INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION - 1960

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• Document Page Count: 33
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 12, 1999
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: April 15, 1960
• Content Type: REPORT

`APRIL 15 1960
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BLOC INTE"RNRTIONRL 'GEOPHY6IBiLCOOPRRTION
I NP~i~`MPT I ON QN ~~ I T
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COPY
PB 131632-114
INFOMTION ON SOVIET BLOC INTEEtNATIONAL EOPHYSICAL COOPPRATION-196
April 15, 1960
U. S. DEPARTM T OF COIMtCE
Business and Defense Services Administration
Office of Technical Services
Washington 25, D. C.
Published Weekly
Subscription Price $12.00 for the 1960 Series
Use of Iunds for printing this publication has been
approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, October 28, 1959
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INI'L tNATIONAL OEOPIIYSICAL COOPERATION PROGRAM .._
$ ET- ACTIMM
Table of Contents
Pa_o
1.
ROCK IM AND ARTIFICIAL EAKfH BATRLi.1'1.'EB
1 ' >>
II.
UPPER A'140SPIIIW
12
in.
I'OROLOGY
16
IV.
GEOM NETIBM
'\23
V.
OCEANOGRAPHY
26
VI.
ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC
~_. 27
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1:. ItOCKL' S AND All=n- CLAL EN7TIi SATgt MITES
Volumes 3 of "tnkunatvonn.yye Sptrtniki Zemli" Published
The first volume of the publication Iskunstvennyye Sputniki Zell
(Artificial Earth Satellites) was issued by tai udenpr of Sciences of
the USSR in 1958. The third issue has now appeared. Thin 125-page
oyn ooium-type publication contains thirteen articles. Many of the
authors are the came who contributed to the first two issues in this
series. These collected articles were edited by L. V. Satsonenko and
Yu. Ryltna. The manuscript was serr: to press on 211. November 1959 and
5,500 copies were printed.
Only the briefest sketches of the contents of these lengthy arti-
cles can be given here.
The Problem of C in a Limited Circular Problem of Three Points
The limited circular problem of three points in celestial mechan-
ics is the name given to the problem of the motion of the material
point mo with a neg].igiblj small mass under the influence of the at-
trP.ction of two point finite masses m and k rotating around a coumwn
center of inertia with the constant angular velocity we "Capture" in
the general problem of three points is that phenomenon in which three
points, situated initially at infinitely great mutual distances, ap-
proach one another in such a way that after approach one of the mutual.
distances always remains limited. The point of zero mass, approaching
from infinity to the system of finite masses, does not again withdraw
from !.t into infinity, but always remains at distances not exceeding
some finite value. This has definite applicability in space research.
The important problem of the "capture" by the Mona of a missile
launched from Earth can be solved approximately in rather simple fash-
ion. If the trajectory beginning at the Earth on the first revolution
around.the Earth enters into the Moon's sphere of action, it, is possi-
ble (ignoring perturbations) that this trajectory should leave the
sphere of action on the first revolution around the Moon. The capture
of a missile by the Moon for such trajectories is th ossible. In a
similar manner, for the system planet-Sun (ignoring perturbations), it
is possible to demonstrate that a missile launched from the Earth will
not be captured by a planet on its first revolution around the Sin.
("On the Problem of Capture in a Limited Circular Problem of Three
Points," by V. A. Yegorov, pp. 3-12)
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In the first issue of Iskusntvenn e 8 utniki Zemli published in
1958, the author demonstrated that if the kinetic energy of rotation
around the center of mass is sufficiently great in comparison with the
work of external forces, as was the case in the first artificial oe:?tel-
lites, the motion of the satellite consists of the unperturbed motion
around the vector of the kinetic moment and secular precession-nutation
motion of the vector of kinetic moment.
It in also necessary, however, to examine a case of small kinetic
energy. Then, under the influence of external forces, motion of a dif-
ferent type -- librational motion, appears possible. A typical example
of such motion is the motion of the Mon.
The present article is devoted to an investigation of the condi-
tions of existence and the stability of the position of the relative
equilibrium of the satellite, that is, equilibrium in a system of co-
ordinates connected with the radius-vector of the center of mass of
the satellite. Also examined is the librational motion around a posi-
tion of relative equilibrium.
Because the existence of libration is caused by the character of
the action on the satellite of the Newtonian central field of force,
we examine only that action, ignoring perturbations from the Earth's
compression, aerodynamics, etc. In this form the theory of libration
in an idealization of the motions really existing in the solar system
(the motion of the Moon relative to the Earth) and motions possible
for artificial Earth satellites.
The actual libration of an artificial satellite is influenced by
a series of small perturbing factors: moments of aerodynamic forces;
perturbing moments caused by the deviation of the Earth's field of at-
traction from the central field and aerodynamic resistance; moments of
electromagnetic forces, etc. The investigation shows that if the basic
conditions of stability are fulfilled and several additional natural
conditions as well, libration in the presence of the indicated pertur-
bations will differ little from unperturbed libration. ("The Libra-
tion of a Satellite," by V. V. Beletskiy, pp, 13-31)
Perturbations in the Motion of Artificial Satellites Caused by the
Earth's Compression
Because the Earth does not have a strictly spherical shape, the
orbits of artificial satellites deviate notably from unperturbed Kepler
ellipsoids, Exceptionally significant perturbations in the motion of
satellites are caused by the Earth's compression.
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The problem of the motion of a rut,~:l.lt e it. the fle,ld of ufitruc-
tion of a eompreaued planet in not now. To ,' omc wegrec' it ban already
been examined during the development of theories of the motion of
satellites of the large planets, and also the theory of the Moon.
However, the orbits of artificial nuteli:itea pouuens a. number of
peculiarities that cause them to be notably different than the orbits
of natural satellites. 'These are, in particular, the grouter in-
clinations and the greater nearness of the orbits of artificial satel-
lites to the Earth'ri surface, Therefore former theories of motion,
derived for natural satellites having small inclina?cionn to the plane
of the equator and situated at a considerable distance from the sur-
face of the planet, generally speaking cannot be used for artificial
Earth satellites,
The need arises for a development of as new u.calyticul theory
which will be suitable for artificial sa:tell!tes with orbit,j at any
inclination to the plane of the equator and will be sufficiently pre-
cise even for satellites moving In the direct: vicinity of the Fo t:t:.'s
surface.
In the present article the problem of the motion of a natell:t.tte
in the field of attraction of a compressed planet is exa.mi!.ned with
the assumption that the inclination of the planer: rf the satellite
orbits to the plane of the equator may assume any value. It is also
assumed that the planet has the shape of a level ellipaaid of retrolu-
tion and that the planet is quite small, ("First-Order Perturbations
in the Motion of Artificial Satellites Caused by the Earth's Compres-
sion," by V. F. Proskurin and Yu, V. Batre.kov, P.P. 32-38)
Perturbations of Satellite Orbits Caused by Air Res'sta zce
If the orbit of an artificial satellite parses corer the Ea.rth's
surface at relatively low altitudes, in this sector of its orbit the
artificial satellite experiences a noticeable braking action due to
the air in which. it moves, As the result of the periodically repeated
process of braking there is a decrease in the satellite's mechanical
energy and, as e. consequence, rapidly increasing secUar changes in
the shape and dimensions of the orbit; these lead to a decrease In the
elevation of the satellite and its subsequent destruction in the denser
layers of the atmosphere.
Peculiarities of the motion of artificial satellites In an air
medium have not yet been adequately stt.died. Therefore the objective
of the present article is to derive the general form of first-order
perturbations in elements of an elliptical satellite orbit caused
only by the resistance of the atmosphere. In so doing it Is assumed
that the Earth's atmosphere has a strictly spherical distribution of
densities and that the attraction of the Earth can be replaced by the
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attraction of a material point, with inertia in the center and having
the name mass an the Earth. With these assumptions both secular and
short-period perturbations are derived whose periods do not exceed the
period of one revolution of a satellite. As far as is known, these
short-period perturbations caused by air resistance have still not
been the subject of special study.
