JPRS ID: 8222 METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

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i~r)1~ r~l~ 1' I(; i,11, (~;~i; t1Nl Y
' 'I'~ble 1. ,
~;r~mpu~r~tLr~~i W~~tr.r Mr~t~N r~~ 5~~mc C7nc~lc~rN nt~ 5nvrrnciyn Y.~~rnly;i Aluitk (lnc ur
Mure t'ruClley
A~ nti pa~� M peayn~�
He~nSiuie ne~nnKa i'aac ! x.~ cao~?,
1 Z p~ p 111. T 3 TN~1� NlIN, T
4
5 AKOACMNII 110yK A ~3,5 1 2~i1;18G,9 281~ 186,9
~ 6 W~~u,~ta Jl ~I O,d7i :958G,8 57076,5
M 23 0~52;i r,~gU7,4
7 A~t,GaHn~n 4t 16,5 0,4G~ i7933,g 59795,4
I9 0,530 3iG75
~ 17?~onep 6 II,S 0,495 42G75,1 44132
14,25 0,3G3 3i3~t2,7
$ t 3,25 0,340 31 n I 3,$
g YW9KOU8 Ct 22 0,5~7 2G043,9 38072,3
T 19 U,aG3 47095,5
10 Ba~i~noea - 520000
N�ti~ Il p it N e 4 a u u r, (]onn~cr?me rancoe u?ix ?~o~~epa cM. n(5).
-
Key�
. 1. Name of glacier
2. Run
3. M nlong secCions, millions of Cans
; 4. Result~nt M, millinns of tons
5. Akademiya Nauk
6. Shmidt �
7. A1'banova
8. Pioner
9. Ushakova
1~. Vavilova
Note. F'or the poaition of the runs ~nd their numbers see [5].
For precise mensurement of the thickneases of Vavilov~ G1~7cier a scheme for
, their measurements was developed. In construcCittg the scheme use was made
_ of ground and aircraft rndar runs; the surfttce of the glttcier wns broken
~lown into squares with nn area of 4 km2 x 1.07'2; the coefficient 1.072 is
~tie result of refinement of the glacier nren from g map at a smaller scale
rhan that which was used initially. The square was selected in such a way
t}iat its side was cortm~ensurable witt~ the distance between the survey runs
in the cpntral and northern parts of ttie glacier; the division ~,L the
~;lacier into squares was accomplished from north to south and from east to
west. It is assumed t1~aC the ice thicknass within the limits of the square
is a constant value. The numerical ~alues are distributed in the middle of
the square and reflect the mean thic.kness (in meters) for the entire square.
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I i
t~nit Ut'CICTAL USC; UNLY
'1'h~e inCtr.pc~lu~ldn of~ ehieki~~~~d~ig from ehc s~cCiund waq ~tcc~mplibhecl ot~ Chc
,i~gumpeidn nf. n~month (~r~hhiC ~averF~~ing.~) ~h~ng~ in Ch~ prnfile c~f rlt~
gl~cier bed ~l~ng th~ ~eCCion f~dm ruti ro run. In nuch cn~~~ w~ tndk intd
nc~nunC rh~ chxnge in bed xeli.ef n1~ng ehe lnyr ~~Crinns, ~long rran~v~r~p
yereion~ an.d nlnnp nc~r-lyitig :~nundin~ runs; tri C?i~ ~~~C~Yn end ~ouet~wp~C-
ern ~~Gror~ nf ehe p,l~cic~r the thicknes~es in ehe squnr~s w~r~ obtained by
exe~~~p~l~tian. N~~+r the r~idnr m~~~uremenC~ the thickne~~e~ w~r~ nssumed ta
l~e c1ng~ eo ehone for rung~ eakin~ i�ee ~cceunt eh~ Cend~nci~s ict ~h~nge
in ehinkneeg~~ in ehe nortihcrn c~nd cenCr~l pnrCs eh~ ~1KCier. AC g cdn~ ~
~id~rablc diye~nce trom eh~ run w~ mnd~ the folldwing ngeumptinng: Che bed -
~.n ehe middl~ purt nf the glacier i~ even xnd vireu~~ly plan~; Ch~ glaci~r
aur~aC~ dr~p~ o�~ townrd Cti~ edg~g npprexim~eel,y in eonfdrmi~y to ~ para-
bolic lnw; the rhickne~s of Che g~aci~t wiCh upprnnch ed the edg~ (some 3-
� 5 km) changes 1n ConformiCy Cn u 1~w close ro linear (rhig ass wnpCion is
Unck~d up by r~dnr mea~uremenCS~; th~ vdlume df c? cdlumn of ine is detier-
mined ~s tihe produce of th~ me~n thickness for n gquare over Ch~ arca of
~he squnre (~.n Ctie mnrginal sectnr in an nr~a of a part of Ch~ ~quare).
'Che volume nf Vavilovn glgcier wns determined by compuCnCions nnd wiCh Che
c~dopted asgumpeinns w~s 579.8 km3. The uti~n of Che glncier wus ~~gumed to
be 1,816.8 km~. Taking inCo nccount ehe mean densi~y nf ice in ehe glacter,
c~hich is equgl eo 0.9 g/cm3, we find thae the wat~i mnss o~ Vavilova glacier
is M = 520,000,000 tott3.
'Che table ahowg that the wuter reserve of the five mentioned glaciers is
~lbout 2.8�1012 Cons. Radar obs~rvation~ of the remaining glaciers in the
archipelago makea it possible wirh a reliability grenter thun earlier to
ascertuin the total mass of wnter in the glaciers of 5evernaya 2emlya.
'1'he considered methnd cun be applied to cdmputations of Che waCer reserves
in atty glaciers, includinp mountain glnciers. We nogTaCu~tWith oCheritech~
mountain glaciers it is necessnry to have radar app
nical specifications in comparison with that which was used in flights
over 5evernaya 'Lemlya.
� BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bogorodskiy, V. V., FIZICHESKIY~ METObY ISSI.~DOVANIYA LEDNIKOV (Phys-
ical Methods for Investiguting Glaciers), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat,
1968, 212 pages.
2. Bogorodskiy, V. V., RADIOZONDI~tOVANIYE L~DA (Radar Sounding of Ice),
Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, i975, 63 pages. -
3. Bogorodskiy, V. V., Txepov, G. V., Fedorov, B. A., TENZORNYYE ELEKTRO-
MAGNITNYY~~SVOY5TVA GLETCHERNOGO L~DA (Tensor Electromagnetic Propert-
ies of Glacier Ice), TRUDY AANII (Transactions of the Arctic and Antaxc-
tic Scientific Research Institute), Vol 295, pp 120-123, 1970.
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4. Bn~~rod~ki.y, V. V., Kliokltlov, P., "Ac:dusCic Chnr~cr~r~.~eic~ n� I~~
Und~r S~~ric prEegur~," AKUS~YCN1:SKtY 711U~tNAL (Acdug ~i~g J~urn~.l) ,
Vn1 XIZI, Nn I, pp 1~-22, 19G7.
5. Dogc~rodgkiy, V. V., ~'~dnrnv, A.~ "Radar Snund~.ng df Gl~ci.ers on
Severnay~? zeml,ya," '~RUDY AA1V~I, Vol 295, pp 5-16, 1970.
6. Gnvnrukh~, L. S., Ivenov, V~ V., Chiztinv, (J. P., "W~C~r Reguu~ne~ ef
Glaciera and the Glac~.a1 Runo�� of Che Arcti3.n," PRODLCrtY ARKTIKI I
ANTARKTIKI (Pro~letns of the Arceic ~nd Ane~rneic), Nn 45, pp 5-12, 1974.
7. MIROVOY VODNYY BALANS I VOnNYY~ ItESUItSY Z~MLI (Wdr1d tJnCer Bglgnce ~nd
Wat~er Reaources of the Egrth), Leningrad, uldrometieoizdat, 1974~ 638
pgges.
3. RUKOVODSTVO PO SOSTAVLENIYU KATALOGA LEDNIKOV SSSIt (Manuel for Preparing
Caealogue of the G1aCiers of the USSR), Leningrgd, Gidrometeoizdar,
1966, 154 pggeg.
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I~c1k t)1~'1~ I(; I,V, IISL c1NI,Y ~
UDC 551.(465.7:513)(27) ~
i
SYNOPTIC CONDXTIONS ~OR CHANG~S IN pOSI'TI~N 0~"TK~ GULF STREAM ,
Mogcnw M~TEOROLOGIYA I GIU1tOLOGIYA in Russi~n No 11, Nov 1978 pp 78-82
[Article by C~ndidate of Geographical. Science~ V. P. Kapralova, Odeesa .
