Contents (pages 329332)
Chapter VII (pages 102?112)
Chapter XIV (pages 201t-218)
Chapter XVI (pages 212-2~4)
Chapter XVIII 26 _27~
(pages 7 )
Chapter XXI (pages 31)4328)
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V. M. Bezruk and M. T. Koetrika
Released by the Staff Department, GUSHOSDOR, IUtVB; USSR
~'
agatextbook for highway~meChanical technical schools
for
t
t
u~ 0
a
of highway-technical hl
GUSHOSDOR, MVD, USSR
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CHAD I. STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
ER
MINERAIS IN THE FJ RTH' S CRUST
. CHAPTR II.
CHAFTFR III. ROCKS
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1, Reasons for studying geology
ta in the development of geology'
2. Role of Russian scientis
:3. Significance of g8O14gY in road G~~tGt~,ol~
General information on minerals
Physical properties of minerals
Rock-forming minerals
Identifying minerals
 12, Igneous rocks
:.3, Erosion
114, $edimeitaX'Y rocks
15. Metamorphic rocks
16. identifying rocks
CHAPTER IV. GEOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE EARTH'S
INTI,NAL FORCES
lr. General jnformation
1$. Formation of mountains
19. Volcanoes
20, Earthquakes
CIikPTER V. GEOLOGICAL ACTION OF EXOGENOUS
24. Glaciers as geological agents
25, Lakes and their deposits
26. Swamps and their deposits
27. The wind as a geological agent
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FORCES
21. General concepts
22. Flowing water as a geological agent
The sea as a geological agent
23.
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CHAPTER VI, SUBTERRANI~AN WATERS
28. Formation of subterranean waters
29. Classification of subterranean waters
30. Characteristics of subterranean waters
31. Peculiarities of water beneath the petroleum layer
32. Springs
Chemical compositIon of subterranean waters
33.
CIiAPTER VII. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE EARTH'S CRUST
AND THE GEOLOGICAL CRART
34. The concept of geological growth
35. The evolution of life on Earth and main geological events
by era and period
36. The geological chart
CHAPTER VIII. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND NATURAL
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
37. General information
38. Geological characteristics and construction materials of
the European part of the USSR
39. Geological characteristics and construction materials of
the AsiatiC part of the USSR
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CHAPTER XI. THE SOIL-FORMATION PROCESS
Principal stages in the soil-formation process
Formation of genetic levels of soils
ternal (morphological) characteristics of soils and
Fx
earths
CHAPTER u. EARTHS AS NATURAL HISTORICAL
40? Introduction
41, Concept of earths and soils
42. e$ of earths and conditions which form. them
CHAPTER X. MINERAL COMPOSITION AND COLLOID-
CHEMICAL PR,OPERT IES OF EARTHS
of the formation and development of soils and
43. Conditions
earths
44. Colloid-chemical properties of earths
45. Colloids in earths, their composition and properties
46. Absorption capacities of earths
47. Organic compositian of earths
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CHAPTER XIx. TYPES OF SOIL, T1~IR ORIGIN AND
GEOGPAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
1, Genetic classification of ~oi1s
52, Horizontal and vertical sail zones
zones of the USSR, their distribution and charac-
53. Soil
teristics
CHAPTER XIII? GRANULO~IETRIC COMPOSITION OF
EARTHS
54. Concept'of granulometric composition
55? Mineral compo$ition and physical properties of the indl'
vidual fractions of earth
56. Classification of earths according to their granulometric
composition
57, Prl ?nciples of determining the grgnulometric composition of
tenacious and loose earths
5$, Brief jnstrL Ctions on iaboratorY and field methods of de-
terrnining granu1ometric composition
59. Graph methods of plottimelg granulometric composition
CHAPT XIV, PHYSICAL PROPP~TIES OF EARTHS
60. Specific gravity
61. Moisture
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62. Bulk we fight
63. P~.0ticity
64. Adhepiv'eness
65, Swe1 Ling
66. 5hrjx1king
ac's PROP~x o? ~RTHS
CHAPTER XV? AQUA
Water in earths and its forms
67,
u1ation of water in earths
68. Cixc ~' of
permeab~.litY to water, caPacit
69. oistuxa capacity,
water to rise in earths for
Posit~,ve and negative roles of water in use of eart
7a.
road constructian of
of sub grades and its contr
71. The water system
xCAL pROPERT IBS OF EARTHS
CHAPTR XV I ? J
tabilitY of earths under stress
72. Concept of the s
of pressure and porositJ
73. Re1ation5hip
74. Rela h~.P of moisture and pressure
`-ons
~', Friction and cohes~.on~ resistance of earths to displace"
75
merit
d o t 3.mum moisture of earths
76, Maximum density an p
of deformation of earths
77. Modulus
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PART II]:
IN ROAD QQNSTRUCTION
C}APTER XVII. GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA CONNECTED
WITH SUBSOIL WATERS AND HOW TO CONTEND WITH
THEM
J_. General concepts and exposition
82. The temperature system of the perniafrost rocks
:3. Certain peculiarities of frozen earths
4. Subterranean waters in the permafrost region
a5. Permafrost and coistruction of buildings
6. Methods of geological ground operations
r7. Surceying soils and earths along the course
8. Surveying sites for deep excavations
9. Surveying sites for bridge coristrtiction
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90, Method of oharting soils and earths
91. Surveying swamps
CHAPTER XX. EXPLORING AND SEARCHING FOR ROAD
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
92. General information
93. Searching for quarries and deposits
94. Preliminary search
95. Detailed search
CRATER XX I. P ~S IC METHODS OF ARTIFICIALLY
STRENGTHENING EARTIE
96, General information
97. Earth mixtures of the optimum granulometric composition
98. Stren~hening earths with organic binding materials
99. Strengthening earths with inorganic binding materials
100. Strengthening earths with lime
101. Strengthening earths with hygroscopic salts
102. Treating earths with heat
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c! vex
HISTORY of THE EARTH!" CRUST
AND TIE GECLCGICAL CHART
Con e t c,~,~,? ,Ceolo ~.ca ~
ation and destruction of rooks, some -
t
The processes of cre
d abrup
eternal, sometimes rapid an:
tremely slarv and
times ex
b con-
eological history of the Eart,
have gone on throughout the g
cruet,
th'
s
ition of the Ear
scantly changing the form and campos
calculated that from 3 to ~ bll-
ious scientists have
V
ar
. the formation of the Earth to the
lion years have elapsed since
h to
hi
c
ith
We do not have concrete evidence w
t time
.
resen
p
ma stages of the Earth. Scholars
history of the pr1 ry
th
e
study
the Earth was not covered by eater.
assume that in the beginning
atmosphere was considerably da.fferent
The composition of the b
itian? The absence of pater, the big
from its present compos
i
Earth's surface, and the compositon of the
temperature of the the
impossible the evolution of organic life an
atmosphere made imposa~.
i o_
motion of different animals and plant life. Geologica
albuminous substances over along period of time lea do
t
I-_.,. F1,oaa srose all living organisms. Errolution oar '
_ ...~.,erAnaormations albuminous substances were o
substances were formed. Then by a ser
plicated organic
f ed and
bon, n
droen, etc) bydroearboris and other more c
hyg
itragen
and from simple inorganic substances c
chemical conditions, ~
?m
Earth, n
t
of time, there arose favorable ?U c
he course
1
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Figure 55. Petrified cephalopod mollusc
aramonite in lime
Figure 56. Impression of a fern in clay
schist
A special branch of geology, paleontology, is the study
of of plant and animal organisms Which existed
~'ossa.liZed remains
in past geological periods.
Geology and paleontology have played an exceptionally im-
orrectl~ understanding nature from a scientific
.
portant role in c ~
point of view. The great scientific leader, F. Engels, has poin-
ted out this function of geology. In his book, Dialectics of
he writes: "..,geology arose and revealed the presence
Na_ t, use,,
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begins w the evolution of the Earth This studwith this stage in th
the fQSSi.I remains of plants and ani~
~.s now possible because of
edimentary rocks. The remains have been
male in the masses of s
preserved up to the present day in petrified form They are so-
living animals and plants (shells, bones,
lid remnants of former -
teeth skeletons, woods, etc) (Figure 55) or impressions (Figure
56)and are convincing documents on the evolution of life on
Earth and its complex geological history.
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which were formed one afte~c the other and
of geological strata
one on top of the other. It revealed the aheU and skeletons
of dead animals preserved in these strata, the stems, leaves, and
traces of plants no longer in existence," This forcea us to ac-
knowledge, Engels goes on to say, "that not only does the Earth
1t s own in time, but so does its surface with
have a history of
the plants and animals which live on it."
Classification and study of fossils and impressions have
the fact that life has developed gradually on the
established
Earth, from the simplest lower forms to the most complex and per
ulminating with the appearance and evolution of
fected ones, c
etermin1ng periods of geological history, we study
man. In d
the animals and plants which were characteristic for each period
through the fossils and impressions left in sedimentary rocks.
By this method we can divide the whole past history of the Earth's
crust into a series of time intervals and also determine the rel-
ative age of the sedimentary rocks.
petrified remains of animals or plants by which the
The
relative age of rocks can be determined are called the leading
farms.
The largest interval of time in geological chronology' is
the mass of rocks formed in this time period is
called an era, and
known as a group. A further subdivision of eras and groups is
given in Table 7.
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terva~
Time
R Series of
o geological
C deposits
fire history of the ~artlx's
t the present time the en th the
allowing erase beginn~.ng wi
t is .~.ubdivided iota the f ?~
crue
bean Proterozoic, Paleozoic, MesaZa3.c, and Gen
oldest. ~'c ' their estimated dura..
ivisions into Periods with
~oic. The d iven period or
characteristic deposits for a g
tion and most
era are shown in Table 8.
racks varies in the 355R:
The depth of the sedimentar'Y
in Moscow 1~6~0 meters, in
in Len3.ngrad it reaches 200 meters,
the Do-
aku over 4,000 meters, and in
S ~rau~ 1r5~0 meters, in B alter-
rocks often have
in 11,000 meters. Sedimentary
nets Bas
mating strata of clays limestone, Only by determ9.ning the geolog
ieal age of these rock is i P?s"
and and evaluate these strata.
s ible to anderst
the upper strata of the thick-
HessFrequently, in studying atione
the rQ_c~uater'narY strati~ic ~
es of sedimentary racks, all P ed before the cantempora 7 Quaternary geola-
that is, those farm
the common term of cruet rocks.
cal eraad, are grouped under
gi p
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Cenozoic
, ,
pebbles, gravel, pan
sapropelite, peat
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Era Period Estimated Conventional Chief rocks formed in era or
(group) (System) duration in sign period
billions of
years
M'chean Not subdi-
vided
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Over 1500 Al
Cm Clay, conglomerates, sandstone,
small quantity of limestone
Cambrian 90
Silurian $5
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian
S Limestone, sandstone, con-
glomerates, slay, gypsum
40
n
75
C
40
P
Triassic 25
Jurassic 25
Cretaceous
Tertiary
Sandstone. dolomite, clay and
sandstone, petroleum and coax.
Thick masses of limestone,
quartz sandstone, clay, coal,
petroleum
Clays and marl, lime sandstone,
gypsum, anhydrite, coal
T Sand, sandstone, clay, marl,
gypsum, limestone
I Clay, clayey schist, sand, sand-
(a) Neocene
(b) Pliocene
P
stone, conglomerates, limestone
Clayey schist, clay, chalk,
limestone, sand, silica, sand.-
stone, conglomerates, coal
Sand, clay, sandstone, lime-
stone, conglomerates, petroleum
Quaternary 1.02 Q: Moraine clay and loam, boulders,
loess
d
 4
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olutiQfl Qf 1 if a on the Earl
artd the ' inaL cep
ca Eren~ a an Period
cheap and Proteroxoi E a
No sufficiently clear evidence of past life - fossils
and impressions -M have been discovered in rocks of the Archean
era. However, this does not mean that life was not present. It
is supposed that life began in the Archean era, but was repre-
sented by such simple forms as bacteria, unicellular algae, ring-
worms, etc which were either disintegrated completely and left
no traces or left infrequent, barely-perceptible traces, which
were destroyed by metamorphic processes. It is possible that at
this time organic life still appeared only in the form of extra'
cellular albuminous substances incapable of being preserved far
any length of time in a petrified state. Rocks of this era are
represented mainly by granite and gneiss.
Detailed study indicates 'that many gneisses were formed
from older sedimentary rocks as a result of metamorphic action.
In reality, no sedimentary rocks of the Archean era have been
presented to the present. Rocks of the Archean group constitute
that foundation in which are formed later deposits. Only in rare
cases do these rocks come up to the surface in the form of ridges,
or shelves, of crystallized crust. These are called "shields."
In most instances they lie far beneath a mass of later deposits
of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
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In the terxitos the Russian lowland, there axe two
f
~'' o
and
the Baltic, or Finno$candinavian,
such crystallized shielda~ and
foams the Kolskl Peninsu1a, Karelia
the Ukrainian. The first
the neighbar~.ng countries Finland, Sweden, and Norway.countries o?
is made up of heavy granular granite, PorphyrY~ gneiss, and quart
zite.
The Ukrainian shield a. 's located between the Dnestr and the
Dnepr, and further to the southeast extends to the Sea of May.
d gneiss and in places (0vruch and
It is made up of granite an ,
Krivorozh'e) by quartzite and schist.
Rocks of the Proterozoic occur directly over the crystal -era and are made up of gneiss, shit,
lined rocks of 'the Archean
In the rocks of the Proterozoic group are
quartzite, and marble
found indisputable remains of already rather highly developed or-
ganis ' ods radiolaria, sponges, worms, and cias?
ms: algae, rh~.zop ~
rfaces
bean and Proterozoic rocks have uneven su
tacegYJg. The Arc
tl broken up by the intrusions of the basic magma.
and are frequen Y
Pa .eozoiC. 1
The organic world in the Paleozoic era contains rich and
and in the sea. In the alder Cambrian
varied forms both on land
period of this era, simple animals inhabited the sea: sponges,
ads and arthropods (Figure 57)? Among
medusas, worms, brach3.op ~
plants, only algae existed at this time.
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Figure 57. Trilobite, arthrapads
In the following Siluxian period, besides the animals al-
ready a ed igantac apinY corals, ec1~.?
mentioned, there had Bevel p ~
?..
e halo oda. The first vertebrates the d3,nafla'
noderms, and c p p
gellata -- make their appearance in the second half of the Si-
lurian period. (Figure 5$)
Figure 5$. Armored fish of the Silurian
period.
seed plants appear also.
Dy the end of t his period, there appear on dry land moss-
, Devonian period, develop in~
like plants, which in the
st
uiseta club-moss, and fern. The fir
to various sporop~es "" eq '
The living wand becomes stall more varied in the Devonian
Fish become more perfected and vary in size and farm. Ceph-
age.
d land
a appeared (see Figure ~5) , an
lopod molluscs -- ammonites .,..
vertebrates appear for the first time.
The next period, the Carboniferous, is characterized by the
station - ferns, sigillards, lepadoden~
evolution of rich land Yeg
drops, calama.tes, and others. They reach huge dimensions and are
in various locali.ti?s (Fagots 59)?
the basis of coal formation
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Figure 9. Sigillarlda
Spiders, large myriapoda, and dragonflies now appear on
of the leading forme of the Carboniferous age is
dry sand. One
the shell Productus (Figure 60).
Fi re 60. Productus from deposits of the
Carboniferous system
the Permian period, land animals, which now have become
In
more varied, increase in number. Reptiles appear, some of which,
ouch as the Pareyaaaur, reach huge dimensions.
the whole of the Paleozoic era, the sea repeatedly
During
the Russian lowland, leaving vast thicknesses of lime-
flooded
stone, clay, gypsum, and other rocks. The oldest sedimentary
Cambrian blue clays -- are widely distributed around
rocks - the
Leningrad, where they are covered with glacial deposits.
