INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION -1960

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• Publication Date: May 20, 1960
• Content Type: REPORT

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INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION - 1960
May 20, 1960
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Business and Defense Services Administration
Office of Technical Services
Washington 25, D. C.
Published Weekly
Subscription Price $12.00 for the 1960.Series
Use of funds for printing this publication has been
approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, October 28, 1959
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INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION PROGRAM-
SOVIET-BLOC ACTIVITIES
Table of Contents
Page
I
Rockets and Artificial Earth Satellites
1
II
Upper Atmosphere
1
III
Oceanography
26
IV
Seismology
26
V
Artic and Antarctic
27
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1, ROCKETS AND ARTIFICIAL ' iTH SATELLITES
Method of dotermining Satellito Positions
A method of finding the position of ttio trajectory of a satellite
or meteor by simultaneous observations of the Rumanian Academy of Scieneos.
The method is based on the variation of the satellite's position on the
trajectory observed at the first station prior to the finding of the i-
dentical height of the satellite above the Earth at both stations. A
correction, Q AB, is given for theteimut of the preliminary position on
the trajectory leading to the correction ZB for the zenith distance on
this trajectory, and two corrections for altitudes A and B, hA and hB,
and A hA and A hB in particular are calculated. Q A is determined
from the condition hA } L hp a hB. An example is given using the 17
March 1958 observations of the second Soviet artificial earth satellite
made at Cluj and at Bucharest. ("The Determination of the Geocentric
Location of an Artificial Earth Satellite based on the Observations at
Two Stations," by Calin Popovici, Bucharest, studii Si Cecetari de As-
tronomie Si Seismologie, Academia Republicii Populare Romine, No 2, 1959)
pp 299-304).
II. UPPER ATMOSPHERE
Study on the Origin of Lunar Craters
An article by P. F. Sabaneyen on the origin of lunar craters which
appaered in a 1953 Soviet scientific periodical is reviewed below because
of Its timely interest in the light of today's events.
The author describes his experiments of throwing lumps of loose
material (cement) onto a layer of loose naterial laying on a flat, hard
base. Figure 1 shows the result - a model of a lunar crater in a layer
of cement. It shows the characteristic features: a circular wall, in
some places with folded structure, a steep inner slope and a gentle outer
slope, a depressed inner region with the central peak, and rays of ejected,
material outside the circular walls. Some ejections not shown in the
figure had lengths 10-12 times the crater diameter.
Figure 2 shows two falls onto a layer three times thicker. The
crater diameter here is smaller, the central peak less developed, the
inner slope nearly vertical, the amount of ejected material quite limited
and the length of the ejected rays not more than 5-6 crater diameters.
Figure 2, I, refers to a layer of compressed cement,?and II, to a naturally
loose layer.
Figure 3 shows the result of two throws, (I) as usual and (II) onto
the same layer so that its impact point would be less than the predicted
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radius from the rim of the first crater. (This was to imitate the pair
Theophilue and Cyrillus).
Figure 4 shows simultaneous falls of two lum s of cement close to-
gether. Such structuros are not found on the moon (footnote by Editor
questions correctness of this remark).
Figure 5 shows a throw of compressed tooth-powder onto a cement
layer; here the tooth-powder completely fills the crater (like Wargentin).
Ejections from the crater are negligible and chaotic. Increasing the
height of fall of the tooth-powder shows the first appearance of a con-
tral peak of irregular shape.
The author has attempted to discover the relations between the
forms and dimensions on one hand, and the physical factors of the fall
on the other. The results are summarized as follows.
1) Density of the impacting object. Experiments showed the best
resemblance to the lunar features when the lumps were made from pulveri-
zed matter with negligible cohesion between the particles. If the co-
hesive forces are increased the regularity of the forms is destroyed.
Cumprossion of the cement powder increases the cohesion of its particles
very little but it changes the pattern of the figures: the central peak
is higher, its pointedness greater, and the crater diameter smaller; and
there are no ejections outside the crater. By using nonhomogenously com-
pressed lumps of cement, the figures become irregular, often similar to
Figure 4.
Slightly wetted calcinated soda, dried afterward, forms lumps of
negligible strength but are not loose bodies. Such lumps thrown forcibly
onto a cement layer create different forms. Near the impact point there
are large splinters; the central peak is sharply pointed; and the wall
is never a regular circle.
If a steel ball is thrown forcibly, it will deform not only the
cement layer, but also the solid clay or sand surface below it. Trans-
verse cross sections of these forms are similar to those of meteoritic
craters and explosive funnels on the Earth but quite dissimilar to the
profiles of lunar craters, which have no deepening in the center, but a
peak.
In all further experiments the author has used an impacting object
composed of loose material of naturally uniform density.
2) Shape of the impacting object. The author used several differ-
ent shapes. The objects were dropped from a glass plate; by a quick move-
ment of the hand they were made to fall freely. The greatest similarity
with lunar craters was-obtained by using figures of revolution (Figure 6,
1) (sphere, hemisphere, cylinder, cone, rotational ellipsoid), with their
axes of symmetry parallel to the direction of impact. The falls of a
vertical circilar lens-shaped object are interesting to note (Figure 6,
5). They produced a vertical wall inside the crater and the outside
ejections were oriented at right angles to the wall. On the moon Coper-
nicus resembles this form. A. Wegenerl erroneously explained this fea-
ture by oblique impact.
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3) Tho impact angle. The author plaood two wooden stripe, 8 nun
high, on a 1-3.aan plate and botwaon thom pourod a layer of cement. He
smoothed the surface of tho cement by putting; another glaou plate over
it. This enourod the layer to be alwayu of the name thicknoso and density.
He then inollnod the layer so prepared an shown in Figure 7. The cement
layer was stable for inclinations if a rough wooden board was
used instead of a glans pluto, for r,1300; 1~ 4. 350. Cement (10 I.;rama) was
dropped from point A, 100 om above the plate. Thu angled , (900 - ),
was necessarily alwayu larger than 550. To obtain smaller values of
the lumps wore thrown from point Al (Figure 7). Figure 8 shown the result;
of impact at an angle
~Tj w 50; Figure 9 for 1 m 250; Figure 10 for
Cu ='650; Figure 11 = 800. When a- = 900 the impact figures are
found to be not stable in dimension or regular in fora. Only perpendi-
cular impacts give syrranetrical cross sections in all directions. On the
moon there are no features like those shown in Figures 8 and 9.
4) The 1 ? er density. Increase of cohesion in the layer changes
the impact structure (Figure 12). For equal masses and equal velocities
of the falling lump but increasing density of the layer, the diameter of
the creator decreases, the inner slopes are less steep, the floor depth
is less, and the ejections outside the crater walls, which consist of
material from both the layer and the lump, are increasingly from the im-
pacting material.
Ejections derived from the layer material are usually less splintered
and are longer than those from the falling mass. They may form folds and
conglomerations just outside the crater wall; or rays, which are moreor
less continuous chains of lumps and patches. Rays derived from the falling
mass itself, on the other hand, are continuous flat strips of finely dis-
persed matter.
5) the layer depth. Figure 13 shows the change in crater cross
section with the depth of the layer. Figure 14 shows the dimensions as
they depend on the depth of the layer. The ejected mass is small for a
deep layer and consists of the material from the layer itself. If the
layer becomes thinner the ejected mass increases and the relative con-
tribution from the impacting mass increases also.
6) The impact velicity. The author dropped lumps from different
heights, 10-300 cm. The height could not be increased further, because
air resistance started to destroy the lumps. Figure 15 shows the depen-
dence on the velocity of impact of the crater diameter d, the crater area
f, and the length of the ejections lam. The velocity of the ejections
increased with the velocity of impact. Table 1 shows the ejection velo-
city vB and the impact velocity v (computed from H) in their de endence
on the height H of the fall; vB i calculated from vB a j sin 1,
where O is the angle of the eto tion with respect to the horizon and g
is gravitational acceleration 1 is taken as 450). Actually the impact
velocity vp is less than computed from H in Table I because of air resis-
tance
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TABLE 1
EJECTION VELOCITY vB vs. VELOCITY OF FALL, Vp
H(m)
vp(m/seo)
VB(rq/seo)
n ^ vB
VP
0.10
1.4
2.1
1.50
0.25
2.2
2.4
1.10
0.50
3.1
2.7
2
0.88
1.00
4.4
3.
0
65
1.50
5.4
3.5
.
2.00
2.50
6,3
7,0
3.8
3.9
0.56
3.00
7.7
4.1
0.53
Also, in exporiemental conditions 91 is always different from 45?? That
means that the actual initial velocity is always greater than the vB in
Table I and the relation n a vB/vp is also greater than in the table.