This article also contains a numerical example, showing the com-
parative value of first-order perturbations caused by air resistance.
The research demonstrates that periodj.c perturbations caused by
air resistance are quite small and need not be considered when process-
ing visual and photographic observations of artificial satellites.
("On Perturbations of the Orbits of Artificial Satellites Caused by
Air Resistance," by Yu. V. Batrakov and V. F. Proskurin, pp. 39-46)
Observation of Artificial Satellites by the Method of Anticipation
This article proposes a method which will make it possible to make
a repeated discovery of a once-observed satellite in a case when its
period of revolution is unknown.
We first assume that the inclination of the orbit, the longitude
of the node and the position of the perigee are fixed. This is quite
satisfactory for orbits that are close to circular polar orbits. In
this case it is possible to formulate the following "rule of local
time":
If the inclination of the satellite orbit is not
equal to zero, then the intersection by the satellite of
any given latitude will always occur at one and the same
local sidereal time.
This rule also continues to govern in a case when the period of
rotation, eccentricity or the position of the perigee changes. For
example, when there is a revolution the point of intersection shifts
but the time of intersection, regarded as local time, will have the
same value at the new point as it had at any other at which the satel-
lite earlier intersected this same latitude. Figure 1 shows an exam-
ple of the operation of the described rule.
The presence of a strict relationship between the position of the
point of intersection and the time of intersection makes it possible
to draw a "graph of anticipation" connecting each direction of possible
appearance of a satellite with a completely determined moment of time.
Figure 2 shows a very simple example of such a graph. It is possible
to draw "graphs of ant:'cipation" even for orbits with changing orienta-
tions. The drawing of the graphs an4 the method of observation are
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described in come detail. ("Obuervationu of Artificial Satellites by
the Method of Anticipation," by V. M. Vakhnin and V. V. Beletakiy,
pp. 47-53)
ltclntionshipBetween Secular Changes in Orbitu and Air Resistance
This paper in a further development of the idea of analysis of
secular changes of elements of an orbit, getting simple and graphic
formulas which can be used for the solution of a number of problems
(determination of the relationship between secular changes of elements
of the orbit and the values of the elements themselves, evaluation of
the accuracy of determination o1l air density on the basis of secular
changes in the elements of the orbit, etc.). ("Relationship Between
Secular Changes in Orbital dements and Air Resistance," by P. Ye.
El'yasberg, Pp. 54-60)
The Problem of Penetration at Cosmic Velocities
From the theory of cumulative charges it is known that at veloci-
ties of 3-10 km/sec the mechanism of penetration of metal plates by
cylinders or small spheres is substantially different from that which
operates at velocities up to 1,,000 m/sec. At great velocities there
are two stages: a) a sphere or cylinder, penetrating into an obstacle
tpYRG HT
spreads out along the surface of the pocket thus formed; b) after
there occurs an inertial enlargement of the
pocket. Computatic,t of the first stage is accomplished with adequate
accuracy in a scheme or an ideally incompressible fluid; computation
of the second stage Is mere difficult although existing results show
that the chief difficulties have been overcome. Computations show
good agreement with experiments.
The problem of penetration at velocities of 50-100 km/sec has been
the subject of far less study. As far as the author knows, there is
only one work in the literature that is devoted to this problem -- the
work of K. P. Stanyukovich on the formation of the craters of the Moon
and the determination of the impact imparted by a falling meteorite.
On the basis of his computations K. P. Stanyukovich formulated the
hypothesis that on falling of a sphere i.ts kinetic energy is trans-
formed into the potential energy of gas in which matter is transformed
as a result of the impact,
In this article the author proposes a model of an 4mcompressible
medium for which it is I.ossible to conduct full computations; his con-
clusions differ somewhat from those drawn by Stanyukovich. ("The Prob-
lem of Penetration at Cosmic Velocities," by Academician M. A. Lav-
rent'yev, pp. 61-65)
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undium vapor Diffusion Usod for Determination of Atmoopheric D nsi
In recent times our ideas about the basic physical characteristics
of the upper layers of the atmosphere -- density and temperature -
have undergone considerable changes. Observations of the braking of
Soviet and American satellites have enabled us to determine the density
of the atmosphere at heights between 220 and 750 km. It has been
learned that density at these levels is many times greater than that
derived earlier on the basis of rocket data; it also appears that the
temperature of the upper atmosphere is higher than formerly believed.
In view of the exceptional importance of these results it is ex-
tremely desirable to get independent confirmation, since data on the
density of the atmosphere derived on the analysis of the braking of
satellites may contain systematic errors. It is important to note
that from observations of the braking of satellites it is only possi-
ble to derive the mean v4lue for density. At the present time there
is already serious evidence that the density and temperature of the
upper atmosphere are subject to local variati^ns. Systematic differ-
ences in the main characteristics of the upper atmosphere in polar
and equatorial regions should be expected.
The method used for this purpose is an analysis of the diffusion
of sodium vapors released in the upper atmosphere from a rocket at a
given altitude. Such work has already been accomplished abroad.
In our experiment the height reached by the rocket was 430 km.
In the nose cone there were two sodium vaporizers, each of which con-
tained 2 kg of metallic sodium and a corresponding amount of thermite.
The thermite is ignited at a predetermined time when the rocket is
situated near the peak of its trajectory.. The sodium vapors are
thrust into the atmosphere through a nozzle in a direction perpendicu-
lar to the axis of the rocket which has been stabilized. The process
of sodiuL evaporation requires 10 to 20 seconds. All this time the
rocket is not far from the peak of its trajectory,
The described experiment was conducted before sunrise; therefore
the cloud of sodium vapors forming as a result of the process of evap-
oration was illuminated by the Sun's rays.
Figure 1 shows successive photographs of the different stages of
development of the forming cloud.
The proposed method for determining the density of the atmosphere
can be used for a wide range of elevations. The lower boundary of
this range is determined by the condition that during the time of ob-
servation (-10 minutes) the sodium atoms do not perish in the Earth's
atmosphere due to chemical reactions. Evidently the height should be
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200 km. We note that if the experiments are conducted at such rela-
tively low altitudes, the linear dimensions of the cloud at appropri-
ate moments will be approximately ten times smaller than in our case.
Under ouch conditions it is necessary to evaporate a small amount of
sodium -- several dozen grams, since otherwise the optical thickness
of the cloud will be considerably greater than unity and this would
make its photometric analysts impossible.
We may assume that the upper boundary of the atmosphere where
the diffusion method is used for determination of density, is situ-
ated between 500 and 600 km. However, it Is not impossible that the
method will also prove suitable for considerably greater altitudes if
the hydrogen content there is considerably greater than is ordinarily
considered to be the case. Once again it is emphasized that the re-
lease of sodium vapors into the atmosphere should be made near the
peak of the rocket trajectory and not as described by Bedinger and
others.
Simultaneously with determination of the density the diffusion
method enables us to determine atmospheric temperature, but the solu-
tion of this problem will be the subject of a different paper. ("De-
termination of the Density of the Atmosphere at an Elevation of 430 Km
by the Method of Diffusion of Sodium Vapor," by I. S. Shklovskiy and
V. G. Kurt, pp. 66-76)
The Problem of. Interference Currents When Using an Electrostatic Flux-
meter
The author has previously proposed the use of an electrostatic
fluxmeter of the rotational type for the measurement of the internal
charge of a satellite, acquired by the latter under the influence of
various kinds of processes, beginning with a diffuse charge caused by
a difference in the thermal velocities of ions and electrons and end-
ing with a charge under the influence of ultraviolet rays.
Briefly, the operation of the electrostatic fluxmeter situated
in the insulated body, amounts to the following. The measuring plate
of the fluxmeter, described in detail elsewhere, is a part of the sur-
face of the body, but the electrical contact with the remaining sur-
faces is accomplished through the resistance R. It is evident that
when there is a fixed screen under stationary conditions the surface
of the measuring plate has the same potential and the same density of
internal charge as the surface of the body would have in the place
where the measuring plate is situated.
