INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION - 1960)

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• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 16, 1999
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: July 22, 1960
• Content Type: REPORT

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BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOP.NYS I CRL, ',COOPERA~' I ON
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R:?;CORD
Copy
PB 33163Z- 128
July 220, 1960
'OR ITION ONSOYZET BIRO INTERNATIONAL GE0PlhXSICAL CO I RATION - 1960
U. S. Department of Commerce
Business and Defense Services Administration
Office of Technical Services
Washington 25, D. C.
Published Weekly
Subscription Price 012.00 for the 1960 Series
Use of funds for printing this publication has been
approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, October 28, 1959
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Di? ?NATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION PROGRAM -r
90Y LOCC ACTIVITIES
Table of Oontente
1.
GENERAL
1
II.
ROOTS AND ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES
1
III.
UPPER ATMOSPEM
6
IV.
METEOROWGY
15
V.
LONGITU1E AND LATITUDE
17
Vi. SEISMOLOGY
20
VII.
OCEANOGRAPHY
21
VIII.
GLACIOLOGY
24
IX.
ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC
26
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I. GENERAL
Transfer of Oeonhvdioa Station Announced
The geophysics station of the Institute of the Physics of the
Earth imeni 0. Yu. Bhmidt which is located in the Petropavlovsk-
Kenshatskiy region is being transferred. under the'jurisdiction of the
Siberian Division of the Academy of Sciences USSR. This is being
done in accordance with a resolution of the Presidium of the Academy
of Sciences USSR* (On the Transfer of the Geophysics Station of the
Institute of the Physics of the Earth to the Siberian Division"';
Moscow, Yeetnik Akademii Nauk SSR, No 5, 1960, p. 88.)
II. ROCKETS AND ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES
C~ of Tlevi_ si~on in_ Soviet Scaoe Research
On 4 October 1959 a third cosmic rocket was suossssfully
launched from the territory of the Soviet Union and sent to the region
of the Moon. Its flight trajectory differed substantially from that
of the two that had preceded it. The third cosmic rocket was to arrive
near the Moon, curve around it, return to the vicinity of the Barth and
transmit to our planet images of that part of the Moon's surface which
cannot be observed from the Earth.
The cosmic rocket put an automatic interplanetary station into
an orbit around the Moan; it did so for the conduct of soientifio
research and the transmission of images of the reverse side of the
Moon. The station consists of an airtight container holding scientific
apparatus au4 chemical power sources; certain scientific instrimente,
such as solar batteries and antennas, are outside the container.
Included among the apparatus carried aboard the station are devices
which make it possible to transmit images for distanoen of a homdred
thousand kilometers.
How did such unusual television transmission come to pass?
Before we answer this question, let's discuss the basic principles of
ordiner terrestrial television.
As is well known, all television transmission is accomplished
on the basis of the following principle: the image of the object is
broken down into an immense number of individual elements with-varying
degree of brightness; information about the brightness of each 'of these
elements is subsequently transmitted to a receiver.
If the image is projected onto the screen of a camera tube,
eleotrioal charges accumulate on each of the elements of the screen;.
the value of these charges is proportional to the illumination of these
elements. The image on the screen of the camera tube is transformed
from an optical to an electrical image. An electronic beam alternately
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travels swiftly ovor all the elements of the screen, forming lines
thereon, one above the other, and removing the charges, sending them into
an amplifier and then into the transmitter.
At the end of the 'radio link an electronic beam traces these same
lines on the screen of a picture tube covered with a flucreacent material.
The intensity of the beam and the resultant brightness of the fluorescence
of the different points on the screen changes in proportion to the value
of the charges of the corresponding elements of the camera tube. An
image therefore appears on the screen of the picture tube.
The quality of an image is appraised by its definition, that is,
the degree of clarity in. the reproduction of small details. Definition
can be expressed by the maximum number of elements of which the image is
composed. In the Soviet television system images are broken down into
approximately 400,000 elements.
Another important index in television, transmission as the time
expended in the transmission of one frame. In Soviet tele?rieion it is
equal to 1/25 second.
Finally, the third index is the frequency band of the television
signal.
The speed of change in the intensity of the scan-off beam can
change in a wide range, depending on the form of the transmitted image.
This is accomplished in such a way that there are no pairs of adjoining
elements on the screen with identical charges. With the image broken
down into 400,000 elements and the transmission time for one frame being
0.04 second, it is necessary for the beam to be able to change in
intensity up to 5 million times a second. This means that the television
channel should have an extremely great band width of 5 mc.
Let's return to the problems of cosmic tele-Pision, to the trans-
mission of images of the Moon's surface.
One of the most important characteristics of any radio link is its
resistance to static, that is, its ability to carry transmissions
properly, whatever be the interference. What is involved. here is that
other external electrical disturbances in addition to the useful signal
arrive at the receiver; these make reception difficult and scmetimes
make it impossible. The sources of static are extremely varieds
transmissions by other radio stations, an electric streetcar operating
in the vicinity, radio signals of cosmic origin, a vac'nim cleaner in
use, a distant thunderstorm, the radioradiation from the Sun, and mfr
others. Every electrical apparatus also has its own noises; these are
due primarily to the chaotic thermal movement of electrons in different
parts of the circuit, wires, etc.
The struggle against static involves the creation of such systems
as will permit the reception of signals at the input of a receiving
apparatus which have a power identical to or even leas the: the power of
the static. This is achieved in a relatively easy and simple yin men
when we are dealing with ordinary terrestrial radio link ; the problem
is considerably more complex, however, when we deal with transmissions
from apace.
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As is well known, the,Dower of the t ranlsmitter aboard the automatic
interplanetary station was calculated in watts. At the time of its
flight the station could turn, changing its orientation in space and
relative to the Barth; for the continual reception of its signals it was
therefore necessary that the transmitting antennas have a circular form.
For this reason the radio signals were transmitted equally in all directions
and their power, with increasing distanos from the station, decreased in
proportion to the square of the distance. At distances of almost a half-
million kilometlis the power arriving on one square meter of the Earth's
surface was 10 watts. In order to visualize how small this signal is,
the following example may be givens, if the transmitter of the automatic
interplanetary station emitted a power equal to that of all the electric
power stations of the world, the signal would still be several million
times less in strength than the power needed to light the bulb of an
ordinary pocket flashlight.
That is why the reception of signals from the automatic inter-
planetary station, in addition to very sensitive receiving devices and
directional antennas, also required special methods for the processing
and transmission of signals. This was true both at the station itself
and on the Earth; #1 other words, a special static-resistant system had.
to be developed.
As is well known, static resistance can be increased by an increase
in the power of the signal, the width of the transmission band, or an
increase in its duration. Most circuits use one of these alternatives.
It is clear that there can be no major increase in the power of the trans.
mitter aboard the automatic interplanetary station. An increase in the
band width is also infeasible. The latter is due to the reasons given
below.
Such insignificant signals as travel from the station to-the Earth
can only be received by very sensitive receivers. The noise level at the
output of the receiver depends to a high degree on the frequency band which
it intensifies. If it is decreased by 10,000 times, for example, the noise
level in the receiver itself will decrease by no less than 100 times. This
means that it made sense to have a narrow-band transmission system in the
automatic station, not a broad-band one.