Uivision StaCe Oceanographic institute, eubmitt~d for publication 1 M~rch
1978)
Abaeract: Using the cnefficienes of expanainn
iu Chehyshev polynomials, a study was made of
Ch~ peculiarities of variabiliCy uf the pres-
eure field over the Gulf Stream for differene
Cypes of atmospheric processes in Che A. I. '
Sorkina clasaification. mhe arricle defines
the principnl synoptic situaCions prevailing
when there are c~nsiderable fluceuations of i
the Gulf Stream axis. ~
[Text] Despite the obviousneas of the general relationships between circul-
~tion of the ocean and the atmosphere and the fnct that the principal .
changes in velociCy, direction and geographical distribution of some
l,ranches of oceanic circulation are relgted to atmospheric processes,
in many cases it is nevertheless difficult to explain the details of
spatial-temporal variability of ocean currents. This is particularly char-
acteristic for such a current in the temperaCe latitudes as the Gulf Stream,
which is a typical western boundary currenC with an easterly extension
the North Atlantic Current.
'l'i~e problem of Clie interrelationship between the.Gulf Stream and the process-
~~s transpiring in the atmosphere has atCracted the attention of many re-
:~earchers, but by virtue of its complexity and the inadequacy of regular
Lnstrumental observations of the current it has not yet been studied ade-
quately and requires further special investigations.
lJe carried out a comparison of the pressure fields with prolonged observa-
Cions of the Gulf Stream for clarifying the relationship between the spatial
and temporal variability of the position of the Gulf Stream and the pecul-
iarities of atmoapheric circulation in different seasons of the year.
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' i~t)k t~l~ t~ I t; I~1L Uyl, c1NI,Y
~\g rhe it~lr3u1 m~~~ri~l we uc~ecl eti~ mhnm m~nChly vnluce nC ehe poeiti.un
n~ rhh aurr~nr r~xi.H ~e ~hc~ m~ridi~~ng 80, 75, 70, 6S ~nd GO�lJ duzing 1966-
1y73, nbr~in~d h,y Ye. llnrnnov [1],~~nd eh~ mcnm m~nrhly pr~sgur~ �ialds ~
rie ge~ l~vel nver ~hc~ Nnrehw~sr~rn AC1~nCiC during ehi~ ~nme perind [2J~
A~ AQC
1? ~
0, 4 ~
e ~
~ o ~
~ S6 Jc 4 fn 6 f6 SQI J6 r
r, ; ~
~
_ ~~~~_So ~ -O,f ~
~ J6 ? Ja 1Q S6 16 4 S `
-4 Aor \
\
4
A~o ?
4 ~ ~Q
~ 4 Jv 6 fu 56 Sa ~ dd 2 -
.
�
~ fo Sc 36 2 6 f6~~Ja 4.!6 -4
? ~
-4 ~
-0
..~p ~
Fig. 1. Values of Aiy coefficients for different types of atmospheric cir-
culation according Co A. I. Sorkina classificaCion. ~
All tlie deviations of the Gulf Stream axis from the mean monthly values
during tt~e menrioned period were divided into three groups: I-- small
((1~1U' In longitude), II intermediate (11-29' in longitude` and III
~~nnsiderable 30' in longiCude). The breakdown found w~s: small 36Y,
intermedinte about 40% and considerable deviaCions 24% of the cases.
It wc~s est.~blished earlier (1~ that the greatest deviations in the axis of
thr current to the nortt~ or to the south of the meart position, equal to 2.5-
'3� in longitude, are noted in the eastern part of the currenC (from Cape
llatteras to the traverse of Sable Island).
I~or an analysis of the intraannual changes in the position of the Gulf
Stream axis we reckoned the frequency of recurrence of its deviations from
the mean monthly "norm" by seasons.
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~n?~ nrt~tr,r.~~t, us?; orrt,Y
't'Mble 1~:haw~ ~hnc in el~e y~u~~nnl vurtnCic~n eh~ ~r~.1Ce~yt Erec~u~ncy n~
r~currenc~ ~f ~~ngid~xnhl~ dcviuCi~ns nC ~he curren~ nxi.g ~t 70�W ig nb-
~erv~d ~.n winCer nnd ~ummer ( 29% o f CI?~ cuqey in eprmedi~t r~ devl.uCJ.nns ~
in wineer, und sma1L in summer (46% df Che caseg).
'Che gregrest frequ~ncy of ~ecurrence of. Cu1f 5~ream deviae~.ons ro eh~ north, "
bdeh in ehe w~~tern (frnm F'~orirl~ 5Cr~tr to Cnpe Hatt�~:r~~) ~nd in the easC-
crtt pnrtp nf th~ aurren~,i~ noted in rhe wurm senson of. eh~ year, rhut is,
the Gulf Str~am is displnced tio the norrhw~~C, cl.oser to ehc shoreg of Clie ; i-
- IdorCh Americnn contin~nC. In winCer ~he currene in its w~etern pnrt h~s c~
eendency ~n be deflQCted to ehe gouth, ehati is, the Gulf Strcnm devigt~s
from ehe shorc, being displuced en tti~ southegst, in the direction of ehe ,
np~n ocean. Table 1 '
~requency di ttecurrence of neviaeinne nf Gu1� SCream Axis from Menn
Monehly "Nnrm" (70�W)
Z~iK:lUlll'IIIIN C~~MKIIA I'uni~~CtpNM~
CCJOH MBJIW@ CpC~H~le I 3t184NTClib� ,
1 (Ut ~-~~~~1 ~ Fj 3p~~ ? ~
5
~ 3~~Na . . . : 25 46 29 ,
BecNa 38 ~42 20
g Jlero . . . . 46 38 16
g Ocetib . . . . 38 33 29
Key: 6. Winter
1. Season
2. DeviaCions of Gul� Stream axis 7. Spring
3. small 8. Summer
4. intermediate 9. Autumn
S. considerable
'l't~e ~reate~tt freyuency of recurrence of deviaCions of the ~astern part of -
t}~c c:urrent to the souci~ fs noted during the transitionul seasons: in
ti~~ring and nutumn (28 nnd 26% of the cases respectively), and in summer
;~nd wintc~r is identical (23% of all cases each).
These conclusions are enti.rely satisfactorily explained on the basis of
the general circulation conditions in this region.
The dependence between the peculiarities of the pressure field over the
iJorthwestern Atlantic and atmospheric circulation over the North Atlantic
sector in general was investigated using the expansion of the mean monthly
pressure fields over the Gulf StYeam using P. L. Chebyshev polynomials.
During the mentioned period for all types of atmospheric circulation in �
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rh~ A. I. Sorkinn c1~ga~.finnC~,nn [5] w~ ~gcar~Ained ehe vnlue~ o~E Che mosC
inEorm~tive ~xpnnsion cn~i~~.cienC~ A~~.
It wns f~und that fnr the cneffir.ienCs A~, , hnving a definiCe phy~ianl
y~ns~, ~.ti is poss~Ule ro deE~.ne ehe ~rinc~~n~. nombin~tiona of rypes of at-
maspheric circul~eion. ~~ch of ehe combtnaCiona corresponds to i~s owr:
level of expan~ion coef�icients differenr from oChera (~ig. 1).
' Tab1.e 2
Dependence B~tween 'I'ypes o� ACmnspheric
CirculaCion According to [Sj and the
AO1~A10 PgrameCer
CirculaCion types A01~A10
3a, 3b 14.29-14.12
2, Sa 8.04-5.3~
h, lb, 4 3.28-1.71
Sb, la 1.1-0.6
The greatesC variationa nr~ e:cperi.enced by ehe values of the coeff~cients
App and Apl, characrerizing, as is well known [4], t,he mean pressure field
and Che meridional trans�er of air masses.
Subtype 3b and Cype 2 are charactetized by Che maximum value of the A~~ co- `
efficient.
The coefficient Apl attains a maximum value with meridional type 4.
The coefficient Alp, characterizing latitudinal transfer, assumes a maximum
value for synoptic subtype la.
� An increased level of the A20 coefficient is noted for subtypes Sb and 3a.