7) The impacting mass. The crater diameter and the,length of
the e3ztiona norease with increasing impact mass.
In order to study the trajectories of ejections the'author put onto
the cement layer a vertical piece of thick blotting paper radially from
the impact center (Figure 16). Then the ejections left trpces on the wall
of blotting paper. The angles of ejection appear the same for all trajec-
tories, but the velocity is highest at the center where the ejectior- starts
and smallest at the rim. By increasing the impact velocity or the mass,
the angle of ojection decreased and approaches the angle of repose of the
material used, being 450.
By dropping cement onto a bare glass plate) ` the author obtained
features resembling central peaks; but when the plate was covered with a
layer of cement a circular crater was formed (cf.'Figure 13). This ap-
pears to prove that crater formation and particle ejection at the rim are
caused by the radial horizontal flow of the falling materials. There is
no ground for comparing the formation of lunar crators with the wave
pattern set up in a liquid as caused by an impacting body.
Figure 17 shows the formation of a model crater. A compact flux
of falling particles is compressing the surface near the impact point and
Part of the falling ma-
r
e.
is pushidg the cement layer sideway' elsewhe
terial forms a compressed control peak on which the residual material
slides radially outward, thus forming a circular crater. The particle
flux pressed on the inner wall of the crater with a pressure P. This
pressure causes local demolition of the crater rim. The rim.fragraents
may either pile up and cause folds in the crater ring or break through
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and cause ejoctionu. Against the lower part of the orator slope the pros-
sure has a downward component. This component causes compression of the
sub-surface material while the horizontal component continues to increase
the orator diameter. As the crater grows the moving material is used up,
the pressure on the crater wall decreases. The growth of the crater is
arrested when the pressure P of the sliding material equals that of the
reoistant force caused by the crater walls. Ejection beyond the crater
walls is possible only if the horizontal force exceeds a limit which is
the higher the thicker the layer of cement. Intensive ejection is faci-
litated by an increase of density of the base layer.
Conclusions
1) Lunar craters were formed by the impact of dense, homogenous,
definitely circular masses of loose material, though lens-shaped masses
are possible also.
2) The lunar surface layers differ from the deeper layers by hav-
ing lower rigidity.
3) The size of the craters and the great distances of ejection
indicate falls of large masses rather than high impact velocities.
4) The circular shape of the craters suggests vertical falls.
Ocassionally oval shapes of craters, irregularities of their inner struc-
ture, and the orientation c,f their ejections are proofs that cases of
oblique falls do exist. All this suggests that the falls were the re-
sult mainly of the moo.i's gravitation. In case of vertical fall, the
velocity was not higher than 24 km/sec; and, if there were no falls with
an inclination less than 600, the velocity was riot higher than 2.75 km/
sec. These velocities are too small to cause explosions on the site of
the impact, for which 4 - 6 km/sec are needed.
5) Simultaneous falls of two adjacent masses near to each other
occurred only once in many thosand cases. Consecutive adjacent falls'on
the noon are frequent. This shows that the masses that fell were common
in space before they were attracted by the Moon. Clustering of craters
may be taken as evidence of the attraction by the Moon of masses moving
in the same direction. These preconditions suggest the existence in the
past of a significant number of Earth satellites other than the Moon,
causing their falling onto the lunar surface, with formation of the lunar
cirques and craters.
It is possible that cirques can be found on the satellites of other
planets and on Merctuy. There is no reason to assume thaton the Earth
mountainous formations similar to lunar cirques could have been formed
even if the stratigraphic conditions in the external layers of the eart14
crust were favorable at the time. The mechanism would have been differ-
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ant because of the higher velocity, of the order of 11.1 km/sec. Then
the change from the solid to the gasoious state 2 will interfere with the
horizontal radial flux on the surface of Earth and with the structure of
the deeper rocks. ("On the Origin of Lunar Cratore," by P. F. Sabaneyev;
Moscow Byulleten' Vsesoyuzno o Astronomo-Geodezioheskogo Obshoheetva,
No 13 (20), 1953, pp 7-2' V
1) A typical model orator showing the pattern or the "figure of, fall"
in a cement layer.
2) Craters made in a layer 3'x as thick as in Figure 1. I - in,compres-
sad, II - in loose cement.
3) Combination of two patterns from different impacts. I - creator
formed earlier, II - the later one.
4) Combination of patterns at sinwxltaneous throwing of two lumps of
cement.
5) "Mesa" formed by dropping lumps of compressed tooth-powder into a
layer of cement.
6) Shapes of falling bodies used and resulting crater forms: 1-rotational
figures; 2-square slab; 3-prolonged slab; 4-triangle slab; 5-lenses.
7) Impact angles: 1) layer of cement, '2) lump of cement dropping ver-
tically, 3) lump dropping obliquely.
8) Impact, at P' 1 = 50.
9) Impact at w 1 = 25?.
10) Impact at a-1 - 65?.
11) Impact at a.= 800. The arrows give the impact directions.
12) Crater forms in layers of different density. I - gypsum dropped into
loose layer of cement; II - cement dropped into compressed layer of
cement.
13) Cross sections of craters for different thicknesses of ground layer.
14 Rim diameter (d), rim hei ht (h), central-peak height (ho), and
length of ejeci.ions (1m,ax) versus thickness of ground layer.
15) Geometrical properties of craters versus impact velocity.
16) Directions of ejection (vertical cross section).
17) Scheme of the formation of a crater wall.
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CPYRGHT
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CZ
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6. O pes of f-WAS. bodies used azt1L% ~freyau]~~.7.t aa~e-'~a~: $c : ' ? k
T, dwwle slft'bj 5 leaaw ?
c~Mldt. dro pi 46
t e ],ea s 1 + layer of cement, 2 ,- IMP Of
verticerlly, 3 M hp dropplIm$ oblique],y? .
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}tK ,'A t. ~~ t
.,~Lrtlrttttt'i~~i1,1,j,~jynCn!
12. Mater forms in layers of different density. X ? gypsum
dropped 'into loose layer of cement f U .~ aemment drqMed
into compressed layer of cement. ? , ~- ??i . `, .
.?)'Nr'?il ,I?: .,{' if,,?Ifr~.~ .I~;.1 r~ ~~.~~ii.14.;tt
13. Cross 'sections . of crat `,tor different thicknesaeg of
ground layer.
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!?6 11?1 -110 /l0
/00
d0 l BD QD
60 6 6D
40 I 40 40
10 d0 U 40 SO D? O.w/cat
N,,ww
he. Rim diameter - d, rim height -h) 15. Geamuetrical prop-
central-peak height - ho, and length erties of craters
of ejections - lmax versus tt ickneas versus impact
of ground layer. velocity.
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Study ' n Scattering and Polarization of Light in the Sur(!.ao Layer
Some results obtained in determining tho absolute and relative
scattering functions of light in the ground layer of the atmosphere and
also the degree of polarization at different angles of scattering are
given by T. P. Toropova. The observations wore conductiod at the moun-
tain observatory at the Astrophysics Institute of the Academy of Sciences,
Kazakh SSR (height above sea love, 1,150 motors) using a photoelectric
photometer equipped with two light filters (495 and 520 millimicronu) and
a polaroid filter.
The method for measuring the scattering function of light consis-
ted in recording the intensity of light scattered from a searchlight beam
directed at various angles. The degree of polarization of the scattered
light was determined by using a polaroid placed before the photoometer'a
lens. The polaroid could be rotated in throe positions with 600 inter-
vals. The absolute indicatrix of scattering was determined by measuring
the brightness of a standard screen, the albedo of which is known, illu-
minated by the searchlight beam.
Results showed that the coefficient of scattering of a real atmos-
phere exceeded the coefficient of scattering of a Rayleigh atmosphere
from 1.5 to 15 times. Thus, if the coefficient of scattering in the
ground layer obtained from the observation data is taken as 100%, then
aerosol scattering must be from 60 to 94%. Knowing the absolute scat-
tering function the intensity of scattering can be divided into two com-
ponents which are polarized in two mutually perpendicular directions.
(Some Results of Measuring the Indicatrix of Scattering and the Polariza-
tion )f Light in the Ground Layer of the Atmosphere," by T. P. Toropova;
Alma eta, Izvestiya Astrofizichoskogo Instituta, Akademiyd Nauk Kazakhkoy
SSR, Vol 9, 1960, pp 108-117)
Study on the Color of the Zenith Twil t_ S
The results of photoelectric observations of the energy distribu-
tion in the spectrum of the twilight sky at zenith are presented in an
article of a recent Soviet astrophysical journal. The observations were
conducted by N. B. Divari on the Kamensk plateau (43.2 N, 76.56 E, 1,450
meters above sea level) from 9 October to 1 November 1956. A photoelec-
tric photometer in combination with interference filters centered in the
following wave lengths 367, 369, 405, 437, 554, 580 and 593 milli-microns,
was used. It was found that the observed energy distribution in twilight
radiation is due to ozone absorption inthe Chappuis band.