Interference currents can be combatted (1) by a synchronous de-
tector or (2) by measuring and screening plates made in the form of
metallic grids with a certain electrical and optical transparency or
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(3) by the introduction of a negative feedback. Each of these alterna-
tives is described in some detail. ("Methods of Combatting Interfer-
ence Currents Arising at the Entrance to an Electrostatic Fluxmeter
During Its Operation in a Conducting Medium," by I. M. Imyanitov and
U. M. Shvarts, pp. 77-83)
New Data on the Atmosphere Provided by the Third Soviet Satellite
This paper gives an analysis of the status of ideas prevailing
up to 1957 relative to the structural parameters of the upper atmos-
phere. At that time there were known the mean distributions of
pressure, density and temperature up to a height of 100 km and it
had been established that the atmosphere up to heights of 90 km was
mixed, whereas above 90 km oxygen was dissociated. Up to 1956 there
had been very few direct measurements of density, pressure and the
composition of the atmosphere and therefore ideas about the atmosphere
at these heights differed greatly. In recent years experiments have
been made to determine atmospheric density at great heights and an
especially great contribution to the study of the upper layers of the
atmosphere has resulted from research conducted on the Soviet arti-
ficial satellites; these have made it possible to determine the density
of the atmosphere both by means of manometers on the third Soviet
satellite, in particular, and from the braking of satellites in gen-
eral. The present article is devoted to an examination of the results
of determination of the density of the atmosphere as recorded by ma-
nometers on the third Soviet artificial satellite.
Table 1 shove the change in molecular weight with height; Table
2 -- structural pare meters of the atmosphere t elevations of 225-500
km; Table 3 -- valueb for density (in g ? cm- J) at different heights,
based on manometric measurements in rockets and on the braking of
satellites. ("Some Fesults of the Determination of Structural Para-
meters of the Atmosphere by Means of the Third Soviet Artificial Earth
Satellite," by V. V. Mikhnevich, B. S. Danilin, A. I, Repnev and V. A.
Sokolov, pp. 84+-97)
A Special Mass-Spectrometer for Upper Atmosphere Research
This article is a rather highly detailed and well illustrated
description of a mass-spectrometer, presently. the only known device
for the direct determination of the ion state of the upper atmosphere.
When installed in a rocket or satellite traveling through the iono-
sphere the ion mass-spectrometer transmits readings to Earth by radio;
this makes it possible to get data concerning the spectrum of mass of
ions, and on this basis to draw conclusions about the chemical compo-
sition of the ionosphere?
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A maoo-opectr ometer designed for the utudy of the composition of
the upper .layarn of the atmosphere should differ substantially from
the well known laboratory and factory instruments. Like all apparatus
installed in a rocket or satellite, it must. be exceptionally reliable,
simple in operation, and function automatically for a considerable
period without requiring any additional regulations and adjustments.
It is neceestc.y that the instrument be subjected to considerable varia-
tions in temperature and be resistant to great vibrational and static
overloads and maintain itself in operating condition after such
stresses. Somewhat contradictory to these requirements are those
for small weight and cnrrpactness, which the instrument should also
satisfy insofar as possible. In addition it is necessary that the
mass-spectrometer be economical in power consumption, of low inertia;
and satisfy other special demands.
In the Soviet Union investigations of the ion state of the upper
layers of the atmosphere were begun in 1957, with data recorded up to
heights of. 885 lan in the ionosphere, usin the radio frequency mass-
spectrometer described in this article. ("Radio Frequency Mass-
Spectrometer for Invest?igavion of the Ion State of the Upper Atmos-
phere," by V. G. IstDlrin, pp. 98-1.12)
Manometric Error From Smalt Leaks in a Satellite Casing
Among the instruments on the third Soviet satellite were manom-
eters of a type capable of measuring static pressures of 10-6 + 10-9
mm of a column of mercury under normal ground conditions.
In measurements in-the upper atmosphere the manometer may be
entered by molecules which have been carried there by the satellite
itself or have entered the uppr,r atmosphere as a result of gas libera-
tion from the surface of the r;arin?, or as a result of inleakage. In
this case desorption from the surface ceases relatively rapidly, but
inleaakage inside remains practically constant during the whole period
of service of the entire apparatus. Thus, the possibility of the ap-
pearance of manometric error places definite demands on the airtight-
ness of the casing.
In this article the term "internal molecules" has been given to
those molecules of gas which are situated within the casing; an esti-
mate is made of the manometric error caused by "internal molecules"
entering the casing. ("Manometric Error Cain-ed by Small Leaks in a
Satellite Casing," by S. A. Kuchay, pp. 118-117)
The Interaction of a Satellite and the Earth's Magnetic Field
It is of interest to examine phenomena associated with the inter-
action of a satellite and the Earth's magnetic field. Equally inter-
esting is an examination of the electrical processes in the casing of.
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the satellite, inasmuch an they can, to one degree or another, in-
fluence the results of scientific experiments conducted by satel-
lite.
This article gives the results of research on the interaction
of a satellite and the Earth's magnetic field. First to be examined
are currents having as their caune the alternating motion of the
satellite relative to the magnetic field, second, the change in
velocity of rotation of the satellite around its axis due to eddy
currents, and, third, perturbing forces acting from the direction
of the magnetic field on a satellite not having its own rotation.
The most important of the factors enumerated is the possibility
of the development of eddy currents in the metallic casing; these
will lead to a notable decrease in the angular velocity of the satel-
lite's rotation. Charges and currents arising cs a result of the
alternating motion of the satellite do not exercise a substantial
influence on the character of its motion. ("On the Problem of the
Interaction of a Satellite and the Earth's Magnetic Field," by Yu.
V. Zonov, pp. 3.18-124)
Danilin Reviews the "Remarkable Prospects" of the Future
Writing in the popular '3oviet science magezine Nauka t Zhizn'
(Science and Life), B. S. Danilin reviews the details of the launch-
ing, flight and mechanisms of the Soviet interplanetary automatic
station; these details have been fully reported earlier in this pub-
lication. Danilin, however, ands his report with a look to the fu-
ture, in which he states, in nubstance, aP follows:
We have before us the intriguing possibility of sending to the
Moon an autonomously operating Moon observatory controlled from the
Earth; equa.Lly intriguing; is the possibility of seeing our planet
through the "eyes" of a satellite or cosmic rocket.
Flying around the Earth in such a vehicle vill make it possible
to study our planet's irregularity in rotation on its axis and the
resultant instability of the duration of earth currents, help to re-
fine the magnitude of the Earth's compression, and solve many prosent-
day problems of astronomer, celestial mechanics, geodesy, cartography,
radio communications, meteorology and other sciences.
Flying around our planet in a space vehicle will maim it possi-
ble to record its visible and invisible illumination, measure its re-
flective capacity, study thermal exchange with surrounding space, in-
vestigate the distribution and movement of cloud masses, discover the
laws of ceaseless changeability of the air ocean that to a considerable
extent determines the possibility of getting long-range weather fore-
casts.
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The launching of the Soviet cosmic rockets has enabled Soviet
scientists to accumulate extremely valii blo experience which in the
future will make it possible to make flifhts to other more distant
heavenly bodies.
Who 1.n there today that does not dream about flight to the
planets nearest us -- to mysterious Marc and cloud-shrouded Venue!
There in a rari.fiod atmosphere on Mars, there is water, and there
is evidently vegetation. And possibly there are intelligent people?
When can rocket flights be made to these mysterious planets of
the solar system? It is very difficult to make any predictions at
this time because the secrete of nature are ourrenvly being unravel-
led at a rapid pace -- reality is outpacing the rashest predic:iona.
("Automatic Interplanetary Station," by D. S. Danilin, Nauka i Zhizn')
No. 12, 1959, pp. 2-5)
Man in Space-- Life Under Conditions of Weightlessness
The authors of this article, writing in the popular science maga-
zine Nauka i Zhizn', cover a wide range of aspects of the problem of
weight essness; although written by specialists in the field, the con-
tents are tailored for popular consumption.