Rocks of the Carboniferous age are extremely widespread in
the territory of the USSR. They occur in the Moscow region, in
the region of the ntral-Volga highlands, in the Donets Basin, and
Ce
in many other places. Deposits of the Carboniferous system are
limestone, quartz sandstone, coarse clay, petroleum, and coal. limestone, q
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These deposits reach depthe of 0,4 to 0,5 kilometers in the
Mpgapw region, and 10 kilometers iu the Donets Basin.
Deposits of the Permian ages which lie in a wide strip a?
long the west elope of the Uxal range, also oacux frequently in
the Russian lowlands. This SYstem is made up of xed slay and
marl, limestone, gypsums anhydrite, and conglomerates. Its av-
erage thickness reaches 2,000 meters.
n..forming processes went on during the
Considerable mountai
Carboniferous period east of the Russian plain. They were com-
pleted in the Permian period by the creation of the Ural range
which continued to undergo many changes throughout its awn his-
tory.
Mesozoic Era
During the Mesozos 'c era there was a further evolution of
land and sea ana.mals, especially of reptiles, which reached their
the Jurassic period. Among the reptiles
greatest development in
note must be taken of the giant dinosaurs which reached length
of 26 meters and heights of 5 meters - the Ceratos$urs, the sea
osaurus and also the flying lizards, the
Flea . ~.osauxus and Ichthy ~
Pterosaurs.'
for the first time we find birda - arche-
In this period
ammonites and beleinnitea are found
opteryx? Besides reptiles,
are the dominant petrified remains of the
in the sea. The latter
shells look so much like fingers that
Jurassic period. Belemriite
110.
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 a referred to as the "devil's fingers." The
they are a amet ime
exiatsx~ce of such devil's f ingera in sedimentary rock indicates
that it was formed in the Jurassic period.
In the Cretaceous period reptiles gained farther supre-
macy over other animals on sand and in the sea. Some of them,
the Stegosaurs and the Tyrannosaurs, were exceedingly huge.
da in this period continued to perfect their flying
Bir
apparatus, but they were still far from perfect.
The vegetation changed a great deal in the Cretaceous.
end of the period appear forms of vegetation which are
At the
close to present forms - the monocotyledons and dicotyledons
palms , laurel, willow, birch9 oak, maple, and various grasses).
ounLain-forming processes are no longer observed in the
n
Mesozoic era, . only the falling and rising of continents as the
sea advanced on to the land and then retreated. Because of these
'ons and regressions, the Russian lowlands in many places
ingressz
have great deposits of chalk, silica, limestone, clay, and other
rocks of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous ages. The nor-
them part of the Ukrainian SSR and the central part of the Don
and Volga contain chalk; Bryansk and Penza have beds of silica.
The two periods of this era -- the Tertiary and the Qua-
from each other by their duration; the first is
ternary -- differ
very song, the second comparatively short. In the Tertiary period
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animals and plants, especially plants, were Very
the forms o
much like those at present.
climate (in urope) which existed at the bew
The tropical
ginning of the Tartiarchanged to subtropical and then to tern"
''
perate, and by the end of the period it became moderately cold.
The vegetation changed with the climate; subtropical evergreens
gradually radned to southern latitudes, and birch, pine, and
animal world also underwent great changes: the num
The
decreased in comparison with the number in
ber of reptiles -
Their place was taken by mammals: ungulates,
reptiles Cretaceous period.
rodents, etc. In the beginning of the period, mammals are still
simple of structure? however, by the end of the Tertiary they be-s
,
come more highly organized. Some animals, such as the mastodons,
rhinoceros, and the saber-toothed tiger, were of con
hornless
sa.-
?derable size and far exceeded the size of the modern elephant,
rhinoceros, and tiger.
other species of temperate latitudes became dominant.
The relief of the globe also changed during the Tertiary
period. The formation of the Caucasus and the Crimean folded
at the end of the Cretaceous period, as did the
mountains began
Sikhot-Alin+ range in the Far East, which was finally formed in
the Tertiary period. The formation of the mountains of Kemcbatka,
the Kurile Islands belong to this period as well.
Sakhalin, and
While mountains formed in the Tertiary period, continents
slowly emerged and subsided. The Tertiary sea flooded huge areas
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The earliest progenitors of man were two4egged, highly
found today in the perpetually fraZen ground of Siberia.
s whose existence is placed at the close
developed man-like ape ,
of Tertiary. In deposits of the Quaternary age, the remains of
an oneman (pithecanthropus) have been found, the next step in
-
the evolution of man. In the process of development Pitbecaf--
thrapus cast off his ape-like characteristics and acquired the
characteristics of modern man.
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of the country, depositing clay, cha~.k and shell l~estone, shelf.
rock, gypgum9 and other rocks.
cold climate of the end of the Tertiary
The moderately
mate with the succeeding alternation
period changed to a co~.d cll. ,
colder ages of the Quaternary period.
of the warmer and
poring the centuries of cold climate, glaciers moved dawn
ands with consequent thaws during the warns
along the Russian /awl
interglacial intervals.
With the change In climate came a change in plant and
animal forms. The severe cold forced animals and plants of tem-
far to the south. Their place was taken
perate climates to move
by animals and plants of the tundra. When the climate became
warmer they again moved back Wort1 and the animals and plants
of the southern latitudes took their places.
In the glacial epoch some animals became adapted to the
cold climate. Among these were the mammoths, a group of ~rhich is
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The ear).ie;t progenitors of man were two-legged, highly
~
found today in the Perpetually frozen ground of Siberia.
developed man like apes, whose existence is placed at the close
of Tertiary. In deposits of the Quaternary age, the remains of
an ape-man (pithecanthroPus) have been found, the next step in
the evolution of man. In the process of development Pithecan-
thropus at off his ape-like characteriatics and acquired the
characteriaties of modern man.
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of the country depositing clay, chalk and shell. ~,3,meatone, ahel~,
, ~',
rock, gypsum, and other rocks.
cold climate of the end of the Tertiary
The moderately
period changed to a coclimata, with the succeeding alternatiocold
and colder ages of the Quaternary period.
of the warmer
During the centuries of cold climate, glaciers mov'sd down
owlanda with consequent thaws during the warm
along the Russian 1
interglacial intervals.
nge in climate came a change in plant and
with the cha
animal forms. The severe cold forced animala and plants of tem-
move far to the south. Their place was taken
perate climates to
by animals and plants of the tundra. When the climate became
warmer they again moved back nartk,,and the animals and plants
of the southern latitudes took their places.
In the glacial epoch some animals became adapted to the
these were the mammoths, a group of which is
cold climate. Among
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the mountainous regions of the Caucasus, Urals, Pamir,
In
or Altoy one can see new and old glacial formations in the moun?-
tams and foothill valleys in the form of highly scattered loose
rocks However these deposits occupy a comparatively small area
. ~
and are frequently lost among other geological formations -- de-
luvia, proluvia, and alluvia,
The glacial deposits of the central and northern parts of
the USSR are of much greater importance. Their formation is con-
netted with the repeated advance and retreat of glaciers during the glacial epoch. The duration of this epoch is approximately
In the European part of the USSR, there were several
~,7~ , 400 years .
which divided inter-glacial periods. There were three
freezings
or four of these large-scale freezings? A time interval of 25,000
years separates us from the last of these. The Scandinavian moun~
tarns and Novaya Zemlya were regions where glaciers accumulated
for the movement downward to the Russian lowlands. Down from
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In Quaterra time, ao a result of the great glaciation,
~"
the crust rocks of the Northern and Central parts of the Russian
lowlands were covered by extensive thicknesses of glacial for-
- moraine clay, river-glacial sand, sandy loam, and
orations
heavy fragmental rocks. At this time loess, quicksand, peat, and
other rocks were also formed; these constitute the upper layers
of the earth's crttst on most surfaces of present continents.
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below moved thick masses of
nu'M1ta3_na upon the wide pains
L,._.,,
m
$'
U
00o meters) which left extensive geo~.ogica~ di
ice (up to 1, crush
k
ntng xoc
U mountslns , overtur,
destroyi g
ath
i
s
r p
in the
tton
nds
ll ki
orting huge masses of a
trap
n and gacinding stones, and m
i
g
of loose materials.
With the change of climatic condittons, the thaws left
entire path of the glaciers.. Rivers
masses of material along the
loose
thaw artially' scattered the
and streams farmed from the p
ost
the basic mass was for the m
ls of the erosion, but
i
a
mater
..
part left untouched. Ver equently, rock waste or beds of ~a
'' fr
la clay loam, or sand formation.
vel are found in thin c Y,
ce of the glaciate in the USSR is
The southernmost advan
approximately a line which goes through Zhitomir, Kiev, Orelr Vo-
and Tyumen,, with an extension to
ronezh, Psnza, Kean', Molotov,
The glacier reached this limit b?-
Kr?menchug and Voroshi~.avgx'ad.
cause of the freezing of the great Dnepr.
vsits of the glacial epoch can be
The main geological dap
t es : (a) moraines, (b) f luv~.al'-
subdivided into the followa.ng Yp
glacial, (c) deposits of clay loam.
Moraine deposits are widespread in the USSR. They are di-
.
interior, and surface moraines. In
vid?d into terminal, ground, ddition, they are further divided into laver (a7 der freezing) and
a
upper (later freezing) moraines.
cterized by the presence of great
Terminal moraines are chars
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Fluvial-glacial deposits are those of rivers formed by gla-
cial thaw. They contain gravel, sand, and pulverized sand fox-
mations. Sometimes these deposits occur in more or less even lay-
?rs, forming plains, and often they are osara or eskers (Figure
61).
Figure 61. Common type of osax or esker
Covered clay loam most frequently is the product of mo--
raine erosion. It usually occurs in the upper part of the de-
post, very close to moraine clay and clay loam, but differing
from them being less compact and composed of larger parti-
in bey.
Iles.
Leningrad oblast is a typical region of glacial deposits.
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masses of large fragments (boulders, pebbles, gravel, sand) ix
mbankmente or a particulax type of
the form of lengthened, raised a
long?etretchtng hills (kames).
Ground, interior, and eurface moraines are characterized
by compacted clay or clay loam formations containing pebbles and
moraine deposits varies from 2 to 100 me-
gravel. The depth of
ters.
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sines with p~,~.es of 'big boulder
Here once can see terminal mox k.
moraine and large stria amb~
and compact ye3.3,orr-b1u? gxound
ents (eskers and kames), which give the surface a characteris"
m
tic hilly relief. Hexe a.$ O ve find many glacial lakes , a dis-
tinctive feature of the whole noxtl'1Western xegion.
r moved along this area, turning up
At one time, a glade
hollo'Vs a~hich filled with water.
rocks and leaving deep
aces areas of glacial deposits are
In a great many p1 ' ter-?
on materials. Localities with
very rich In road constxucti
contain much rock waste, peb"
? oraines (eskers and kames)
myna/ m In
mixed with slag-dust particles.
blea, gravel and sand ,,.. tov and
the Moscow, KalinKirov 9 6010 ,
the Estaniaan SSR,, in -rocks
the hills contain gravellY sand
other oblasts, most of lo-
Sorne fluvial-glacial f ormations
with a little rock debris. eb-
? moraines also contain gravelly P
sated close to the terminal
b1e-rocks.
~7. '. Ge010 Ica Ch,,, a t
The geological chart is a topographical chart which shows
rock distribution in color.
o ical charts p.-,charts of crust
Thera are two kinds of gaol g
deposits (rocks) arid charts of Quaternary deposits.
hart shows rocks of the pre-Quaternar9'
The first type of c
-17-
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age occusxing uader la7ers of Quaternary formations. Only when
cruet rocks are very deep do the charts show Quaternary depos its
of Quaternary deposits show rocks of the Quater-?
Charts
Waxy age as an almost continuaus cover of crust formation. They
are divided into glacial deposits, loess, alluvia, etc.
charts of crust deposits are made up principally'
Geological
according to age, ? that the chart shows deposits of any given
geological age. Areas with deposits of the Cambrian, Silurian,
Devonian ?an ages, etc, are separated Without conaideration of what
rocks are preaent.
Areas which have deposits of a given period, epoch, or
Besides charts based on age, charts are prepared accor
especially in large-scale charts, period
Very fr
deposits (ayntems) are divided into epoch deposits (sections)
and aged deposits (strata).
equently,
ale are represented on the chart by international letter symbols
ed in Table $ and are colored with an appropriate col'-
as indicat
rocks range chronologically from the most recent at the top to
or or striation. The legend of the chart is so constructed that
the oldest below.
to lithological character; that is, according to the na-?
ding
cording to the nature of rock (sandstone, limestone, sand, clay,
Lure of rock composition. In these charts, areas are divided ac-
etc), regardless of geological age.
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a~ charts are vary tmportant in
~11 types of geo1agic
r3~t with g?a'~og~.ca~. charts g~,vea
road construct3~an. A fam~.~~a ~'
uZ' on the eurfac8 and beneath
a good idea of the rocs Which occ
the chart is r~uf~'~
the surf ace in any ~,ocal~ity. If geological
~,anatary notes, a more or ~,eee acw
c~.ent~.y detailed and has ~ . from
ocks can be ascerta~.ned d~,rectly'
curate knar~led~e of the r ds.
ven the cond~.tion of the rock be
the chart, and eornet3~mea e
This is neceasal'Y data for a).). kind of conS tation~
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CHAFER XTV
To a considerable extent, the basic physical properties
of earths indicate whether they are suitable for use as construe
tion materiala and as engineering foundations.
The specific gravity and bulk weight, porosity, plasti-
city, viscosity, swelling, and shrinking are all part of the
basic physical properties of earths.
This chapter describes the methods of determining the
moisture content of earth as affecting the basic physical pro-.
perties. Knowledge of moisture aontent is necessary in deter-
mining bulk weight, plasticity, viscosity, swelling, and other
properties.
60. S ecific Gravit
Specific gravity is the relationship of the weight of the
particles of a given volume of absolutely dry earth to the weight
of an equal volume of water at a temperature of 4 degrees Centi-
grade.
Specific gravity is an indication of the mineral compo-
sition of earths. For most earths lacking organic material, the
specific gravity varies on an average from 2.60 to 2.70
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The value of the specific gravity of earth is used in a
series of formulaa: in calculating poroait r, calculating the
velocities of falling particles of earth in any medium (Stock's
formu:.a), etc.
Apparatus and materials necessary: (1) analytic scales,
(2) pycnometer, (3) an electric plate or any other heating de-
vice, (4) washer, (5) desiccator, (6) thermometer scaled to 150
degrees Centigrade, (7) asbestos sieve, (g) distilled water.
The specific gravity of earths is determined by using a
pycnometer equipped with a capillary tube (Figure $7), after the
following procedure:
Figcire 87. Pycnometer
1. weigh the. pycnometer (weight A) to an accuracy
of 0.0002 grams
2. Pour distilled water into the pycnometer up to the
measuring mark and weigh again (weight B).
3. Pour 5 to 10 grams of earth, which has been sif-
ted through a 1 millimeter mesh and dried to a constant weight
at 105 degrees Centigrade, into the dry pycnometer and weigh
(the weight of the pycnometer with the portion of earth is weight C).
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4. Add distilled water to the e 2 th to half the
capacity of the pyanometer and bolfor 30 minutes.
5. After cooling, pour distilled water into the pyc.?
nometer up to the measuring mark, and then weigh the pycnometer
with water and earth (weight D).
The specific gravity is calculated according to the fol-
lowing formula;
( . .