Table 2 gives what in our opini~n are quite clear combinations of types (sub-
types) of atmospheric circulation for one of the Ai~ complexes: in the form
of the ratio of the ineensity of ineridional transfer to the inCensity of lat-
itudinal circulation (AO1~A10~�
In winter with type 3 there is an increase~ meridionality of atmospheric
processes characterized by a maximum value of the meridionality index Ao1/
~10� For summer circulation subtypes (la, lb) there is a predominance of
small Apl/A10 values.
In order to characterize the synoptic conditions for significant spatia:-
temporal variationa of the Gvlf Strea~ we listed the dates of considerable
0.5� in longitude) deviations of the axis of the current from the mean
monthly values ("?torms") for 1966-1973 and examined the synoptic siLuations
[2
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{~Olt c~i~l~ iC1 AI~ U51: (~NI,Y
under which th~b~ vuriaCions were obaer.ved ~o ehe north nnd souCh. Uee wne
m~de o� ehe ~lrendy menrioned classiEication (5] ~nd long-Cerm data on the
inCenai~y and mi.gYation of Che Icelandic Low und Che Azores 11igh (3j.
Cnngidergbl~ devintinns of ehe wcyCern par~ of Che Gulf SCrenm to the norCh
(0.9�-1.2� in langiCud~) in wirirer are observed in ~ype ~b under the in�1.u-
enc~ of the enuthweatern pnre nf Ch~ Canadiam m~ticyclun~ or its nucl~us.
'rhe Canadian anCicyclone (1025 mb) is sra~ionury over Che Nortih American
conrinenC; iCa ridge exCend~ in a souttieasrerly direction towgrd the ocegn ~
eo Che meridian GS�W. An independenC nucleus with a preesure aC the cenCer _
of 1025-1030 mb is fo~cned frequenely in the mentioned ridge in rhe region
32�N, 67-70�W: ~
The intensiry of the Icelandic mt;iimum, as g rule, is 4--6 mb greater than
the mean long-term norm (for exfimple, by 5.8 mb in February 19G8); its cen-
ter is situ~ted to the sduCheast of Greenland and Che trough exCenda to 40�
N.
f`i~-rri ~or: ~oro r,Z ~a~o,~ � ru~o ~~o~s` ~
r. H - ' j t ~ ~n%~ ~ - o?s
~ . Ir
8 ; g, ;,rY ;i ~
~ ~ 10~ ' ~S ~ ' ~ H J~;~
H ,
i ~ , \ / ~ ~ ~ ' ~
,
i j ~o.o : i ~ ' ~ ~oto
I ~ \ ~p !
N ~ ~ to2~T ~
~ ~ '
I B 1
i
r , ; f.-
i ' ~ o
- i ~ i
! .:fO7~.J
~ ~or3 ~Ors
, ~ o
Fig. 2. Synoptic situation for considerable deviations of Gulf Stream axis
to north in summer.
The Azores anticyclone is situated to the west of the Strait of Gibraltar;
pressure at the center is close to ehe mean long-term value or less by
4-5 mb.
The eastern part of the current is deflected in winter to the north (0.6-0.8�
in longitude) in the ~ase of type 4 under the influence o� the leading part
of the trough or the particular cyclone (1010 mb) of the Icelandic Low.
The axis of the trough extends in a southwesterly direction from Newfoundland
ro the Florida peninsula. The anomalies in depth of the Icelandic Low vary
from 4.9 mb (in December 1968) to 13.8 mb (in February 1969). The Azores
~ High over the western half of North America is almost destroyed; its center
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t~~o?z c~i~rtr,r.n~, us~ oNt.Y
with n pr~saure of 1027.5 i.g ~itunCed uC gbouti 40�N, 25�tJ. 'Th~ nnom~lie~ `
Ln Che inCenAihy nf. ChC Aznr.cs nnCir.yc.lcme vcir.y f;rom -3. ~ Cn -9, ] mb.
Conaider~bl~ (up Co 1� in longitude) devi~t:Luns of the Gulf Seream nxie Co
the aouCh in winCer are notied in Che case of subtype 3b and Cype G under
Ch~ inf].uance oE Che ~pur or nucleus of tihe Canadian ~nticycrone toiCh iCe
cenCer (1,020 mb) over ehe sourheastern states of rhe Un~.eed Statea.
The 'Lc~landic Low (995 mb ~t its cenrer) is s~.eunted over the Norwegian
, Sea and ita Crough over N~w�oundland usuttl:ly forms a pareicular cyclone.
The anomalies of intensity of the Icelandic Low in Che Azores High in
casea of considerable migrations o� the Gulf Stre~m axis to the south vary
in a broAd range.
In winCer, wieh a predominance of typ~ 3 of uemoapheric circulaC~on,between
Che posiCion of rhe Gulf Stream axis and the index ot meridion~lity A01~A10
there ia found tio be a synchronous correla~ion (correlation coe�~ient 0.45).
Considerable (0.6-1.2� in longitude) deviations of the western part of the
Gulf Stream to the norCh in summer (Fig. 2) most frequently occur in syn-
optic type 1 uttder Che influence of the wes~erly ridge of the Azores High,
occupying alm~s~ all of the North Atlantic. The pressure at the center
(35�N, 40�W) in the Azores High is greater than the mean long-term value; -
its i.ntensity ~nomalies ~vary from 1.4 to 4.2 mb.
- T.he Icelandic Low is traced in the ~orm of parCicular cyclones over the
tiorthern peninsula of Labrador anct Iceland; pressure at the center is with-
in normal limits (1006-1009 mb).
In summer considerable deviations in the positiion of the Gulf Stream to the
south (0.5-0.8�) at 70�W are noted with type 1(subCypes a and b) under the
influence of the Xear part of the trough of the Icelandic Low or a partic-
ular cyclone siCuated to the northeast of Che Labrador peninsula,with
their interaction wiCh the ridge or Che nucleus of the Azores High over the
southeastern staCes in the United States. The Icelandic Low is weakened; its
intensity anomalies are -3.9 (in June 1968) and -4.4 mb (in July 1971). The
~lzores High (1024 mb at th~ center), exCensive in area, occupies almost the
entire North Atlantic, except for the region to Che north ~f Che 45th paral-
lel.
Thus, the results of our investigation give an additional confirmation of
the definite interrelationship between variations in the position of the
Guif Stream and atmospheric circulaCion during different seasons of the
year.
The detected peculiariCies in atmospheric processes in the case of consid-
erable variations in position of the Culf Stream can be used in routine
c~ork in the hydrometeorological servicing of navigation, and also in fur- _
ther work on prognostic recommendations for comanercial fishing regions in
the N:,rthwesteYn Atlantic.
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13II3LI~GItAp1iY
1. Baranov, Ye. I., Kapralov~, V. "Variu~ions in the Gu].f SCream Axie
in Dependence on ~he NaCure of Atmospt~~~ric Ni~r~t'11~p~56~62,~1977~tOGIYA
I GIDROLOGIYA (Met~orology and Hydr.ology), ~
2. SINOPTICH~5KIYE BYULL~TENT S~VERNOGO PO~USH~'?FtTYA (Synoptic Bu:llet~.ns G
for the Northern Hemiapherd), 1'art III, Moscow, MTsA, 1966-1973.
l_
3. SINOPTICH~SKIY BYULL~TEN' SEVERNOGO POLUSHAItIYA. PRILO'Lt~I~NIYE No 2(Syn- .
~ optic Bulletin for the Northern Hemisphere. Appendix No 2), ediCed by ,
A. I. Sorkina, Moacow, MTaD, pp 3-7, 1972.
4. 5on'kin, A. R., "RelaCionsh'ip Between the Intensity of Zonal Transfer _
Over the American Sec~:~~; and Sur~ace Preasure Characteri~tica," TRUDY
GGO (Transactiona oi the Main Geophysical Observatory), No 181, pp 80-
A3, 1965.