The article first describes methods for producing weightlessness
and then proceeds to a discussion of the biological aspects of the
problem. The only experiments in which an animal has remained under
conditions of weightlessness for a long time are the investigations
made by Soviet scientists in the second artificial satellite. An
snalyysie of tie electrocardiograms for the dog Layka di(, not show any
notable disrrQ tion of the functions of the heart. After the animal
had been'in a state of weightlessness for a sufficiently long time,
the electrocardiogram showed a normal picture. Likewise there is
reason to believe that such functions as breathing, digestion and ex-
cretion will not be adversely affected. It is therefore believed that
the life of man, animals and plants is possible under conditions of
partial or even couplets loss of weight. The reactions of the nervous
system,,tL?- :.Lter of orientation in space and the ability of the body
to control movements are other problems discussed) but contain nothing
not previously reported in detail.
Experiments involving several groups of individuals subjected to
weightlessness have revealed a number of interesting facts, but these
data must all be treated with serious reservations. Professor K. K.
Platonov reccimnends that special credence be given to the reports of
experienced airmen who have repeatedly experienced a state of weight-
lessness.
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The poychic affects of apace travel is another problem that is
attracting thr, close attention of Soviet scientists and the authors
detail sonic or the special problon,s associated with it.
Finally, the:o is the question of whether a man, on returning
from apace, will be able to adapt well to the deuce atmosphere on the
Earth without unfavorable reactions. Thin is a very serious problem
and it to possible that a man will have to relearn how to walk after
a prolonged period of weightlessness in outer apace.
The protection of man from the unfavorable influence of weightless-
noes can be attained by means of artificial gravitation in flight by
means of the centrifugal force arising during the rotation of the cabin
of the apace ship. This idea was first propobod by Tsiolkovakiy and at
the prosont time it is shared by many Soviet and foreign scientists.
The authors conclude that the ever-increasing research and the
resultn of recent experiments give reason to believe that life is pos-
sible under conditions of weightlessness. The state of weightlessness,
arising in each cosmic flight, should not be an insuperable obstacle
to the penetration of man into space. ("Man in Space -- The Problem
of Life Under Conditions of Weightlessness," by 0. G. Gazenko and V. B.
Malkin, Nauka i Zhizn', No. 12, 1959, PP- 17-23)
Soviets Observe Meteor Shower in October
The Earth intersected the orbit of the Jacobini-Tsinner comet on
10 October 195; and passed through the densest part of the Draconids
meteor shower.
The Draconids shower was formed as the result of the gradual de-
cay of the comet and constitutes an inmi-enae cluster of meteorite par-
ticles with a diameter of about one million kilometers. It revolves
around the Sun in an ellipse close to the orbit of the comet. The
period of revolution of the Draconide is 6.5 years. The velocity of
movement relative to the Earth on encountering this planet is 23 kilo-
meters per second.
Wheal our planet intersects this stress many of its srmalleat par-
ticles enter the atmosphere, and flaring brightly, burn up. Each
minute there appear in the heavens several hundred such meteoric
bodies of varying brightness. This creates the impression of a
"star shower."
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Considering the rarity of this phenomenon this "meteor shower"
can be observed only once in 13 years -- the astronomers carefully
prepared for its observation.
Investigations of meteor streams have great iaportance for the
study of processes occurring in the upper layers of the atmosphere
and for determination of the danger from meteorites during future
flights of Man into space. ("Star Shower," Nauka i Zhizn', No. 12,
1959, p? 71)
Are the Satellites of Mrs Artificial?
V. A. Bron`shten, Deputy Cbairmin of the Moscow Division of the
All-Union Astronomical Society, reports on our present knowledge of
the satellites of Mare in the December 1959 issue of Na ke i Zhizn'
(Science and Life).
He begins with an bi ctica1 account of the discovery of the two
satellites of Mars, Phobos and Deimos# by the American astronomer Asaph
IIa11 in 1877. He points out that Jonathan 8Wif*bad already predicted
the discovery, of these two satellites, because the Math had one moon
and Jupiter had four, and to make the universe "nice and w7mmetrical it
seemed proper that Mars should have twos even if they bad not yet been
discovered.
Bronahten points out the reason vbY the satellites, of Mere were
among the last of the planetary satellites to be discovered -- it was
not their lack of brightness, for mater other satellites were less
bright, but because they were situated so close to their mother planet.
These two satellites have brightness that is equivalent to stars
of magnitude 13.5 and 13. Neither has a visible, disk, even in the
most powerful telescope. Their'size must be estimated on their bright-.
ness, it being assumed that they reflect the Sun's light like the
planet itself. Ccuputations Indicate that the diameter of Phobos is
l6 km and that of Deimos is 8 km.
Phobos revolves around Mars three time as rapidly as it turns
on its ovn axis -- the period of revolution is 7 hours 39 minutes, in
contrast to 30 hours 18 minutes for Deimos, her sister satellite. The
rapid motion of Phobos is the result of its nearness to the planet.
It is possible that Deimos and Phobos have net alvVe been satel-
lites.of Mars -- they may have been asteroids at one time, and have
now been captured by the planet,., Asteroids do approach very near to
s and the sire of Phobos and Demos is typical of asteroids. But
evidence Aekes,this possibility very unlikely.
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In 1945 a new riddlb appeared -- secular acceleration of Phobos.
To be sure, this wan not great -- over a 50-year period Phobos wus
5 degrees ahead of the point in its orbit that it would have had with-
out acceleration. Two causes are known to science to cause this
phencmenon. The first is the action of a resisting medium and the
second is tidal braking.
Phobos moves at a distance of 6,000 km from the surface of Mars.
Is it possible that at such a dist&nue there can be traces of a Mar-
tian atmosphere? The boundary of the Earth's atmosphere lies at an
altitude of 2,000-3,000 km, but it is known that the atmosphere of
Mare is 10-12 times as thin as the Earth's. On the other hand, the
density of the Martian atmosphere decreases with height more slowly
than does that of the Earth because the force of gravity on its sur-
face is 2 1/2 times less than on our planet. At an altitude of 140
km it is 10,000 times as dense. Therefore it is possible that at an
altitude of 6,000 km there are still traces of a Martian atmosphere.
The second possible cause of the acceleration of Phobos are the
tides that it may cause on Mars -- a different case than is true in
the case of the Earth and its Moon where the influence is the opposite.
Although there are no oceans on Mars there can be "earth" tides as
there are on our planet and these could cause the acceleration of
Phobos. The problem is complicated by the fact that Deimos is not
being accelerated, but quite the reverse.
This problem has been studied by the Russian scientist I. S.
Sbklovskiy. He first tackled the matter of whether the Martian at-
mo4phere could cause the acceleration of Phobos. Study of the evi-
dence forced him to reject the idea that the motion of Phobos is caused
by the action of a Martian atmosphere; at an elevation of 6,000 km it
evidently does not attain that density which is necessary to cause
this phenomenon.
After rejecting this and other possibilities, such as that of
tides on Mars, Shklovskiy has advanced a bold hypothesis.
Up to now we have assumed that Phobos and Deimos have the same
reflecting capacity and the same mean density as Mars itself. So it
has been easy to determine their size and density. But no one has
ever determined their size or mass directly. So what if the density
of Phobos is many times less than we have considered it to be up to
now? Is it possible that Phobos is hollow? Are both Martian satel-
lites artificial?
Here Professor Shklovskiy goes from strict scientific analysis
of observed facts to the field of scientific fantasy.
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Lot's now assume, says 1. S. Shklovukiy, that about 500 million
years ago there were more favorable conditions on Marc for the develop-
ment, of life than is true today, that there then existed into]ligomt
inhabitants on Marc with a high degree of development and that they
created two giant artificial satellites -- Phobos and Deimos. Shklrv-
akiy then speculates that these artificial satellites were populated
by Martians. These Martians died gradually due to w:known causes. xc
is difficult to say whether it wan duo to worsening of natural condi-
tions on Mars or to some other factor. These satellites have remained
and possibly hold mementoes of Martian culture.