The specific gravity of some earths and soils varies
within the following limits:
Peat
Black soil containing 10% humus
Black soil with lower humus
content
Black soil on loess
Podzolic loam with 3% humus
Sand
Sandy loam
Jurassic clay
0.50 - 0.80
2,40 2.50
2.57
2.65
2.65 ? 2.61
2.67 ? 2.69
2.75
In determining the Specific gravity of saline earths and
earths containing active colloids, instead of using water for the
tests use a neutral liquid such as kerosene or gasolene, etc. In.-
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4
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the air is removed from the earth by use of
stead of boiling,
In calculating the specific gravity, correction
a vacuum pump.
s ecific gravity of the kerosene ox gasolene.
must be made for the p
Testing Procedure
ure content of earth is the quantity of water it
The waist
Contains expressed in a percentage relationship to the weight of
The moisture of earth is a changeable value and can
dry earth.
vary to a great degree. The more finely gx'anulata the earth,
the greater is the variation in moisture content. Moisture is
an important characteristic of the +onditian of earth and must
be taken into consideration in determining a series of important
indexes of the properties of earths: stability under pressure,
resistance to displacement, plasta.city, viscositY, etc.
Moisture content is usually ascertained by a weighing me-
thod which determines the loss of weight bieh results when a
portion of earth is dried in the following sequences
(a) Weigh the weighing bottle
b Place a sample of moist earth of 10 to 20 grams
into the bottle.
c) Weigh the bottle with the moist earth.
Place the weighed, uncovered bottle of earth in
which has been regulated to a heat of 105 degrees
to a desiccator
Centigrade.
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e of earth ie allowed to re~aain in the
The teat sampl
'
chamber at i05 degrees Cent.grade fox 5 hours.
(e) At the end of the drying period, cloae the bon-
exsiccatox with chLOrtUe zing, and allow
tie, transfer to a dry
to cool to room temperature.
For special humidity analysis (determining the molecular
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(f) Weigh the cooled bottle of earth.
To dry the earth completely, repeat the sequence, after an
hour and weigh again.
The difference between the first and second Weighings should
not exceed 0.2 percent of the weight of the teat-sample.
the earth is determined according to the
The moisture of
formula:
moisture content of the earth in percentage re..
where: w is the
lationship to the dry weighed portion;
the weight of the bottle of moist earth;
P is
is the weight of the bottle of dry earth;
P2 is the weight of the bottle.
Conduct all weighinge in moisture determination with ana-
)ytic chemical weights to an accuracy of 0,01 grams.
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moisture c tuxe the humid~.t~' of fec~ta
apacitY, hygroecopic moss,
the ortion of moist earth an
1~.mit, ete) , decrease p
on rolling
px less oil analyt~?C scalea .
Weigh 3,Q grams
of a unit volume of earth,
The lnxlk weight is the Weight
spaces (pores) between the pa-
inclu g mineral particles and
din
tides.
The BUket bt 0r ...,....~.
b2
The Value of the specific gravity of earth, depends upon
bulk weight depends upon
? al and chemical content, the
the minex
e and structure of the sort ,
furs content and the te~ctLtir on
the moss
For thas yeas ~
tit of pores in the earth.
that is, an the goon y
r same earths especially of clay, will
the bulk weight of the verb
?~al under different conditions.
vaxy a great d~
ths usually have higher
Under natural conditions, clayeY ear
$ have a lower bulk weight.
sandy earths and therefor
porosity th
ed far different stag's of
Bulk weight can be determin
earth a) for earth in natural beds , (b) for' filled and loose
thods
.
m acted by dif f erent~ me
earth, ~c) fox earth ca p
t of Air-n:'~ pd Earths ~.n,..tb~
Determinin the Bulk lei h
Lo o state
Necessary quipment:
ack with colleCtion of holders;
LaboratorJ' r
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glass ox metal funnel. for pouring earth, with a capacity
of not less than 300 cubic centimeters and an internal tube di-
ametex of approximately 20 millimeters;
graduate with a capacity of 500 to 1000 cubic centimeters;
cup scales of 2 to kilogxam capacity with balance.
Arrangement of funnels in the laboratory rack; fasten
with the aid of the holders into the tube and slip on
the funnel
a perforated cork at the point the funnel enters the cone.
Pass the sample of air dried earth, about 1 kilo
1
gram in weight, through a strainer with a 10 millimeter mesh.
twins a large quantity of sand or gravel particles.
2. On cup scales, weigh to an accuracy of l kilo-
gram a 500 cubic centimeter graduate if the earth is finely gra-
nulated, or a 1000 cubic centimeter graduate if the earth con
3. Through the funnel, fill the weighed cylinder
cubic centimeters if.nely granulated or 1000 cubic centimeters
meter mesh. The volume of the earth in the graduate must be 500
with earth which has previously been strained through a 10 mliii-
if coarsely granulated (containing gravel).
4. Weigh the graduate filled with earth.
5. Bulk weight is determined by the formula;
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where .A is the bulk weight;
P is the weight of the graduate and earth;
P1 is the weight of the empty graduate;
V is the volume of earth in the graduate.
The experiment is repeated for control purposes. Re-
sults of repeated experiments shou/.d not differ by more than
+ 1 percent.
Determinin the Bu Weight of Cohesive Eartha with Na--
tural._Moi$ture and Undisturbed Texture
Testin 'roc duce
1. Place about 100 grams of paraffin into a porcelain
pan. Melt the paraffin.
2. Immerse the weighed piece of naturally moist earth of
undis ed texture, 30 to 50 cubic centimeters in volume, by a
thread in the melted paraffin for 3 to 5 seconds; then cool in the
air. When the paraffin cover has cooled and hardened, immerse the
test sample again in the paraffin and again cool in the air. The
surface of the paraffin-coated teat sample should contain no bub-
bles; it must be smooth.
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0.9 is the specific gravl ty of paraffin.
6. Under the raised left pan of the chemical scales; ar-
where V3 is the volume of the paraffin on the sample;
wire with a weight in its hooked lower point over the levelly-
~.re wit
half filled with water at room temperature. Suspend a
graduate
range a wooden support in which there has been placed a chemical
balanced left cup of the scales. Now level the right pan (Figure
$$) with a weight.
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To coo the Paraffin-coated test materials, suspend them
~,
from the holders by a thin thread or wire.
Tale a separate test-sample of earth and determine
3.
its natural moisture content.
4, Weigh the cooled paraffin-coated material by the d~i-
ference in weight between the earth and the earth + paraffin
determine the weight of the paraffin on the sample by the formula:
where P is the weight of the paraffin on the sample;
P1 is the weight of the earth;
P2 is the weight of the paraffin--coated earth.
volume of the paraffin on the sample is calculated
5. The
according to the formula:
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Figure $$. Scales for hydrostatic weighing
7. Suspend the PreParad paraffin-coated sample on the
water and determine its weight in water.
wire; immerse it in
Determine the bulk weight of the earth by the formula:
,
D
.-P
---
where P3 is the weight of the paraffinscoated sample in water.
Repeat the procedure for control purposes.
e
Determinin the BU .k Weight by U
f a Outtin~ R
Under fie onditions or when there is a monolithic sample
~.d e
of undisturbed earth in the' laboratory, the bulk weight can be
determined by using a metal ring (usually steel) with an inside
cutting edge.
It is recommended that a ring of 200 to 250 cubic centimeters
capacity be used for clay' and clap loam, and one of 500 cubic cen-
timeters imeters for sand loam.
The diameter of the ring must be between 2.5 and 3 times
larger than its height.
Carefully press the cutting ring into the earth, gradually
10?
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the earth fz om h? ide o the ring.
dislodgthg
Trim the acing with a 1nt1e and wtthdra! it; carei"lly pro~
tact the lower and upper' surfaces of the earth in the ring.
and earth to an accuracy of 0.1 prang.
Weigh the ring
t volume must have been prev~.ous~.y
The weight of the ring and ~. s
determined.
l~nowing the weight and volume of earth in the ring, cal-
culate the bulk weight of the earth by dividing the weight by
the volume.
lk wei ht o? the So i port3.on of
Determ nin the Eu
Earth
By bulk weight of he solid portion of earth we mean the
ratio o? the weight of hard particles to the overall volume of
earth or to the volume of naturally
naturally moist, undisturbed ,
packed earth.
It now the bulk, weight of the solid"por-
is necess ary to know
of earth in order to determine the deneitY of the struc-
rist3.cs of a given portion of earth.
ture and other chaxacte
To determine the bulk weight of the solid portion of earth,
le of earth in a bottle and determine
place an average test samp
its moisture content.
the solid portion of the earth is cal-
The bulk weight of
culated according to the formula
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where Z ~, is the bulk weight of the soUd portion of earth;
A is the bulk weight of the moist earth;
I is the moisture content in percent.
Deteziit3 ns Z the PorositY of Earth
The porosity of earth expresses the relationship of the
volume of pores in earth to the total volume of the earth, and can
be calculated from the formula:
where n is porosity in percent;
is the bulk weight of the solid portion of earth;
"( is the specific gravity of earth.
P].asticity of Earths
Depending on the amount of moisture, cohesive earths can
(a) solid, (b) plastic, (c) fluid.
Changes from one state (consistency) of earth to another
and changes in moisture content take place rather abruptly and
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be found in various states:
 indicate differences in the stability of earths under stress.
For this xeason, hhmidities which correspond to the change
of earth from one state to another are used as the most important
characteristics of earths.
It is very important to determine the moisture content
which corresponds to the change of earth from a solid state to a
plastic one, or from a plastic state to a fluid one.
The plasticity of earth is its ability to undergo defor-
oration under outside pressure without rupture of the unified mass,
and to preserve its given form when the deformation forces are
Cohesive earths possess plasticity only at a definite
removed.
moisture content: with less moisture the earth becomes solid;
with more moisture the earth changes into a fluid state.
To determine the ability of earth to take on a plastic
state determine the moisture content which characterizes the
limits of the plastic state: the fluidity limits on the one
hand and the rolling limits on the other hand.
The limit of the fluid state is that point at which an
earth changes from the plastic state to a semiliquid fluid. At
this point, the cohesion of particles is nearly destroyed because
of the free water present because water easily dislodges and dis~
rses earth particles. As a result of this, the adkiesion be-
tween particles becomes negligible. The stability of earth under
atress at the fluid moisture limit is in most cases very alight.
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,of
The rolling .imit corkesponds to the moisture content
~
from a solid to a plastic state,
earth at the point of change,
the earth begins to loner abruptlY
When moisture is increased,
its stability under tress. The xall.ing 1im~.t corresponds to
s
the level of moisture content at which packed uniform clay and
.
al? Y become impervious to water.
loam practic~
The fluid llniit and the ro113.ng la.mit can be called the
.
upper and lower limits of plasticity.
number is used as a basis for describing
The plasticity
the fluid limit and the rolling limit.
The plasticity number is the difference between the fluid
limit of earthy and characterizes the de~
].imit and the rolling
gree of plasticity of earth.
Earths which are stable in road foundations or in the
heavily-traveled part of dirt roads possess a plasticity number
between 1 and $ inclu$ive.
By means of the Plasticity number, one can judge the a-
co-mechanical, and aqueous properties of
mount of clay, the physi
earth. Increasing the clay content of earth raises the plasti-
city number.
By comparing data on the natural moisture content of an
earth with previoual -indicated limits of plasticity, we can ex-
~'
0
picas the moisture content by a relative value, in the form of a
fraction, with the mos ?store content of the earth as the numerator.
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and the fluid limit or the rolling it
The rela content to the flu~.d l~.m
tion of the natural mv~.stuxe
is called the fluid coefficient. The value of the fluid Coe
(consistency) of the earth under
fiG~,ent describes the state t under strays
natural cond~.tions and the degree of its stablt Y
~; aqual tof or a little lase
th normal moisture conten
?
han the rolling limit, the earth is very good for worka,ng.
t ,
cavating hallo then the earth
hollows filling ins and packing.
ex ~ ossib/a
t is difficult and even imp
es to a plastic state, i Dees
Chang
In the fluid state, earth
to carry on such opgxations.
its stabilitY altogether.
offing natural industrial.
ording to the norms for dr
Acc classi.~
' /dings -
foundations and civil (QST 940013$) , earths are
divided into
itY number. Earths can be
fled according to plastic 1,~t3,citY
ending on the value of the p
the follaWing gx'oups, dap
ntaber:
(l) clays ~ lasticit~' number above 1pith a p
lasticity number under 7
(3) sandy loam with a p
ticity' number from 7 to 17
2) clay loam with a plan
(4) non-plastic sand
cif b the lei hin Met,,,ho
Determinin Asti
List of equipment necessa 7
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(l) Hezruk apparatus for determining the fluid limit
(2) ohomical scales with balance
(3) ext~iccator with water
(4) spatula
In addition to the above, all equipment necessary to de??
termine the moisture of the earth (desiccator, bottles, etc.).
The Hezruk apparatus for determining fluid limits (this is
a modification of the apparatus of V. V. Okhotin) : the apparatus
consists of an iron support 1, into which a rod 2 has
(Figure 9)
been ' terted, ? a plate 3,with a depression into which is placed
~.
an iron or brass cup 4 of earth, moves freely along the rod.
Figure 89. Apparatus of V. M. Bezruk for de-
termining the fluidity of earths
Prior to the experiment, the cup has been fastened to
the plate by means of a rubber ring 5. A rubber strip is attached
to soften the blow on the support 1. anslator's note: There
is no number 6 in text to correspond with number 6 of the figure.
Assumedly, the rubber strip is number ' On the rod 2, at a
height of 15 centimeters from the support of the apparatus, screw
on a collar; the plate with the cup 4 of earth is raised to this collar; height during the experiment. The iron or brass cup has a diameter
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of 90 to 95 iaillimetexs and a depth of 25 to 30 millimeters.
The weight of the plate and cup is L kilogram.
special metal knife 7 has been provided to make a cut
in the sample of earth.
In exoss section, the knife has the..form of a trapezium
with upper base dimensions of 2 millimeters and a lower base of
10 millimeters. The angle formed by the edges moat equal 60 de".
green.
Prerarr~a the Earth _ for ,Ana
From the earth, which has been pulverized and passed through
a 0.5 millimeter mesh, take a sample of about 100 grams. Moisten
the sample selected in a porcelain pan and carefully mix until
the earth shows signs of plasticity (that is, until the earth ac-
quires the ability to keep the form given it), Place the earth
thus prepared into an exsiccator, containing water in its bottom
part, for 12 to 20 hours so that the moisture will be spread uni-'
forrnly throughout. The earth in the exsiccator is used to de-
termine the fluid limit and also the rolling limit.
Determinin the Fluid Limit
To determine the fluid limit, pack a 10 millimeter layer
of earth in the bottom of the cup of the Bezruk apparatus. With
a spat ul level the surface of the earth in the cup. Make a cut
through the center of the cup, keeping the knife on the surface.
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On the f jxs t e txoke, sink the kntfs 2 to three mi113?xaeteac~ deep,
and in the fo~.lawi.ng cuts slit the earth dawn to the bottom a~
a de ress~.on in the earth, 2 milla"
the cups The xeaul'~ mush be p
meters wide at the bottom of the cup and 10 mi1Limeters at the
the whole layer of earth. Place the cup
top, running through
of out earth an the plate of the apparatus and fasten with a rub-
ber ring.
Raise the plate 3 With cup slang the rod to a height of
~'~
et it fall freely. Now, obsexa'e the con
15 centimeters, and 1 not
n in the earth. If the depression daes
dition of the depressio
t drop, make a second drop. If after the
fall in after the fire p'
ion is filled in by 1.5 to 2 centimeters
second drop, the depress
a experiment is considered ended. If
the bottom of the cup, the
'
no f i11ing-in is notioed after the second drop, moisten the earth
? to 6 drops of water, and after mix-
in the cup again by adding 5
the bottom of the cup and repeat the
3.ng carefully, pack it in
g the depression Figure 90)?
experiment for fillin
At the begiuning
At the end
re 90. Determining the fluid limit
After ascertax ?na.ng the moisture content, which causes the
and drop repeat the experiment; but
earth to fill in on the see '
this tame, depress the earth in a directaon p?rpendieular to the
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firat depression. If the earth fills in on the second drop, take
a sample from the cup and determine its moisture content by the
method provioualy deacribed,
The moisture content of the earth when it fills in on the
second drop is used as the limit of fluidity.