A comparison of calculated values of brightness with those observed
shows that the intensity of observed twilight illumination in all wave
lengths of the visible spectrum is rather close to the intensity of first
order scattered radiation only in the interval from 00 to 6.50 of the set-
ting Sun. It greater depths of the Sun below the horizon the observed in-
tensities exceed the calculated intensities of first order scattering.
The color temperature for the 440-600 millimicron region of the spectrum
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changes in relation to the dip of the Sun below the horizon and has a
maximum value when the Sun is about 100 below the horizon. These changes
are almost absent in the blue part of the spectrum (370-440 millimioron).
The change in the color of the twilight sky are caused principally by the
440-600 millimioron region, i.e. the absorption in the chappuis band, and
the hieghts of the so-called effective twilight rays for various positions
of the Sun below the horizon and the different wave lengths. ("The
color of the Zenith Twilight Sky," by N. P. Divari; Alma Ata, Izvestya
Aetroficheskogo Instituta, Akademiya Naulc Kazakakoy SSR) Vol 9, 1960, pp
96-107)
Observations of Zodiacal Light by Soviet Expedition in Egypt
Observations of Zodiacal light were trade in Egypt in 1957 by an
expedition headed by Academician V. G. Fesenkov, Institute of Astrophysics,
Academy of Sciences Kazakh SSR, Visual observations on the polarity of
Zodical light wore conducted using a binocular photometer equipped with
two polaroid screens. Measurements were lade for every 60 degrees during
the counter-clockwise rotation of the screens. Tables given in the ar-
ticle present averaged data on the degree of polarization, the direction
of the vector of polarization, and different additional. values character-
izing the conditions of the appearance of Zodiacal light-the angular dis-
tance from the Sun of the point of the sky being observed and its altitude
over the horizon, the inclination of the ecliptic to the horizon and the
sinking of the Sun below the horizon.
It was found that the degree of polarization decreases with the
angular distance from the Sun. This is especially apparent in the case
of morning Zodiacal light. ("Polarization of Zodiacal Light according
to Observations in Egypt," by V. G. Fesenkov, Alma Ata, Izvistiya Astro-
fizicheskogo Instituta, Akademiya Nauk Kazakhskoy SSR, Vol 9, 1960, pp.
3-9).
Airglow Studies in the Visible Region of the Spectrum
The+ results of the spectrophotometric study of continuous and e-
mission spectrum of night airglow in the visible region, 4,100-6,500 An-
gstroms, made by Z. V. Karyagina and L. N. Tulenkova on the GAISH nebular
spectrograph located in the region of Bol'shoye Almatinskoye Ozero
(H 3,000 M), are given. The energy distribution of the night sky con-
tinueus spectrum and the intensity of the 5,577, 5,893, 6,300, 6,400 A
emission lines were determined using stars for which the energy distribu-
tion was known as standards. ("Spectrophotometric Study of the Continuous
and Snission Spectrum of the Night Sky in the Visible Region of the Spec-
trum," by Z. V. Karyagina and L. N. Tulenkova; Alma Ata, Izvestiya Astro-
fizicheskogo Instituta, Akademiya Nauk Kazakhskoy SSR) Vol 9, 1960, pp
86-95)
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Method of Dotairmining the Coefficient of Trane2aroric
A method of determining instantaneous values of the coefficient
of transparency according to Bouguers dependenco and the simultaneous
observation of a star near the polar region is proposed by A. V. Khari-
tonov in an article publiohod by the Kazakh Academy of Sciences. ("Pro-
blem of Dotorming the Night Coufficiont of Transparonoy," by A. V.
Kharitonov; alma Ata, Izvostiya Astrofizioheskogo Inatituta, Akademiya
Nauk Kazakhskoy SSR, Vol 9, 1960, pp 53-55)
Method of Reducing Observationa of Zodiacal Light
Academician V. G. Fesenkov, Institute of Astrophysics, Academy of
Sciences, Kazakh SSR, describes the method he employs for the reduction
of photometric observations of Zodical light, in one of the institute's
publications. The problem is resolved by finding the proper system of
iaophotes characterizing the pehenomenon of Zodiacal light as it would
be observed beyond the atmosphere and particularly the background pres-
ented by our Galaxy. (Method of Reducing Photometric Observations on
Zodical Light," by V. G. Fesonkov; Alma Ata, Izvestiya Astrofizicheskogo
Instituta) Akademiya Nauk Kazakhskoy SSR, Vol 9, 1960, pp 35-39)
Method of Determining the Radiants of Meteor Showers
A method making it possible to determine the radiants of meteor
showers is proposed by Ion Corvin Singorzan in an article published by
the Rumanian Academy of Sciences.
The method consists in the construction of a celestial map in a
stereographic projection with its central point in an approximate radiant.
On such maps, meteorites belonging to the appropriate meteor shower, will
be located approximately along meridians of the projection. Thus, it is
possible to indicate them in the form,of segments of straight lines. The
intersection of the straight lines will give the location of the radiant,,
For a more precise determination, a new map, having as a central point a
previously determined radiant, is constructed. The advantage of this
method lies in the method of stereographic projection (in contrast, for
example, to a gnomonic projection) which retains the angles and similarity
of the figures, whereupon the constellations plotted'on this projection
are not distorted. The article also contains an application of the metro d
for 41 Geminids meteors observed by direct visual means. Also included
in the article is a table giving the rectangular coordinates of 37 stars,
the use of which aided in constructing a map for observations of the Ge--
minids. ("Determination of the Radiants of Meteor Showers," by Ion Corvin
Singeorzan; Bucharest, Studii Si Cercetari de Astronomie Si Seismologie,
No 2, 1959, pp 407-413)
More Information on the Secret of the Tunguska Catastrophe
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Additional reports continue to emanate from the Soviet Union con-
cerning the intriguing mystery of the Tunguska meteorite of 1908. The CPYRGHT
following is the full text of a Prirod feature article:
More than 50 years have elapsed since a ay 61 .s 1"I UL Vono
Tunguska meteorite, and the problem of what happetad to the body of the
meteorite and of what elements it was composed, has still remained un-
solved. Until now, despite careful research, no one has succeeded in
finding even a single, even the most insignificant particle of matter
known to have been part of the meteorite.
In 1957 A. A. Yavnel', a member of the Committee on Meteorites of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, dircovered the presence of small par-
ticle* of ferronickel in soil samples that had been taken by L. A. Kulik
at the time of his research; the composition of these particles correspond
to the material typical of iron meteorites. It therefore appeared that
the problem of the composition of the Tunguska meteorite had finally been
solved.
Yavnel's data formed the basis for an expedition organized in the
summer of 1958 by the Committee on Meteorites. The purpose of the expe-
dition was the conduct of a metallometric survey in the region in which
the meteorite had fallen. However, in not and of the numerous soil samp-
les taken in the different sectors of that region did they succeed in
finding a single particle of ferronickel.
The results of the expedition of 1958 have shown that the Tunguska
meteorite was not of iron, but of.some other composition. In respect to
Yavnel's observations, we must take into consideration the fact that he
conducted his research in the same room where, over a period of years, a
general study was being made of numerous specimens of the Sikhota-Alin
iron meteorite, These specimens, subjected to mechanical processing,
yield%A a considerable amount of dustlike particles which probably could
have become mixed with the material studies by Yavnel' and distorted the
results of his research (at the present timethe Committee on Meteorites
is conducting additional research in order to clarify the true composi-
tion of the specimens that had been collected by L. A. Kulik). At the
time of the expedition in the summer of 1959 I and V. I. Petrov, a stu-
dent at the Irkustk Agricultural Institute, conducted a check on the re-
port of the biologist and hunter K. D. Yankovskiy that he had discivered
a stone block resembling a meteorite in 1929-1930 in the region of the
Central Basin. Unfortunately we did not succeed in finding this myster-
ious stone because during the 30 years that had elapsed Yankovskiy had
completely forgotten the precise location of the stone.
In addition to our small group, in the summer of 1959 three other
independent groups worked in the area in which the Tunguska meteorite had
fallen. Of the four groups working in 1959 in the region in which the
Tunguska meteorite had fallen, only one, made up of A. V. Zolotov and
I. G. Dyad'kin (they spent three days there), established that the trees
there had been subjected to radiation burning and they determined the
height of the nuclear explosion (5 km) from the character of the char-
ring of the trees.