The narrowing of the band, however, quickly leads to a decrease
in the speed of transmission. Here is how this happens. Let's assume
that the frequency band of our supposed television network is net 5 mc,
but is 500 o instead -- that is, 10,000 times narrower. If it to required
that the quality of the image (broken down into 400,000 elements) be
stable, the time needed for the transmission of one frame should' almost be
a full 7 minutes -- not 0.04 seconds. Something similar applied in the
case of the first cosmic rocket transmission. The use of special methods
of processing, transmission and reception of signals could change only the
degree of lowering of the speed of transmissions
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But in a few minuteu the automivsio intea'planetrsry utution travel"
a hundred kilomueto:r.3 ;,u4d no bytatern of oriantution. cv.r hold it all thizi
time in a poeition in which the Moon's eurfaoe image will remain stable on
the soroon of the camera Vibe, It is clear that a quality image is dimply
impossible in such a oano at the time of tran.amis ion 'to the Earth. The
solution of this i'r'*lem nevertheleoe appears obvious. It is necessary to
photograph the Moon, proossa the film at the station, and transmit a
fixed imago to the Earth from the resulting nagativa. This mathod is also
good in that it is possible to transmit the same frame several times and the
transmission regime can be speedod up as the Earth j.:, approached.
Ln order to photograph the reverse Bide of the Moos it was above
all necessary to turn the automatic interplanetary otatioa and the lenses of
its cameras toward the Eaerth's surface at a fixed moment. At 0630 hours on
7 October '1959, when the station was sit'uate1 at a distance of about 65,000 lam
from the Moon, the system of optical and grroeooptc uni+,te, complex eleo-
tron?io computers, and controlling motors accomplished this operation;
subea ently they maintained the au tonatio interplanetary station in the
necessary position for the entire period during which the Moon was photo-
graphed. Both lonoces of the camera operatrd for 40 minutes, directed only
at the Moon. iDua?e this time its reverse aide was repeatedly photographed
on a special 35 mm film at two different scales. After the exposure was
completed the film entered a small de-,rice for automatic processing; there
it was developed e;a.d Oared and then entered a c.ateettte for television
transmission.
Over tht command radio link f::?om the Earr?th to the interplanetary
station went the cirri rs "Begin transreiasionl" The necessary power sources
were switched on and the automatic systom began to operata, resulting in the
coordination of the operation. of all the "silks of the television apparatus.
The tranemissi.on bt:gau.
The tra naP)xmation of the optical image of the Moon -- present on the
film negative -- into a complex of electrical signals was accomplished by a.
system with a camora tuba. Such an arrangement is called a eoataning..beam
a,; stem. The light aor-roe is a well-foonxsed fluorescent spot on the screen
of the spanning tube. By mean of deflecting devices tbia spot moves along
the soree:a in ho_izontal and vie; tioal &treotione, tracing lines, one under
the other, aorose the a3arsen. The image of this fluorescent spot is pro-
jee'ted by means of a lens onto the t:rancmitted frame. The beam of light
passing across the photo film is collected by an optical device -- a
"collector" - onto the photocathode of a photoelectron multiplier. Since
the spot of light fluucer aively passes over and makes fluorescent the
different parts of the frame, a ta`.ev:ision efignal in received at the outlet
of the photomulti.plier; thie signal changes in time, for the whole image.
A mixed system for soanadng of the image was used in the television
transmission from the autooatio intarplanetax-jr station. The horizontal
sweep was 9lee3tr')r11J1, that is, it was aae;.mp fished by the electronic beam of
the camera tube moving acrors the screen (-this corresponded to the movement
of the fluorescent spot aoxoss the frame).
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The vertical sweep was mechanical. The film was continually drawn
past the camera tube at a slow rate of speed. Mixed scanning was used
because during the time of transmission, equal to several minutes, the
mechanical system of slow drawing of the film is far simpler, reliable,
sad generally better than electronic vertical scanning.
The desire to get the most detailed possible photographs of that part
of the Moon that is invisible from the Earth required that the photographs
be made with the Moon's disk fully illuminated by the sun, The absence-of
shadows due to head-on illumination led to a decrease in the contrast in
the negative, that is, to a decrease in the transparencies of its dark and
light places. In order to correct this inadequacy of the negative, its
contrast was artificially increased by the use of change in the brightness
of the spot in the camera tube of the phototelevision apparatus. The
signal, thus corrected, arrived at the input of the narrow-band amplifier
from the photoelectron amplifier and after certain transformations was
sent out into space by the transmitter's antennas.
The signals, after reception and amplification, were recorded by
apparatus of various types. Among them were special devices for the
recording of television images directly on a film. The received signals
control the brightness of its spot; the latter is focussed on the film by
means of an optical system. The spot on the picture tube duplicates the
motion of the spot on the camera tube; the film in the Earth-based
apparatus moves at the same speed as on the automatic interplanetary
station. Thus, the entire transmitted frame is "traced" on the film.
The relatively narrow band of the received television signal made it
possible to a greater degree to magnetically record the signals. The
signals of the image are recorded on a continually moving ferromagnetic
film. As a r esult the film forms a recording which is magnetized
differently in its several parts.
One of the varieties of electron-beam picture tubes used was the
skiatron tube. In contrast to ordinary picture tubes the skiatron screen
is covered with a substance (usually ion salts of silver chloride) that has
the property, after bombardment with electrons, of taking on a capacity
(on a long-term basis) of not radiating light as we are accustomed to,
but of absorbing it. Under normal conditions the skiatron screen is quits
transparent before reception begins. But when the electron beam has ran
across it, those places where it makes contact then become dark; the degree
of darkening depends on the intensity of the beam at the moment of contact.
The capacity of holding the received image for a long time is a
peculiarity of the skiatron tube. The received image can be easily
photographed directly from the screen, and in case of necessity it can even
be projected onto a larger screen like an ordinary diapositive.
The use of special methods of recording has made it possible in the
future, when comparing images received by the different methods, to
eliminate or correct the specific mistakes inherent in each of them
individually.
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Thum was accomplished history's first television transmission from
outer space. The unique photographs received of the reverse aids of the
Moon made it possible to make the first lunar globe. The transmission
of images for a distance of 400,000 km confirmed the possibility of a
quality television transmission from the outer roaches of space. This
opens up immense vistas for the further study of the planets of our solar
gyntem and inte3MIanet= space,
("Photo from Space", by Eng. V. A. Sokolov, Nauka i Zhizn', No. 3, 1960,
p,, 8-10.)
III. UPPER ATMOSPHERE
"Some Problems of the Physics of Auroras" -- A Full Translation of a
Soviet MIDOrt
Spectral analysis is 0.28 of the effective means for investigation
of the upper atmosphere. Its use for the study of radiation of the night
sky (airglow) and auroras has enabled us to discover various micro.
processes that arise as a result of photodissociation, ionization and
recombination under the influence of hard ultraviolet, Roentgen and
corpuscular radiation of the Sun, and many macroscopic processes and
characteristics of the upper atmosphere, for example: temperature,
inhomogeneities in atomic and allotropic composition, etc.
In the Soviet Union such investigations have been carried on at,
the Institute of Physics of the Atmosphere of the Academy of Sciences of
the USSR and have been intensified in connection with the International
Geophysical Year as the result of the development of high-quality
apeo.itrographe, interferometers, and rapid-action ape otroelectrophotometers.