Sorkina, A. I., "Types of Atmospheric CirculaCion in Wind Fields Qver
the NorChern Yart of the Atlantic OceanNo 84,~ppG5I13L(T1965gC~ions
of the 5Cate Oceanographic Institute), ,
~
. ~
9
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UDC 556.54
'1'HREE- AND T4J0-UIMENSIONAL MODELS OF SPItEAD~NG OUT OF RIVEIt vISCHARGE
UPON ENTRY INTO THE 5EA
y Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in ltuasian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 83-92
[Article by Candidate o~ Geogrttphical Sciences 0. I. Samsonov, Moscow A�-
filiate of the Lening~ad Instituee of Waeer TransporCation, submitted for
publication 27 February 1978]
Abstrace: The article gives an analysis o~
the possibility of ehree-dimensional model-
ing of complex cases of hypopycnal apreading
out of river disc~arge upon enCry into the
sea. The author ahows Che applicability of
two-dimensional models for describing the
tiomopycnal discharge. A sCudy is made of
tiorizonCal circulation in a riv~r ~et spread-
ing out in differenC direction~. A meChod
for calculating the 3et unde:: these condi-
tions is gi~ren,
[Text] When there is a considerable broadening of a channel in a place
where there is a change in the boCtom profile, at a place where a river
enters ~nto the sea and in other cases it is necessary to deal with river
flows which are partially or completely detached from the solid bed.
knowledge of the sCructure and dynamics of detached flows is necessary
when invesCigating reformings of bar shoals, the silting of navigable
channels, erosion of the lower pools at hydroelectric complexes, and in
solving some ecological probletns. In many problems related to detached
currents it is necessary to tr~ke into accounC the density sCratification -
o� the waters: intrusion of a wedge of saline waters into the river mouth,
propagation of a 3eC of impurity in a water body, designing of cooling
~~onds for thermal and atomic electric power stations, etc. Detached cur-
rents as a rule have a very complex sCructure. Frequently they are three-
dimensional and nonstationary.
According to observations made at thP. n.outh of the Mississippi [18], a
river ~et spreads out into the sea as an "in~ected" layer above the sal-
ine sea water, which in the fon;, of a pycnocline penetrates into the river
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ch~nnel, aometimeg fnx great diseances ~rom .r.he maurh. The spre~ding oue
tihe river ~1ow ~.s ~ccompanied by its th:tnn~.ng, which leads~ntern~l$en-
eraCi.on of waves aC the discanCinuity b~tween ehe ewo media.
waves uti a digCanGe n� four-six chnnne~. widthg lose their ~tability, r~re
de~rroyed and are ~n~roduced intio the river flow. Th�Ls causes ineensive
vertical mixing. The diva:Lgerir.e nf Eluw ae Che surface in combina~inn
with the intrusion of s~l:tne watcrs ~.nLo Che r:~ver �1ow cause:~ a secnnd-
t~xy convergence A~ the dLscot~tinuiey ~f Che twn media gnd somewhae below ;
iC. This gives ri~~ rn a"Cwo-epiral" vereica~. circulntinn. A similar, but
fYequentl.y more complex charr~cter of currenta was also oUserved ati Che
mouths of othar rivers (11, ].z].
L'nril recenCly in our cnutttry and abroad us~ has been made of simpl:tfied
_ models of two-dimensional steAdy-sL�~te 3preadirig ou~, m~king use of rel-
seiv~l.y simple equations. But a Cwo-dimensional mode,l is not adequate
�or the ~usC-menCioned case, and as will be demonstrated be~.ow, many o~her
c~ses of a current in the mouth r~gion nf a river.
' The following conclusion can becent~ears~in~ourycountrye Thedset of exV _
er mouths carried out during re y
iating models is extremely small. Models of detuched currenes are lacking
�or conditions of tides out ofvriverhwaters~,ethere is noureliablecmodel ~
nonisothermic spreading
' of a current in stratified flows, etc.
The prevailing siCuaCion is attributable not on.ly to a shorCage of actual ;
observational data, but also primarily to the fact that up to Che present ~
time maChemaCical modeling hns not been playing its proper role in invest-
igaCing river mouths. In any plan for solving many problems relating to
u mouth region it is necessary to combine field measurements with physical
and mathemaCical modeling. In this connection, it seems desirable to employ
the following complex approach to mouth problems:
1. Organization of preliminary expeditions for sCudying the boundary and
initial conditions for the mathematical modeTessureh~salinityiandstemper-
Cions, measurements of the velociey field, p
ature at mouth stations, and also on the boundaries of interaction between
the river jet and the sea current, air flow and bottom of the water body,
eCc.).
2. It is economical to employ a physical model (laboratory experiment) for
studying the turbulent exchange of matter, momentum, heat and oCher sub-
sCances.
3. A mathematical model (results of numerical solution of equations) can
be used in determining the most important sectors for future field invest-
igations (zones of water circulation, zones of maximum concentration of
an impurity, temperature, salinity, etc.) and for checking a system of
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~hyN1CA1 models.
Such a reaearch approach makes maximum uae of the poss3bilities of comput-
~Cions, experimen~aCion and field measuremen~s. T� the model has been de-
veloped in accordance with the plan presented here, Chere w~.11 Ue assur-
ance of the reliability of the predictions obCained on itis basis, both tihe
hydrological predictions, assoc~.aCed, For example, with a decrease 3n Che
level of the receiving basin or the removal of parC of the river runoff
for iCa diversion to ar~.d regions, and also morphological predictions, as-
sociaCed wiCh the reforming of bottom relief forms in the mouth region of
a river.
As a resul~ of accumulation of experimental and field daCa and broadening
o~ the computation,possibilities (use of electronic computiers) iC has now
, become posaible to change over to tihree-dimensional models, describing
~oinely the effects of expulsion of rhe river floca by the sea, inertia,
eurbulent exchang~ and pressure. From these models, by means of neglecting
factors which are not decisive under specific condieion3, it is possible
to obtain simpler two-dimensionr~l models. The first step in this direction
is an evaluaCion of the contribution of individual forces to Che general
motion of Che river ~et.
The principal forces under whose influence there will be an undetached current
in the channel and which are taken into account in a two-dimensional model
are the components of the inertial force
u aX ~ ~u ~ u ~X ~ ~ ~v ,
Y Y
in the horizontal plane XOY, bottom friction and the gravitational force g,
offset by the vertical pressure gradient 1 dP
(the laCter circumstance makes iC possible n two-dimensional problems to
replace'the 1~X and 1 aP
P P y
values by the longitudinal and transverse gravity components
_ 8 ~x and g ~
H
Y
crhere H is depth).
[Here and in the text which follows the u, v, w denote the components of
current velocity W; all the ~orces are relaeed to a unit mass; the bottom
of the water body :~s assumed to be plane and horizontal; the origin of the
rectangular Cartesian system of coordinates is at the middle of the bottom
traverse at the mouth station; the XOY plane coincides ~aith the bottom; the
Z axis is directed upward.]
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~o~ o~~trznr. us~ oNt,~c .
In detnched currenCs the fnrces rauaed hy Curbulent mixing ot ~he watiers
in the hnrizonta~. ~wl.th deeachment from Che shores) and veYtica~. (with de-
Ther~:~ore,
Cachment from the botCom) direct~.ons assume deci~ive importance. .
ln an invest3~aCion of such currenre iC is impo:~sible ro empl.oy Che aimplify-
:tng a~sumptions oE the theoxy of a r.hree-d~.mensional ~ound~Ly~ layer (npglect-
ing the compotten~ ~f iner.Cia1 force in ~ vertiical di.recCion znd the der~',1-
tives of shear3ng stresses ~.n ttie coordinu~es x and y). Yn a gener~l cASe
it is impossible as we1.L to neglecC Che iner~ial terms
W~u and W c~ z
~
since in a river ~et spread3.ng out 3n the straeified waCera of a w~ter body
(which can have its own cur;~ent) it is common Co observe cnneiderable ver- .
tical currents caused by Che diEference in rhe densities of the flows (itt
the presence of density differ.ences ~ravitiy is not counterbalanced by the
vertical pressure gradient and tharefore it is impossible to replace Che
values y aH and ~H ) �
1~ P and 1~ P b g
P ~Y ay aX av
Now we will investigate in greater detail all the possible cases of the
spreading out of a river ~et in Che flowing waters of a receiving waCer
body. I� Che denaity of waters in a river and in a water body are virtually ,
constant values (P i and ~ body ~ const), then, adhering to Bates [14],
it is possible Co d~f~erentiate three types of inflow: homopycnal (F riv -
P Y~ypopycnal ~ P riv ~ p body~ ~ and hyperpycnal ( p xiv > P body> > rarely _
body
encountered in nature. In the two latiter cases, the ~eC is acCed upon by
an additional force. In the case of hypopycnal inflow it is directed up-
ward and favors buoyancy of the 3et, whereas in the case of hyperpycnal
inflow it is directed downward, favoring iCs "sinking." In Che presence
of density straCification in a river and a receiving water body the picCure
is greaCly complicated. Expressions of the type "the densiey of riv~r waters
is less than the density of waters in the water body" become uncertain and
even wiCh the introduction of some characteristic density values (such as
the mean, maximum and minimum values for each flow) iC is impossible to de-
scribe the behavior of a river ~et in a water body in all theoretically
possible cases.