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In respect to radioactivity, the group working under the direction
of engineer-doctor 0. F. Plekhanov of the Tomks Medical Institute discov-
ered high beta-radioactivity of the upper layers of the soil in the cen-
tral part of the basin. At the same time it should be noted that accor-
ding to observations made by the group headed by the engineer B. R. Smir-
nov, outcrops of the principal igneous rocks -- traprocks, ext'insively
developed in this region -- are characterized by a high level natural
radioactivity. Those igneous rocks form the amphitheater of low mountains
framing the basin.
Our observations completely disproved the idea of an instananeous
radiation burning. Everywhere in the region where the meteorite fell and
in the zone where the trees hid been knocked over, we observed clear
traces of a surface fire, as a result of which not only the trunks and
branches had been burned, but also the exposed roots of fallen trees.
The principal "witnesses", completely disproving the hypothesis of
a radiation fire as a result of a nuclear explosion, are the twin larches
discovered within the south swamp; because of their size they stand out
boldily among the other thinnly-scattered trees in the area. We have
out down one of these larches. A close study of the annual rings has
shown that it is 104 years old. The age of the other trees in the south
swamp does not exeed 25-30 years. The larches were situated in the epi-
center of the supposed "nuclear explosion", at a point where the highest
temperature would have occurred. These are healthy and completely nor-
mal trees without any traces of burning.
a surface fire raging in the region where the meteorite fell, des-
troying the vegetation within its range and charring branches, trunks,
and roots, could not reach these twin trees because they grew in an is-
ol~sted location far from the shore, in the middle of a wet swamp. The
presence of these trees refutes the theory that the south swamp was formed
as a result of the catastrophe occuring in this region in 1908. It is
probable that with a more detailed investigation of the south swamp we
will also find other living "witnesses" of the fall of the. Tunguska me-
teorite.
Partisans of the hypothesis of a nuclear explosion, rejecting the
theory of the falling of a meteorite, ask: "Well, where are the traces
of i*,? They have never been found!"
Is this true? L. A. Kulik has already point out numerous depres-
sions in the swampy sectors within the Great Basin. Their great number
and their prevailing form, often in the form of a perfect circle, were
so striking that Kulik had no doubt of their meteoric origin. He felt
that such a flat and funnel-shaped depression amidst extensive areas of
peat bogs must have been formed as a result of the falling of a mass of
meteoric matter corresponding to the size of the funnel.
Within one of them -- the Suslov funel -- he performed laborious
work. in t he form of draining and &i1ling and magnetometric and other re-
search, vainly trying to find a large mass of meteoric iron buried deep
in the funnel. This search was a failure and Kulik concluded that the
main mass of the huge iron meteorite must have fallen within the limits
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of the south swamp and lay there at depth, amidst ooze and silt.
(Priroda, No. U, 1959, Pp. 84-85) contains information on a discussion
of the Tunguska meteorite. Unfortunately, the information was in part
incorrect. In particular it indicated that meteoric debris should be
sought in front of the zone of destruction. The conferees V. N. Rodi-
onov and M. A. Tsikulin report that according to their hypothesis the
flying meteorite causes a shock wave and therefore the falling of me-
teoric debris, if this should survive, could occur only beyond the epi-
central zone in the direction of the meteorite's flight - Editor's
note.)
After it had boon established that these funnels were formed as a
result of the thawing of permafrost (thermokarst), no further interest
was shown in them and researchers no longer paid them heed, but, as it
turns, out, they were wrong in so doing. If we examine aerial photographs
of the area situated on the interfluve of the Chamba and Kimcha Rivers,
we then see that there are extensive swampy areas there -- peat bogs.
However, only in the region of the Great Basin, that is, in the area of
the presumed fall of the Tunguska meteorite, is there a widespread deve-
lopment of such thermokarst formations; in other sectiors they are en-
countered in only very limited numbers.
What is thermokarst funnel like. Where and under what conditions
is it formed?
it is known that thermokarst formations develop in areas of per-
mafrost, in sectors made up of an alluvial material of a sandy-silty com-
position, containing layers and lenses of ice. They are formed in places
where something has broken the layers of peat or moss that cover these
alluvial deposits and protect them from the influence of positive temper-
atures in the summer season. The destruction of this insulating cover
leads to a thawing of the ice-impregnated alluvial deposits, the collapse
of the side walls, and the gradual development of the thawing process. In
places where the thickness of the insulating layer is not great, the
agent needed for the formation of thermokarst may be the accidental
breaking of the peaty cover, for example, by the falling of an unrooted
tree.
In 1959 l determined the thickness of the peat cover within the
north swamp, the site of the most extensive development of these thermo-
karat formations. For the most part it exceeds 1.0 meters, sometimes
extending as deep as 2.0 meters. Only near the Suslov funnel, where
there has been a trampling of the peaty cover over an extensive period of
time by the participants of the Kulik expedition during their work there,
was the thickness of the cover as little as 0.8 meters.
Observations also show that the maxd.mum thawing of the peaty cov-
ering attains'a depth of 0.5-0.6 meter (at the end of August it ranges
between 0.4-0.5 meter). The root systems of the few trees growing within
these peat swamps also penetrate to this same depth.
Thus, the uprooting and the falling of trees could not break the
peaty cushion and lay bare the frozen material underneath, that is, it
could not cause the development of thermokarst. Neither could it be
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caused by fires in the taiga, since at a depth of 10 cm from the sur-
face t;ho peat mass is saturated with water like a sponge. How then can
we oxpalin ouch a wide development of th~srmokar3t formations in the very
limited area identified with the site at which the meteorite fell?
A natural oonclus.ton thrusts itself foroward -- the causative
factor in the mass development of thormokarst formation's in this part of
the region was the falling of numerous fragments of a meteorite which,
on breaking through the thick peat cushion, penetrated deeply, laying
bare the ice-impregnated silty alluvium. Thus, the wma]l meteorite frag-
ments, in the process of development of thermokarst, could cause the
development of a thermokerst fuel not corresponding to the size of the
fragment.
From this point of view it is completely clear about the tree
stump found in the Suslov funnel that caused such confusion among the
participants of the expedition of 1929-1i30. Kulik'intuitively sensed
a connection between those funnel-like depressions and the fall of
meteoric masses. However, he regarded this phenomenon in a lifeless
and static form; he felt that the size of the funnel should correspond
to the mass of the meteorite causing it, which, in his opinion, was of
iron.
The problem of the Tunguska meteorite is complex and if it is to
be solved it requires painstaking work by different specialists directly
in the field. The 1959 excursion by individual independent groups into
the region in which the Tunguska meteorite had fallen can lead to imita-
tion. It is sufficient that a forest fire develop in the area of the
Kulik base (a probability with the influx of unorganized visitors) to
completely eliminate the traces of this exceptional?phenomenon that in
many respects has still remained unstudied.
It is necessary that the Committee on Meteorites undertake the
organization of a complex expedition for the all-around and detailed
study of the circumstances of the fall of the Tunguska meteorite, be-
cause its traces each year become less and less clear.
6ecret of the Tunguska Catastrophe, the Fall of a Meteorite or a Nuclear
Explosion?", by B. I, Vronskiy, Prioda, No. 3, March 1960, pp 88-91) L-,.-
"Lunar Motion" -- A Full Translation from "Priroda"
Two heavenly bodies -- the Sun and Moon -- due to their brightness
and apparent size, have the greatest importance in the life of Man and are
the most important objects for observations by astronomers.
In order to study the -motion of the Moon, it is necessary to know
the laws of motion of the planets around the Sun. For the most part they
are determined by attraction to the Sun, whose mass is many times greater
than the mass of the individual planets, such as the Earth, which is ex-
coeds by 330,000 times. The mutual attraction of the planets, however,
only distorts the simple elliptical motion. All this can also be said
of the motion of the Moon around the Earth; the Sun, however, plays the
role of a perturbing body (changing the form and position of the orbit in
the motion of the Moon). Since the Sun possesses a huge mass, the per-,
turbations which it causes are very great.
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The problem of two bodies. In order to more clearly represent
the main eharaoterietils of the Moon's motion, we first examine the so-
called problem of two bodies applicable to the system Earth-Moon, that
is, we examine the motion in the absence of perturbing bodies. Newton
demonstrated that in this case the motion of body -B (Moon) relative to
body A(Earth), will occur along an elliptical route (Figure 1), one of
whose foci coincides with body A. The larger axis of the ellipse, its
compression and position in space, will remain unchanged during the course
of the entire motion. The speed of motion along the elliptical route
changes periodically in such a way that the areas desori.bed by the
straight line connecting points A and B are equal to one another at
equal times. This is Kepler's first two laws of planetary motion, de-
rived by him from observational data. They are the mathematical conse-
quence of Newton's formula expressing the law of universal gravitation.