Carry out an experiment for control paz'poaes? Place another
portion of moistened earth from the porcelain pan into the cup on
the apparatus and repeat the experiment.
Deviation in teat results is allowed as follows:
(a) for sandy loam -M not more than 2 percent
(b) for clay loam and clay - not more than 2.5 percent
From the moistened earth which has been kept for 12 to 20
hours in the exaiccator, rol a ball 1 centimeter in diameter. Trans-
fer the ball to waxed paper, and on it carefully work the ball in-
to a roll 3 millimeters in diameter.
If the roll of earth does not break up into pieces, mold
it again into a ball, and once more roll it out. Repeat the oper-
ation until the sample of earth, which has been worked into a roll
3 millimeters in diameter, begins to crumble into separate pieces.
Gather the crimbled pieces of the 3 millimeter roll into a
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the moisture content of the earth. In order
battle and detertnlne
t$ture of earth at the ro1iing point, it is
to determine the ma
neoessary to have not seas than 5 grams of rolled earth in the
bottle.
Repeat the experiment for control purposes. Deviation in
repeated tests is allowed as follow:
(a) for sandy loam not more than 1 percent
(b) fox clay loam and clay - not more than 2 percent
Determinin the Plastic3t
the rolling limit to 2.7 percent, the plaaticity
percent and at
The pleaLicit number is determined by the difference be-
~'
txeen moisture contents at the fluid limit and at the rolling
the moisture at the fluid limit is equal to 40.5
limit. Thus, if
number of the earth sample is 10.5 - $.7 = 21.$?
The limits of plasticitY and the plasticity number are
reliable indexes by which to judge the physical and mechanical
~.
properties of earths (resistance to displacement, resistance to
stress and displacement. With further increase of moisture, earth
earth almost conpletely loges the ability to resist vertical
capillary moisture capacity of the given earth. At this point,
adhesiveness, etc). The fluid limit is very close to the total
vertical stress, ability to increase in volume and become moist,
changes into a fluid state.
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 The rol is the point at ~rhich the earth changes
~.ing limit from so'iid to piasttc state, The moisture of earth at this point
in most cases coinc h the paptip ~no~.atuxe content," at
~.des g rit
ub act to mactrnum compacting With the
r~h3,ch point the earth is s j
Earth at this moisture rofls well for
,east pressure app'ied.
use on thoroughfares it does not raise dust; it does not pos"
?
,
it does not form ruts in dirt roads.
Q898 adhesi4eri0s3 ~
6 The k hesiveness .9Q J
Adhesivness is the capacct of earths to adhere to objects
~'
'when coning into contact with them. Adhesiveness is expressed
in grams per square centimeter by measuring the forces necessary
the earth adheres. The property of
to remove theabj ect to which
' tic of clays and semi dusty earths in
adhesiveness is characters
extremely unfavorble for road constructs
a moist state. This is
tion? In addition to moisture, other things which influence the
the anulometxic and chemico_mineral-
amount of adhesiveness are: gr
caused
the earth, the forces which originally
ogcal compOSitiO1 of
to the earth, and the kind of materials
the object to be pressed
to which the earth adheres (glass, wood, metal, etc).
Earths which are most adhesive are saliferous and humus,
containing clay and clay loam. Sandy earth has practically no
adhesiveness.
earth increases With the increase of
The adhesiveness of
. units. V9hen full moisture capacity
moisture, but Within certain ~.
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is reached, the adhesiveness of earths decreases sharply, and
with further increase of moisture adhesiveness may disappear al-
together.
The adhesiveness of earths supplements the characteri$ticd
of anulometric composition and plasticity, and i~ determined for
the purpose of establishing the adaptability of earths to the use
-
of road machinery and their suitability for use in the thorough
fare part of dirt roads.
The test for adhesiveness is conducted in the apparatus of
Professor V. V. Okhotin (Figare 91).
Figure 91. Okhotin apparatus for determining the
adhesiveness of earths
A fram~cons1sting of two stands with a crossbar is set
into a wooden board. On the frametmounted a block and funnel
to the bucket. This should cause the bucket to descend. On the
Test the sensitivity of the apparatus by adding a one gram weight
meters in area. The stamp and the bucket must be of equal weight.
ket is hung, and on the other end hangs a stamp 10 square centi-
block, on one end of which -- beneath the funnel a small buc-
which is filled with shot. A cross brace is placed across the
board beneath the stamp, arrange a mold for the earth with smoothers.
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Ts8tinR Procedure
1. Papa a dried and pulverized sample of earth through
a 0.5 millimeter mesh. Take a 200 gram portion of the sifted
earth and moisten it in a porcelain pan to a ~~workingn coada.tion
the earth at this moisture kneada easily, keeps its form, and
does not stick to the hands). Record the amount of water added.
2. Place the moistened earth in an exsiccator with water
and keep above the water for 1$ to 24 hours.
3. At the end of the period, separate the earth and use
one portion of the prepared earth to determine the limit of ad-
hesivenes$. Determining the limit of adhesiveness is done in
the following manner: press a spatula on the earth and then re-
move it, if no earth adheres to the spatula, add 2 to 3 cubic
centimeters of water to the earth. Carefully mix the earth and
repeat the experiment by pressing and removing the spatula. Wa-
to the earth until no earth adheres to the apatl).
ter is added
Record the amount of water added.
4. To the second portion of prepared earth, add 4 cubic
entimeter$ of water, less than necessary to obtain the limit of
C
adhesiveness, and carefully mix the earth.
5. Pack a portion of the prepared earth into the mold of
the apparatus in such quantity that there will be an excess of
earth above the mold.
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6. Press the stamp into thmold, which has been supw
plied with special guides, and by hand or mechanical press,
squeeze the stamp. Remove the excess amount of earth pxessed
out.
7. Arrange the mold in the smoother; to the stamp, join
the crossbar with the bucket weighted on the other end, and gra~
dually pout' the shot through the funnel into the bucket.
~' p
g. When the stamp is removed from the earth, stop the
flow of shot and weigh the bucket with the shot. Make a moisture
test of the earth in the mold.
9. Free the mold of earth and mix in part of the re-
maining prepared earth.
10. To this portion of earth add 2 to 3 cubic centimeters
of water; carefully mix the earth and again test in the apparatus
as indicated in 5, 6, 7, $, and 9?
11. Continue the testing in the apparatus, increasing the
moisture repeatedly until the pull reaches a maximum, and until
two or three results are obtained which indicate a decrease in
the magnitude of pull.
12. Determine the moisture content in all tests taken.
13. On the basis of the data obtained, compose a table
or graph of the relationship of adhesiveness to moisture content
and determine the maximum pull in grams per cubic centimeter and
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~aorresponding moisture content of earth.
swelling consists in the capacity of earth
The property of
to increase e upon absorbing stater. swelling of earths
~.ts velum
is the Present time by colloidal chemistry. The
explained at
lloidal particles possess the property of bolding (adhering)
co
on their surfaces a considerable amount of the molecular layer
this causes the colloidal particles to swell.
of water,
Many earths, es cially clays, contain various substances
T~
in their mass which are in colloidal dispersion. The ability of
colloidal particles to swell gives the earth in general the pro-
perty of increasing its volume when it is dipped into water.
The magnitude of swelling varies for different earths.
It depends on the quantity of colloidal substances, their qual-
ity, texture, and structure, and the mineral composition of the
earth.
As a rule, heavy clay earth with hydrophilic (absorbent)
forms evidences the maim amount of swelling.
colloidal
On the other hand, coarse) granulated earths (sand, sandy
loam) evidence almost no swelling.
A simple method of determining the spelling of earths is
the metering method described on page 200, as developed in the
-25-
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ce Road Institute (AII) . However, this
~jaerimental Science
elative idea of the s~e~.ing of earth, since
method gives an1Y a r
in carrying out the experiment, the natural structure of the
Barth is destroyed b ulveriZing the earth and subsequentlY pre'
by P
cipitating it in an exceedingly large amount of water. Such test
conditiona produce exaggerated indications of sv~elling.
A method which gives a better idea of the natural sweU-'
~
ing property of earth has been presented by A. L Vasilyev.
1, With the aid of a polished cutting ring 1 (Figure 92)
25 millimeters in depth and 58 millimeters in diameter, take a
sample of earth of natural texture and moisture. Using the sped-
c?al a,nsert, cut the earth so that the thickness of earth in the
~.
ring 1 will equal 1 centimeter.
Figure 92. A. M. Vasilyev's apparatus for
determining the swelling of earth
2. Pu.t the brace 2 on the front part of the ring, having
previously' inserted a disc of filter paper between the earth and
the brace. Put the plunger 4 inside the ring.
~
3, Set the assembleapparatua in a round glass developing
dish (crystal pan) after placing a porous plate beneath the ap?-
paratU and after filling the space between the porous plate and
the lower surface of the earth with the sand filter 3.
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and apparatus on the table 5. Then set
4. Set the dish
the metex, which wiU measure deformations, in suci4 positioo'
that the stem touches it with the plunger 4. . Carefully' fasten
the cantilever apParatus; this holds the meter by a set screw
in the position shown.
Record the initial reading of the meter and allow the cap-
illary water to reach the earth in the ring by carefully pouring
the water into the crystal Pa ,n up to the level of the porous plate.
b. Make calculations by the meter readings at definite
intervals of time.
7. The we11ing is expressed in percentage relationship
s
to the initial volume of the test sample. For this, it is neces?-
eery to divide by 10 the number of intervals on the scale of the
meter which the indicator has passed during the experiment, since
the initial depth of the sample of earth is 10 millimeters, and
~,
each division on the face of the meter corresponds to a swelling
deformation of 0.01 millimeters.
For example, if the indicator on the face of the meter
moves 320 spaces during the experiment, the swelling of the earth
will be 32 percent.
66. Shrinkin~Farths
is the capacity of moist earths to decrease their
shrinking
volumes after ding. Therefore, shrinking is the opposite pheno?-
~~y
-2?-
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menon of swelling. lf'the water content in earth decreases as
a result of evaporation, the earth changes from a plastic state
to a semi-solid state. For cohesive earths, the decrease in vol-
ume of earth up to a certain point is equal to the amount of the
evaporated.water. When the water content in an earth approaches
a certain point, which is called the limit of shrinking, the volume
of the test sample no longer decreases; however, the evaporation
of water continues, and consequently the weight of the sample de-
creases.
The magnitude of shrinking depends on the quantity and
quality of the clay-colloid groups and on the pressure of the
coarser groups contained by the earth. Earth with a higher con-
tent of clay evidences a greater amount of shrinking. Sandy loam
and especially sandy earths are characterized by extremely little
shri r dug and sometimes do not evidence this property at all.
Linear and mass shrinking are differentiated. The mass
shrinking is usually the one determined. The magnitude of the mass
shrinking characterizes to a certain extent the content and pro-
perties of the clay-colloidal groups in the earth.
The phenomenoi of shrinking of moist earth is explained
by the very same properties of clay-colloidalsubstances in the
earth that explain the swelling earth. During swelling, the
thickness of the film of water around the earth particles in-
creases; during shrinking, it decreases. Shrinking, like swell-
ing, is partially explained by capillary action.
.. 28
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Determination of massrinking, according to the method
of A. M. Vas ilyeV, is done in the following wanner
e cample of air~driad earth Which has been
~.~ To an average
passed through a 0.5 millimeter mesh, add water up to the fluid
limit, and leave in an exsiccatar with water for 10 to 12 hours.
2. Place moistened earth into a metal cylindrical farm
4 to 5 centimeters in diameter and 2 to 3 centimeters in depth,
which has previously been smeared with a thin layer of vase1ine,
?
and by tapping make sure that the form fills with earth. Smooth
off the excess earth along the edges of the form with a steel
rule.
3. Dry the earth-filled form first in the air, the. af-
a little firm continue the drying at a tem-
ter the earth becomes
Continue the final drying of the sample
perature of 40 degrees.
to a constant weighing at 105 degrees.
4. Next, determine the volume of the dried sample and the
of the form by the method given on page 207.
volume
5, The volume of the shrinking is calculated by the for-
mula:
V
where is the amount of shrinking
is the volume of the form
-29-
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V) is the volume of the dried sample of earth
c
According to the data of Professor V. V. Okhotin, the mois-
ture content at the shrinking point is close to the rolling limit
of the same earths but a little lower. Investigations carried on
in the D0RNIT have established that for most cohesive earths, the
shrinking limit approximately coincides with the optimum moisture content at the maximum compression point of earth.
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e t of stab lit of Earths under stress
The con
is meant their capacitY of absorr-
f
tability o
$y s
ng deformations of compression or die-
forming
without
hing stresses
location above allowable limits.
earths is a changeable value and baai'
The stability of
unt of moisture and porosity. The mois-
furs cally content depends on and the porosiamo i
tY in earth, ~h~.ch corresponds to the max
mem ataba.lity, differ widelY for each category of earth and de-
the earth its chemicoMmtneral composi~
Pend upon the source of ,
Lion, its granulometric composition, and other characteristics.
Under natural Gonda. ? tiona, the total volume of the pores in
clayey earths can exceed the volurne of the hard skeletal part of
of individual pores can be greater than
the earth, and the number
the number of separate particles. Under the influence of even
r brining earth particles out of a state ox equ~.-
sure required fo g
+.h nnion between the particles. This strongly decreases the pre~-
A
Dater by filling in the pores of the earn, weu
1~ moistened. a
of such earths is increased when tine ear. u~a
~iri;Pnt . the compression
n+e vtieles in the total mass of the earth. To a consa.ae' '
of dislocation or the dislodgement of separ-
4n ?nroSitY instead
such uncompacted earths evidence a sharp decrease
small stresses,
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librium,
The stability of cohesive clayey earths, with an increase
in total. volume when more pores are fired with water, is con-
tinuously lowered. When all the pores become filled w9.th free
water, there is practically no stability at all.
The stability of sandy earths, especially of coarse sands,
changes little even when the pores are completely filled with wa.-
ter. Sand possesses little compressibility and does not decrease
in volume when dried.
It is neceasary to know the characteristics of porosity in
order to obtain a correct notion of the degree of stability of an
earth.
Porosity of earth is a ratio of the total volume of pores
between particles of earth to the total volume of the given earth,
including the volume of the pores, expressed in percentage. The
porosity of earths depends on their granulometric composition,
form and mutual interrelation of particles; and in saturated
earths in addition, on the magnitude and form of the structural
and microstructural fragments.
Earths under natural conditions usually constitute a three
pbasesystem, consisting of : (a) particles of dry earth (the ground skeleton), (b) water, and (c) air. For this reason, pores
of the earth are usually filled both with air and with water, and
the proportion of water and air often changes.