For a11 practical purposes, however, Che differenct in densr*ies at differ-
ent points in the flow is usually a small value, about 0.1-2%. And al-
though this small densitiy difference can substantially change the struc- _
ture and dynamics of the flows, neve~remelossthe Batesaclassb~icationaap~
"sinking" of the ~et it is useful t p y
~licable to mean P riv and P body values of flow densities. But here it
is necessary to be very careful. ,
'Che following cases are frequently encountered in actual practice.
Direct (stable) density stratification of a fluid characterized by a density .
incresse with depth. DirecC density stratification can be caused by saline
waters present in the bottom region, the presence of sediment-saturated
103 ~
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~l~w~, which beh~v~ ~g a h~mn~~nenu~ ~lu~.cl wi.Ch u dEn~iey gr~geer ehun rhe
deneity n~ pur~ w~t~x, by a d~cre~~c in eh~ d~n~i.ty nf eh~ ~urf~ce 1~yer~
na a reault o� natural (~ol~r r~dinei.~n) and artiific3.~1 (di~ch~rge of
thermgl w~ste wc~ter~) heating. Zn ~ Reably ~erarified med3.um eh~ riv~r
- ~~t will be actad upon by A liEe not only ~,n rhe cag~ o� aver~g~ hypc~-
py~n~~ ~
P riv
< P bo ~ in�low, buC also in th~ cae~ of homopycnal in-
flow ( ~y
p r~.v � P body �
Inver~e (uneC~ble) dengiey ~erueificn~ion of n fluid ~h~r~er~rized by a
decrense in density with depeh. An inver~e sCxaCi�3.caCion n� a tluid i~
usually observed in �resh warer basing. Ie is u~uaLiy cguse~l by g waCer
rempQrature inveraion in winCer. Under such conditions the ~.ighter and
warmer riv~r ~~r, as a raeulC of mixing with the eold w~ter df Che re-
ceiving wa~~r bddy and a d~creae~ in eemp~rarur@, ~om~eim~~ tn 4�C, will
drop downward at eome distance frotn the ~iCe ~f inflow. A"deepening" nf
the 1ighCer ~er of impuriey was obe~rved in Lake bgykal (4~. A~ noeed in
thie ~tudy, the deepening of the ~et in the case of a hypopycnal (p <
P bod ~nd egpecially in the Caee of homopycnnl riv bod ~~n~~�w~
ie po~sible when Chere ie a temperature inversion alsn under mar~ne condi-
t3ons. It is only necessary that the saliniCy of Che s~a water b~ leg~
than 24.7�/00 (in Chis case ehe warmer and more saline batCom 1~yera can
i~ave a lesser density the leag r3aline and colder are the surface layera).
The dee~~ening of the river ~et in the caae of hypopycnal inflow into an
unatabl~~ stratified basin occura, firat of a11, as a result nf a tempera-
ture dec~rease due to the mixing of river waters with the colder watere of
the basin and evaporation from the surface, and second, due eo the enrrain-
ment of the ~et into a vertical convection current. Convection is always
obaerved in unatably atratified media. It is characterized by a sin'ting of
the denser masses and the rising of lighCer masses; this leads eo an evcn-
ing-out of deneiti~~s, temperature and salinity. It Cherefore follows t;~at
for an investigation of ~et currenCs in stratified waters it is neces~eary ~
to make use not only of the equation of motion, but also the equatiot~g for
the diffusion of ealinity (or other componer~) and thermal conductivity.
A stable stratification of Waters caus~s a decrease in the exchangz c~f
' l~eat, mgtter and momentum primarily in A~~ertical direction. Unstable
stratification causes intenaive vertical exchange in the water layer.
This leads to an asymmetric spreading out of the river jet in the sCraC-
ified waters. In the first case the normal section of the ~et Will be
elongated in a horizontal direction (the vertical dimensions are les~
than the horizonCal dimensions), and in the second case in a vertical
direction.
'Thus, in an invesCigation of the problem of the spreading ~aut of river
flow upon enCry into the sea in a ge:~era1 formulation we have no basis
for neglecting any one component of the tensor of turbuler~t stresses or
any component of the vectors of inertial forces and pressuz~. The only sim-
pliEication which can be made here is the following. Since in all cases of
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prnceiC~1 ~mportinn~c :"ar r.ivEr r.urrenta and Clf~~pt1CN in wae~r bodi~~ tlie
d~nsity ch~ng~~ littl~, with ~ cunv~rt~i.an frnm ehe Navie~-Sthk~~ pqu:.tions
to th~ av~rag~d equationq ~f turbul~nt maeihn nnd in eha derivatiun o� th~
rontinuiCy, difEuginn ~?nd tharmal conduct;tv~,ty equ~tidn~ ie i~ passib].e ro
negl~cC th~ d~neity change; then w~ nbCain the .Eol~dwing gy~eam of equa-
tions in parei~l derivativ~~, d~~cribing rhr~~Ndimengiondl aon~teady non-
i~neh~rmic flow of ~n inhomdgen~oug incompres~l.b1~ flu~.d:
~W ;0
- - (c ~t1 w P ~x v d~ ~ tly ~~y tly ~
~ a r a~ 1
tl: ~st a:
oi = - H~ - N~~.
It is interesting that ~.n the case of a d~.rect flow= as follows from (14),
when the current ceases in ~he axi.al part, the current retains its init:tal
direction at the sides of the ~et. As noted above, in cases of counterflow
the return current forms first in the marginal parts of the ~et. Thus, each
of these cases corresponds to a circulation of the opposite direction. The
circulations investigated here theoretically were observed by the author
on the bars in Tazovakaya Guba (bay). Computations by the proposed method
were made separately for river zone waters using formula (14) and for a
zone of mixed waters using formula (13).
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BZBLIOGRAI'EIY
1. 13ueaknv, A. N., "CnmpuCaCion of Curr~nCs for a Case o� Sudd~n ~xpgn-
sion ot a Flow," hi~T~OROLOGIYA I GID1tOLOGIYA (Me~eoro~ogy ~nd Hydrol.-
ogy), No 11, pp 70~76, 1970.
Gin~vskiy, A. S. TEORIYA TURIIULENTNYKH STItUY I 5I,~DOV (Theory o~ Turbu-
~enr SCreams nnd Wgkeg), Moscow, "Mash~.nostiroyen~.ye," pp 62-146, 1.969.
3. Gristin~.tin, K. V., DINAMIKA RUSLI~VYKH POTOKOV (Dynami.cs of C,h~nttel ~lnws),
Leningrad, Gidromet~o~.zdtte, pp 225-281, 1969.
4. Zhurbas, V. M., "Znvestigation of Che PaCrerns of Propagntinn of Tur-
bulenC Streama of an Impurity ~.n the Se~," AuChor's Summary of Thesis
for Award of Academic Degr~e of Candidaee of Physical ~nd Mgthematical
Sciences, Moscow, Inetitute o� Oceano~ogy, 1977, 18 pages.
5. Karaushev, A. V., "Problems in Fluvial Hydraulics," RECHNAYA GIDRAVLIKA
I RUSLOVYYE PROTSESSY (Fluvi~l Hydraulics and Channel Procesaes), P~rC
I, Moscow State University, pp 25-33, 1976.
6. MikhAylov, V. N., '~Dynamics of a River ~Cream Flowing into a Water Body,"
TRUDY GOIN (TransacCions of the SCate Oceanographic Institute), No 45,
' pp 73-90, 1959.
7. Mi.khaylov, V. N., Rogov, M. M., Makarova, T. A., Polonskiy, V. F.,
DINAMIKA GIDROGRAFICHESKOY SETI NEPRILIVNYKH UST~YEV REK (Dynamics
of the Hydrographic Network of NonCidal River Mouths), Moscow, Gidro-
meteoizdat, Moscow, Gidrometeoizdat, pp 96-131, 1977.
8. Prandtl, L., GIDROAERODINAMIKA (Hydroaerodynamics), Moscow, IL, pp 157-
192 and 527-569, 1951.
9. Samsonov, 0. I., "pn the Problem of Calculating Runoff Currents in a
Mouth Zone," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA, No 8, pp 60-61, 1971.