The Moon's elliptical orbit is determined, by three values: the
larger semi-axis of the ellipse, eccentricity and the longitude of the
perigee. (Eccentricity a is the name given to the ratio of the distance
between the center of the ellipse and the focus to half the length of
the large axis a; for the Moon a u 384,395 km; e o 0.0549. Thelongi-
tude of the perigee is the angle between the direction from the center
of the Earth to the perigee and the selected initial direction.) In the
absence of perturbations these values rcmain constant and are called the
elements of the orbit. Their value depends on the initial conditions of
the motion. In order to compute the position of the Moon in the ellipse
for a given moment, determinedby the angle BAP, there should also be,
known the longitude of the moon at the initial moment and the'perial of
its full revolution, that is, the length of a month. To determine the
position of the Moon in the heavens we should also have the position of
the plane of the orbit in space. It is given relative to the plane of
the Earth's orbit, that is, the plane of the ecliptic. In the celestial
sphere the ecliptic is given as a great circle, along which there occurs
the apparent annual motion of the Sun. In Figure 2, let AA' represent
the great circle, that is, the ecliptic. The great circle BB' corres-
ponds to the plane in which-the Moon's orbit is situated. These planes
intersect along the line CN, if 0 is the common center of the Earth and
the celestial sphere. We then select some initial direction OE in the
plane of the ecliptic. Then the position of the plane of the Moon's or-
bit is completely determined by the angle EON between the initial direc-
tion OE and the line of the nodes ON and the angle of inclination of the
plane of the 'Moon's orbit to the plane of the ecliptic. (The nodes of the
Moon's orbit are points of intersection of the orbit and the ecliptic.
The mean inclination of the Moon's orbit to the ecliptic is 508'43".)
These two angles together with the four earlier named elements conditute
the six elements which are constant in the problem of two bodies. They
enable us to compute the corrdinates of the Moon for any given moment of
time from, not very complex forumulas for the elliptical motion.
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Influence of the Sun. However, the motion of the Moon is actually
distinguished by extraordinary complexity due to great perturbations from
the Sun. The problem of developing a theory of the motion of the Moon,
based on the law of universal gravitation, attracted the attention of the
greatodt mathematicians, such as Lagrange. All the elements of the el-
liptical motion change under the influence of these perturbations; some,
such as eccentricity and the larger semiaxis of the orbit, only in nar-
row limits, whereas others -- the longitude of the node and the longi-
tude of the perigee --- have secular inequalities, that is, they constant-
ly increase or decrease. Thus, the line of the nodes moves in the plane
of the ecliptic in a direction opposite that of the Moon's motion and
makes a full turn in 18.6 years; the larger axis of the ellipse constantly
rotates in the direction of the Moon's motion and makes a full turn in
8.85 years. Both these motions are irregular, since small periodic
variations are superimposed on them. Besides the perturbations caused
by the Sun there are numerous perturbations caused by the attraction of
the planets. The direct influence of the planets on the Moon is insigni-
ficant, but the planets perturb the motion of the Earth and this in in-
directly reflected on the motion of the Moon. In, particular, the eccen-
tricity of the Earth's orbit slowly decreases over the millennia and this
results in a decrease in the period of revolution of the Moon and, as a
consequence, the so-called acceleration of the Moon.
Brown's tables. The precise computation of the Moon's motion is
the most difficult problem in celestial mechanics. The best modern ta-
bles for the motion of the Moon have been compiled by Brown. They fill
three large-format volumes. These tables were compiled on the basis of
a theory in which the longitude of the Moon is expressed in the form of
the sum of periodic terms. The Moon's coordinates are computed by using
Brown's tables; these are given in astronomical yearbooks for each hour
of the year for several years in Advance.
Do such carefully computed tables of the motion of the Moon agree
with observations, which have now attained a high degree of perfection?
The use of photography for the determination of the corrdinates of the
Moon enables 'as to measure then with an accuracy up to 0.1"-0.2"; in the
Moon's orbit this corresponds to 360 m. Small deviations between obser-
vations and the tables have been discovered; the problem in question is
interesting from two points of view.
Firstly, the Moon is a wondrous object, enabling us to solve the
problem of the accuracy of the Newtonian law of universal gravitation.
In actuality, the slightest error in the Newtonian law would be discov-
ered due to the Moon's closeness to the Earth and the rapidity of its
motion. Attempts have been made in this direction to slightly refine
Newton's law in order that there be greater agreement between theory and
observations, but these attempts have been unsuccessful. No one any
longer believes that from the position of classical mechanics any change
in Newton's law is required. In this respect the theory of the Moon's
motion served as a key test of'the accuracy of the Newtonian formula for
universal gravitation.
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Secondly, during the last half.-century of lunar obocrvatlone
there lave been noted small deviations of lunar longitude from that
shown the tables. It has become cleat that these deviations in the
longs a of the Moon are not the result (~X any errors in theory, but
and d to irregularities in the diurnal rotation of the Earth. For
sever reasons the angular velocity of the Earth's rotation experiences
ohang s, and as a result the length of day also changes. Detailed in-
vest.3. Lions of this phenomenon have shown that this irregularity in the
rotat n of the Earth consists of three ,parts: of the secular decelera-
tion f the Earth, manifested In the so-called acceleration of the Moon
(in a tion to the acceleration mentioned before); of erratic change in
the v ocity of rotation of the Earth, sometimes having an intermittent
chars or; of recently discovered seasonal changes in velocity with a
perio of one year.
As is well known, astronomical clocks are checked by observations
of th diurnal rotation of the heavens; this means,, in essence) that
they a .omparod with the rotation of the Earth. Since the latter is
irre ar;, the computation of time suffers from the same inadequacy.
As a esult, astronomers have ascribed an incorrect moment of time to
a giv observation of the Moon; this has led to an erroneous conclu-
sion out th' inaccuracy of lunar tehles~ This, the theory of the Moon
and t lunar tables compiled on the oasis; of this theory, are extremely
perfe , but the reckoning of time, based on the Earths rotations is
inexa
The reason for the irregularity of the rotational motion of the
Earth should be soughtin geological prc.esses taking place in the hard
crust of the Earth or even in the Earth's core. Seasonal movements of
air sses may be of si grtricance. Here the science of astronomy is
conti sous with geology. iAinar observations- and the drawing up of ta-
bles f 1?uiar motion have led, as we can see,, to the discovery of a new
pheno enon of geophysical character.
Rotation of the Moon on its axis. Up to this point we have spoken
oft motion of the Moon around the Eartu, that is, about its orbital
moti But the Moon also has a rotational motion around its axis. It
is g orally known that the period of this rotation is equal ual to the per-
iod o revolution of the Moon around the Earth -- 27.321661 days. Both
then Lions are made in the same direction; as a- result the same face
of t Moon is always turned towards-the earth. Judging, by several de-
scri ions that have come down to us, so it was in deep antiquity. It
has ben difficult to imagine when and in what manner Man would be able
to le what is located on the unseen side of the Moon. The daring ideas
of K. . Tsiolkovskiy about interplanetary flights indicated that it'was
ease ias.11 possible? but how great is the gap between "essentially pos-
sible and actual accomplishment:
dur a period of 40 minutes from the space laboratory launched in the
Sovi Union. Seas, mountains; and craters were discovered and have been
name (see Prioda, 19599 No 119 pp 3-15).
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The rotation of the Moon around its uad.o differs only insignificantly from
oven rotation, but the notion in its elliptical orbit in accomplinhod, as
we have seen, with a variable velocity -- the velocity is groatoot at the
perigee, and least at the apogee. An a result, tho arrangoinent of spots
on the Moon's face, visible even with the naked eye, changes somewhat dur-
ing the courou of a month in relation to the edges of the Moon. In Figure
3, whore the eccentricity of the ellipse is highly exaggerated for the
sake of clarity, the positions of the Moon are shown at equal intervals
of four montho. Since the Moon rotates at an oven rato, the radius Oa
associated with it turns 900 every time during those intervals and assumes
the positions Oal, Oat, Oa , and Oa ; those are mutually perpendicular.
The center of the Moon's disk, obsoivod from the Earth T, coincides with
the points al, b2, h1, and b4 on the surface of the Moon. For this reason
it will seem to the bboorver that the Moon's aphoro turns at some angle
during the course of the month, as if making pandulumliko oscillations,
alternately eastward and westward. This phenomenon is called optical
liberation in longitude. Its maximum value is 70451.