Previously emissions of the night sky were usually recorded in the visible
and near-infrared region of the spec rum (from 4,000 to 8,000 8.) with a
tot 1 dispersion of several hundred IL per millimeter and a resolution of
10 I. For photographing spectra in this region it was necessary to make
long exposurep on a single night or even on several nights. In so doing
it was onlypoaeible to record several dozen emission lines. At the present
time the region of spectral investigation has been widened to 12,000
and in the case of emissions of the night sky (airglow) it has booms
possible, to out the time needed for exposures to one hour or even to
/aev ral dozen minutes, insuring resolution to 2 8,with a dispersion of
80 1/mm. This success was to a considerable degree insured by the use of
photocontact tubes - electronic-optical transformers, whose fluorescent
screens are attached to a very thin mica window about 20A thick (the
photography is accomplished by pressing a photoplate against the mica
from the outer side of the transformer)'.
Because of this we now have available a high-quality collection of
photographs of spectra of the radiation of the, night sky. These spectra.
contain more than 300 emission lines instead of the several dozen known
earlier. Egpally abundant material has been accumulated on the speowra
of brighter auroras.
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In a short article it does not appear possible to shed light on
even the principal results of the observations mentioned above. We Will
therefore limit ourselves to those conclusions which this newly-collected
material enables us to make about the energy levels in the upper atmosphere,
principally on the basis of the spectra of auroras.
In reoenb years one of the principal problems of the physics of the
upper atmosphere has been that of the sources of its heating and ionization.
In order to explain the insigaifimant helium content in the Earth's
atmosphere (helium liberated as the result of radioactive decay in the
Earth's crust), even before the era of rocket research it was necessary
to assume a temperature of several thousand degrees in the zone of dissipation
of the atmosphere at a height of 500 to 800 km. At that time it was assumed
that beginning at a level of approximately 100 km the temperature increases
by 50 for each kilometer of height. As shown by Bates and Ohapman, with
such a gradient there would have to be a very great flux of heat from the
high parts of the atmosphere to the 100 km levell at that level, for the
most part, there is an intensive cooling due to the microwave radiation
of atomic oxygen, This flux of heat is reckoned at a value of about
1 erg/am"'2. red" o
Later, by moans of rockets, it was possible to precisely determine
tho intensity of the radiant energy of the sun ;fin the hard ultraviolet
and Roentgen regions of the spootruml it then became apparent that the
energy absorbed in the atmosphere above 200 km is inadequate to explain
the necessary flux of heat. The first determinations of the deniV y of
the upper atmosphere by means of ionization,[gauge7 to heights of about
200 km agreed with the temperature gradient of 50 per kilometero In order
to escape the difficulty of explaining the great heat flux from very high
regions it became popular to consider the atmosphere above the 200 km
level as isothermal,. with a temperature no greater than 9000 K. ,However,
such a point of view caused serious doubts because it did not correspond
with certain observational data.
It was natural to explain the heating of the upper atmosphere by
the penetration therein of rapid charged and neutral particles `electrons,
protons, and atoms of hydrogen and helium, as a result of the influence
vi iae direct and indirect products of polar activity. Thus, there was
talk of postulating fregpent auroras at very great heights and of long
duration -- auroras impossible to distinguish visually without special
apparatus. The assumption of such sources of heating was natural for the
polar regions. These sources seemed less probable for regions in the
lover' latitudes. We limit ourselves here only to problems having a
direct relationship to the heating of the upper atmosphere.
This first type of spectrum 'of auroras is the ordinary spectrum of
the night sky with an enhancement of the red forbidden emission of oxygen
from a state with a mean lifetime of 100 seconds and an excitation energy
of 2 eve This emission is aoormpanied by a weaker forbidden emission of
atomic nitrogen -- about 5,200k from a state with a mean lifetime of 26
hours and an excitation energy of 2.4 eve' The intensity of both emissions
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oorr,lates with one another and with magnetic activity. The next type of
auroral spectrum is that in which, in addition to the emission indicated
above, there is noted the beginning of an intensification of the green
forbidden emission of atomic oxygen from a state with a lifetime of I second
and an excitation of 4.2 ev and emissions of neutral and ionized molecules
of nitrogen and atoms of nitrogen and oxygen wit's'oonsiderably greater
excitation energies -- up to 25 ev. And, finally, a further type of auroral
spectrum is that in which, in addition to the above emissions, there are
bands of an ionized molecule of oxygen with a somewhat smaller excitation
energy -- 18 ev.
The classification of auroral spectra given above can must easily
be explained by the deep penetration of some active agent. The first type
of aurora, usually faintly visible with the eye, corresponds to the
radiation of very high rarefied layers of the atmosphere, predominantly
of an atomio make-up, where the prolonged existence of metastable states
is possible.
The next clear and visually easily observable type of aurora with
an intensified teen oxygen line and numerous emissions of a neutral and
ionized nitrogen molecule is associated with regions of the atmosphere
with molecular nitrogen. And, finally, the last type of aurora with the
emission of ionized molecules of oxygen is in the region where molecular
oxygen is present. The lower boundary of the auroras, easily determined
by optical methods, is situated in a region where oxygen is in a molecular
state.
It has been found that a large'ia rt of the energy of radiation of
an aurora is concentrated not in its bright and sharply defined patterns which occupy a very insignificant area -- but in the-surrounding weak and
diffuse luminescence which fills immense surfaces above the Earth; the
latter is hard to see view.ally due to the small contrast sensitivity of
the eye when there is poor illumination. As a result of observations
made outside the polar zone, in regions of the lower latitudes, it has
been successfully determined that in:such areas there are also character-
istic spectral types of radiation of the upper atmosphere during auroras.
However, in an overwhelming majority of oases the types observed here are
at high levels. Spectra corresponding to lower heights are rare
phenomena in the low latitudes. It should be noted that the first type
of aurora, with a characteristic intensification of the xed forbidden
emission of oxygen and forbidden green emission of nitrogen, is customary
in the region of Moscow even in the absence of any visually detectable
auroras in regions with higher latitudes. In the region of Murmansk
there is often a weak diffuse luminescence of the entire sky in which
intensified green emissions of oxygen and emissions of ionized molecules
of nitrogen are clearly detectable.
The conclusion suggests itself that either the energy of the
corpuscles over the low-latitude regions is less than over the high
latitude regions, or their depth of penetration is less due to the
geomagnetic barrier.
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From the distribution of intensities in the vibrational-rotational
hydroxyl spectrum it is easy to determine the temperature of the surround-
ing medium. A sample of such a spectrum, recorded by N. M. Shefov, is
shown in Figure 1. We discovered that even at a level of about 100 km,
where the hydroxyl radiation arises, the temperature increases from
approximately 2000 K over theaagion of Armenia to 3500 ir, the vicinity
of Murmansk. Near Leningrad it is possible to note an increase in the
rotational temperature of hydroxyl for emissions coming from the north
side of the sky in contrast to emissions from the south. This difference
is still greater over the region of Murmansk. By use of an interfero-
meter one may easily determine the spectral width of the emission line,
and, ooneequent]y, the temperature of the radiating medium. Figure 2 shows
samples of photographs of the interference picture of auroral emissions
as recorded by T. M. Mulyarohik. It has been determined that at the time
of pronounced auroras in the region where the mentioned emissions originate,
the temperature increases by several thousand degrees. The increase in
the temperature of the upper atmosphere at the time of an aurora was also
discovered over the region of. Moscow from a a tudy of the emissions of
ionized molecules of nitrogen whose rotational temperature during auroras
is sometimes several thousand degrees.