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whM~AJryyNHrAt~Y++NUfY~+'uA.\W ~~ I41p.~A/I._i_~_ %.*'.Y 11nuu.. /'~'~ rb Wd ww
Earth
Figure 97. Proportion between the porosity of earths
the volume of earth and its component parts (hard
and
particles, water, and air).
f
volume of the hard phase of earth can be calculated if
The
the following are known: the specific gravity of earth a , and
the bulk weight of ita hard phase 4 using the formula:
&
ing from this and using equation (2) we find that the
Proceed
volume of the pores in a unit volume of earth equals
If the total volume of a given earth is taken as a unit,
and that portion occupied by hard particles is designated as
m and the portiof made up of pores which can be fiUed with
,
water and air , by n (Figure 97) , we will have the following
l m
n=1- m (2)
m3.-'fl
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or, a expressing the volume of the pores in percent of the
total volume of earth, we obtain the value of porosity
The volume occupied by earth is not a constant value. It
varies with changes in the internal pressure or under other coa-
ditions. Since in a change of the total. volume occupied by earth,
the volume of the solid phase m does not change, but only the
volume of the pores n, in the mechanics of earths it is more sui-
table to relate the magnitude of porosity to the volume of its
solid phase ma than to the total volume of the given earth. The
characteristic of porosity thus received is called the relative
porosity, or the coefficient of porosity. and usually is not
expressed in percent but in portions of a unit:
or, using equation (3):
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Substitutifg value n from equation (4) , we get
when all the pores of an earth are filled with water, the
relative porosit of earth E characterizes the relationsl1ip of
y
each to the volume of the ao~.id material (akeleton) and is equal
to the product of the moisture weight of earth (expressed in por-
times the specific gravity of earth.
ta.ons of a unit
The Belationshi Between Pressure and Porosit
sure, causes the porosity of the earth to decrease. To a consi-
Downward pressure exerted on the earth, under condition
which prevent the earth from expanding laterally beneath the prey-
plied. The less packed the earth is initially and the greater
tial porosity of the earth and the magnitude of the pressure ap-
datable extant, the compressibility of earth depends on the mnia
tent of compression.
the magnitude of the compacting stress, the greater will be'ae ex-
the relative porosity is plotted against the eX~era
If
Wally applied pressure in right angle coordinates, the result
will be a compression curve (Figure 98).
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In actual copatruction with relatively small stresses on
the earth, the relationship between the relative porosity and presto
sure Gan be considered as linear with enough accuracy for prac-
tical purposes. In such such cases, if the pressure on the earth
changes from Pi to P2, the section of the curve between these
points can be used linearly Mp - Ml without great error. By
continuing straight line to its intersection with the ordi-
this nate axis, we find point ( . The following equation can be made
far a given linear:
variable values of the coefficient of porosity
where and P are
and pressure;
A is a constant abstract quantity
&:;. is the coefficient of compressibility measured in
~' i
cT?/g.
From the equation of the linear relationship obtained, it
foUows that the coefficient of the porosity of earth varies in
direct proportion to the pressure exerted on the earth.
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This rule is the basis of calculations for determining the
value of the settling of earth under structures.
The eat onsh of Mo ture to_Pres ure
The compression curve expresses the relationship between
the amount of pressure on the earth and the corresponding poro-
sity; or if all the pores are filled with waters to the moisture
content of the earth.
If the earth has been moistened so that all of its pores are
filled with water, on applying stress the volume of the pores will
decrease; the water which fills the pores will be pressed out.
When stress is applied to sandy earth, there is an abrupt de'
crease in the volume of the pores, since pores in sand are large
and water is quickly expelled through them.
If water-saturated clay or clay loam is subjected to pres~
sure, water will run out very slowly from such earth. This means
that the compression of such earth, which is connected with the
decrease in porosity, will also take a long time. Moreover, the
pressure applied to the earth is immediately absorbed by the wa-
ter in the pores of the earth.
Absorption of the stress by the solid phase is directly
proportional to the amount of water expelled from the earth.
When the stress has been completely absorbed by the solid
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phase of the earth, exceas water under pxe$aure atapa aacapif?
hed between the extarnapressure on the
Equilibxium is establts
earth arid the reaction of the earth paxticlee, which hold a cax-
tamn q1'Lantity of water around themselves in the parse; the set
. xf after this a new stage of stress
fling of the earth ceases
is applied ?- one which exceeds the resisting farces of the earth's
~.
skeleton the equilibri prev&ously established is destroyed.
um
--?
Once more the process of expelling the surplus water begins with
.
the corresponding decrease in porosity of earth~until an accord
3.a established between the pressure and the moisture content
(porosity) of the earth.
ocess is well j1lutrated in the following
This dynamic pr
model (Figure 99)?
Figure 99. Schematic drawing showing the rela?-
tionship of moisture to pressure
outlet a in the vessel corresponds to the pores in the eartxi tnrougu
ronds to the water contained in the pores of the earl u; uuv
epr_. corresponds to particles of earth; the water in the vessel
Let us suppose that the sprang, which bears the stress of tine
A vessel both filled and surrounded by water is closed by
n plunger is held in place by a metal spring.
~ 1 un~er"'I~ . The
which water can be expelled.
P acts on plunger , at first all the pressure
When stress
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water which, because of the pressure created
is absaxbed by the
to f3.ow through the outlet a. The greater the
upon it, begins
size of the outlet, the greater will be the rate of escape from
er the hole, the more time will be required
the vessel. The small
for the pressure p initially to be felt by the spring. As the
?s transferred to the spring, the pressure upon the water
stress a.
weakens and the water stops escaping from the vessel. The resistance
of the spring equalizes the pressure on the plunger. If the stress
on the plunger is increased after the spring stops compressing,
of water occurs, and a new compression of the spring
further escape
until a new equilibrium is established between the
takes place
stress and the resistance of the spring. Analogous phenomena
earth when vertical stresses act on it, inasmuch as
take place in
the compression of the earth skeleton gradually increases its re-
h equalizes external pressure, and water is expelled
sistance, whit -~
from the pores of the earth as the stress is increased.
Decreasing the moisture of the earth, which takes place
when stress is exerted, causes a corresponding decrease in the
the earth. Since for water-filled earth the relative
porosity of
numerically equal to the weight of the moisture mul
porosity is
tiplied by the specific gravity of earth (Section 72), instead
of relative porosit , we can plot the weight of the moisture
~'
in the earth on the diagram of the porosity-pressure relationship.
of the relationship between the moisture content of
The diagram
earth and pressure is also called the compression curve (Figure
100).
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1~wMJ1NMMKIM~lYM4~Y~x u~w~ww~WYfNM'+'~~~MMN~NMn~IMiFw~11 a?WWI ra.w.fN,~Y+~*YV.#tN ~+IY UN MN+MMwMMM~~~s~MY1VYwri1M~IMMi.+~+1~xWM1YM
lu.x~ 1 ~px~ ~y1,M M~My~yyWMINMMMxxxxNlYYMWVMYIWwYiANNMMMMMM~
w.1YnxN YIH1i 1 WY 1
15 ~~h+) ~~..
t~ a I"
Figure 100. Relationship of pressure to moisture
content of earths
Establishing the relationship between moisture of earths
and pressure is of great practical significance and describes
the change of the properties of earths in foundations of struc-
tures - changes which are caused by the action of stress.
n and Cohesion. Resistance of Earths taceme?n~t
Fxt?
resistance of earth to displacement is one of its most
The
important characteristics since it is an indication of the sta-
walls of excavations and embankments, and
bility of earth on the
also in foundations of various engineering constructions.
When external stress is applied, tensions can arise in the
earth mass causing a reciprocal movement (displacement) of particles;
-10-
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a.u
g
tro a.ng the stability of the side
various ca~tructions: (a) des ~'
of a sub grade, (b) bulging of earth from wider the support of carp
station of deformation of displace-
structio'n, (a) combined manife
went when stabilitJ of the slope is destroyed and the earth bulges
from the f oundation of a supporting wall.
' aoernent depend upon two things:
Resistance of earths to da.spl
internal friction, and (2) cohesion.
the displacement of earth in
re 101 , Deformation of . -
F?
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ible lastlc chaxaater ~ With
these mavementa axe of an irxeerS P
of the displacement gradually'
increase of stress, deformation
can take held of largo valid masses of eh, causing the sta-
bility o~ the sides of the earth to be destroyed, and sometimes
neering aonstruGtlon0 F.xamples
going so far as to destroy engi
of deforme-tians caused by displacement of earth are shown in
Figure 101.
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The sauna of friction between two bodies is the presence
saes. When pressure is increased an
of roughness on their surf
fl em closes together, fr~.ation in..
rubbing bodies, thus brings g
In earths, friction arises between
creases between the bodies
rtiales at their point of contact.
separate pa
the are filled with water, the fric-
when the pores in ear
of earth, e~peciaUy in clay" and clay
tion between the particles
Water plays the part of a lubxi'-
loam, decreases substantially.
his slight particles of earth which are
cant. In addit3.on to t ~
' volume and seem to repel each other,
able to swell increase their
are held on the surface of the earth
and films of water which rh
particles by molecular attraction moo) away the roughness of
? 0$ or their microg~'ains . For this reason,
the separate parta.cl e
?
there is very 1 tion in clayey earths when they are little f ra.c
moist.
? vide$ the tenacity of earths, was for-
Cohes~.on, wha.ch pre
the presence of capillal7 forces
merly explained exclusively by
in the pores when the mechanics of earths were first investiga-
that when free gxav~.tational water was pre'
tad. It was believed
re was the smallest extent of cohesion. ~
sent in earths, the earth' concave meniscuses of captllary' wa..
water is removed from menis-
a result of the binding action of the
ter are formed. ~
th come together and acquire tenacity,
cases, particles of ear
on of the cohesion of earths does not e -
This explanati
haunt all the complex phenomena of the i.nteractton between solid
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particles and the film of water surrounding them. A more acM
ceptable explanation of the tenacity of earths is given in the
works of the Soviet scholar, Professor H. M. Gersevanav.
As H. M. Gersevanov points out, the reciprocal attraction
of earth particles or their micrograins is caused by the forces
of molecular attraction between the surface of the earth particles
and the films of bound water whenever earth particles come to-
gether at a distance less than the square of the radius of the
action of the molecular forces. In this case, the forces of the
molecular attraction of water are equal for both earth particles.
On the other hand, the attraction forces of earth particles, which
are directed to the water film, tend toward a reciprocal attrac-
tion of particles upon each other. In this way, internal forces
of reciprocal attraction arise between all earth particles, causes
ing tenacity in the earth. Since in an earth mass the contacting
surfaces of particles have a highly diverse direction, the tena-
city can be expressed by thorough pressure, which tightens all
the particles between themselves. The creation of thorough mol-
ecular pressure depends on the density of the earth, which rises
when particles come together.
Cohesion between particles or their micrograins will be
greater if there are more contacts between the particles. For
this reason, tenacity reaches its highest extent in clay. Tena-
city is practically non-existent in pure sand.
Apart from the forces of molecular attraction and capillary
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 s especially colloidal gels and salts ins-
Lion of natural cement,
soluble in water.
The resistance of earth to displacement forces can be ex-
pressed by the coefficient of internal friction and cohesion.
ficient of internal friction f is meant the co-
By the coef
efficient of the proportion between the vertical compacting pres-
sure and the resistance to displacement, which is caused by in-
ternal fr?etivn. For a given earth, the coefficient of internal
~,
considered a constant value. The part ofe
friction f can be
resistance to displacement caused by forces of friction does not
depend vn the magnitude of the area to which vertical pressure
is applied, but only on the magnitude of the force P. If a
graph is constructed showing the relationship of the displace-
ment resistance of earth to the magnitude of vertical pressure
-
the coefficient of internal friction f can be represen
upon it,
ted linearly as the tangent of an angle sloping toward the ab?-
cz?ssa, which characterizes the rase of the resistance to dis-
s
placement an proportion to the increase of vertical pressure on
the earth:
ca
where the angle ~ constitutes the angle f internal friction of
the earth (Figure 102)?
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pressure in tenacious c~.aY earth, eohsion occurs under the ac-
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Figure 102. Diagram showing resistance of earth to
displacement at different pressures
The value of cohesion c is that part of the resistance
to displacement in earth which does not depend on vertical pres-
sure P. Cohesion is measured in kilograms per square centimeter.
The part of the general resistance to displacement caused by for-
ces of cohesion depends on the magnitude of the area along which
the displacement of earth occurs, and can be expressed as a pro-
duct of cohesion and the magnitude of the area C = F.
The coefficient of internal fraction and cohesion are very
important characteristics used in calculating the resistance of
earths to horizontal and vertical forces, as in calculating the
stability of supporting walls, aides of embankments or excava-
tions, and other road constrUctions.
Maximum Densit and the timum Moisture of Earths
When the surface layers of the earth thicknesses occur nat-
urally, they always constitute a three-phase system: solid sub-
stance + water + air. The water content and air content in earths
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are extremely variable, and can range from fractional to large
es On the magnitude Qf the porosity of earth, that is,
peraentag
On the volume which water and air occupy in it, depend the pbysicOM
mechanical properties. In road construction - in the sub-grade,
and in the foundations of the road surfacings --
in the surfacings,
the greater the stability of the earth, the greater the density or,
putting it another way, the smaller the porosity. Depending on
how much the pores of the earth are filled with water, the earth
can change from a stable condition to an unstable one, and vice
versa taking on a solid, plastic, or fluid consistency.
In examining the conditions of the stability of earths un-
der stress plastic consistency can be subdivided into hard-
,
plastic and soft-plastic.
Solid and hard-plastic consistencies of earth are caused
by the presence physically of bound water, and at hard-plastic
consistency, the earth contains a certain amount of free water.
A significant lowering of the supporting ability of the earth
when changing from the hard-plastic to the softMplaatic consis-
tency is explained by the further increase of the amount of free
water.
At the solid consistency, we observe a considerable tenacity
valuable when using earth in road surfacings or foundations.
(cohesion) of earth -w a property which is very advantageous and
The amount of physically bound and free water in earths can
be greatly changed under the influence of climatic and other con-
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The optimum moisture content can vary a little and depends
The compacting theory of cohesive earths has been worked
out by Professor N. N, lvanov and Candidate of Technical Science
M. Ya. Telegin on the basis of calculating the positive proper-
ties of physically bound water.
of their research, it has been established that
As a result
of tenacious earth can be assured only when it
maximum stability
is compacted to the maximum density with the "optimum" moisture
~
content corresponding to' the given earth.
By floptimum" moisture content of earth is meant the amount
of moisture at which one can attain the maximum density, and con-
sequently the minimum Porosity, of earth with the least expendi-
ture of work by compacting machinery (rollers, stampers).
both on the properties of the earth being packed and on the magni-
which does the compacting (Figure 103)?
re 103? Optimum moisture and meximum density of var-
Figu
earths: (1) moraine clay loam, (2) carbonaceous loess,
sous
(3) covered clay, (4) clayey black soil
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ditiona. Variations in the relative content of these categories
of water cause changes in the physico-mechanical properties of
earth.
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moisture content of earth is gradually increased,
If the
keeping the packing forces constant, the density of earth ini"-
tiaUy becomes eater and reaches a maximum density for each
~'
earth at a specific moisture content. Increasing the moisture
further with the same packing eond~.tions causes the den-
content
city of the earth to be lowered.
The maximum compactness of tenacious earths is approsi-
reached at a moisture content ?1' a little lower than the
mately
moisture content at the rolling limit.
Compacting earth at the optimum moisture content to its
maximum density is the simplest method of increasing the stabil-
ity of earth on roads.
However, the density of earth reached later on, when sub-
grade is used, can be changed under the influence of natural fac-
tors moisture and temperature.
slow.
This change is sometimes very
At optimum moisture content, when being compacted by for-
ces of 30 to 40 kilograms per square centimeter (as when a steam
roller is used to pack the earth), cohesive earths are at the
transition limit from solid to hard plastic consistency and are
capable of withstanding a rather heavy stress (10 to 20 kilograms
per square centimeter) without forming any significant deforrna-
tions. The optimum moisture content assures many advantageous
properties of earth when used in road construction. At optimum
moisture content, earths excel in tenacity, do not possess adhe-
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The apparatus for standard compacting consists of the fol--
aiveness and do not form dust.
struction.
to a fluid state, that is, unstable and poorly suited to road con?
plastic state, and with further increase of moisture it changes
Earth which contains free water first changes to a soft-
degree of adhesiveness1 and plasticity.
ative road properties to appear -_ low tenacity, swelling, high
the earth along with physically bound water, and this causes neg-
The optimum moisture content characterizes the critical
state of earth. With increase of moisture, free water appears in
and density of earth for compacting embankments, road foundations,
The optimum moisture content and maximum density is de-~
termined in the laboratory to establish the necessary moisture
and surfacings.
beaker, (4) packer, (5) upright, (6) plate, (7) thrust collar.
lowing units : (1) a beaker base, (2) lower beaker, (3) upper
Sample of earth to
be compacted
Figure 104. Apparatus for standard packing of earth
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The mounting of the apparatus and detailed dimensions are
shown in Figure 104.