In addition to longitudinal Liberation, there uls a latitudinal
liberation but its cause is completely different. The axis of the Moon's
rotation is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic so that the lunar equa-
tor forms an anglo of 1032' with this plane, while the plane of the lunar
orbit is inclined 509' to the plane of the ecliptic. As a result, in
the course of a month first the northern and then the southern pole of
the Moan appears on the visible side of the Moon and the spots on its
disk apparently shift first to the south, then to the North, Such a
phenomenon is called latitudinal liberation. Its extreme values are
.f 60411.
Evorything that has boon said is on the assumption that observa-
tions are conducted, as it were, from the Center of the Earth. For ob-
servers situated at different points on the Earth's surface, the Moon
is observed at several different angles; this causes a phenomenon called
parallactic libration.
All three forms of libration, acting Jointly, serve as a reason
for the center of the visible disk of the Moon to move across the Moon's
surface in the limits of a small circle with an angular radius of about
100 and explain why we can see a total of up to 60% of the Moon's sur-
face.
In conclusion, we note that the Earth, together with its satellite,
the Moon, is in some sense an exceptional phenomenon in the solar system:
many planets have satellites, but their size is alwys very small in com-
parison with the corresponding planet. The diameter of our moon, however,
is one-quarter that of the Earth. We could oven speak of a double planet
in our case. In the course of a month the Earth and the Moon rotate around
a comunon center of gravity; the Earth describes an orbit similar to that
of the moon, but it is 81 times smaller in size -- such is the ratio of
the mass of the Earth to the mass of the Moon. Such motion by the Earth
is reflected in the apparent position of the planets of the solar system
closest to it. By knowing the radius and mass of the Moon, we can compute
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what velocity we must impart to a spaco ship in order to launch it from
the Moon's surface for an orplanotary journey. We find that the
"second cosmic velocity" fo the Moon is a total of 2.4 km/soc.
The problem of the m ion of the Moon hac boon gully developed
and perfected in our time; natinfien all ctical requirements of the
anignoo of not vi ation. ("Lunar Motion", by Professor A. A. a ov n
Prioda, No. 3, March 1960, pp 47-50) /
III OCEAN0Q APHX
Review of Book on Undersea Research.
The book Pokorenie C1ubi n (Conquest of the Depths) by M. N.
Diomidov and A. 9;7 ~miitriyev, is reviewed, by L. Chernous'ko engineer-
Tekhnika Molidezhi.
captain in the March i:isuo of
The means of conducting underwater research, diving bells and
chambers, diving suits, aqualungo, bathsphores, hydrostats, bathysoafs,
and television and photographic apparatus, are considered in detail.
Operations with the Soviet CKS-6 hydrostat, which is designed
for work at depths down to 400 motors are described. Since the publi-
cation the book the GKS-6 has been replaced by the hydrostat produced
by the State Institute for the Planning of the Fishing Fleet.
The book has its shortcomings, says Chernous'ko, one of these is
the brief treatment given the scientific operations conducted by the
"Soveryanka," the world's first research submarine. However, he con-
siders that it is well written as a whole and can be recommended for a
wide group of readers. ("Path to the Sea Depths," Book review by L.
Chernous'ko; Moscow, Tekhnika Molodezhi, No 3, March 1960, p 39).
IV SEISMOLOGY
Stereo aphic Projection of European Seismic Stations Centered on
Vrancea
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R sin _ sin Values of S 'n cosQD~ cos d and p = cos cost
that is th atereographic projection of circle with a. radius Q around
a station t depending on the argument L, are calculated for 20 Euro-
pean seismic stations in an article appearing in a Rumanian scientific
publication. From the viewpoint'of a stbreographic projection, the au-
thor considers a point diametrically opposite a point 0 with the coor-
dinates 45.8 N and 26.5 E which corresponds to the mean value at the
Vrancea epicenter. ("Stereographic Pnjection of European Seismic Stations
with its Center in the Epicenter at Vrancea," by A. Serian; Budapest,
Studii Si Cercetari de Astronomie Si Seismologie, No 2, 1959, pp 435-445)
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Eruption of Mud Volcano on Sakhalin
The eruption of a mud volcano which occurred on 20 March 1959 on
the island of Sakhalin is datedbed in the Soviot scientific periodical
Sovetskaya l]eologiya, No 2, 1960. The mud cone in located in the vici-
nity of the city of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk some 23 kilomotors from the
Yuzhno-Sakhalinok--Kholmok railroad.
According to eyewitnesses, poworf!tl explosions throw mud mixed
with gasoa as high as 120 motors. Those explosions v,oro recorded by the
seismic station of t ho Sakhalin Complex Scientific Itoooaroh Institute
(9akhKNII) during the first 11 minutes. Thereafter, the intensity of the
eruption abated though the volcano continued its activity.
The total volume of ejected mud, consisting mainly of diluted and
later of dehydrated agrillites, covered an area of about 6 hectares and
in volume equalled about 200,000 cubic motors. In samples of the mud
taken by aeoociates of SakhKNII, metaboria acid and iodine were detected
In the gasoous products of the eruption, methane, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrigen and rare elements were noted. ("Eruption of Mud Vol-
cano on Sakhalin," by L. F. Kratkovskiy; Moscow, Sovetskaya Geologiya,
No 2, February 1960, pp 145-146).
Report on the Glaciers of Novaya Zemlya
The following is the full text of an article in the March 1960 is-
sue of Priroda. The author, N. M. Svatkov, Candidate in Geographical Sci-
ences, was a participant on the Novaya Zemlya Glaciological Expedition
of the Institute of Geography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
The largest ice sheet in the Soviet Union is situated on the nor-
thern island of Novaya Zemlya; its area is about 19,000 square kilometers
The size, composition, structure and conditions of preservation of this
mass of continental ice has long been of in.erest to scientists. The
glaciers of Novaya Zemlya were first investigated by V. A. Rusanov in
1907. A year later, with Rusanov participating, a group of scientists
of the French Polar Expedition, headed by Charles Venaire, first crossed
the ice sheet at 740 N. V. A. Rusanov was the only one to make the diffi-
cult trek to the Kara side and back. The glaciation of the northern
island was studied by participants of the G. Ya.'Sedov expedition and by
0. Holtedahl of the Norwegian expedition in 1921. The information col-
lected by these expeditigns, together with cartographic data for the
coasts, laid the necessary basis for a detailed study of the ice sheet of
Novaya Zemlya during the Second International Polar Year (1932-1933). A
special glaciological expedition headed by M. M. Yermolayev investigated
the Shokal'skiy glacier in Russkaya Gavan' (Russian Harbor) and the area
feeding the glacier. In addition to meteorological observations at the
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,laoiologisto made many excursions over the ico,
face of the glacier, the p
including uoveral crountngs of the island with dogs and aeroolodgon, and
u trip to Copo Zholaniye. The meteorological station established by this
c.xpoditior, conttiuea to oboorvations to the present day.
The work at.eompliahod by the oxl,edition and subsequent obaerva-
tirns at the polar station of Russkaya Gavan' have established that the
Sho!:al'siky glacier is a short (5 km long), broad (somewhat more than 3
km wide) northwostward curving glacial current, extraordinarily dissected
by the large crovasu*s. The flow is formed from the ice of an extensive
field sit'.u d to tlt'r north of the escarpment of the Somnoniye Barrier
where the glacier s'.rrfa:e abruptly drops down from 430 to 320 m. Seismic
observations mad', by K. Vel'kon revealed a nubglacial terrace here with
an elevation of about 350 m, whose foot is situated below sea level. On
the Somneniya Barrier the glacier surraco is cut by gigantic crevases,
hundreds of metorr, long, with depths of several score meters, and some-
times with a similar width. Above the Somnentye Barrier the surface of
the ice sheet it3elf rioo3 gently; 35 km to the south of the face, in a
weakly expressed depros4ion between two cupolas (880 m on the west and
900 m on the east)., it, attains maximum elevations of 776 m. The ice di-
vide of the ice orneet ins di3place d some what to the eastern (southern)
shore of Novaya Zemlya.
Windv exercise an enormous influence on the formation of the
strata of continental ice on Novaya Zemlya. In the vicinity of the
polar station at. Russkaya Gavan' they sometimes attain hurricareforce
(especially in winter, when the born is blowing), and they transport
large quantltiea of sacw. Southerly (winter) and westerly (summer) winds
predominate; with a mean annual velocity of 6.5 m`sec. However, a complete
calm often o^wcurs. After finding solid blue glacial ice on the surface
of the sheet in the area of the ice divide, M. M. Yermolayev came to the
cor..c"usion that extraordinarily strong winds blow all the snow into the
sea and that normal feeding of the glacier does not occur.