But if the Martians were such highly devcloped beings why did they
not reach the Earth? Seeing that conditions on Mars were worsening,
why did they not resettle on our planet? Because, answers Shklovokiy,
the conditions on Earth at that time were stilt loge favorable for the
Martians. The Martians may have visited the Earth and learned of its
unsuitability for life. Movement for them would have been difficult
because they would weigh 2 1/2 times as much as on Mars, causing a
terrific strain on. the skeleton and the atmosphere would have been too
dense and moist -- and to ouch conditions the Martians could not adapt.
("The Riddle of the Satellites of Mars," by V. A. Bronshten, Nauka i
Zhizn', No. 12, 1959, PP- 34-38)
Chinese Build New Observatories, Cooperator With Hungarians on Variables
Laszlo Detre, director of the Astronc r Institute (Csillagvizagalo
Intezet ), recently returned from CKt as where he spent, 3 months studying
the work of Chinese astronomers. He said: u years ago, a a Z-097-
Cooperate closely. On nor recent trip to Chi
gaszati Unio) we agreed with leaders of the
the Lick Observatory i.? California that the
out a cooperation program. One of the most
stitute is a continuous observation of ao-c
to thousandths.... Five observato?.ries bel
operation with the Nanking and Lick obaervat
observation ccuplete.... In China we sought
out the most modern photoelectric astronomic
Union (Nemzetkozi Csi.lla-
anking observatory and of
brae observatories should
we succeeded in working
octant tasks of our in-
d variable stars. Co-
ies will now make this
the beat methods to work
observations, accurate
to the Nanking chief ?ob-
ed observatory now being
a an altitude of 2 000 meters near
built t , th South China city of Khn-
ring. A second, being built near Peiping, w
be among the largest
b t e
o serve observatories in the world. It is being e q
telescope having d with a reflector
a diameter of 2 meters and
th much photoelectric
equipment. This reflect to
built in China...."
k"Cooperation of Three Astronomical Institutes, by T. Be; Budapest, CPYRGHT
Nepszabadsag. 24 February 1960, p. 6)
servatory. One of these is the modernly-e
q
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XI=. M1 iOL00Y
"Weather Shia"
Photo caption:
The "A. T. Voyeykov," the expeditionary ship of
the Main Administration of the USSR Hydro-Meteorologi-
cel Service, had ate:,,ed on a long trip. The very
name of the ship was indicative of its purpose:
Voyeykov was a famous Russian scientist-hydremeteor-
ologist, the founder of the science of climatology.
Many years ago, acting at his dwn risk and almost
without any support from the Czarist government, he
had traveled practically all over the world.
One of the routes covered by the scientists
van repeated by the ship bearing his name. Our cor-
respondent traveled 20,000 kilometers on seas and
oceans aboard that ship. Following is his story.
The ship had been sailing for almost two months. Navigation
charts were piled one on top of the other on a desk in the chart house.
Clearly outlined on them was the ship's course. Most of the time it
an far away from the coast and from the known sea lanes. The long
route extending across two oceans and twelve seas was traced on the
maps. Our ship evoked general admiration not only on the pars: of the
foreign guests in Odessa -- where the expedition began after it had
slid down the ways at the Nikolayev plant name, after Nosenko -- but
also the Suez Canal pilots and'Malayan meteorologists.
There had been a me suspicion at firut: wasn't that really a
warship? And if not -- why was there a rocket-launching pad on the
bow? Why should a peaceful ship be equipped with three radar screens?
Why-are black hydrogen-filled cylinders stored in the stern hatches?
And why those "No Smoking" and "Danger" signs everywhere? All one
has to do, if -there is a danger of fire or explosion, is to press a
button and all the cylinders will be thrown overboard. And what are
those large piles of instruments near the cabin doors, in the bays
and deck-cabins? But when it was learred that there were 38 scien-
tific laboratories on board ship, the people stood enraptured: "How
Iq ressive!" Profound respect for the land of Soviets and the steady
development of its technology was reflected on the guests' faces when
they learned that the ship "A. I. Voyeykov" pursued peaceful purposes
as it belonged to the Soviet hydro-meteorrlogical service.
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Considerable efforts had gone 1,ito the conrrtruction curd equipment
of the powerful floating laboratory capable of exploring the depths of
the world ocean and the air ocean above it and sending warnings to all
chips, regardless of the flags under which they auil, against storm,
cyclones and typhoons.
The launching pad is for launching meteorological rockets.
The hydrogen reserve is to be used for sending radiosondes and
pilot balloons into the atmosphere above the clouds, and the purpose
of the radar screens is to track their flight, the formation and move-
ment of storm centers. All 'the collected materials are immediately
processed by the scientists: hydrologists, oceanologists, aerologists,
hydrochemists, hydrophysiciats, mathematicians and synoptical experts..
TREtEE I MVIEWS
It is not easy to engage our hydrologists in conversation even
if you spend a number of days together with them. In 55 days the
A. I. Voyeytkav hove to 65 times. For many hours on end, in stormy
or calm weather, the work never stopped. Instruments were dropped
kilometers deep into the ocean to gather information on the tempera-
ture and get samples of sea water. It then took a number of hours
to process the samples more than a thousand of which had been col"
lected during the sailing period.
Another blank spot in our knowledge of the world ocean was filled
after the trip.
At first glance the work of the hydrologists looks very monloton-
ous, said Alexei Mikhailovitch I omtseve, doctor of hbydrographic sci-
ences and chief of the (section). Day in and day out we lower bathom-
eters into the sea for sampling purposes. These instruments were first
constructed by the physicist Lents who had sailed on the Russian ship
"Predpriyatiye" (enterprise). The Russian seamen and scientists had
laid the foundation 'for precise scientific observations of the ocean.
And we carry then on. There is probably enough work for many genera-
tions.
We are learning about the water temperature at various depths,
its salinity, density and agrgen content. The material may not look
voluminous but it is sufficient to make interesting conclusions about
the life in the ocean and the depths of the currents which carry tre-
mendono of water for many thousands of kilometers.
We later learned (not from Muromtsev but from others) that a num-
ber of previous espeditions resulted-in his monograph on the Pacific
Ocean, and that the current trip on the Indian Ocean will enable him
to fill a number of gaps in his future book about that ocean.
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There was one thing the scientist did not mention, and that is
what every expedition meant to him. The severe wound be received 15
years, ago appeared to have separated him from his beloved ocean for-
ever. It was like losing the hand that held the crutch. But even
if he can no longer be a sailor, what can prevent him from studying
the sea? And 14tramitsev, now a scientist-oceanologist , is again ply-
ing the -water lanes. But before every trip he has to tight with bin
doctors, and he promised them to make this expedition 'ohe last one.
But in his state room in the evenings 1t romtsev discusses future
trips and, also, his part in them.
The equipment used by our meteorologists and aerologists is of
a different type, said the expedition chief,G{eorgiy Sergiyevitch
I'vanov. Dozens of automatic devices are continuously recording the
conditions in the air ocean above the sea: the humidity, pressure,
teoWerature, the direction and force of the wind. Every three hours
the ship's radio broadcasts its warnings. But now, with technologi-
cal progress forging ahead, it is not enough to know what is taking
place on the surface of the ocean. Radiosondes now help us in the
study of the upper strata of the atmosphere, and rockets will be very
useful in tbar future.
Photo caption:
It is ivpos'sible to understand, at first glance
what all these strange structures are... This is how
the weather ship's scientific laboratories look from
the at deck.
An astonishing amount of solar energy finds its way to our earth.
How is that energy used up? The problems 'of radiation is under study
by a group of scientists in the actina?etric laboratory.