10. Seleznev, V. M., "Plane Problems in Fluvial Hydraulics," RECHNAYA GID-
RAVLIKA I RUSLOVYYE PItOT5ESSY (Fluvial Hydraulics and Channel Processes),
Part 2, MGU, pp 43-60, 1976.
11. Simonov, A. I., "Hydrology and HydrochemisCry of the Mouth Reach of a
River," TRUDY GOIN (Transactions of the State Oceanographic ?nstitute),
No 92, 1969, 230 pages.
12. 5kriptunov, N. A., GIDROLOGIYA PREDUST'YEVOGO VZ1~R'YA VOLGI (Hydrology
of the Mo~uth Reach of the Volga), Moscow, Gidrometeoizdat, 1958, 144
pages.
13. Schlichting, G., TEORIYA POGRANICHNOGO SLOYA (Boundary Layer 'i'tteory),
Moscow, "Nauka," pp 649-690.
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14. l3atea, C. C., "itational Theory nE De1Cn ~drmation," AMEtt. ASSOC. PETROL.
GEOL. BULL., Vol. 37, No g~ pp 21~.9-2161, ~953.
15. Schmi.dt, W., "Der Maesennu~Caugch :Ln freier LuNA~bur Ve ~25~L118~pagesn
ungen, ~ROBLEM~ ri~lt KOSMISCK~N PHYSIK, nd 7,
lu. Stolzenb~?ch, K. D., Harlemnn, n. K., "Thrae-Dimension~L Heated Sur�gc~
Jeta,~~ WATER R~SOUR. R~S., Vol 9, Nn 1, pp 129-137, 1973. i
17. Waldrop, W. R., Farmer, R. C., "Three-Dimension~l Computation of Buoy-
ant ~lumea," JGR, Vol 79, No 9, pp 1269-127G, 1974.
18. Wright, L. D.~ "Sediment Transport and Deposition at River M~ouChs: A
SynChesis," GEOLOG. SOC. AMER. BULL., Vol 88, pp BS7-8b8, 1977'.
i
i
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UDC 556. 565 (5 71..12)
FREEZING ~F LOWLAND 5WAMPS AND THE INFLU~NCE OF THEIR DRAZNAGE ON THE
UEPTH OF FItEE2ING
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Ruesian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 93-100
[Article by I. M. Romanova, T;�umen' Hydrumetieorolog~.ca1 Obaervatnry, eub-
mitted for publication 1 February 1978~
Abstract: In this article, for the firat time
for Che cnnditions prevailing in the sou~hern
part of Tyumenskaya Oblast, the author given
An analysis and generalization of materials on
the freezing of a peat deposit in undrained low-
land swampa. I~ was poasible Co obeain the prin-
cipal quantiCative characteristics determining
the freezing procesa: thickneas of Che frozen
layer, inCenaity of increase in aeasonal perma-
�rost and thermal index of swamp freezing. The
~ ~?rticle givea a comparisnn of the results with
Che investigaCions of other authors. On the ba-
sis of an analysis of data from parallel observ-
ations it is shown thaC there is a change in the
depth of freezing under the influence of drain-
age and a formula ia deriv~d for computing the
thickness of the freezing layer in the drained
peat deposit.
[TextJ During recent years Che Party and government have been devoting
~reat attention to the prcblem of Che exploitation of swamps and swampy
lands in the nonchernozem zone of the RSFSR. Western Siberia is the
5wampiest region in the Soviet Union. Ninety-six percent of Che territory
of Tyumenskaya Oblast, located in the West Siberian Plain, is occupied by
forests, lakes and swamps. In implemenCing the resolutions of the Party
and government, in 'Iy?umenskaya Oblast specialists are carrying out a great
volume of inelioration work. In the Tenth Five-Year Plan alone, plans call
for the drainage of 30,000 hectares of land. In addition, considerable
:ireas of swamps, drained at the present Cime for the production of peat,
will be puC into the hands of kolkhoz and sovkhoz enterprises in the
oblast. Wl~en using meliorated lands for agricultural crops iC is necessary
to have data on the freezing and thawing of swamps.
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'1'hr Ereezing a~ a~ll ~ind graund nr dif~er~nt mec:hnnicnl Cnmpn~iCion h~~
been investiggeed Eo~ m~r~ rhan 70 years. l~nw~ver, ehe gtudy of Eraezing
n� undrained ~nd swdmpy e~rrieoriQa beggn ret~eivE~.y r~e~ntly. 'I'he iA;ep~-
igut.tons o� A. ll. Uub~kh [5~, A. I'~chkurov and M. A. Kaplan [9],
Uumnnitskiy [4~ ~nd A~ D� Kib~].'chich (7~ ut?d deherg h~v~: est~bliat~ed n
nwnber of peculiariCics in th~ fre~xin~ of aw~mpy. The auChors t�ve empht~-
~ized examination o~ tih~ hydraul.ic-th~rmal prope~Cieg of the frozen 1~yer
og swamps. Since 1953 S, A. Chechkin [18] h~s ct~rr~.ed ouC physicnl~stnC-
iatica]. investigutinns of th~ fr~~xing of swamps for the purpose nf abe~in-
ing ehe qu~nCieative ch~racCeriseics determinin~ til~e prnceas of freezing of ~ ~
the peaC deposit. Ag such characteriseics S. A. Chechkin proposes use of
thicknese of the frozen layer h(cm), inCensity ~f incrense in seasonal
permafrost ~(cm/dgy), and the Chermal index of freezing of swamps Y~(�C/
cm).
AC the present time th~ quantitaCive long-~erm charact~ariseics o� Che freez-
ing of swnmpg, obtai.ned using data from direct meagurementa of the network
c~f swemp staCions, ,lre very limited. Some indirecC evaluations of ttie freez- '
ing of uninvestigat~d eWamPB were carriuanCitativegcharacCeristics ofdCher
itial material. At the same Cime, the q .
parameters h, i and ~ for undrained swamps are of scienCific and practical
interest.
In this connection, in the example o� Che TarmanskiyWgw~aeP ~e~toralnnumber '
~ted Che considered characterisCics of freezing of s p ,
of processed and analyzed data is more than 1,500. 7'he observr~tion points
take in the most characteristic microlandscapes for the invesrigated data
and all types of microrelief; this makes it possible to draw conclusions
concerning the poasibiliCy of using the data obtained below in characCer-
izing the freendaca esSand1Chespeat depositsdingthe�inveatigatedcswamp~is
of the microla P
given in [14, 15]. .
Ubservations of the freezing of an undrained peat depoait in the Tarmanskiy
swamp area have be~n carried out since 1960 in five microlandscapes: hum-
mocky sedge, sedge-hypnospore, hypnospore-sedge-mosaic and swampy-wooded.
'fhe observations characterize low-lying and high-lying sectors of microre-
lief and are carried out once each five days, and during thawing of the
sWamp each day. The measurements of the depth of freezing are made using
a Danilin permafrost meter and using monoliChs.
In the drained sector of the swamp, used for peat production by the cutting
method, observations of freezing are also made once each �ive days in the
middle of the map and once each ten dsyga~e~TOUteroObservationsgare madeCh
20 m. Snow surveys are made along thi .
Jaily during thawing.
The increase in the frozen layer in undrained swamps during the cold season
occurs with differenC snn~tedtduring Chedinitialesutumnewintereperiod.~Withn
of the frozen layer wa
115
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reapect eo eh~ condi.eions .~nr groweh o~ Che ~rnzen l~yer ir i~ easy tio trACe
rwn ppx:tods of freez~,ng which di.E.~er substnneiall.y from one another w~.Ch
xespect ta a whole sex~.es nE quantitative indices. 7.'hie peculiurity o� ehe
freez~.ng pxocess, most chnracrariaric for physingraph~.c re~ions wittt A
stable snnw covex, has been noCed in the ytudies of V. V. Romanov [11.],
5. A. Chechkin [1.8~, And otihera. The ~irat period, characterized by in-
Cena~,ve �reezing, begina from ehe time o~ a seable erans~.tiion of air Cem-
per~Cuze through 0�C to negative values. The end of ~his period coincidea
_ caiCh the formaCion of a sCabl~ anow cover of a definite depeh. According
Co the duCa p ubJ.~,shed by A. G. Gaye1' [3] and P. I. Koloskov for min-
exal soil and ground Che crit~.cal depth of Che snow is ~.5-18 cm. Applicnble
eo undra~.ned swamp deposits, accord~ng Co the investigations of S. A. Chech-
k~.n [18] and U. A. Belotserkovakaya [1], ehis value varies ~.n Che range
5-10 cm..For the conditiona of the Tarmanskiy swamp area Che critical depth
o�~Che snow is 6-8 cm. For mineral soils in this zone it is '12 cm. The dif-
ference in the crieicaL dep~hs of the snow in awamp areas and mtneral soil
is aCtribuCable to the diasimilar mois eening of Che upper layers.