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
1. Determine the granulornetric composition and plasti'-
city of the earth.
2. Pass a sample of earth weighing 3 to 3.5 kilograms
through a 5 millimeter mesh and moisten the earth until the mois-
ture content is approximately equal to 50 percent of the rolling
limit for cohesive earths and 30 percent of the fluid limit for
non-cohesive (non'-plastic) earths. Carefully mix the earth and
moisten evenly; then determine the moisture content.
3, weigh the lower beaker of the apparatus with the base
to an accuracy of 1 gram.
4. Determine the number of blows necessary to obtain full
compactness of the earth. Conduct the compacting of the earth in
the form by blows of the descending packing weights, weight of 2.5
kilograms from a height of 30 centimeters. Carry on the compacts
Ling in layers by filling in earth to one third the height of the
form. At each layer of earth, apply one third the planned num-
ber of total blows.
Determine the number of blows three or four times, each
time changing by 10 or 20 the number of blows given by the weight.
With each new number of blows, measure the volume of the compacted
earth, and after weighing determine the bulk weight of the earth
in the form. Repeat the experiment until the bulk weight of the
earth does not vary from the preceding weight by more than 0.3
grams per cubic centimeter. The number of blows necessary for this
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given earth (Figure 105,)
uAawl.r.+M~rxu.~nXru.Y+wwMU"w ~lyu~r.M4vu~who W w., rF:A
r.a.wurrnw rMUrwi.rw~rww~VM+rrwlnMnww.MSwwl~rwnw`rw~xuwnarM//Y~~~rM~/~bM~'rM~nnl
....?...w'w'~'rr~..r+ww..wrw^'w'm r,Mw f 1
Fi re 105. Curve of density (compactness) for
clay loam earth
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is taken as the necessary number.
At each new Faclcing, remove the earth from the form, ptt1 '
verize it, repack into the form, and repeat the experiment, a1
After establishing the necessary number of blows, re-
peat the experiment, raising the moisture content of the earth two
percent with each repeated trial until the point is reached at
which the bulk weight of the earth begins to decrease with fur-
r increase of moisture. With each repeated trial, take a sam-
the
p1e of earth from the form and determine its moisture content by
the weighing method.
tering the number of blows as indicated above.
6. On the basis of the data obtained, constrict a curve
showing the relationship between the bulk weight of the skeleton
of earth and the moisture content. The peak of the curve defines
the greatest bulk weight of the skeleton of the earth, and the cor-
responding moisture content defines the optimum moisture for the
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
tests conducted in DORNII under the direction of
Numerous
Professor N. N. Tvanov indicate that the durability of road sur-
f ao ing depends on the amount of s ag under the ~,nf luence of reM
peated stresses.
the same time.
The amount of sag of road surfaces depends on the natural
the surfacing and on the resistivity of the earth be-
hardness of
ing to N. N. Ivanov, the resistivity of earth can be
neath. Accord ~
characterized by the value of its modulus of deformation.
modulus of deformation of earth is similar to the modu-
The
lus of elasticitY, which is used in the resistance of materials,
but with this difference: in determining the modulus of defor
total deformation of the earth is taken into account -
mationy the
the elastic and the plastic - since even under insignificant stres-
ses, earth has both elastic and residual plastic deformation at
Under laboratory conditions, the modulus of deformation is
determined by Pre$sing a round flat stamp into a sample of earth
which has been placed in a special form. This is done with the
aid of a hand press and is calculated according to the formulas
ID
where E is the modulus of deformation in kilograms per square
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
p is the specific prescure in kilograms per square cer 14-
meter;
deformation resulting from pressing in the stamp,
l is the
in centimeters
D is the diameter of the stamp in centimeters.
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C PTER , xvti;
PERMLFROST REGION
gl General conce is and Exposition
The permafrost region extends from the White Sea in the
West to the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea in the East. It
is called the permafrost region because from the land surface
down to a certain depth there is a layer of rocks with negative
temperatures. The negative temperature of this mass has been
preserved uninterruptedly for a long period, estimated up to a
millenium, The permafrost region occupies about 45 percent of
the whole territory of the USSR,
The presence of frozen earths in Northern Siberia has been
known for more than 300 years. The natives and "state servants"
r~
have know about this, and it was also known in Moscow from the re..
ports of these individuals. In 1640, the Lensk governors P. Goto..
vin and M. Glebov, reported to Moscow that there "the land does
not thaw for the year around."
Scientific study of the permafrost region was first begun
in Russia. Beginning in 1723, the Russian Academy of Sciences
sent an expedition of scholars to study the rocks of the perma-
frost region.
Investigation of perafrost expanded greatly- after the Oc_
tuber socialist revolution.
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In 1939, under the direction of the existing committee on
permafrost, the only Institute of Frost Studies in the world waa
created in the USSR, with a whole series of permafrost sd,enti-
fic research stations.
Because of the activity of many Soviet frost supervisors,
who are also scholars, a new type of scientific frost study hae
arisen`
$2 The Temperature $ivstem of Permafrost Roc
There are three basic layers according to the temperaM
ture system of earths in the permafrost region: (a) the active
layer, (b) the permafrost layer, and (e the sub-permafrost layer.
The active layer is the upper layer of earths lying upon
the permafrost thicknesses. This layer is characterized by the
fact that it freezes in winter and thaws in summer. The activi-
ty of plant and animal organisms i.s"concentrated in it, and phy-
sical processes of various types take place there.
The depth of the active layer varies a great deal, de-
pending on the geographical locality, the character of the rocks,
the depth of the snow cover, vegetation, etc. The shallowest por-
tion of the active layer is found in swamp areas because of the
poor heat-.conductivity of peat.
The deepest active layer has been observed in sand, gravel,
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s cially if they are located on s1opep fac-
and crushed rac , epe
ing south.
In the argest part of the permafrost region, the active
~.
layer merges with the permafrost layer during winter, forming
the soMcalled Wised permafrost (Figure 1.34) .
Figure 114. Schematic structure of fused permafroats
( Live layer, (2) permafrost, (3) sub..froat thic1c-
~,} ac
nest.
In some places where the permafrost rocks are deeply situ-
aced such merging does not occurs between the active layer and
the permafrost layer lies a thawed layer of varied thickness. This
type of frost is called non-merging.
The Permafrost Latex
The depth of the permafrost layer varies widely. It is at
a m~. .na.mur~ a. 'n the southern borderland; in the north, it increases
regularly, reaching several hundred meters in isolated places.
The temperature of permafrost rocks ranges from 0 to -13.
The lowest temperature is found approximately in the central por-
tion permafrost thickness. The temperature system of the
ion of t
active layer and of the permafrost thickness depends on such im-
portant factors as climate, vegetation, relief, locality, thick-
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neaa of snow cover, and works of man. Changes in these factors
usually bring about changes in the temperature system throughout
~'
the thicknesses of the rocks.
Sometimes a layer of frozen rooky can be interstratified
by thawed rocks with positive temperatures. This type of frost
is called stratified (Figure 3.15).
Figure 115. Schematic structure of non.-merging stratified
frost: (l) active layer, (2) intexxvening layer with a
positive temperature, (3) stratified permafrost,
(4) sub-frost layer
The presence of stratified frost is most frequently ex-
plained by the circulation of water in the earth at raised tem-
peratures.
Mention must also be made of the presence of layers in the
permafrost region which have no permanently frozen rocks at all.
These are usually areas at the bottoms of rivers and lakes. How-
ever, in the southern part of the permafrost region, layers with-
out frozen rocks are found outside the area of water surfaces.
Their presence here is related to the warming effect of the heavy
snow cover and other natural conditions which are favorable to the
deep thaw of rocks.
The formation of permafrost, from the modern perspective,
4
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belongs to the Quaternary period. In evidence of this are the
numerous findings of undecomposed corpses of mammoths and rhino-
ceroses found in the permafrost region. It is evident that the
animals mentioned lived and died under conditions approximating
those in which they were discovered. It is known that in the
Quaternary period, a large cold speU occurred which caused the
upper layer of rocks to freeze. As time passed, heat released
in radiation by the surface of the land over the world exceeded
the heat received from without. A a result, there took place
an accumulation of "coldness", an increase in the thickness of
the permafrost layer, and a lowering of its temperature.
In several places along the southern boundary of the perma?
frost region, degradation has been observed; that is, the re.-
serves of "coldness" have decreased. Evidence of this is the in-
crease of the active layer, and a decrease in moss in the perma-
frost thickness, and a recession of the permafrost toward the
north.
The causes of such local degradation of permafrost are,
on the one hand, climatic changes, and on the other, the effect
of man's activity -w cutting down the forests, clearing the land
of brushwood and moss cover, destroying the soil, raising cattle,
and various kinds of construction. All these change the tempera-
ture system and help lower the reserves of "coldness" in the per-
mafrost thickness.
5
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83 . Certain Pecu iar t es of Frozen Earths
with the lowering of temperature, the water contained in
earths freezes, giving it new properties. Ic crystals are formed
in the earths whieh.bind the separate rock particles firmly, mak-
ing the rock monolithic. The degree of tenacity of frozen earths
wholly depends on the quantity of water (ice) it contains and on
the temperature. Clay and clay loam earths contain the greatest
amounts of water. When these rocks freeze in a water-saturated
state, they form a bound monolith which is characterized by great
durability and is exceptionally difficult to excavate.
At a relatively high temperature (about 0 degrees), water
in the pores of clay earths may not freeze; as a result of this
phenomenon frozen earth at a negative temperature will be found
in a plastic state.
When water is not present, which is sometime observed in
sand, the properties of earths show very little change in the
trans1tion from plus to minus temperature. The earth, as before,
has the properties of a free flowing body.
In accordance with this, frost is divided into : (a) mono-
lithic, (b) plastic, and (c) dry.
Monolithic frost, which is most prevalent, offers the most
difficulty in excavating frozen earths (making hollows, ditches,
etc).
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The most u farltY of fxoZen watersaturated
~,mportant pea~.
ee2tlas is they ~,~,itY to Water. Fxozen rooks xi7~l
low pe~neab
tbxou h that i$, they are imperv'~.ou~
hard~,y allow wr~tex to pass g ~
the surface layers of the earth and
to water. The swamping of
s
the extensiveness of swamp and peat bogs over a Gonsidexable
part of the region of permafrost are related to thts impermea-
bility of rocks.
ted earths freeze they swell and the sur-
When water-satoxs
thaw the surface lowers. The water con-
face rises; when they
es its volume by 9?1 percent when frozen.
tamed in rocks increaa
when ice is formed, the general volume of the
At the earns time,
rocks increase.
has a 50 percent porosity and all the
Thus, if clay earth
the volume of the earth increases
pores are filled with water,
t when it freezes. The earth, wha.ch
by approximately 4 .5 percen
There
the least resistance from above.
increases in vol~-e, meets
the
tU1ated rocks freeze, they rise. Whenever
iii Pr water-s a
1re kslvA room for moisture and are very damp, the ri4u wv
~J
_..M,1 IT rArr-ebtible. Increasing the moisture greatly ax et'-
zone,
and film water in the fre8zing
J,rY
by tightening the capil
earth when frozen. The increase in volume tie~.e~
swelling of
earth may cause such things as the
The ecpansion of frozen
e ushed out or the pilings of wooden
foundations of buildings to b p
bridges or pillars, etc, to do the same.
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Subte anean waters n the Permafrost Re ion
When present in the permafrost region, subterranean waters
are principally concentrated above the permafrost thicknesses,
but they are also contained within the-permafrost layer and the
sub-frost layer. In accordance with this, subterranean waters
in the permafrost region are divided into three categories; the
superfrost, the interfrost, and the subfrost.
The superfrost waters occur above the permafrost layer.
This is usually soil water which has accumulated as the result
of seepage of rainfall in the summer and its retention on the
water-impermeable frost layer.
Even when the permafrost is not deep, superfrost water can
freeze completely in the winter, changing to a solid state. This
Change causes mounds and layers of ice to form and caused the
rocks to swell.
In view of the fact that water when frozen increases in
volume by 9.1 percent, when the upper part of the water-supplying
bed freezes the water in the lower part of the bed will be found
I
under increased pressure -~ the pressure increasing as the depth
of freezing increases. Under the effect of the increased pressure,
the top layer of frozen earth buckles. In some places, the sag
can be very great, taking the form of a mound. Such mounds can
Mroach a height of 3 to 4 meters, and dieters up to 30 or more
meters (Figure 116).
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'1 E r1N' "T1 a
1. A'(
?.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the structure of
an ic'e layer mound
A fissure frequently forms in the central part of to mound;
from this water flows and freezes at the surface.
The ice lavers formed in this manner are called earth ice-
layers (Figure 117), and the mounds are called ice-layer mounds
(Figure 11~).
Figure 117. An ice laver which did not melt in
Fire 11$. A mound which did not melt in summer
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"^w
i.; A k t "`
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Figure ll9?
moss
Ice under a sma~.. IaYex of
The depth of h several scorns of
fossilized ice can rear the
es in and heat p enetrates
Farm tempcratur set and, large
meters? men fossilized ice thaw,
roc, shallow layers of
layers o~C
and smal are formed? men these
) formed
l empty spaces (heat eaviti?s
$e or settle, various types ?f depressions are
vibes collap rr aucexs, rr ~windo~'s,a
ca .... craters, s
ur faCe of the earth
on the s
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stx?~ f r?~~ ?
ex$ axe Watexs of
The interfro~~ yet
alines of courses wa.
The pr ~ th pove
eBence t~ s Ole x,04 paters, has al-
perat tem..
ovement ?~ aDm Coected vri'th the m
urea r aYer of permafrost
1
boned as occurring in the
ready been men
the surface on the
come up to
can
The interf rost ~a e~cava`~ions ~ causln~
ides tere the
mounta3.ns or in deep Such
s of hills and iCeplayer sprin~s?
r of the s o_called
they are heated deep
ranCe in ~inte ~
appea
ed for water supply a.
s rims can be ut~.l~.Z
p
in the frost Zone.
perma
_
tate
,
uid s
a iq pater in
ning
addition to contaa. 3
f a.s found ~n
~ ~
f - ice. Ice
.-
o
o
f pater in the ,,L+? - y~hich
cost laYere contain form of entire 'beds
s seams ~ and als ? ~' n the
fine and crystal Fi re U
9) ?
or Dried
e ca~.led fossilized
ar
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ncav?-ins,n etc. In a large number of these depressions, a spe
of is formed -M heat cavities. When buried
cial type of x?li
ices thaw, they replenish the reserves of water and feed lakes.
Subterranean waters circulating in wat?r-supplying rocks
beneath the permafrost layer are called subfrost waters. Dril-
ling has established the fact that these water-supplying beds
have much water and frequently contain rising water. For these
t waters are possible sources of water supply
two reasons subfros
in the permafrost region.
ermafrost region shallow rivers, as a rule, freeze
In the p
?n winter. are a comparatively small number of deep
over a.
M.,
rivers which do not freezeme~?but are covered with a thick layer
like subfrost waters, can serve as poten-
of ice. These rivers,
tial sources of water supply,
When deep rivers freeze through, their profiles decrease,
water to go out. As a result of increased pressure,
al~.oWing all
part of the water flows into the loose sediment on the banks of
the river, where ' n the weakest places it breaks to the surface.
~.
After the water freezes, river ice layers are formed on
,
the surface of the bottom land, sometimes covering large areas.