Our third interview with Rustem Fadikhovitch Usmanov,"eyavptie
expert, was suddenly interrupted by the captain:. "Are you' discussing
synoptics? But'that'to the least reliable and most uncertain science."
"Wby?" asked Uemanav, embarrassed. "Well, when ,you say l!rain' the
weather is clear. But these are minor ? things. What is worse is when
the-weather service predicts calm weather while a 12-point storm is
breaking out at the same time.::."
From the very start of the expedition the captain never missed a
chance to tease the weather experts. And Usmano never failed, to
strike back. And so it was this time, too.
"Mikolo.Fedorovitch," the weather expert reproachfully shook his
heady "you are a progressive captain, but you still judge by yester-
day's standards. Just take a look at this: three toletype machines
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are punching out one line after another. One prints a report from
Australia, another from Japan and a third from Indonesia. And each
of these reports in intelligible to everyone because the weather in-
lormation and prognosis are rendered in the uniform international code
of the Yyrdrameteorologiats."
Photo caption:
How to obtain information on the atmosphere in
a no-called vertical croon section? The measurements
made for that purpose begin at the very surface of
the water from a small boat lowered to the surface.
M. V. Kucherov records the teaperaturej, the humidity
of the air and velocity of'the wind. Similar in-
formation covering an altitude up to several thousan1
meters is being gathered at the same time aboard ship
with the aid of instruments and sounding equipment.
"Having spent some time here on the ocean, I can now arrange the
weather and prognostic maps not only for the area of our route but
also for the vast ocean areas. Could that be done years ago?"
Every day the synoptieal experts gather voluminous data. It is
not enough to plot them on a map-- a careful account must be taken
of all the tornadoes., cyclones and storms. That is why I am deeply
convinced that there are few sciences in which so much is demanded of
the scientists and so much imagination expected of them. Every 1.
weather map is, a caaplete scientific job covering vast areas of the
globe, and every prognostic map is a scientific hypothesis.
How many years ago could you first use radio broadcasts? In
those days we knew very little of what was happening in the neighbor-
ing districts. There were white spots on the maps ... and it was
difficult to guess what was going on there. .The weathermen did not
have the necessary technical facilities then;' but today we have cal-
culatorsa radio-teletypes and automatic weather stations... Those
white sports are becoming fewer from year to year. This trip will
remove another such spot.
The data of the institutes and weather bureaus have now became
so all-inclusive that the radio is no longer enough for broadcasting
weather reports: the teletype is now being replaced by the PhTAK.
The fervent monologue of the weatherman in defense of his science
[became our third interview.
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The scientist gently passed his hand over the shiner gray surface
of PbTAK, a photo-telegraphic apparatus for he reception of weather
maps. On a wide moist strip of chemical vapor which was barely moving
along the ncreon an invisible draftsman was compiling a now map, stroke
by stroke. That "draftsman" wan'a combination of electrical inpulnes
transmitted by Moscow.
Such a map, continued the weather expert, in still better and
more universally used than any other type of weather information.
Looking at it, the captain gets an idea of the atmospheric conditions
prevailing over vast areas on the ocean, and that makes it easier for
him to chart the best and safest route for his ship. "I assure you,
ao.soam as we got into the Pacific dhere the typhoons originate, dozens
of stations wi33. intercept our signals and the photo-teletgraphic ap-
puratuses will transmit the maps with our data. They will be most ac-
curate as the ship will then be in the very area of the weather
"kitchen-factory," and-the majority of the weather stations are lo-
cated not far from there." Which one of them was right was sc.,;.n de-
cided by the great Pacific Ocean, the ocean which, as the sailors say,
"is only sometimes pacific but always great."
The same warm and bright sun was shining on the Pacific as on
the other seas of the southern hemisphere, the Celebes and Java, which
the "A. I. Voreykov" had just crossed. There was a light headwind,
and wide, smooth ripples tossed the ship.
We knew that the ripples camz in the wake of the typhoon which had
passed this area several days before, and that the sunny and calm
weather would be with us for a long time. Of that we were all certain,
all except ... the weather expert. He immediately asked the meteorolo-
gists on duty to take soundings every hour and even more often, not
every three hours as bad been done since the beginning of the expedi-
tion.
The teleprinters and PbTAN were working at full speed without
missing a single report or map. Every morning the weather expert com-
piled the weather map of "A. I. Vayeykov's" route. Thirty-nine days
of traveling were now behind us. Thirty-nine maps informed us that
everything ahead of us was quiet. But the 1Oth marp, compiled on that
day, and the 11st, the forecast for tom rrow, brought all the scien-
tists of the expedition and the captain's assistants to the chart
hose.
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Photo caption:
The white cylinder is a compact automatic
meteorological station. At the right moment) the
top cover is thrown open by a little motor and
signals begin to flow into a recording device.
Other it strtunenti; located nearby are the sane time
also "tuned in" an the atmosphere fca' the purpose
of measuring the warm air areas, photographing the
clouds., etc.
The weather expert excitedly told them about the isobars which
would close to to form a danger sport the next day in the low-pressure
area over the ocean. These spots were indicative of the formation of
a new cyclone. Signal's of its approach had come from the ship's in-
struments: they showed falling pressure and a change in the course
of the wind which was now blowing in a direction tangential to the
isobars of the coming typhoon. It was felt that the wind was becom-
ing increasingly stronger.
Photo caption:
Above the radar there were only clouds... The
danger areas could be seen on the screen. The
trace of a pilot balloon would flash occasionally...
Engineers Eugen Karandzey (right) and Bozhikov ready-
ing the radar.
The new typhoon was forming somewhere in the East., in the area
of the Marianne Islands. The Anerican., Japanese and Australian meteor-
ological stations were still silent but then the warning of an ap-
proaching typhoon was flashed to all the ships at sea from. the Soviet
weather ship "A. I. Voyeykov."
Photo caption:
Bathometers, instruments for testing the tempera-
ture of the water and taking required sanples., are
lowered thousands of meters into the ocean with a fast
winch. Meteorologist Mikola Gontarev fastens the
equipment to a cable before lowering it...
The ship had to change course. Anothe navigation map was placed
on the desk in the chart house. That map says practically nothing
about the land -- only about the coast line, the reefs and the dangers
in the open sea. A very ordinary navigation chart... But this time
it attracted the attention of all those present in the chart house.
And not only because it could be used for charting a new coi oe for
the ship.
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CPYRGHT
It was the area of the Japane a Okinawa archipelago That name
nays a gre.,t deal: it immediately eealls to mind the ruggle of
the Japanese peasants against the erican occ~ationint who turned
that quiet green island into a hug military base. But ow the navi-
gation chart delved still further to that tragedy. It revealed
several dozen red lines which look as ie some wag had uddenly de-
cided to draw some geometrical fi as on that piece of aper:
squares, straight lines, trapeziap ireles and different longitudinal
and cross lines. But these gem ieal" figures were ch too large
and the space between them too nar ! Such red lines h ve an ominous
and tragic iuplieation on ocean ma ...
The trapezia represent areas cr moving air masses. (Neither ships
nor fishing boats can sail in thos areas.
The squares are areas of sub ine tactical traini and antiair-
craft fire. And the island of Oki wa itself is covered y a network
of airplane silhouettes which apps like black crosses n a cemetery.
Those are the American air fields. They are located, on he most pro-
ductive land taken from the popula on. They have isola al the island
from another productive area, the a, by invisible barr ers.
Thus an ordinary navigation , with much informat on about the
sea and yractically none about the d, recalled to min the tragedy
of Okinawa.
It was only 24+ hours later the; the other meteorolo cal stations
began to talk about the typhoon in he Pacific. The c of Japanese
fishermen for help began to break to the storm warning ignals;,the
full force of the tornado had caugh; them far out at sea
One could nab help thinking t t the money spent ev day on
military maneuvers near Okinawa co d be used to equip t Japanese
fishing boats with modern apparatus that would enable th 1 to inter-
cept the danger signals in time.
days. Huge billow tossed the
The typhoon raged on jbkr
ship, and it looked as if ouds were touching he waves.