As we know, the radiant formations of auroras have a very great
vertical extent, sometimes exceeding 1,000 km. In this case it is
extremely characteristic that the intensity of luminescence of a ray at
different heights is not subject to any substantial change, Inasmuch as
the concentration of neutral molecules of nitrogen drops sharply with
height, the maintenance of the intensity of the ray can be explained
only by an increase in the flux of the ionizing agent.
In the investigation of auroras an effort was originally made to
explain them by the penetration of rapid electrons into the Earth's
atmosphere. In the last decade, however, after the discovery of wide
emission lines, shifting into the blue uegion of the spectrum in the case
of observations in the magsetio zenith, it has become popular to explain
this p.'ienomenon by the movement to the Earth of rapid streams of hydrogen
atoms ejeotett by the Sun.
The use of sensitive apparatus with high resolving power makes it
possible to accomplish a regular recording of wide hydrogen emission.
At one intensity or another it has been possible to record the emission
in almost all forms of auroras. Hydrogen emission usually occupies
extensive areas of the sky and is to some extent associated with the
clearest formations of auroras. As a rule, it may be observed for several
hours before the appearance of a pronounced aurora and sometimes ceases;
without its appearance. Such an unoonnentrated luminescence of hydrogen
is easy to explain by the disruption of movement of protons around the
magnetic lines of force as a result of their effective ovoroharge with
atomic oxygen. Figure 4 shows a sample of the hydrogen spectrum and the
lines of hydrogen emission in comparison with a spectrum oontaining an
ordinary hydrogen emission of atmospheric origin. It is extremely
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interesting that the maximum intensity of the hydrogen in the magnetic
zenith corresponds to the very low velocities (3,000 km/sec) of intruding
atoms of hydrogen; this is difficult to collate with the time lag in the
appearance of the hydrogen emission relative to the characteristic
formations of solar activity. The observed line of the hydrogen emission
ma~ be due only to the dispersion of the velocities of the corpuscles --
and these cannot be the primary partioles ejected by the Sun.
Although a broad hydrogen emission of one intensity or another is
observed at the time of a majority of auroras at any stage of development,
nevertheless the majority of bright auroras with strong molecular emissions
is not accompanied by such hydrogen emission, A broad hydrogen emission,
as a rule, is most commonly observed simultaneously with spectra of 'the
high-level type, which, however, often do not contain it. It is natural
to assume, therefore, that a considerable part of auroras is caused by
the penetration into the atmosphere of electrons with energies of about
10 kev. This assumption is based on the fact that it is with such an
energy that electrons are capable of penetrating to a height of 100 to
120 km, at which level auroras become visible,
In order to demonstrate the existence of such electrons in the
upper parts of the atmosphere, even in the absence of a visually
observable aurora, we used the third artificial earth satellite. A
special apparatus was designed and built; this was used to record streams
of expected electrons with an in?ensity that had not been anticipated
earlier. A considerable part of the time the apparatus was in a "scaled"
condition. In those oases when there were data on two ind&~oators, it was
possible by taking the ratio of the intensity of their signals to estimate
the equivalent energy of the electrons. It was discovered that the value
of such equivalent energy is about 10 kev. If at the moment of "scaling"
of the apparatus the electrons possessed the same energy, the total
energy of the streams of eleotrone would attain thousands of erg/em2. sec.
The direction of movement of a majority of the high-energy electrons forms
an angle exceeding 50? with trio magnetic lines of force. These electrcug,
as a result of the magnetic barrier, cannot penetrate into the lower part
of the atmosphere. In the field of ionospheric layers only a small number
of high-energy electrons move at an. angle of less than 500 to the magnetic
lines of force. This current o? energy amounts to about 1 erg/om2. sec and
is sufficient to insure a temperature gradient of 5? per kilometer.
It has been established that at great heights, in particular in the
high latitudes, there is an increase in the concentration of electrons
with an energy of about 10 kev; thane may be primary solar corpuscles.
At the time of auroras and geomagnetio perturbations the zone with high-
energy electrons drops downward. As a result, the heating of the upper
atmosphere, particularly in the high latitudes, is more extensive and
is in great contact with rapid electrons. Due to its low density the
higher regions of the atmosphere are heated considerably more rapidly and
with less, expenditure of energy than the lower-lying ones, Now, on the
basis of the braking of the artificial earth satellites, we have actually
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succeeded in discovering high densityl consequently, the temperature of
the atmosphere in the region above 200 km, in particular over areas in
the high latitudes, has been determined.
The protons and electrons causing the phenomenon of auroras and
the heating of the upper part of the atmosphere, have velocities which
do not at all agree with the time lag in the beginning of the appearance
of auroras in relation to the time of the origin of characteristic active
formations on the Sun. Therefore such protons and electrons cannot be
the primary particles ejected by the Sun. Instead they arise as a result
of the complex interaction between clouds of ionized gas ejected from the
sun and the ionized gas held by the geomagnetic field.
Although at the present time extremely interesting peculiarities
have been discovered in the spectra of auroras and we have directly recorded
rapid active particles in the Earth's outer atmosphere, we nevertheless
need further systematic observations of all the above'desoribed phenomena.
Then it will be possible to establish to what extent they are constant
in the course of the cycle of solar activity. Therefore the continuation
of the,research that has been conducted in the course of the International
Geophysical Year is of great scientific and prautioal interest.
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0//(S,2)
n;N,R, ~ I j
?' / ~~~ 0C I /I N I I' P5 P~
j I I I Pf I P l pl ~~ pl I jd)
~ II
loooO/( /!0001 I/22001
Fig 1. Photograph of the spec-.
trum of one of the rotational
oscillatory bands of hydroxyl.
The distribution!,, of the L.nten-
sityi among the aeparate lines
of the band makds it 'possible
to determine the temperature of
the upper atmosphere. The stand-
ard symbols for the rotary lines
(R, r, Q. q, 1', P) are shown
above
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Figure 2. Photographs of interference pIctureo from the
emission of auroras and krypton with the aid of the Fabry-
Perot Etalon. The width of the rings indic.dtca the tem-
perature of the upper atmosphere.
A - red emission of oxygen at 6300 A for a very strong
aurora.(T 3400?K); B - a weak aurora (T 15009K); D - green
emission of oxygen at 5577 A which corresponds to a strong
polar aurorae originating in low altitudes where the tem-
perature is not high (250?K); C - emission of krypton at
5870 A obtained from'a laboratory gas-discharge source
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CPYRGHT
Figure 3. Photograph of a rayed arc of an aurora. To
the left can be seen rays with fairly constant brightness
1....._l . -i.
rv11. 01 N1:
N?
Figure 44 Photograph ' or' t ie spe(tra. ` 'gilt iZ!'"'ahd auroras,
at the magnetic zenith in the red region of the spectrum.
Expgeure during the aurora was considerably less than during'
its absence. Therefore there is no hydroxyl band on the
auroral spectrum. In the airflow spectrum there is a narrow
.emis'sion line of Ha hydrogen, and in the auroral emission it
is broadened and its center is shifted to the'blue region of
the spectrum by 6 A
CL - ea LLM.LOW O - es~Urri -
1 ("Some. Problems of the Physics of Auroras", by V. I. Krasovskiy LI-5ootor of
Th.yeioal-sMathematioal Soienae2p Vestnik Akademii Nark S3SR, No. 5, 1960,
PP? 10.16.