Tab1e 1
Mean Long-Term InCensity of Growth of Frozen Layer (i cm/day)
~ Z Oceub 3 3?+~ta
MHKpona~~,qwac~T 1 nouwwe?+ue 4 I nuuu~teHUeS noDtitwrtuie4 I noite~+ceHNCS
( r~AA0B0�M048?KNHH6111 0,80 O,6J 0,28 0,30
7 OcoKOgo�ninNOe~t~ 1,40 1,10 0,30 0,30
C)COKOBW~ N04N8PHNK . 0,90 I,~U U,2~ U,20
8 rNt11fOD0�OCOK090�M038{iN�
9 u~~ , - 0,70 - 0,25
Key:
1. Microlandscape
2. Autumn
3. Winter
4. increase
5. decrease
6. Ridged-moss
7. Sedge-hypnospore
8. Hummocky sedge
9. Hypnospore-sedge-mosaic
The second period of freezing continues until a maximum depth of freezing
is established. According to Che investigations of S. A. Chechkin [18], in
swamp deposits this period ends 4-8 days earlier than the onset of snow
cover destruction. Our daCa coincide with the results of an analysis by
S. A. Chechkin.
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Above we mentioned the difterence in ehe quun~ieative ch~rgct~r~stica of
~ hc� f rcezinK rxor.cHa durinK r.hc~ ~i r;i r, nnd q~~r.and p~rt ~dy ~ TI~ t~ wu~ ~~nua~d
I~utli by tt~a 11n11S.d@IlL'J,Cfl~. Il('flt~insul~~ii~~ rnlc o~ ~he s~iow cover of diff~r-
enr depCh and by Che cond~,ti,ons of veret,cal d~.ssemin~ation of hea~. in the
~wamp depoR~,t.
In order Co evalur~Ce rhe intensity of increase in Che frozen lnyer we ~arr-
' ied out computtteions of t separ~.tely ~or rhe nuCumn and winCer periods for
ehe entire series of observations. The results of ~he computaeions are. ,
presented ~.n generalized form in Table 1. An annlyais of the data in the
eable shows that a change i.n the intensiey of freezing even in the limits
o,~ one swamp mi.crolandscape durin~ the autumn period is dissimilar. During
this C~.me the greatest rate of �reezing was noted in rhe sedge-hypnospore
microlandscape. The ~reezing proceas Cranspires idenCically in r3dged-mosey
and hypnospore-sedge-mosaic microlandscapes; this is a~sociated with Che
unifornaiCy of conditions for these microlandscapes, exerting an influence
on the freezing of Che peat deposit. In winter the difference in the in-
Censity of freezing, '~oth for different types of microrelief, as we11 as
for different types of microlandscapes, is considerably less; for all in-
tents and purposes tY?e intensity during this period for the entire mass
is identical (0.2-0.3), which is attributable to the influence nf the snow
cover.
A cansiderable role in increase in the thickness of Che frozen layer is
played by the snow cover, which is a good natural heat insulat~rr, safe-
guarding the peat deposit against cooling and thereby protecCing it against
deep freezing. In the Tarmanskiy complex the snow-free peat deposiC freezes
to a depth of. 1.5-2 times greater than under the snow cover. According to
the investigations of S. A. Chechkin [18], applicable Co Che undrained
swamps of the European USSR,these relationships on the average are equal
to 3.5-6.0. In mineral soils and ground, according to the data of a number
of authors [8, 19], the similar relationship is 2.5-4.0.
In order to clarify the role of the snow cover in the freezing of Che prin-
cipal types of awamp microlandscapes, we will examine the values of Che
heat index of swamp freezing ~l.(�C/cm), which is the sum of the negative
mean daily air temperatures necessary for forming a frozen layer with a
thickness of 1 cm [18]. The rl value takes into account many factors in
the state of the active layer at the time of freezing and varies in de-
pendence on the hydrometeorological peculiarities of the year, Che thick-
ness of~Che frozen layer and the physical properties of Che active layer.
Computations of the'?1 values were made for Che au'tumn and winter periods
of freezing. The Y2 value was determined on each day of ineasurements of
thickness of the frozen layer during the entire period of observations
separately for "up" and "down" mic�rorelief elements. In generalized form
the results of the computations are given in Table 2. The table shows
that the ~2 value is dependenC on the depth of the snow cover. The greater
the depth of the snow cover, the gre:ater is the vt value. The influence
~f the snow is confirmed by the ~ values for elevated and depressed
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n
N
mieYc~r~li.~E ~yp~H. ~'~r ~i~v~eian~ eh~ eh~rm~l ind~x ~ rul~ 3~ 1.5-2~5
ei~aeg 1ag~ ehnn in d~pr~~~inn~. 'T11h ~~mpuered d~e~ far eh~ T~cman~k~y cdm-
p~.ex ngr~~ wpl~. wie1~ eh~ inv~~eig~rion~ P. 3~r~bryan~kay~ (17j,
~~rri~d ~u~ �or C~ntrai ~grabg, and A~ G. ~~y~].' ~3~ for eh~ m~~dow ~dii~
nf the noreh~rn Ar~l r~gion. Acc~rding eo d~en pubiish~d by P. I. S~r~br-
y~ngkgy~, eh~ eh~rmnL ind~x fc~r 1c~wj.~nd ~w~~ps during th~ winCpr period
i~ 42�C/cm, for headwater ~wamp~ ~baut 3~�/em, ~eeording to A~ 8. G~y~1'
~bout 37�/nm. ~or Ch~ T~rm~nsk3.y ~w~mp ~r~a ?Z in ~1~v~C~d ~~eeor~ v~~-
ips dur~.n~ ehia ~~m~ per3od from 34 Co 36.8�C/cm, in depr~~~ione fro~a
~8 to 51�C/cm. ~
~~b i~ 2
Mean Long-Term Value of Thermal Index of Fr~ezin~ of Sa~mp~ (YZ� C/rm)
Oc~~u, 3 3~~Ma
A'INKp0119HAW8~IT 1 ~pBWWCNN@ flOHIINSei1N~5 fl011Ni11eN1~C4 I 11bNI1fK@~iN~�
4 5
,6 t'paAOnn�~1048NtI1HH6t~1 , 3,0 8,8 38,8 ~4,1
~ dcoKOno�runNOUwA 2,2 b,4 34,b 38,2
Ocoi;onwA h04K8pHI1K . 4,6 8,2 34,0 bt,0
8 rlltiH090�OCOK060~MOJ811u�
9 u?~A 6,8 d4,8
Key:
1. M3crolandga~pe 6. ttidged-moegy
2, Antumn 7. Sedge-hypnospore
3. Winter 8. Hummocky eedge
4. elevarinn 9. Hypnospor~-sedge-mosaic
5. depresgion
Table 3
Mean Long-Term Values of Coefficient
Aii+~;po.iauqwa~t 1( Occub 2I 3nua 3 I Bccua 4
~ Oco?;o~w~1 Ko~;KBpHNN : 2.92 1,C~8 1,36
Ocnt;ono�riniunnMA . ~.i8 1,64 1,3:i
rp~.:unn~M4~7~:KIIli11LII) . 1.17 1.08 1.11
Key�
� 1. Microlandscape 5. Hummocky sedge
2. Autumn 6. Sedge-hypnospore
3. Winter 7. Ridged-mossy
4. Spring
M analysis of materials on freezing shows that in individual years the in-
fluence of the snow cover on the increase in thickness of the frozen layer
is considerably greater than the increase in the sums of negative air
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~~K O~~IGtAt. U~l~, ~NLY
e~mp~r~.~ure~. I'dr ~x~mpl~, eh~ ~um n[ ~li~ n~~~i~iv20 U~~~mbery1970 e~m5~6"C;
euxe~ by 2n Ue~~mb~r 1'lb) at:e~ined 7.57�C, Mnd~~Y~2 ~nd 4d ~m r~gp~~~iv~1y,
th~ rhi~kn~~~ eh~ ~r~a~n 1~ye~c~ h~w~~er, {
eh~~ i~~ d~gpiea ehe ~ompart?e~v~~li~~vhen twn~ndn~ietnet~ibue~bl~~,finhperti~-
d~po~~.~ it~ 197~ wr~~ 12 rm 1~ ~
Is~ 1967 ~li~ anow
ulst, en eh~a di.gfe~~tte~ i~t th~ dpp~h of th~ ~n~w ~av~~� imilnr xegnlt
d~pth on 20 i~c~mb~r w~g nnly 11 cm, end ~n 1~7U 4A ~m.