Those were days of very hiAnd one morning a More~;e from Moscow br a through
the roar of the w
aves into es of the radio op ator. It
was a message ,X thankfowaarning against t typhoon. C
And for the first time the as addressed to th ~~
" ' edits shi .' (By C.
Chumakov, Znannya to Pratsya, No. 2, February 1960
PYRGHT
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IV. GEOMAGIM Tl3M
Experimental, `costing of the F vnothea:'s of Magnetic Declination
The followiru, is the full translation of a recent article by the
prominent Sovi scientist V. V. Shuleykin.
Nine yearn ago we published. our hypothesis on the nature of mag-
netic declination. At that time the first experimental work on the
testing of this hypothesis was begun in our country. We assume that
on the Earth's main magnetic field., with a moment directed along the
lanet,'s axis of rotation, there in superimposed a distorted magnetic
field whiph is caused by t1 presence of electrical currents in the
ocean, already disccirered in 1935; another part of this distorted
field is evidently caused by currerrtu in the ionosphere directed along
the contours of the continents. Initial research forced us to ascribe
a rather modest role to ocean currents in this respect. in 1956, how-
ever, Soviet researchers discovered that the density of currents in
the ocean (Indian Ocean) increases with depth and in 1957 for the
first time we automatically recorded a similar increase in the density
of currents with increasing depth in the Atlantic Ocean between Africa
and South America. In this connection the question again arose about
the extremely noticeable role played by oceanic telluric currents in
the creation of magnetic declliuation. Opinions relative to their
role became objective after L. A. Korneva proposed a new cartographic
characterization of the distorted magnetic field. ahs drew maps of
the latitudinal components of the intensity of the Earth's magnetic
field.
Of special interest is the area of the Atlantic Ocean situated
in the equatorial and tropical zones: pausing through this area is
the isolinc Y e 10,000 gmmmas (that is, 0. 7, oersted). It is of ap-
proximately elliptical form, with the small axis intersecting the mag
netic equator. Within this isoline magnetic declination attains 22.40
while the latitudinal component of intensity is 0.11 oersted.
It was precisely in this part of the Atlantic Ocean that we made
an experimental tenting .x our bypothesia. For the experiments we
selected a region close to a point with the coordinates 10 S and
250 W, distinguished by the following important peculiarities:
(a) the permanent South Trades current here is very stable, (b) with-
out question meridional components of deep currents are absent,
(c) the depth of the ocean does not exceed 3,600 m, (d) the wind is
moderate and stable in direction. A simple and reliable photo-
recording device was devised permitting us to get clear pictures of
a part of the cartridge of the 12-7-mm ship's caanpass with course in-
dicator and the dial of a small "Moskva" clock with minute and second
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hands. The pictures were takeu every ten seconds on nvan-ow positive
movie film. An enlarged positive image of one of the photographs is
shown in figure 1. It was especially b portant to achieve parallelism
in the diametral plane of the ship and the diametral plane of the re-
cording instrument that was housed within a bronze cuing with rn air-
tight lie. To achieve this a dependable rudder with two fins (Figure
2) was attached to the capsule. Three sharp-pointed ins of nonrust-
ing nonmagnetic steel, visible in the sketch, served (l) for the pre-
cise setting of the plane of the rudder relative to the compass course-
indicator and (2) for safeguarding protruding parts of the mechanism
for covering the capsule with a heavy lid, under deck conditions.
The capsule, weighing 300 kg, was suspended by a cable on a swivel
and during towing was well served by the rudder. At the time of the
first series of experiments the angle of inclination of the cable to
the vertical was 450, while on 'the next day, at the time of the second
series, it was 660. From a special platform it was easy to see to it
that the plane in which the cable lay above the water was parallel to
the ship's diametral plane. At the time of the experiments the ship's
course was continually recorded on a registering course indicator whose
readings were systematically checked by means of individual readings
on the repeater of the gyroconWass. A comparison of the true course
of the ship with the readings (through a magnifying glass) on the
movie film, drawn from the capsule, made it possible to determine
magnetic declination at the depth at which the instrument was towed.
In addition, for supplementary control, readings were made during the
experiment of the compass course on the ship's main magnetic compass;
corre'tions were introduced for deviation in the region of the equator.
Thus we confirmed the value of magnetic declination at the ocean sur-
face in the region where the experiments were made, determined from
the navigational chart by means of interpolation between lines of
equal declination.
By these independent methods we established that magnetic decli-
nation at a depth of about 2,000 m is at least 50 less than is magnetic
declination on the ocean surface.
In view of the shallowness of towing in comparison with the height
of the ionosphere, we must conclude that declination changes here only
due to the field of telluric currents in the ocean, expressed- in double
fashion.- Thus, on' the basis of the work (6) (V. V. Shuleykin, Dok1ady.
Akademii Nauk SSSB, 119, No. 2, 257 (1958)), we use a scheme for in-
crease in the density of currents i -- linear, as is shown its Figure 3.
When examining these schemes we see that the latitudinal ccaapoaent of
intensity of the Earth's magnetic field Y, at the depth of towing of
the capsule z changed, firstly, because under the capsule there is not
the entire area of the triangle AEC, involved in the creation of mag-
netic declination at the ocean surface, but only of the area of the
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trapezium KLCD; secondly, because above the capsule there was the
triangle ALK which was absent under conditions prevailing at the
ocean surface. Both of these causes facilitate a docreano in the
latitudinal component of the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field
at the depth z of towing the capsule (in absolute value). For sim-
plicity, in Figure 3 it is assumed that i increases from the value 0.
Let the latitudinal comWonent here consist of two values: the
value of y,, created by currents in the ocean and therefore changing
at depth in accordance with the scheme of their distribution in
depth (Figure 3) and some value Y, which according to our present-
day concar+a are created by currents in the ionosphere (also associ-
ated with the distribution of oceans and continents on the Earth).
In view of the smallness of depth of towing in comparison with the
height of the ionosphere, it is possible to consider Y as constant
from the surface of the ocean to this depth (possibly, also to the
bottoms of the ocean).
Leta designate by the ratio of the depth of towing z to the
depth of the ocean II, ~ z/H. Then, on the basis of the ideas ex-
pressed, and using the scheme in Figure 3, it will be possible to get
a simple ratio:
Yl^YtyY+yo(1-252), (1)
in which yo designates the value at the surface of the ocean when
= 0. The full significance of the latitudinal component at the
surface of the ocean according to (1) will be:
Yo a Y + Yo,
and, consequently, the difference between Yo and Yl is expressed as
follows:
(2)
Yo - Yl = 2yc2? (3)
But the same difference can be expressed differently: through the
functions of angles of magnetic declination at the surface of the
ocean (Do) and at the depth of towing of the capsule (D), to wit:
Yo - Yo ? sin Do (sin Do.- sin D). (4)
We equate the right parts (3) and (4) and make simple transpositions.
Then we get the ratio between yo and Yo.
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Y0 l 1 sin :D (5)
'ia2 `( -s` n.oo)?
Substituting numerical values, f d from our experiments in the ocean
we get yo/Y0 1/3.
Thus, telluric currents in th ocean create here approximately
one-third of the latitudinal conrpo ant of the intensity of the Earth's
magnetic field. In this eonneetio it is necessary to assume that
the missing two-thirds in accounte for by currents in the ionosphere,
also associated with the dietribut n of oceans and continents on the
Earth.
The conclusions following fr the experimental work accomplished
show that our basic theoretical co opts were justified and that our
next problem is the refinement of a method of recording magnetic
declination in the depths of the . At the same time it is neces-
sary to organize research pertinen to the role of currents in the
ionosphere in the creation of the titudinal ccuponent of the Earth's
magnetic field.