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Tadahi,k Institute of Astroohysios Engaged An ."Meteor Patrol"'
The following is the translation of a photo caption appearing in
lavestLyl on 19 June 19601
The Institute o Astrophysics o the Tadzhik Academy of o enoes
has established a scientific laboratory near Stalinabad for the photo-
graphic observation of meteors. "On the basis of observations which we
have made by use of cameras developed by the staff of this Institute",
says Pulat Babadzhanovioh Babadzhanov, the Director of the "Meteor Patrol"
laboratory, "it is possible to study the physical conditions prevailing
in the upper lays of the Earth's atmosphere and meteoric matter in the
,Xo olar system". The photograph shows the "Meteor Patrol" a ui ant
Untitled photograph, Izv6stiYap 19 June 1960p p. 4)
"E
A four-page article recently appearing in a publication of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR is devoted to electrical discharges during
the passage of meteors through the Earth's atmosphere; the article cites
14 bibliographical referenoee. The author is V. P. Dokuohayev of the
Radiophysioal Scientific Research Institute at dor'kiy State University
in. N. I. Lobachevskiy.
("Electrical Discharge During the Blight of Meteors in the Earth's
Atmosphere", by V. P. Dokuohayev, Dok]ady Akademii Nauk 333R, Vol. 1311,
No. 1, 1960, pp. 78-81)
Soviet Popular and Semi-Popular Press continue Publication of High-Quality
Articles on Space Research
Numerous accounts in the Soviet popular and semi-popular press deal
with the radiation belts surrounding the Earth. Another such account has
appeared in the journal TekhniksMolodezhi. Although nothing new is
contained in this article that warrants summarization, it is written on a
high plcne and is typical of the highly technical material on space research
that often appears in Soviet periodicals designed for popular consumption.
("Magnetic 'Trap' on the Route to the Cosmos", by I. Ivanenko, Tekhnika-
Molodezhi, No. 5, 1960, pp- 35-36)
Yellow Rain Falls in the Georgian SSR
A dispatch published in the Soviet press has reported that colored
rain has fallen in the Georgian 58K.
The rain fell at night, states 0. Shautidze, Chief of the Kutaisi
Meteorological Station;: the morning after the window panes in houses, the
windows of automobiles, and the leaves of trees were a yellow color.
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the-Flight of Meteors in th
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0. Bukhnikaehvili, chief of a meteorological station at the Krestovyy
Pass, 2,200 meters above sea level, reports that colored rain has fallen
there three times during the past year -- bright yellow in the winter,
reddish in March, and yellow in the present instance.
Sh. G. Gavasheli, Director of the Tbilisi B;ydrometeorological
Observatory, stated that this phenomenon was caused by pool moist air
masses coming from the northwest, mixing in the upper layers of the tropo-
sphere with warm dry air which had moved from the southwest and which
evidently contained a large amount of dust. Such precipitation, he
states, is not only easy to explain, but is also completely harmless.
("Weather Forecasts Do Not Predict Such Things", Izvest a, 15 June 1960,
p. 6)
New Soviet Weather Shin Makes Trial Run In Black Sea
The new weather ship "Shokal'skiy" approached the wharves of the
port of Odessa a few days ago. It had undergone a test run in the Black
Sea for several days. We asked one of the leaders of the expedition --
the Director of the Central AerologioQ1 Observatory, G. I. Golyshev, to
tell about the first cruise of the ship and the work which it will
accomplish in the future.
"The o e is an expeditionary snip which only recent3y
left the ship yards at Nikolayev", said G. I. Golyshev. "This vessel is
an exact replica of the 'Voyeykov', the first Soviet ship of the Hydro-
meteorological Service, now conducting research in the Pacific Ocean".
"At the time of the voyage the sixteen laboratories aboard the
'vassal were engaged in a variety of scientific investigations. The ship
was equipped with apparatus for the launching of meteorological rooket!a
from the deck. The instruments located in the nose of such a rocket
transmit data about the state of the atmosphere to heights of 80 km.
Radio receiving apparatus on board receives information about temperature
and pressure and about the character of solar radiation. At the time of
the tests aboard the 'Shokal'ekiy' five meteorological rockets were
launched. All transmitting instruments and receiving apparatus operated
faultlessly".
"The investigation of the atmosphere over the ocean is of great
importance to science. The ship can conduct observations in different
latitudes. It will become a very mobile scientific station, situated
thousands of miles from land, but quickly transmitting all data to the
weather service".
"In addition to the launching of rockets the men aboard the weather
ship conduct all the meteorological observations customary for meteorological
stations; the launching of radiosondes enables us to judge about the state
of the atmosphere to heights of 30 km. The scientific laboratories of the
'Shokal'skiy' are also conducting an extensive program of oceanographic
observations".
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"In the very near future a second weather ship will move out on
the distant route that leads to the Pacific Ocean where the 'Shokal'ekiy'
will accomplish a complex of scientific research operations in collabor.
ation with its older companion the 'Voyeylcov'. The new expeditionary ship
will enable us to still more rapidly penetrate into the unknown secrets
of "
("Secrets of the Depths and Heights", Izvestiya, 18 June 1960, p. 1
V. LONGITUIE AND LATITUDE
A Report on the Soviet Latitude Service
The following is a full translation from the soviet popular science
magazine Na aka i Zhizn' s
ere in a beautiful shady park at a distance of from Tashkent
on the Great Uzbek Highway. There, to one side from the bustling of the
city, in the dense greenery of secular linden trees and fruit trees, are
to be found the observation pavilions of the Kitabskaya International
Latitude Station im. Ulugbek of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR.
The scientists at this station are dealing with many interesting
problems, but their principal field of observations is variation in
geographic latitude.
The determination of latitude is one of the most interesting
problems of astronomical science. Newton, when he studied the problem of
the Earth's rotation, came to the conclusion that the poles should move
along the surface of the globe. This hypothesis was confirmed by L. Ruler;
he developed the theory of rotation of a solid body around a fixed point.
Ruler demonstrated theoretically that the Earth's axis should move within
the Earth, describing a cone with a very small angle at its peak. He
figured that this caused the movement of the poles along the Earth's
surface.
But if the poles constantly move, the geographic latitude of a
place cannot remain constant.
The first practical demonstration of Euler's theoretical conclusion
was the research conducted by the astronomer Kh. Peters, a worker at the
Pulkovo Observatory. In 1842-1843, while observing Polaris, he established
that the latitude of Pulkovo constantly undergoes small changes.
These conclusions interested the scientists of various countries.
Special observations were made at many observatories for the purpose of
determining the local latitude. It became clear that the latitudes of
areas where observatories were situated were ao;ually subject to variation.
However the latitude received from astronomical observations can be
distorted and influenced by meteorological phenomena.
In order to finally clarify the cause of this variation in latitude
it was decided to systematically make observations of changes in latitude
at two points of the 'globe, situated 180? in longitude away from one
anothera at Berlin and at Honolulu in the Hawaiian Islands. If it is
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assumed that the change in latitude arises from the movement of the Earth's
poles, an increase in the latitude of Berlin should correlate with a
decrease in the latitude of Honolulu, and vice versa.