Despite the extremely high latitudes, the mean annual air tempera-
ture (4.20) in the region of Russkaya Gavan' is considerably higher, due
to the Barents Sea, than at these same latitudes in the Soberian or
eastern sectors of the Soviet Arctic. The mean annual January tempera-
ture drops from -17.4? at Russkaya Gavan' to -20.4? in Blagopoluchiye
Gulf, situated only 70 km away I In the warm season of the year the mean
monthly temperature does not rise above 3.90 (July) and is above 00 for
a period of four months; on the other hand, frosts are possible on any
given day and thaws may occur at any time in winter.
Frequent fogs and low, dense cloudiness, especially in the summer
months, bring a great deal of moisture to the glacier. Supposedly the to-,
tal annual precipitation is 400 mm; but in actuality the measured pro-
cipitation is approximately 160 mm.
In the region of Russkaya Gavan' there are ice-free sectors of
rocky coastal p1da with elevations less than 100 m above sea levels, boun-
ded on the south by mountains.
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In those soctorn, in depressions between cracked polygons and under
the protection of largo rock fragments, there are individual specimens of
oaxifra,go, whitlow grass, polar poppy, dryadacoao, creeping willows, no-
vnral other kinds of floworing planto, and the mosses and lichens typical
of the Arctic deserts. The latter are the only inhabitants of the "nuna-
take", ice-free eminences rising above the ice fields.
'rho animal life at Russkaya Cavan' is meager. Polar foxes and
polar boards may be aeon from time to time. On the cliffs along the
coast there are groups of guillemots of several typos (kayra and chis-
tik) and sea gulls, while the noots of eiders and atilt-birds (kulik)
are found at the lakes. Seals and walruses enter the waters of the gulf
-- in the past they were very numerous. Gudgeons (golets) live in the
lakes.
Now investigations of a varied character were made of the Shokal'-
ekiy glacier and its feeding area during 1957-1959, in accordance with
the program of the International Geophysical Year. The Institute of
Geography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR organized a Novaya Zem-
lya glaciological expedition consisting of 17 men. They arrived at
Russkaya Gavan' on 16 July 1957 aboard the steamship "Meta". For a
base they reequippod the buildings of the former factory in Volod'kin
Bay. At the time of a detailed reconnaissance of the region of the
forthcoming research the sledge-tractor train did not reach the ice
divide of the ice sheet until its third trip -- on 25 August 1957. It
became clear that the glacier now has a region of normal firn feeding at
elevations greater than 570 m and is broken by crevasses right up to the
ice divide. The li-meter thick snow bridges that cross these crevasses
often will not support the weight of an ,,-80 tractor. However, the main
impediment to movement across the ice sheet at elevations greater than
400 m is the extremely limited visibility due to the frequent occurrence
here of a dense and persistent cover of stratus clouds (when there are
weak winds) or snow storms.
Repeated trips across the glacier at different seasons of the
year have enabled us to refine our knowledge to the surface structure of
the glacier between the Somneniye Barrier and the ice divide. It has
been found that between these two features there are two sharp breaks in
the glacier surface, at distances of 7 to 8 km and 14 to 15 km in a
straight line from the Somneniye Barrier; at these two points the eleva-
tion changes from 500-520 m to 570 m and from 670-m to 710-720 m respec-
tively. The first of~these changes is very clearly expressed inthe area
in the form of a huge, steep semicircular escarpment; it was named the
Yablonskiy Barrier in honor of a participant on the expedition who suf-
fered a tragic death. On the west this ledge joins a north-south ridge
that is concealed beneath the ice; it evidently connects the Yablonskiy
Barrier and the Bastion Mountains. On thn east it connects a low ridge
to the TaACI Mountains (Central Aero-Hydrodynamical Institute Mountains).
The Yablonskiy Barrier (local relief -- from 50 to 70-80 meters) joins
on the south with a broad ice-filled basin. The surface of the glacier
between the name barriers is a ridge with a predominantly north-south
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orientation, The ice"co'-erod slopes of the ridge are broken by orevanseo
similar to those of the Somneniyo Barrier and the ice in the trough be-
tween the TAAGt Mot n.tA:t.nn and the first ridge parallel to it. The troughs
between the other ridges have few crevasses; thin is duo to the extremely
donee network of channels intrenohod by molt wd6er that drain into "Wells"
in the glacier. In the oouthweot, the part of the basin at the foot of
the Yabloriek:Ly Barrier is free of ice, forming a singular moraine-covered
"oaeta" ea?rural square kilometers in area. 0. A. Yablonskty has even re-
ported outcrcp:+ of basement rock. The snow line of the ire sheet passes
along the brow of the Yablcnskiy Barrier at an elevation of 570 m; it se-
parates the region with a permanent snow cover and the region which is
snow-free in the eummor.
The second cloar rise in the surface of the glacier is considerably
gentler than the Yablonskiy Range, but it is also dissected by crevasses
which are completely hidden by the snow.
All three sharp breaks in the glacier surface are approximately
parallel and it must be assumed that they are caused by identical factors
-- major irregularities in the form of ridges in the subglaoial relief.
The Novaya Zemlya Glaciological Expedition of the IGY built two
stations on the 61aeier for the accomplishment of its planned program of
research; in the source region of'the glacier at an elevation of 776
meters at 75052' N., and 62044' E. - the station Ledorazdol'naya (Ice
Divide) and in the region of glacial thawing, at an elevation of 294
meters, at 76,'072 N. and 62039' E. -,? the station Somneniye Barrier. At
each of these stations there is a meteorological installation with instru-
ments for artinometria observations, a thermometric bore hole for the
measurement of temperatures in the 15-30 meter stratwn of the glacier,
and an excavated pit for the removal of ice samples. In the summer of
195S a special laboratory was built at Ledorazdel'naya station for the
study of the structure and physical-mechanical properties of snow and ice.
Two or three scientific workers were constantly at each station, conduc-
ting daily obser-rations at 4-hour intervals.
Calibrated rods were placed between the stations for measurement
of the ice increment and loss over the entire surface of t hat part of the
ice sheet feeding the Shokai'skiy Glacier. The rods were read periodi-?
rally. Details of the surface structure of the glacier, the speed of
movement of the ice, the variations in the thawing of the snow and ice
and discharge of water into the rivulets on the glacier surface were de-
termined during exploratory traverses on the surface.
New facts were discovered in respect to the Novaya Zemlya glacier
and the :onditions under which it exists. It was discovered that there
is normal snow feeding of the glacier on the ice sheet at elevations
greater than 570 meters. The thickness of the annual snow increment in-
creases rapidly as the ice divide is approached; at the ice divide a 25-
meter deep test pit revealed a 16-meter thickness of fire with interstra-
tified milky-whits and bubly ice. It is interesting to note that whereas
during the 1957-1958 cycle the annual increase in firs was 20 cm (90.3
mm of water), in 1958-1959 not only did the annual supply of precipitation
melt', but so did the increase that had occurred during the preceding cycle.
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Instrtunental measurements at the face of the glacier revealed that
the ice -novoc irregularly -- in winter somewhat more slowly than in spring
and oumnor. Changes in the spend are extremely sharp not only in the
course of a week, but oven the course of a day. The moan daily movement
of the loo is 27-30 cm and may be as much as 90 cm; sometimes the direc-
tion of movement changes in the reverse direction, that i,s, the glacier
can retreat without a docrouso in its mass. Thus, during the year the
face of the glacier should move 100-110 m into the sea. In reality, how-
ever, the face retreats -- less ice is brought down than the sea can des-
troy. The goodotio observations made by V. S. Koryakin for determination
of the speed of movement of the ice at the Somneniyo Barrier have still
not been completely processed, but it is anticipated thatthe movement
here is close to 70-80 meters per year.
The temperature of the glacier is of great interest. At the
station Lodorazdol'naya moist horizons were discovered at depths of 8
and 18 motors during the drilling of a bore hole in November 1957. A
temperature of 00 was maintained at a depth of 8 meters until February
and to 15 meters -- until May; later it dropped to several d ozen de-
grees below zero. At the station Somneniyo Barrier Stable negative
temperatures of the deep parts of the Novaya Zemlya glacier is the winter
(February-March) discharge of melt water into the marginal valleys of
the Chayev and Shokal'skiy Glaciers. Other evidence of the influx of
heat from the Earth's crust into the bottom horizons of the glacier is
the heating of masses of water in the 10-20 meter deep lakes on the
Shmidt Peninsula; this phenomenon was discivered by 0. p. Chizov.
Thus, despi;;o the permanently frozen state of the uppermost layers
of the lithosphere, whose temperatures are observed systematically, and
the low mean annual temperature, there is no reason to expect the pene-
tration of permafrost to great depths, at least on the wes:orn coast of
Novaya Zemlya.