The author wishes to express s sincere gratitude to staff ele-
mi^nts of the Soviet Navy for coepe ticn in establishing research ac-
tivities aboard the expeditionary- eanographic vessel "Sedov," to
B. R. Lazarenko and Ye. S. Boris for assistance in the fabrica-
tion of mechanisms, to A. V. Lalced nskiy for supervision of the
casting of the bronze capsule, to F. Vereshchagia and A. A. Semir-
ehan -- for testing of the capsule t the Institute of High Pressures
of the Academy of Scienr:es of the
design for sealing of the f es. ("Experimental Testing of the
Hypothesis of the Nature of Magnetic Declination," by Academician
V. V. Shuleykin, Dakledy AkeAenn?f i Nauk SSSR, Vol. 130, No. 5, 1960,
pp. 1015-1018)
Report on a Planned Soviet Bathysphere
The following is substantially the ec plete text of a report on
a newly developed Soviet bathysphere.
...A new bathysphere has been develop i by workers at the Lenin-
grad Institute "Giprorybflot" (State Institute for the Design and
Planning of the Fishing Fleet). Its steel body is designed to with-
stand the immense pressure of sea water and the special glass in the
portholes is 65 man thick. Because of this the Soviet bathysphere can
be submerged to a depth twice as great, for example, as the Italian
bathysphere, and three times as great as the Japanese bathysphere."
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CPYRGHT CPYRGHT
"It should also be mentioned that the now but sphere ie equipped
with modern instruments for the entigation of s water, special
movie and photo apparatus, a re blo system of at ring and control,
and emergency equipment."
"The now underwater lnborat will render gr
Soviet e " ("At a Depth of
600 Meters," Nauka i Zhizn', No. 12, 1959, PP- 70-71)
Standards for Radar Buoys and Beacons Used in Sea-Current Studies
An article by V. V. Dremlyug on selecting the shapes and sizes
of radar buoys and beacons used in sea-current observations is sum-
marized in a Soviet abstract journal. It gives the following informa-
tion.
Testa have established that a radar buoy with pyramidal reflectors
is suitable for observations of currents at distances of up to one mile
and with wave conditions in up to a No. 3 sea. A radar beacon with a
pyramidal reflector can be used for observations up to 3-4 miles based
on the vertical aspect %-f the beacon. With a 15 degree pitch, the
beacu 's radar visibility is lowered from 4 to 1.5 miles. Found to be
best was n radar beacon with a rhombic reflector, which with a pitch
of 10-15 degrees and a height of about 2 meters above the water, was
visible at a distance of 3 miles. With an increase of the height of
the reflector above the water from 4-5 meters and an increase in the
vertical aspect of the beacon, the distance for its observation reaches
6-7 miles. (Selection of the Shape and Dimensions of Radar Buoys and
Beacons Used for Sea-Current Observations, by V. V. Dremlyug; 8be tr.
Leningr. basseyn-w pravl. Nauchno-tekhn. o va transpe gollectica of
Works of the: Leningrad Basin Administration of the Scientific-Technical
Society of Trb.-zport], No. 4, 1958, pp. 87-90. From Referati
Zhurnal-Mashinoctroyeniye, No. 1, 1960, Abstract No. 2744, p. 3
Ice Reconnaissance Active in the North
The following is the full text of a recent dispatch in Izvest r .
"The :;ell-t on poler flier V. Percy reports the following by
radio from on board an ' IL-14' aircraft, now completing a research
flight over the ice of the Laptev, Chukchee and East Siberian seas:
'The hydrologists and I are, conducting an ice reconnaiseance in the
eastern part of the Arctic. Four flight lines have been completed-
and we are now on the fifth. Yesterday we flew over the drift station
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Severgyy Po - and dropped the latest mail to the polar research-
"ro. Not far from the SP-8 we could nee an abandoned American scien-
tific drift a ation."'
"In the extern sector of the Arctic a reconnaissance is being
made by the ew of an 'IL-14' aircraft comananded by the experienced
polar flier V Mal*kov and the pilot A. Xefimov. With the group of
scientists ub d they have flown around the entire Kara Sea and the
northern part of the Barents Sea and the region around the Pole."
"In adds ion, two aircraft piloted by the fliers I. Baranov and
Ya. Nagorniy ve conducted an ice reconnaissance in the Far. East over
an extensive eriod."
"The sci rrtista of the Leningrad Arctic and Antarctic Scientific
Research Inst tote are determining the limits of ice of various ages
and forms, ob erving the movement of ice masses from the aircraft and
refining pre ctions for the 3.960 navigation season. Because of their
work seamen 11 receive important operational data concerning ice
conditicmn al
" "Underwing -- The FSrozen Sea," by M. Filipenin, Moscow, CPYRGHT
Izvestiya, 2 March 1960, p. 6)
Structural and Hiutorical Development of the Antarctic
The following principal stages w be noted in the history of
the geologic development of Antarctica.
1. The Pre-Cambrian stage of sedi emu aeautmulation (Maud complex,
folding, metamorphism and the formation of intrusions, ending in the
formation of the ancient Eastern Antarctic platform. Two principal
cycles (or phases) of intensive activity are distinguished: (a) the
Victoria cycle (granites and others); (b) the Mewson cycle (predcmi..
nantly charnockites, etc.).
2. The Upper Proterozoic or Lower Proterozoic stage: develop-
ment of the Ross geosyncline at the western edge of the platform, the
deposition of a stratum of the Ross system, the development of the
Rosaide folded system (possioly continuing into the Madera system
in Australia), the formation of the intrusive Admiralty complex and
others. On the platform, deposition of the Sa.ndau series.
3. The Paleozoic stage, still not subdivided: the developmnt
of the Falkland geoayncline and its branches -- (1) the Orkney, pass-
ing through the Shetlani Islands, the western tip of Antarctica and
the Australian Amps, and (2) 'the Marion -- between Antarctica and
Africa. Possible Caledonian folding and doubtlessly Hercynian. On
the platform, deposition of the Beacon stratum. As a result of the
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closing of the geonyncline and folding of Antarctica it was Joined
into a single platform with Brazil, ACrioo and Australia. Younger
folding processes have made no appenrrunce hero.
4. The 1fbsooenozoic stage, for the time being etill not sum-
divided: the development of the Hellingnhaunan geosyncline, connected
with the Andes and New Zealand, Mesozoic (Pacific Ocean) folding, in-
trusive activity (Graham's cycle), the closing of the goosynaline,
formation of the Antarctic-Andes system. On the platform -- faults.,
volcanic activity, formation of silts of doloritea (Ferraro (Y) vol-
canic cycle).
5. Neotectonic stage (Neocene -- Quaternary Period): large
block uplifts and subeidencesi forming the Groat Antarctic Horst and
Graben of the South Pole, formation of the contours of the Antarctic
shelf and (in general form) of the continent, the devolapmont of large
morphological. elements on the bottom of the surrounding oceans and of
recent (right up to the present day) vulcanlom (McMurdo cycle).
Eastern Antarctica in a 'wified continental uzansif with very com-
plex relief, broken up by young movements into a series of horsts and
grabens.
The South Pole is situated within the Limits of a deep graben,
Inasimicb as the bedrock here only rises 275 m above sea level. ("Struc-
tural and Historical Dervelopmenc of the Antarctic," by Academician 0. S.
V~ralov, AcadenW of Sciences of the Ukrainian 86Rt Kiev) Dopovidi
Akedemii Nauk, No. 8, 1959, pp? 878-880)
Soviet Polar G,opbysical Activity
A two page spread of photographs ahaWLug the cutup layout and
ground installatiuns of the Soviet geophysical station on Heins Inland,
Franz Josef Land, appeared in a February it:aue of the Bulgarian peri-
odical faro-Suvetska Dba. The'article accompanying the photo-
graphs follows.
"At the beginning of the International Geophysical Year, the
northernmost geophysical observatory was constructed on Heins Island
in the center of the archipelago of Franz Josef Iand. The observa-
tory and "Iruzhn&y" settlement are situated on the shore of a lake
along which Were erected high towers, a radio station, scientific
stands, a was hall, and hou wag quarters."
"The geophysicists, seismologists, ms