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ermafxast rocks creates special
The presence of layers of p
ound and undexg?ound con$txuct
problems for exacting above"gx
When constUcting automobile roads, bridges, builda.ngs , and
he arrangement of excavations and em"
works, one must consider t f
bankments, the digging of ditches, driving of piles, laying a
as acts of construction, the
foundations, etc. With all these p h
cks changes, as a resulof whic
natural temperature system of ro t
some e~ct?nt affect the stabi~.i y
various phenomena arise which to
of constractio~n.
first of all xttns into the dif-
In working the ground, one
this frozen rocks and having to use
ficultY of handling the monoli
.n to thaw them with the aid of
e losives to loosen them, or have g
Excavation slopes in frozen rocks thaw ou
ntorches" or steam. Excav with
float around when supersaturated
after the fist sinter and
water.
the places where most frequently
In w~.nter, hollow are o~~
.. er springs and swe1~-~-ng occur. For these reas~ ,
ground and icelaJ?to be
for automobile roads, deep hallows are
In seeking routes southern slopes
tes should be projected along the
avoided. The rou laces
of hills or along the high, raised terraces of risers. High p
d ood drainage for surface and
are usually less humid, and of f or g
ground water.
The least favorable place for laying a road is swampy or
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mossy tundra flatlands, the maxi. At shallow depths these areas
layers with large deposits of pure ice in the
contain permafrost
sins and streaks. In building embankments in the maxi,
toxin of se
frozen earths and ice melt. This can cause the embankments to
buckle.
It is difficult to lay roads in areas with heat cavities.
Here, besides the difficulty in working the ground because of all
kinds of pockets, there is still the danger of forming new depres-
sons in the process of building the roads, and later ou in the
~.
process of using the roads.
Therefore, in deciding upon routes for automobile roads,
more than the routine geological inspection should be made. There
should be, in addition, boring and drilling for determining the
depth of the stratum containing permafrost rocks, and for estab-'
1ishing presence of heat cavities and buried ice. This procedure
should be followed for the entire route.
In those sections of roads where high embankments are
built, changes occur in the temperature system.
The limit of the permafrost thickness under the embankment
raised upwards, gradually becoming the core of the embankment.
is When the marginal portion of the embankment thaws in the spring,
down along the frozen earth of the core. Dust rocks
the sides slip
are most subject to this slide phenomenon, but under conditions of
heavy moisture, even clay loam and sandy loam rocks wild, slide.
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The foundations of buildings and supports of bridges dur-
ing winter freeze to the moist earths. As a result, the con-
struction rises (or bulges) whenever the earth freezes. Depen-
ding on the nature of the earths, the degree of their moisre,
and the type of foundation, the bulge will take various dimen-
lions. With the most unfavorable combination (dust earths, much
moisture deep freezing) the bulge can reach several scores of
centimeters.
From what has been stated, at is evident that in carrying
on different kinds of engineering constriction in the permafrost
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In road constriction, the possibility u~st be considered
of aver, spring, or ground icewlayer$ forming in the vicinity
of the road, since these 3.ayers render the normal use of roads
difficult, destroy wooden bridges, and waterpipes.
v
Deformations of buildings - buckling, bulging, formation
..
of fissures an the foundations -. aa frequent phenomena ocoung
in the permafrost region.
When negative temperatures are maintained, frozen rocks
remain farm and provide a good base for foundations of buildings
and supports of bridges. In case of thaw, however, their capacity
to withstand external pressure is considerabLy decreased as a
result of the moisture. This is especially characteristic of
dust and clay loam earths, which possess a large moisture-re-
taming capacity.
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xe ~,on a whole series of pecu~.tarit~.es ari$e - defects w~liah
g ' ~'Y~
the period of eer iGe, ma1ce extra repa3~r neceas
can shorten and lower the uta '1iZatton value of the co~truct~on.
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BASICTNODS of ,~RTIFIC1,y
STRENGTHENING E. BTk1S
6. General lnformatian
1 road construction roater~.als
The use of earths as loco five/
Soviet Union is based on the prat
at the present time in the urfacings
cting many hundreds of road s
e erience gained in eonstru
and foundations.
~.t the present time, the use of earth as material for the
co ?n s and foundations is very irflpar-
n
nt. If stxuction of earth can road be usedsurface., g there is no need to transport
to
materials from other places for his
uantities of stone and sand
q
purpose.
arch rojects conducted by Pro-
As a result of many rase p
in and others, effective and
L L Eitiatov, V. V. Okhat ,
f eesor
economical methods of ing roads have been developed;
construct
a
the use of earthS as the primary canstructa.n
these are based on
road surfacings and foundations.
material for
of artificially strengthening
In using established methods
earthsroad can be made which fu1fx11
suxf acings and foundations the is for modern automobile roads. Using
engineering requ~.remen
the for coratruction materials is very profitable i'rom the
'
local sax
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economic point of view, since the earth eerv'es as the oheapest
and most accessible material and is not difficult to transport
or to work.
The various methods of artificially etxengthening earths
d under the general term of earth atabiliza-
are often collects
tion. The artif treegthening of earths constitutes the to-
tality of all technical and conat'Uctton measures for assuring
the when cohesiveness is increased in both
the stability of ear
wet and dry states.
After being strengthened, earths are usually ab~.e to with-
stand the considerable stresses which occur when vehicles pass
over them and do not develop any noticeable deformations. Such
earths are characterized by high cohesiveness in both dry and
~
water-saturated states, by ins ignif ican~ swelling, and low mois-
ture retention. The degree to which these properties are ex-
pressed can vary widely, and depends on the methods of treating
earths and on the properties of the earth being treated.
When banding materials are added to the earth, complex
hys hemical interactions take place between the
p~.cowchemical and c
earth and the binding materials. This results in a fundamental
he physico-mechanical properties of an earth.
improvement of t
However, the optimum effect of sueh treatment can be expected
only when the binding material is carefully and evenly distribu-
?
tad in the quantity needed, and subsequently packed through' the
whole mass of the treated earth.
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TA,I3T-~ 0
ING METHODS USED IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
~ARTH-STRENGT~N
t?xisla for earths Recommended
p~ Sa trengthening ~Treatment for Treatment
p Method
avel - Clays clay loam,
Granularnetric admixture Crushed atone, ~a ' dint, sand
I cinders, sand, y, clay loam
Solid and liquid as-
phalts, maxut, petro-
leum, oil, tars; as-
phalt and tar emu
lions
g
Granulometric Admixture
+ inorganic binders
Granulometric admixture
+ hygroscopic salts
Organic binders
+ inorganic binders
Baking or heating
+ organic binders
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DP82-000398000200050010-4
IV Soluble salts
Salt solutions
Portland cement, slag- Sand, sand loam,
Portland cement, clay- dust, clay loam,
slag and lime-slag ce- clay
merits; flaked, ground,
and slaked limas;
quicklime
Sandy loam, dust
Calciuta chloride
Magnesium chloride
Sodium chloride
Local fuel (wood, brush- Clay, clay loam
V Heat treatment woad, etc)
Granulometric admixture Clay, clay loam,
VI Compound strengthen- or
anic binders dust
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At the present time many methods of treating earth
which increase stability in the roads have been developed. These
methods for strengthening earths have acquired wide usage. Table
20 shows a list of the methods used in road construction.
Each of the methods indicated in Table 20 for streng-
thening earths has its own peculiarities with relation to its
in raising the stability of earth used in the road
effectiveness
and with relation to the kind of working required.
7 Earth Mixtures of timum Granulometric Co asition
The reason for unsatisfactory working characteristics of
earths used in the thoroughfare part of roads is the substantial
loss of stability when their moisture content changes. When wet,
sandy earths possess satisfactory stability, but when dry, they
lack cohesiveness, Friability appears. On the other hand, clay
earths lose stability and cohesiveness when very moist; in a dry
condition they possess much cohesiveness.
~S far back as the 160?s, Russian engineers worked out
a theoretical and practical means of artificially strengthening
earths so as to make them stable in the thoroughfare part of
earth roads by mixing sand or gravel with clay earth.
In a book by E. Golovachev, On the Construction of Earth
Roads and Their Relation to Railroads for Developing the Pro-
ductivity of Russia," published in Kiev in 1170, practical in--
truttion$ are given for obtaining stability with a bed of "dirt
s
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conerete? consisting of a mixture of local earth, sand, and
gravel ox crushed rock.
serve as a natural cementing substance which binds the coarser
Numerous field obser'v'ations on road conditions in the
past 20 to 30 years in the Soviet Union and in other countries
indicate that with a known proportion of sand, dust, and clay
particles in the earth, the earth acquires sufficient stability.
Such earth has come to be known as the optimum earth.
In optimum earth, sand particles serve as the skeleton;
this absorbs the main part of external forces whenever the earth
is very moist. Clay particles, on the other hand, render the
greatest stability of the mixture during dry spells. Clay par-'
ticles,eventy distributed throughout the entire mass of the earth,
particles into a single whole.
Dust particles of the earth occupy an intermediate place
because of their properties.
In the composition of optimum earth, dust particles serve
as fia.l material since - because of their small size -?- they
are distributed in the pores formed among the coarser particles
in the given earth. Dust particles permit.the external friction
of the earth to be increased.
When calculating the proportion of the various particles
according to their coarseness, it is also necessary to consider
local climatic conditions and the distribution of traffic along
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t the course of a years for these have
slang the road thxaug'hou
a substantial effect on he corn os~,tian of the optimum earth,
'~ ~'
occurs mostly in the summex (dry
that is, whether the tz'affie
eason) or in spring and autumn (ratn seasons).
s
The chemical and mineral composition and the degree of
dispersion of the clay_colloid grDrupe also affect the composition
neaessa~ry for the optimum earth. The binding properties of these
groups, depending on their physico-?chemical state, can be very
different.
M. M. FilatoV indicate that the bind-
Investigations of
ing capacities of soils containing organic colloids (humus) ar'e
those with mineral colloid particles.
more than 1.5 higher than
When earth contains displaced positively charged ions of sodium,
the bind3.ng properties of dry clay particles increase greatly.
It follows that the granulometric compasition of the op-
timum earth can vary with n known limits, and the selection of
timum earth will depend both on the property
any composition of op
ties of the earth and on local climatic conditions.
the work of V. V. Qkhotin and I. I. Iva-
As eresult of
nov, it has been established that the greatest stability of opti-
? ained b selecting mixtures of separate granu-
lornummmietric xtures is
groups whi abtch y
assure the greatest porosity.
The highest parositY of a mixture is achieved by obsero--
tug the following rules:
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Assure a careful selection and mt tutu of sepa'
etric fractions in the composition Af the optima
rate granulam
earth for increasing internal friction and tenacity.
sure mechanical compacting of the earth to the
maacimum density with the corresponding optimum moisture.
The eomPositions of optimum earths were checked by num-
Brous experiments on the construction of earth roads in various
Union. These compositions followed the Technical.
regions of the
Specifications of the Gushosdor of the NKVD of the USSR, 1938, for
automobile roads and bridges, and are shown in Table
constructing
21. (Following page)
As can be seen from Table 21, the local climatic condi-
the coarse quality of the skeleton have a substantial
tions and
effect on the relative content of the various fractions.
In all cases, preference must be given to mixtures with
s coarse granular skeleton, since the latter offers the great-
est stability for the optimum earth. If fine sand (particles
to 0.05 millimete1 is present in the optimum mixture
from 0.25
in quantities greater than provided in Table 21, such earth will
lose its supporting ability when moisture is increased.
It should be noted that no matter how well the optimum
mixture is selected, it cannot develop its innate stability with-
out proper compacting at the corresponding optimum moisture.
.
this reason, when stabilizing earths by granulometric
For
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dosea, special attention is paid not only to the aeloction and
insertion of granulometric doesea, but also to the maximum pack-
ing of the mixture at optimum moisture.
$ St en hen E rths W th Or anic Bindin Materials
The most effective method of strengthening earths, and
one which has received wide usage in making surfacings and fauna
dationa in road and airport construction, consists of treatment
with organic binding materials - asphalts, liquid asphalt, tars,
and emulsions. In addition, organic binding materials mixed with
earth are widely uaed to make various water-permeable layers in
the sub-grade of the road and in other constructions out of earth.
Numerous obaervationa of aurfacings made from earths which
have been treated with organic binding materials indicate that the
best results come from treating earths of the podzolic and black
soil zones with asphalt and tar. Treating saliferous earths, al-
kaline soil, and saline soil give negative results. In saliferous
earths, the organic binding material can be washed out of the
treated layer and can penetrate to the deepest layers.
So far as the granulometric composition is concerned, the
best results with the least quantities of binding material come
from sand loam and dust earths. Especially good results, with
the use of a minimum amount of binding material, are obtained in
treating earths of the optimum granulometric composition.
Any method of strengthening earth with binding materials
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will be effective only 1.f the f ollowtng px'aceduDe is obseZ'V th
the binding material in a quantity sufficient
(a) using
to change the properties of the earth being treated;
b distributing the binding material evenly in the mass
of earth being treated this assures the fullest interaction of
~
the earth with the binding materials;
(c) carefully packing the mixture treated to the desired
density.
In ondueting the operations indicated dif'u.aing the
c
binding material, mixing and packing the mixture - water which
the earth undergoing treatment is of utmost importance.
is in
ater may have different effects on the properties of the binding
d
material.
Interaction of Earths with Or anic Bindin Materials
Theoretical research on the interaction of fine granular
earths With organic binding materials was first carried out by
M. M. Filatov and his students.
to the views of L ~I. Filatov, the interaction
~ccarding
of earth with organic binding materials basically races three
phenomena:
(l) absorption of certain component parts of the binding
material by the surfaces of the thinly-dispersed particles;
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tc1e5 aT ' ~,Umpo 0
f the ss,paxate part
(2) cementing o
the binding m,atex~.al;
earth by
arse by the banding
f filling a' the earth t p
(3) mechanical
~teria~.? -~a~,stopyatav y
~latov end B. B.
rough the work of ~Il? . tar)
Th
fished that earths treated with asphalt (ox
it has been estab formed as a result of
cellular structure:
materials have a lumpy" bstances in the earth
motion of the binding $u
the uneven distri es filled with air.
esence,of closed micropor
mas$ and the pr
cap is obse1ati0 ns show,
substances, as m~-cros
The binding veloping for the most
the raas$ of the earth, en
are spread out in ec3.al elaYr
ce of which are formed gP
lamps, on the surf a
part clay onolit~~ic mass of earth ,
? ations? The result i$ a m others
asphalt comb~n s forming a thin net, in fib, in s.
cemented by ome instance
ations out of the clay?~phalt substances
forming flaky accurnul
Ear materials cement,
the strengthened pith inorganic binding cture?
:...
imilar s ru
have a s
lime, silicates (Fire 141) ,,
ctuxe of black soil strgng..
Figure ].4a~ ? M~.crost~ lime
percent lime. Light areas.
thenad with 1Q of black
Lark areas: microgratns
earth skel~ton? alt tax, or
strengthened with asph '
soil. Earths
cement give a similar picture.
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So far as the phyaico-chemical interaction of earth with
binding materials is concerned, different results have been ob-
served in treating various types of earths with organic binding
materials. As a rule, treating black soil which possesses a well -
expressed and firm structure and contains interchanged calcium
gives good .results with little use of binding, materials On the
other hand, alkaline soils, which contain interchanged sodium,
h J ~Mwith the same granulometric composition, are difficult to treat even with much use of the binder give very poor results.
Ph ico--Mechani a Properties of Earths Treated with
Organic Binding Materials
As a result of treating earths with organic binding ma-
terials, fundamental changes occur which favorably affect their
stability for purposes of road construction:
(l) when the asphalt dosage is increased, the resis-
tance to compression of tenacious earths, tested in a water-satu-
rated state, is considerably increased. However, the durability
of the water-saturated sample increases only as high as the known
"optimum" content of the binder. After this level is passed, re-
sistance to compression is markedly lowered.