When a sufficient number of observations had been made and latitudes
had been computed, it was discovered that in that period when the latitude
of Berlin had increased or decreased by some fixed value, the latitude of
Honolulu, on the contrary, had decreased or increased by precisely the
same value.
Thus it was finally demonstrated that change in latitude is caused b
a movement of the Earth's poles.
Careful investigations of rumerous observations made at various
observatories have shown that the movement of the poles is extremely
complex. It has been found that in its movement the pole describes a
complex spiral-shaped curve on the Earth's surface; this curve first ourb
in, then uncurls, but does not go beyond the limits of a square with sides
30 meters long. Such a line results from the superposition of several
movements with different periods. The two principal movements depend on
the internal structure of the Earth and seasonal changes on the globe
caused chiefly by a movement of air masses at different seasons of the
year and also by the falling and melting of snow.
These discoveries have stirred up very lively interest among the
scientists of the entire world. In the observatories of the various
countries of the world special observations have begun for the purpose of
studying changes in latitude. This problem proved to be especially
important for astronomers. The fact is that the systems of coordinates
with which astronomers had to work were tied in with the Earth's poles.
But if the poles move, there is also a change in the system of coordinates;
consequently the coordinate of the objects themselves, determined by
::beervations, will be distorted. Therefore all precise astronomical
determinations must be adjusted to take into account the movement of the
poles. It therefore appeared necessary to get precise information about
the movement of the poles.
But the greater the volume of information accumulated, the more it
became apparent that the derivation of a reliable curve for movement of
the pole made by observations using different methods, different
instruments and different stars, was extremely complex. It became clear
that a special "latitude service" was needed to coordinate all these
observations. In 1898 such a unified center was established and named
the International Latituda Service. The Service had the following
observatories, called latitude stations. It was decided to establish such
stations in the Northern Hemisphere on latitude 39008' at 4 points
Mizusawa (Japan), Carloforte (Italy), Gaithersburg and Ukiah (USA). To
these four stations, established at the expense of the International
Geodetic Association, were added still two others: an observatory in
Cinoinnati (USA) and a special latitude station at the city of Chardzhou,
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established by the Rusr,ian government at ito own expense. The Russian
station continued to operate until 1919. In the bloody days of the civil
war it was forced to bring its work to a close.
The absence of a latitude station in the Soviet Union had a negative
effect on the work of the entire International Latitude Uerv,,.')e because
there was not a single latitude station in the immense dotanoi between
Italy and Japan. In 1925 the Soviet government adopted a resolution
concerning the establishment of a new latitt a station. The place of
observation oeleotsd was Kitab, situated on the international parallel --
39?06'. The first observation in accordance with the international
program at the Kitab latitude station was made on 14 November 1930.
Regular and planned research in the field of latitude has been conducted
at this station since that date.
During the years ofthe Second World War, when a majority of the
latitude stations were forced to temporarily suspend their observations, it
was decided to create within our country its own latitude eerviue. In
addition to the Kitab latitude station it included the Pulkovo Observatory,
the Poltava Observatory, the Engel'gardt Observatory at Kazan, and latter in connection with the International Geophysical Year -- a station at
Blagoveshohenok-na-Amur and the Irkutsk Observatory.
These stations are situated on different parallels and rather close
to one another in longitude. Their accuracy in determination of the
coordinates of the pole is therefore not great. However the results of
research are completely adequate for practical purposes. Thus, on the
basis of such observations, it is possible to make up summaries of the
coordinates of the pole on a monthly basis.
A new period in the activity of the latitude service began in
connection with its participation in the work of the program of the
International Geophysical Year. Five latitude stations form the Inter-
national Services Mizusawa (Ja an), Kitab (USSR), Carloforte (Italy) ,
and Gaithersburg and Ukiah (USA).
They all have observational pavilions that are built in a similar
manner; they are equipped with instruments of the same type -- zenith
telescopes -.- and are conducting observations in accordance with a single
international program.
Each latitude station sends the results of its observations to the
Central Bureau of the International Latitude Service in Italy where they
are generalized and studded. The latitudes of places are determined from
observatioxs of stars at these stations; on the basis of changes in these
latitudes a curve is drawn of the movement of the Earth's north pole.
The final results are issued by the Central Bureau in special publications
which are used by different scientific institutions of the entire world.
The scope of the work at the Kitab station has also been consider-
ably expanded. At Kitab the new Soviet-produced zenith-telescope "APM-2",
the largest in the world, has now been installed. The aperture of its
objective is 180 mm, the focal distance is 2,360 mm.
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These observations have enabled us to make a series of valuable
investigations on the problem of latitude; these have been printed in
various astronomical publications. In the near future plans call for the
introduction of research of the astronomical regime for the purpose of
clarifying the possibility of setting up astrophysical instruments there.
Of special interest are observations which are now being conducted
with two zenith telescopes. An analysis of these observations over a
period of 1 years has shown that there is a clearly expressed annual wave
in the diffenoes noted) this means that the so-called Z-terms for these
instruments are different. It is well known that the Central Bureau of
the International Latitude Service oongiders the Z-terms for all Inter-
national Latitude Service stations to be identical. Our results do not
oonfllrm this assumption.
On the tompletfon of the International Geophysical Cooperation
Program all these observations will be strictly systematized.
The astronomers at Kitab are doing a great deal of work for the
popularization of science. They are systematically going out in the field
to deliver popular science lectures in the villages, factories, schools
and military units. During the time it has existed the observatory has
aocplred considerable fame. It is visited by numerous excursions of workers
and collective farmers, students and soldiers from different regions. At
Kitab they attend leotur?c on various astronomical subjects and can inspect
a map of the heavens. Foreign scientists also visit Kitab. In 1958, for
example, the Kitab station was visited by Prof. A. Danjon, Director of the
Paris Observatory; Prof. M. Minnaert, Dutch astrophysicist, Director of
the U"reoht Astronomical Observatory; and the English astrophysicist, Prof.
Z. Kopal. The guests became acquainted with the work of the station and
the results of our research.
In oonneotin with trw current establishment in China of the
Tientsin latitude station on this same parallel, 39?08', a long visit
to Kitab has been made by the director of that station, Prof. Tszou I-sin
and University Reader Lo Din-tszyan. They studied the methods for making
observations in accordance with the international program, and a number
nib nthwr
rnhlaTa-
=
/ ("I,atitucid Sorv?lce", by A. Kalmykov /_Director of the Kitab International
Latitude Station in. Ulugbe , Nauka i Zhizn', No. 3, 1960, pp. 44-46)
Appearance of New Island in the Caspian Sea Spurs Petroleum
Baku. 17 June (By telegraph from our correspondent). The ship
carrying the expedition of the Azerbaydzhan Scientific Research Institute
for the Production of Petroleum has returned to Baku. While doing
geophysical, work in the Caspian the expedition discovered an island
approximatebr 180 km from Baku. The island does not appear on any map.
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CPYRGHT
This is a new surprise of the Caspian. The island appeared as the result
of the recurrent eruption of a mud volcano. The expedition landed on the
island, made measurements, took photos and took soil samples. The island
is about 300 motors long and rises as much as five meters above the water.
It is not impossible that commercial exploration will begin for the "black
gold" on or near this island -- provided that it does not disappear.