It is interesting to compare the air temperature at the surface of
the glacier at its different points. It appears that the moan monthly
temperature in winter at the Somneniye Barrier is 3-4? lower and at the
ice divide is 6-8? lower than at the ice face. Thawing lags by approxi-
mately 3 and 5 weeks respectively and ceases 1 to 3 weeks earlier.
As the height of the surface of the glacier increases the amount
and intensity of the precipitation increases; higher up the role of rime
is extremely important in the feeding of the glacier. Thus, during the
last five clear days in December 1957 4.9 mm of precipitation fell in the
form of rime at Ledorazdel'naya station, whereas there was no such preci-
pitation at the Somneniye Barrier or at the face of the glacier. Preci-
pitation falls predominantly when there are westerly winds.
Due to the abundant snowfall of winter and spring, the thickness
of the snow cover in the middle of June reaches 130-170 cm in the feeding
region, while between the barriers it measures more than a meter; never-
theless, below the Somneniye Barrier the depth of the snow cover on the
greater part of the glacier surface is 8-20 cm, while part of it (---30%)
is generally free of snow. At the glacier face it is only found in thin
spots, but it fills the crevasses to the south of the Yermolayev Mountains.
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This irregul r distribution of snow is due to strong southerly
and southeasterly d wnelopo winds.
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lonekiy discovered hatthe snow migrates ohiefly along the ice divide,
of minow trAngipnrtnd in opponite directions ia ap] -
while the quantitie
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prox3imtely equal. ("The Glaciers of Novaya Zemlya", by N. M. Svatkov,
Prioroda, No. 3, March 1960, pp 96-100)
Veterans of the Fourth Antarctic F.xeedition Awarded Made-' 9
Workers of the Anarotic Aviation Detachment of the Administration
of Polar Aviation of the Civil Air Fleet, who participated in the Fourth
Complex Anarctic Expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, were
received a day or two ago by the Deputy Chief of the Main Administration
of the Civil Air Fleet, Lt. Gen. of Aviation G. S. Sohetchikov.
The Chief of the Complex Expedition, A. G. Dralkin, told about the
problems of the expedition and the conditions under which its participants
had to work. He extended great praiso to the activities of the fliers,
navigators and engineering and technical workers of the aviation detach-
ment.
The Commander of the Antarctic Aviation Detachment of the Adminis-
tration of Polar Aviation of the Civil Air Fleet, B. S. Osipov, reported
that the crews of the aviation detachment flewl,650 hours and transported
250 tons of freight and many expeditionary personnel during the course of
the expedition. They provided the supplies and insured the normal oper-
ation of the scientific stations and sledge-tractor stations deep in the
interior; they also rendered assistance to foreigh scientific expeditions.
An air route was blazed to the new scientific station "Lazarev".
Because of their selfless work and the successful accomplishment
of their responsible missions, the Chief of the Main Administration of the
Civil Air Fleet ordered that 15 fliers, navigators and engineering and
technical workers be awarded the medal "Outstanding Worker of the Air
Fleet" and that six men be awarded the diploma of the Air Fleet.
The following were awarded the medal "Outstanding Worker of the
Air Fleet": A. G. Dralkin, Chief of the expedition, B. s. Osipov, Com-
mander of the Anarctic Aviation Detachment, R. V. Robinson, detachment
navigator, and others. (" For Work in Anarctica", by S. Yeremin, Sovet-
skaya Aviatsiya, 10 April 1960, p. 4) "Priroda" Reviews Treshnikov's Book
"Locked in the Ice"
The following is a partial text of a Priroda Review of a book by
A. F. Treshnikov, Chief of the Second Soviet Antarctic Expedition. The
reviewer is P. A. Gordiyenko, Candidate in Geographical Sciences:
The citizens of the Soviet Union are interested in polar countries
and polar research because one-third of our country is situated above the
Arctic Circle. Publishing houses should bear this in mind when planning
the production of books and other publications.
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The moot typical features of Soviet "polar" literature are clearly
embodied in a book by A. F. Treshnikov -- "Locked in the Ice". In this
book the author accurately and graphically describes the southern oontin-
ant, Antarctica. Treshnikov spent 14 months thorn, from the end of the
south polar spring of 1956 to the end of swmuner in 1958, serving as Chief
of the Second Soviet Antarctic Expedition. Although A. F. Treshnikov is
not a prufnnsional writer, his book can be road with absorbing interest.
Perhaps the animation and occasional pasuion of the book's language is
due to the fact that it was written at the time of the described events,
keenly experienced by both the author and his friends. A. F. Troshnikov
prepared his book for the press on the way back from Mirnyy to the Mother-
land, while crossing the ocean aboard the "Kooperatsiya".
A. F. Treshnikov is a new polar specialist of the Soviet school.
He is one of those scientific workers who visualize the main purpose of
their investigations to be the collection of such data as society actually
needs for its practical activity. An oceanographer by education, he de-
voted about 15 years to the study of polar seas and the Arctic Ocean.
An experienced polar worker and a great scholar, A. F. Treshnikov was the
head of a responsible and complex expedition to the Antarctic. Two hun-
dred ninety polar specialists participated in this expedition -- scien-
tific workers of all specialities, airmen, mechanics, radiomen, buillers,
cooks and doctors.
Based on the observatory of Mirnyy and the auxiliary stations of
Pionerskaya and Oasis, the job of the expedition was the opening of new
high-latitude stations deep in the interior on the ice sheet by the be-
ginning of the International Geophysical Year.
At the time of the allotment of the area of Anarctica for study
during the period of the International Geophysical Year our country was
assigned the most severe and inaccessible regions. But difficulties
did not stop our researchers, and in 1957-1958 the following new stations
were opened and began to operate: Komaomol'skaya, Vostok-I, Vostok, and
Sovetskaya.
The book tells colorfully and forcefully about the titanic efforts
of the men on the sledge-tractor train trek to the south pole of relative
inaccessability, about the daring flights of the airmen who supplied the
train with fuel and made reconnaissance flights over the area, about the
treacherous crevasses into which the tractors fell, and about the winds B
hurricane force that knocked the men from their feet. The chief of the
expedition, the author of the book "Locked in the Ice," personally par-
ticipated in all of the first flights and surface traverses.
Simultaneously with the construction of the new stations and the
organization of scientific work at them, an extensive complex of research
unfolded. based on the observatory at Mirnyy. On reading the chapters cf
the book describing this work you are highly impressed with the power at
the disposal of a team of workers if it is welded by a deep spirit of
friendship and a single purpose of mind.
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Respect,, and, I would say, a fatherly feeling, colors the author's
words when he speaks of individual fellow workers at Mirnyy. sometimes
this can be seen through the prism of the warm humor with which he do-
scribes the conduct and actions of the "citizeias of Mirnyy". Spmetimes
this is outright admiration and sometimes a sparing and terse but human
and i..formal evaluation of the actions of the men. That is the manner in
which he describes the austere farewell scene of the men at the station
of Mirnyy and the naval expedition aboard the diesel-electric motorer.'p
"Lena" and those comrades who had perished during a cave-in of the ice
barrier on 3 February 1957?
The Antarctio continent and the waters surrounding it is a severe
but delightful area, in the beauty of its natural attributes full of ma-
jesty and bewitching forms. I do not know a single polar specialist, e-
ven among the most dedicated to the study of the Arctic, who would not be
delighted with the might of the icebergs and the unusual combination of
colors of the ice, bky,and sea. The new and abundant animal life among
the shores of the Antarctic continent, unknown and amazing in its beauty,
and the unusualipes of the contours of the mountain ranges within the
continent, ar? highly attractive to exploring geographers, t'ne romance
of the unknown and of discovery breathes from-A. Treshnikov's book and
this is what lends it its absorbing character, easily sensed during the
reading.
The author tells about the extensive international contacts of
Soviet polar specialists, about their meetings, and about, the authority
which Soviet science enjoys abroad.
But the most interesting part of the book is 'the stories he tells
about Soviet people in Anta_rctica$ about their courage in the struggle
with the wind and cold and fire. (Xes, with fire I They had to cope with
it at the time of the conflagration that destroyed one of the large hut-
ments at Mirnyy). He also tells about the keenness of wit and the
friendship existing among these people.
The book is published in a handsome format, with a large number
of photographs, and is tastefully illustrated by the artist N. Zikeyev.
"Locked in the Ice", together with the merits of its artistic
presentation, also possesses another positive quality. This is also a
document in which the geographer will find scientific data and chrono-
logically precise information about the, course of one of the outstanding
exoeditione of our time.
("chronicles of Remarkable Journeys", by P, A, Gordiyenko, Priroda, No.
3, March 1960, pp. 118-120). V
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