(2) In testing samples by impress of a cone stamp, using
the method proposed by A. T. Lysikhina, the depth of impress de-
creases down to a known limit (the optimum of the binder) when the
asphalt dosage is increased. Then the asphalt content is further
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ragt;~dt~
Impression depth
of stamp in mm
Percent of asphalt
Figure l42. Impression depth of cone 3.n ray
lation to asphalt content
(:3) Earths treated with organic binding materials do not
? that is, they do not disintegrate when
became soft from moistUT'e,
o and they have a low coefficient of
in water over a long peri ds
swelling. Clay earths w'll acquire this characteristic if dosed
~.
w sand loam and dust need 4 to with $ to l0 percent of binder ,
percent.
~ and stamp4mpres$ tests characterize (4) Stra.k~ing-styes
? s
n treated with organic binding materials as
an earth which has bee 'thout
capable of receiving considerable stress wi
an elastic system, noticeable residual deformations.
into the following series on the
EarthS can be divided
com asition and the effectiveness of
basis of their granulometric p
eatment with binding materials:
tr
1%
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Sandy-gravel Sand loam Clay loam Clay earths (which
sad coarse- ~} and duct 2 are difficult to
sandy optimum ,,,/ earths ,/' / treat and use lar e
mixtures amounts of binder)
The physico-mechanical properties of treated earths to a
considerable degree are predetermined by their granulometric comes
position. However, the original type of earth and the physico-
chemical condition of its clay?colloid fractions play a very eaM
sential role also,
Earths (soils) can be divided according to type into the
following series, based on the degree of effectiveness and suitaw
bility for treatment:
Black soilWoody and Chestnu $aliferous\.. Saline and
soils (conch- unsuitable
tionally suits- for treat-
ble for treat went)
merit)
As a result of research projects carried on in the DORHII
by A. S. Lysikhina, the most productive use is the method of
treating earths with liquid asphalts by mixing therm on the road (A.
I. Lysikhina. The treatment of earths and gravel roads with 1i--
quid asphalt. DORIZDAT GUSHOSDORAIIKVD, 1912.).
99. Stren thenin Earths with Inorganic Bindin Materials
The experience gained in road and airport constriction dual
ring the last 14 to 12 years shows that cement and lime can be
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podzolic soils soils and alkaline swampy soils
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
engthen earths. Portland cement saps.1
suaceaaful~.y used to stx
c i$ very effective in strengthening earth.
~.ally
the fact can be considered as firfl1Y
At the present time,
established that cement and lime have a favorable and lengthy
effect an the physa ?comechaHiss/ properties of earths of the moat
-
diverse origins and granulametric compositions. Only in rare
i.nstances does the hYsicOMchemical state of the earth have a
p
the binding properties of cement or lime.
negative effect on
? mica/ Interaction of Earth and Cement
The Ph s~.ca-Che
The high binding capacity of cement is explained by the
chemical disintegration of cement when interacting wa.th water (hY~
rolyais) and by the conseqcent separation of the durable in-
solubleomp~ids of hYdrosilicates and hydroal1xm1nates which
orm solid connections between the earth particles. When the
f
hydr?sil?cates and hydrosluminates are separated, water is chemi-
cally ~. bound, mating up the compounds (hydration).
In treating earth with cement, hydrolysis and hydration,
as well as other chemical reactions, will be accelerated, or on
de ending on the chemical and mineral can-
the contrary, retarded, p
the nature of the earth and its physico-
tent of the cement and an
chemical state at the time it is treated.
In strengtlnenir-g turf-podsolic soils with cement (es-
rocess of hydrolysis and the
eca.allY of the humus sort) , the p
P
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hardening of the cement wiU be retarded under the aotiOt of
acid agents. A a result the cemented earth will not be very
firm.
carbonaceous earths, cgxbonaceaus loess
In stxengthening
for example, when calcium sons are preaent in the solution, the
~.
processes of hydrolysis and hardening of the cement will be more
.
intense. In this case, the cement?d earth will be Very firm.
The presence in the earth of interchanged calcium, which
micxastructt~re (in black soil), also is a
is able to farm a firm
factor which favorably affects the firmness of the earth.
The absence in earthe of water soluble salts (sodium sul-
ufate) detracts from the firmness of the semen-?
fate, magnesium s l
earth to a considerable extent.
ted
The f?xmnes s of cemented earth is found to be greatly de~
~.
of the cement and the properties of the
pendent on the properties
earth being strengthened.
The physi o-mechanical properties of earths which are
c
created w? ~ cement are very different from the original pro
~~h pert.es of untreated earths. This is illustrated in Table 22.
~
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LIMIT OF DTJR1BThITY ON COMPRESSION, AND THE MOISTURE CAPACITY OF
CFP1lE'NTED EART'Ir AFTER. KEEPING A SAMPLE IN WATER FOR b MQNTSS
lometric composition + Portland
cement t e 00
26.8
24.1
23.8
31.9
33.5
32.6
63
79
108
4.13
15
38.8
26
38.3
31
18.6
15.9
13.7
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of sample durability
Dose of Cement in Full moisture capacity Limi t of durabilit
after 6 months in rater on compres$ion for water
of earth
% of wt.
saturated samples in k
Covered non-carbonaceous clay
+ Portland cement, Type 400 6 17?g
The same as No 1 10 18.7
The same as No 1 14 18.1
Clayey black soil Al + Port-
land cements type 400 6
The same as No 4 10
land cement type 00
~+
No Description of Mixtures
10. Heavy sand loam with optimum anu-
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Heavy sand loam with optimum granu-
ometric coffiP?slion + Portlaud
1 't
cement, type 100
:ii. The same as No 10
12, The same as No 10
4.13
38.8
3g.3
35.6
35.9
18.6
15.9
13.7
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LIMIT OF DDR.ABILITY ON COR'iPPFSSION, AND THE MOISTUBE CAPACITY OF
CEMEIv'TED EARTH AkTF1R. KEEPING A SAMPLE IN W9TEft FOR 6 MONT&S
Dosage of Cement in Full moisture capacity of sample Limit of durability
of art. of earth after 6 months in water on eompressian for water-
Description of Fixtures ~ saturated samples in 7cg/cnl2
% of wt. of % of valuma
Covered non-carbonaceous clay
t 00
. Port1and cement Type ~
The same as No 1
The same as No I
Clayey black $oil AZ + Port-
land cement, type GAO 6
The same as No 7
The same as No 7
17.8
31.9
63
18.7
33.5
'79
1$.1
32.5
108
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Untreated earth, when tested for water aoening, de
oompoae afar 10 to 30 rn,nute; however, the same earths, when
treated with the proper amount of cement, aoqu1re atabtitty in
water and poaee~e euioient meohantoal durability even after
being saturated with water for 6 months.
When the cloeage of odment ie increased graduaUy ~.n earths
which have been prevlouely treated with cement, they increase
their mechanical durability and atab11ity in water. With ama11
. a
does o;' the binder, the cemented earth io/reiativeiy piaetio
(semirigid) material, and with a 12 to 14 percent or greater ce-
ment content, the cemented earth poaseaees the propertie8 of a
rigid non.p1a3tic m>Uteriai, which di:Cferentiate$ it very much from
earths which have been treated with organic binding materials
(Figure i4) ,
Dosage of the binder 1n %
earth &
cement
Figure 143. Relation of the compression durability
/lint to dosage and the pvopertiee of the binding
mater,al
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asphalt to di integ1ate and be removed, thus giving hydrophobic
s r
Can the other hand, removal of water is necessary for
ing treated.
~,n
Despite igh mechanical durability and stability
which have been treated with cement posseas a large
water, earths
moisture capacity and redual porosity, which are without doubt
negative properties of this material.
When earth is given a compound treatment of cement and as
pha -
ions, two processes are combined which reciprocally comM
~,t emuls
and which assure that the treated earth gains
plement each other,
it lacked initiaUyt the treated earth does not
the properties
permit water to go through, and it does not become wet (hydro-
It 'should be noted that the quantity of cetnent
.
phobic quality
used i$ slightly reduced.
For cement to harden and for bydration to take place, it
is necessary to have a certain moisture content in the earth be-
~
properties to the earth.
In this way cement, by taking water from the emulsion, T-
cilitates its diainte ation and creates favorable conditions for
~. ~'
of the binding properties of asphalt; by absorbing
the assertion
water 'ch existed in the asphalt emulsion, cement particles re-
w~ 1a.
eave the water necessary for carrying on the processes of harden-
c
ing and hydrating the cement under optimum conditions. Conditions
for the maximum use of the binding properties
are thereby assured
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of both asphalt and cement.
Bas Pro u tiv Re u
~ment
Treatin Earths With Cement
an
oduati on of work
experience accumulated in recent years demonstrates, in
order to obtain good results in constructing cemented earth cur-
it is necessary to observe a set of basic
facings or foundations,
rules. Durability, stability in weather of all sorts, and resis-
of this type of surfacings and foundations are qua-
tance to wear
that depend on the following basic procedures
lities
(a) Put enough cement into the earth to make sure the mix
tore hardens to the planned durability with an even distribution
.
of the cement throughout the mass of the earth to be treated.
(b) Have t he proper (optimum) amount of water in the trea?-
ted earth during the period when the cement earth mixture is
packed and is hardening.
(c) Pack the cement-earth to the established maximum den-
sity, mum moisture in the mixture during the pack-
mai~:n~ng opts
ing period.
ing
00 Stren thenin Earths with L
l
as well as Portland cement can be used for streng-
Lime
It can be put into the earth in slaked, and un-
thening earths.
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jI.
slaked form.
Siren he~.ng earth with lime has much to common with treat..
ment of earths with cement, However, the properties of lime bring
about certain peculiarities in the properties of the earth4ime mixtures and in the sequence of their preparation and packing in-
to surfacing$ or foundations.
Lame, like cement, makes earth stable in water and raises
a.?ts mechanical durability in a moist condition; however, the dura-
bility of earth which has been strengthened with lime is lower
than when treated with cement.
earth with lima (just as with cement)
When strengthening
mix carefully and moisten and then pack the mixture to the maxi-
mum mum density.
of hardening lame begins initially with the
The process
evaporation of water and the crystallization of calcium hydroxide.
In the course of time, part of the calcium hydroxide is subject
to the action of the carbon dioxide of the air and turns to cal-
cium carbonate (carbonization takes place).
Ca (OH)2+Ca2-ca003+1120
Another part of the calcium hydroxide interacts with sili-
cate compounds of the earth to be treated. This causes new ce-
menting to appear, and these strengthen the mass of
~.ng substances
earth. These processes develop in the course of time because of
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that the durability of the strengthened earth in-
the fact
creases.
Because of the eat surface of clay and clay loam soils,
~'
a physicoclaemical phenomenon connected with the interchange of
..
the absorbed cations takes place in addition to the purely chemi-
ons. This happens both with lime and cement. Differ-
cal reacts
eating earth with cement, lime will successfully streng-
~,ng from treating
odzolic, and saliferous and alkaline earths.
then semi sw~'', p
Ol. Stren henin Earth with H ?grosco i~ c, Sa1~
l
The stability of earth surfacing$ and foundations is ex-
plained by the presence of the internal friction and cohesion in'
herent in the separate granulometric fractions of the earth. The
internal friction characteristic of the sand and gravel fractions
maintains stability of the earth under excess moisture conditions
of wet weather. Ten the weather is dry, the disturbance of the
earth surface is prevented by the presence of clay fractions which
give tenacity to the earth. So that this tenacity will not weaken,
that the moisture content of the earth not exceed
it is necessary
the rolling limit of the earth.
In order to maintain optimum moisture of the earth, salt
: stabilization can be provided by adding hygroscopic salts - cal-
'
cium chloride sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc.
Earths treated with hygroscopic salts draw water vapor from
22-
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the air and possess little evaporating ability. Consequently,
uch earth can retain the moisture it receives over a compara-
s
tively long period.
It is enough to indicate that calcium chloride under average
weather conditions absorbs a quantity of moisture which exceeds
its own weight by 4 or 5 times.
The beat way to pack the mixture of calcium chloride or
sodium into the earth is to let the traffic over the road do it
of time. By assuring maximum packing of the earth's
over a period
surface, we decrease its deterioration and increase its stability
during the moist periods by permitting a small amount of mois-
ture to penetrate to the dense treated layer.
The properties of earths which have been treated with salts
been enumerated; to repeat: maximum density is at-
have already
tamed, the rate of deterioration is lowered, dust does not form
in dry seasons, eat stability is acquired during the moist per-
a, ~'
'ods because the ccnrpring is practically impervious to water -a-
all these qualities are basically the result of the physical pro-
perta.es of the water distributed in the earth in the form of thin
films adhering to the surface of the earth particles by molecular
attraction. Water in such a state possesses higher adhesiveness
and greater surface tension; it has a lower freezing point and
very little evaporation.
The properties of film water enumerated as advantages in
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road appear at the optimum moisture of earths, At
construction
e of earth, the water in it plays the part of
the optimum moister
a binder. The optimum moisture 3.n untreated earth is a short"
lived and vex9' unstable phenomenon, but when hygroscopic salts
are added at the opti- moisture state, the life of the earth
increases greatly.
102 Thermal Treatment of E
The roadMconatruction properties of clay and clay loam
earths can be fundamentally changed and improved by head treat
went.
,~S a result of the work of professors P. A. Zemyatchinskiy,
M, M. Fi.latov, and others, it has been established that the improve-
went of the road properties of clay earths is caused by the fact
that temperature, which acts on clay or clay loam for a long period
of time, brings about deep changes in its nature; the earth loses
?ts chemically and physically bound water, loses plasticity and
~.
When particles cake, the earth will not become soft
adhesiveness.
in water and acquires physico-mechanical properties very diffe-
rent from those which were evident before baking. Its tenacity is
increased; its swelling is lost.
Depending on the temperature and how long it lasts, heat
treatment can be divided into the following types:
(l) Warming or thermal dehydration
Copy Approved for Release 2012J04/20 :CIA-RDP82-000398000200050010-4
Declassified in Part - Sanitized
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
partial stability in water.
This is the initial stage of baking and operates when
? nfluenee of a comparatively low tempera-
the earth a.s under the i the
Luxe on the order of 300 to 500 degrees Centigrade. Most of
clay minerals composing the earth (kaolin, raontmorillonite, micas,
m erature; organic compounds are des-
etc) dehydrate at this to p erM
of initial heating, earths loge some prop
troyed. As a xesult ? stici'~y
tal to road construction (lower p1a
tapes that are detrimental
s
and they acquire and maintain for ome time
and adhes a.venes s) ,
(2) Baking
() Clinker f it Lng
warm3. or Thermal. Deh drat on
Baking
at temperatures from 600 to $00 degrees
This takes place
and is a subsequent stage to warming.
Centigrade
As a result of bakx 'ngs the earth not only does not dehy-
ante/ changes in its properties and
but undergoes fundam
te
, 'Ve-
dra
and clay foams completely rose adhesa.
compos it3t.on. I3alsed clays
ss t
.
tften when mo
of swell, and do no so
last? ~,city~ do n
nd
p
Hess a
thou h a relatively weak rock, which
are turned to stone, al g
Th
ey
tem Ora 7 resistance to pressure of approxi-
is chaxacteri~ed by p
' p ams per square centimeter. These changes
tely $0 to 120 ka.l ~'
ma
occur after baking because of the elinkexing of mineral substances,
-25-
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Coy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4
converting the earth into a monolithic mass.
With further increase of temperature to 1100 degrees Cent-
tigrade and higher, the earth begins not only to clinker but also
to partially melt. The fused mass of the most easily melted min-
orals fills the free pores. As a result of this process, a dense
artificial stone material, called clinker, is obtained when tae
mass cools.
The mechanical durability of the clinker is usually very
high, and'as a mile it exceeds 600 kilograms per square centimeter.
Clinker firing is dor Yspecial plants; here the clinker is
prepared in the form of block rubble which serves to make highly
durable road surfacings.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200050010-4