Azerbaydahsn soiontiets have determined that the arrangement of
mud volcano an in the central part of the Caep:.an represents a 200-kilometer
underwater petroleum and. " of
"Caspian surpria,", Izvc.etiva, 18 June 1960, p. 3) CPYRGHT
VII. OCEANOGRAPHY
Soviet Article Contains Notes on Russian 0oeanoarauhio Research
The following is the full text of an article from Nauka i Zhizn':
any secrets are still hidden the depths of the seas and oceans.
What, for example, are the causes of the systematic vertical migrations
of herring in the North Atlantic to a depth of 100 meters? What is the
meaning of the mysterious behavior of sardines on the shores of Africa --
their unexpected diurnal movements for long distances? What does a fish
do when it encounters a trawl line or net? How does a fish react to noise
and other irritants? Modern science should be able to answer all these
and many other questions.
Until recently scientists have conducted ocrplex investigations
aboard ships reoutfitted from medium 'trawlers. But it has been impossible
to conduct scientific research aboard such vessels on a broad scale. The
scientists at Leningrad therefore set out to develop a plan for a special
scientific-teohnioal ship (85 meters in length, with a displacement of
3,950 tone, and with a speed of 12 knots). The refrigerator trawler
"Mayakovskiy" was built on the basis of this design..
The new vessel is equipped with apparatus which will enable it to
atop at nixed points in the ocean and remain at these fixed positions for
a long time.
Imagine a transverse tunnel passing right through the prow of a
ship! Mounted therein is a propeller operated by a 100-kw electric motor.
In conjunction with the screw propeller it makes it possible for the ship
to remain in place without dropping anchor. Nothing can move the ship
from the point where it is at rest -- neither a wind with an intensity of
6 nor a rapid current.
Thera will be 10 laboratories on the ship. In the plankton
laboratory- scientists will be concerned with the investigation of different
collection of samples of sea water from various depths, the measurement
of its temperature and salinity, and the study of currents. For this
purpose the laboratory is equipped with bathometers for the measurement
of water depths, bathythermographs which record the vertical distribution,
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of water temperature in a layer as much as 200 meters deep, and other
instruments. It is possible to get cores of earth (sea bottom) as long
as 35 meters by means of earthen pipes lowered away from the control
panel.
Ichthyologists can predict the oatoh of commercial fish of various
species, biologists can study the mioroflora, and technicians can
investigate the technical and chemical propert;les of articles being
subjected to maritime exploitation. It will bo possible to conduct
experimental research on the thermal processing of fish and fish preser-
vation aboard the vessel.
Finally, there is a special laboratory for techniques to be used
in industrial fishing; this is designed for the study of the behavior of
fish in zoz:Ue of fish exploitation and the selection of rational designs
for instruments and equipment used in the catching of fish.
Presently the principal means for underwater observations of fish
are hydroaooustio instruments which make it possible to determine the
location of finals of fish. B%%b the short lines drawn by the pen of the
self-recording instrument do not give a full idea of the actual form of the
shoal, its density, or whether the fish are large or small, and cannot
tellofwhat species it consists. It therefore remains necessary for man
to make direct observations of the underwater kingdom. Aboard the new
ship a hydrostat will be used for this purpose; it was designed by the
Giprorybflot (State Institute for the Design and Planning of'the Fishing
Fleet) and is capable of submerging to a depth of 600-meters, together
with a researcher, an underwater television set for "looking" in all
directions, and aqualungs.
The new vessel will be equipped with a Soviet-produced electronic
instrument for the simultaneous observation of the filling of the trawl
net and its depth of submergence. It will increase by many times the
effectiveness of the fishing industry. Much excellent deck equipment is
also provided. There are various winches on deck for 'the lowering of
plankton and ichthyological nets below Mhe water, for lowering bottom
dredges and coring units and a remote-control meteorological station
and electromnagnetio current'me'rer.
The vessel, in addition to its aoientifio work, will serve as a
large fishing trawler. It will catch fish, process them into fillets,
can the fish, amke maades and vrenare fish meal and fish .0?1.
"Institute at Sea",
1960, pp. 65-66)
by Eng. N. P. Bolgarov, auka i Zhizn1,' No
CPYRGHT
titati Distribution of Benthos in Part of the "at a rs
Another article has appeared in a Soviet' scientific Journal
reporting on 'the eo tifio results 'of work iboard' the ooeancgr'aphio
'
research vessel Ob''.
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This latest article deals with the findings of the Obi concerning
the quantitative distribution of bottom fauna. peoifioally'the paper
deals with the quantitative distribution of benthoe in the Tasman Sea and
that part of the world ocean lying between the Indian and Paoific Oceans
to the south of New Zealand, including Antarctic waters. Twenty-nine
samples were collected at depths as great as 4,800 m. The source material
is supplemented by samples collected on the 26th voyage of the research
vessel "Vityaz"".
The collected material was adequate to serve as a basis for the
compilation of a schematic map of the distribution of benthos (figure it
not reproduced here). Until now there has been an almost total lack of
any information about the quantitative distribution of bottom fauns in
this region or in other regions situated within these latitudes of the
Southern Hemisphere.
Data for each of the 36 stations is provided in some detail in
Table 1.
It is clear that in this area, as in other regions of the world
ocean, the quantities of benthos decrease with an increase in depth and
distance from the shore. Indeed, the coastal waters of New Zealand are
quite similar in their abundance of bottom fauna to coastal regions in
analagous latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere in the northwestern part
of the Pacific Ocean. As a rule the abundance of benthos is more closely
related to nearness to the coast than it is to depth.
("Quantitative Distribution of Benthos in the Tasman Se and in Antarctic
Waters to the South of New Zealand", by G. X. Belt' ev Institute of
Oceanography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Doklady Akademii
Nauk SSSR, Vol. 130, No. 4, PP- 875878).
MaJor Russian Marine Expedition Will Study the Gulf Stream
A major expedition is planned for the conduct of extensive
oceanographic research in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream -- the largest
and most extensively branched system of warm currents in the northern
part of the Atlantic Ocean.
Taking part in the expedition will be seven scientific research
vessels o. The purpose of the expedition is to collect data in order to
determine the extent of the influence of the waters of the Gulf Stream
on the thermal balance of the northern seas and atmospheric processes
in the North Atlantic.
("In the Region of the Gulf Stream," Izvestiya, 19 June 1960, p. 4)
Report on the Oceanographic Research Vessel "Peppy-2!'
In the north the scientific research vessel "Persey" is well-
remembered. It waa. aboard this vessel that the work of the Floating
Marine Scientific Institute for the Study of Northern Seas began its
work in 1922; that institute was created on the initiative of
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V. I. Lenin, That small combined nailing-and-motor shin, with a total
displacement of about )50 tone, bailed those icy seas for almost 20
years. A majority of Soviet oceanographers of the older generation
travelled aboard her on the expeditionary voyages made by that
remarkable school of researchers. This scientific vessel, smashed by
bombs, sank in the Kola Gulf in the first year of the Great Patric io
Sailors have an old, old tradition -- that of giving the names
of famed ships of the past to newly-launched vessels. Therefore a new
"Persey" has again appeared in the northern seas. This ship recently
left the port of Murmansk on a long voyage to the Faeroe Islands.
A meeting had been arranged there in the port of Westmanhavn with
researoh vessels of a number of other countries.
The editor of this newspaper has made radio contact with the
vessel "Persey-2," The chief of the expedition of the Polar Institute
of Fishing and Oceanography, M. Adrov, Candidate in Geographical
Sciences, reported as followse
"By decision of the International Council for the Study of the
Seas we are now conducting major research in the vicinity of the
Faeroe-Iceland threshold. In addition to the "Persey-2" expeditions
from Great Britain, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and the Federal Republic
of Germany are taking part in this work."
"The principal task of the researchers, headed by the well-
known Scotch oceanographer John Tate, is the study of how the cold
deep waters of the Sea of Norway penetrate into the northern part
of the Atlantic Ocean through the Faeroe-Iceland threshold. These
investigations are of immense importance for the development of
fishing. The immense expanses of the Sea of Norway between Iceland
and the Faeroe Islands will be intersected by a series of parallel
traverses. Our 'Persey' has already made one of these runs."
"During the voyage of the 'Persey-2' it will visit Norway,
Iceland, the Faeroes, and the She~dands."
("Naval Tradition," Pravda, 17 June 1960, -p.-6)
VIII. GLACIOLOGY
Glacier Research on Novaya Zemlya -- An Academy of Sciences Report
The glaciological expedition of the Second International Polar
Year in 1932-1933, under the direction of M. M. Yermolayev, established
that there was no firn or fire ice in the vicinity of the watershed
between Ruaskaya Gavan' and Blagopoluchiye Gulf. There, under a layer
of "this year's snow," M. M. Yermolayev (1) discovered blue glacier
with the pressure of the gases included therein about 2.23 atm --
normal for depths on an order of 15 m. In the opinion of
Mi M. Yermolayev, such a high pressure of gases, together with the
large-crystal structure of the ice, is evidence of intensive ablation,
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during which the pressure of intraglaoial gases does not ever balance
with atmospheric pressures
Since then substantial changes have taken place in the glacial
cover.
Investigations of the Novaya Zemlya Glaciological Expedition
of the International Geophysical Year of the Academy of Sciences of the
USES at Runekaya Gavan' in 1957-1958 have established the followings
1. The period with positive air temperatures in the region of
the ice divide is a total of 5 to 5j weeks; the balance of matter at
a height of 776 m is positive and equal to 20 am of firn (with a water
supply of 70.3 mm).
2. In the fall of 1957 the snow line was situated at a height
of 570 m -- on the brow of the "Yablonskiy Barrier," a feature caused
by a subglacial terrace.
3. The thickness of the fire increases very rapidly from the
Yablonskiy Barrier to the ice divide, where it attains a thickness of
16 in. White firs ice with a mass of air bubbles underlies it.
4. The alternation of layers of firn and ice somewhat above
the snow line is evidence of an annual increase of 10 to 20 am of snow.
In a six-motor trench, 115 cm deep, six such layers were discovered,
separated by continuous ice lenses at depths of 12-14; 27.6-29; 39-41;
65-67 and 89-92 cm. Judging by the thickness of the snow1bridge over
the trench, the thickness of the fire in this region is no greater
than 2 in. Consequently, it was formed in approximately 10 to 12 years.
5. In the region of the ice divide the layers of annual snow
increment amount to 32; 14.5; 15; 39 and 23 cm respectively.
6. Below the brow of the Yablonskiy Barrier a whitish ice with
small bubbles was exposed on the surface of the glacier; it was free
of solid (mineral) impurities. This zone of ice occupies no more than
2km. Then, deeper! it is replaced by banded ice, made up of long
pamilel bands of bluish and whitish-blue ice of approximately equal
width (10 to 20 cm) oriented in the direction of the movement of the
glacier. In 3 to 34 km this ice is replaced by blue deep glacial ice,
streaked with chaotic veins of congealed ice.
According to measurements made by the expeditions in 1932-1933
and 1957-1959, the speed of movement of the ice in the outlet tongue
of this sector of the glacial cover (in the Shokal'okiy glacier) is
equal to approximately 150 m per year. Assuming that the speed of
movement d the ice only decreases insignificantly from the fact of
the Shokal'skiy Glacier to the Somneniye Barrier, as can be seen from
a comparison of the velocities of movement of ice at the face and at
11 km from it, it is necessary to relate the beginning of the appearance
of the whitish ice in the region of ablation to the and of the 1930's.
From an analysis of the variations of the ice characteristics
of the White, Barents and Sara Seas, made by V. S. Nazarov (2), we can
see a progressive decrease in the ice content of these seas since the
beginning of the 1930's; this is still continuing. The decrease in the
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ice content of theme seas is due to the intensification of oyolonro
activity in the atmosphere, accompanied by an inorense in the receipts of
moisture; this explains the renewal of the firn deposits feeding the
Novaya Zemlya glao$al Dover. With the maintenance of the now-existing
regime of atmospheric "feeding" of the cover to the end of the present
century -- and V. B. Nazarov has made such a prediction in respect to the
ice content of the seas mentioned -- at the end of the century we should
expect if not a cessation ofthe retreat of the face of the outlet tongue
of the investigated part of the Novaya Zemlya ice cover, then, at least,
a lag in the rate of retreat.
1. Shumekiy, P. A., Trudy Arkt. N.-I. let. Glavn. Upr. Severn. Morakogo
Puti, 2, Moscow-Leningrad, 1949
2. Nazarov, V. S., Trudy Goo. Okeanorgr. Inst., 6, Moscow-Leningrad, 1949?
("Renewal of Pirn Feeding of the Glacial Cover of Novaya Zemlya", by
N. M Svatkov L nntitute of Geography of the Academy of Sciences of the
USS/, Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol. 131, No. 1, 1960)
Latest Report on the Drift Station "SP-8"
The following is a summarized version of a Sovetskaya Aviatsiya
article of 17 June.
The author took off from Tikei in a heavily-laden "IL-14" and headed
northwest. The pilot was B. Shatrov, Hero of the Soviet Union;.the other
crew members were named. The flight continued several hours before the
huts and tents of the "SP-8" were sighted. The "IL" touched down on the
ice and travelled several hundred meters before coming to a stop. This
was not the first plane to arrive that day because the transporting of
freight to the "3PRa8" in now in full swing and aircraft are shuttling
back and forth. Temporarily based on the station is an "AN-21" and four
Oki-mounted "LI..2" aircraft. The station was recently visited seven times
by an "AN-10" piloted by the airmen V. Vasil'yev and G. Bardyshev. It
delivered 65 tons of fuel and other freight. It was the first time in the
history of aviation that a heavy turbojet plane had landed on the drift
ice on a limited landing area.
The author was met by the chief of the new staff of the "SP-8"9
hydrologist Nikolay Ivanovioh Blinov. The latter is quoted as indicating
that the new staff was made up of members of the Komsomol organization;
a number of participants are named, together with their assignments.
The author mentions that the ice floe has been repeatedly subjected
to compressive forces. The landing strip has suffered cracks on 19
occasions, but these have been repaired. During the year the floe has
travelled a sinuous course over 2,000 km long.
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The huts on the "SP-8" are olean, snug, and warm. There in
sleotrioity, telephones and radios. In their free time the polar speoialiots
ether in the deyroom, look at movies, read newspapers, and play ohess.
"Plight to the Pole", by M. Filipenin, Sovetskaya Aviateiya, 17 June 1960,
p. 6)
- U8 CONK-D0
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