i~ ob~~in~d from a~nmpuri~nn e~ ~~~tiv~etemper~eur~gtlbyW~O~Jnnu~ry~in ehe~~
1g63. 'i'h~ ~utn df eti~ m~;~~i dnily n~g
y~nr~ i$ idpnCic~l (924 ~nd 927�~~ndb71 em).a'~h�~gn~w~d~ptl~hii~t~.961ftw~g~50~~
eh~ f r~~zing l~y~r w$~ 1~ r.m (53 8
cm~ in 19b3 3A ~m. Thu~~ th~ ~nnw ~over pluy~ onQ o� eh~ princip~L rnl~s
in ~orro~einn o~ th~ froz~n 18yer in swgmpg.
T~b1e 4
Comparigvn nf Me~n Monthly Snaw ~~Swa~ i~omplex~~ ~D~ ~�d Undr~~.n~d (U)
Sectora of P
r~r. HbNG h ~ ~CKA6 b i.
S~N~_ ~~OQB~n~
~ -r
i1eP?+oA 1 p ~ H g 0 H 0 H d I H 0 I N
I
1972--197~ = 14 23 18 27 28 3~ l9 42 ~
1973--1~71 7 4 1'1 IS 16 75 71 35 27 ~
197~-1975 S 17 3 25 16 ai '11 39 17 40
Key: y 7. Drained (U)
1. Period 3. December 6~ ~rch~r S. Undrained (U)
2. N~vember 4. Januery ~
Ln ~ddition to th~ snow cov~r, a congidergbl~ influenc~oig~ure~content the
freezing of undrained soremps by ve8etation [12, 13~, ypger~tion
~nd microrelief of the aurface in the active layer of s~amps�
favors snow accumulation on the swamp surface, retention of tQ~ ho~izonser
in a more unconsolidated state and thereby ~ee~ointsinfluence of the mois-
of the awamp deposit from strong freezing.
ture content of the peat dgPfreezina iseexpressediby thetvalue~of herco-
lnndscapes on the degree of g
efficient ~P = h g/hneg, where hpos is the depth of �reezing nf positive
ne ative formg of microrelief. We computed
forms of microreQ~ef, hneg $
the ~ value~ for each day of ineasom~lonts termCobservntiona.~InfgeneraLized
~11 micrnlandseapes using data fr B
form theSP values are given in Tnble 3. Analysia of the ~p coefficients
shows that it is always greater than 1, that is the value for elevated
The ~ value
raicrorelief forms is alwnys greater than for depressions.
also does not remain consta~~ valueainf thenautumn snowffreeeperiod~and
r.oefficient attains its max
this indicates that the joint influe~nce~e analytical datatagreefwi~th thc
microrelief is greater than in aut
119
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FO[~ OF~IGtAL US~ f~NLY
r~~u1e~ o� inv~~eig~eion~ tn~d~ by 9. A. Ch~~tikin [i~j~
Th~ ch~ree~~~i~gie~~ n� ~ numb~r hf purr~m~epr~ d~rLrmini.n~ ehc rr.a~~~~ c~f
I`cc!ezlnK n[ ~wr~m~id LH r~lnt~cl eu uiicirulnc�ci ~w~mh~ oE ~hp Lowlnnd Cyhr~
For inve~eig~ting CI~@ influ~na~ nE dr~in~~e nn th~ thickn~~g ef eh~ �re~z-
in~ 1ay~r w~ e~~ri~d o~t ~ eomp~~~.~on of ~he r~~ulta of p~r~i1~1 ab~~rv~-
ei~n~ of eh~ d~peh ~f fr~~zing of dr~in~d in p~aC produetion and un-
dr~ingd p~ae d~poeit~ dur~~$ 1972-i975. Th~ ~n~ly~i~ indicat~d ~hge eh~
d~peh of freezing in eh~ dr~in~d ~~ctor i~ dierribue~d ~xtr~m~ly nonuni-
formly over ehe area. Thi~ ~e ~Ceribue~b~.e eo eh~ paeuliariei@~ of d~po~-
irion of th~ ~now cov~r ~n dr~i.nad swampa. Durin~ w#,ne~r in ~h~ d~ai.ned
~~ctor eh~r~ i~ ~ d~fiation of Ch~ ~now, the snow i~ ~ccumu].~ti~d 3.n de-
pressione, in canal~, and ehe ~lev~tied geceor~ r~m~in b~r~. ~h~ d~pth of
the snow in ehe sector in individual places v~ries frdm ~ Co 4d cm; eh~
corr~gponding thickne~s of the frozen lay~r v~ries from 46 to 80 cm. 2'h~
freazing of rhe drained deposit by 20-40 cm exc~~d~ rhe fr~~zin~ of eh~
undrained depo~it, which ~.n eurn was c~us~d by ~ consid~r~biy 1~~~er depth
of ehe enow in Che drained ~wamp in compari~on aiLh ~n undrgin~d gw~mp
(Table 4). The incrpas~ in freezing of drgin~d swempg in ehe e~rritnry
in the southern pare of Tyum~nsk~ya Oblase is mentioned in thp inv~~eiga-
tions of b. Vvedenskgy~ and I. Rusinov [2j.
'Che nnnuniformity of depositian and ~nu~ll dep~h ~f Che ~noW eov~r during ~he
course of the entire winter favors a great it~tengity of fr~~zin~ of the
drained deposit in winter. Prior to appearance of enow with a depth nf
20 cm Che inrensity of freezing ie 1.2 em/d~y. According Co dgtg from
three years of observationg, such a snow depth was noted during the last
few days in January. During February, March, aft~r the enow had reached ~
~ critical depth, the intensity of increase in thickness of the frozen
layer wag equal to 0.4 cm/day. Thus, ~n analysie of obeervational dara in-
dicates an increase in the inteneity nf freezing of the drained d~pnsit in
winter in comparison with.the undrained deposit.
In characterizing the freezing of the undrained peat deposit it was pointed
out that rhe principal factors exerting an influence on the increase in the
depth of freezing are an increase in the sum of negative temperatures, depth
~nd denaity of the snow, vegetation, and form of microrelief. A swamp
drained and in pe~t production hns an open, level gurfnce �r~~ df any vege-
tation. The levels of the swamp ~aaters in the drained area are usually 1.5-
'~.0 m below the surface. ~'hus, the influence of moiatening, vegetation. and
forms of microrelief on the freezing o� the drained deposit in any apecific
case can be neglected. Taking into account that the anoW depth in a drained
~wamp is considerably 1eas, as is confirmed by data from direct observa-
tions,.cited in Table 4, it can be postulated that the main rnle in in-
crease in the thickness of the freezing layer in drained swamps is played
by air temperature. proceeding from this point of view, on the basia of
materials from three years of observations we constructed a graph of the
Jependence of the depth of freezing of the drained deposit on the square root
of the sum of the mean daily negative air temveratures (Fig. 1). The correl-
ation coefficient was 0.95. The dependence has a linear form
120
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~
~dl~ n~~iCiAL 1?~~ ONt~Y
~ ~ ~r
l~..r 3~ ~ .
wher~ h i~ �r~~~ing depth.
Ath
o ~ ~
s0 j ~
~ ~o
60 ~�e a x
~ ~
10 ~ ~
0 0~
o~~ x P
p0 ~ ~
~ 10 20 JO y0 ~�t ~
Fig. l. Dependence of depth of freezing o1973ai2~d1974; 3)p1975 on sum of ;
mean daily negative air tempernturea. 1)
Tab1e S ~
Computation of Freezing Depth of UndYained Peat Depoait Ueing Formula (1)
A~rt~ n, Cayb~u~o rpouep~i� '
xotopya ~ } N~~ ~u 2 OrxocNrea~
DpON7DlAeH Yzl"rVl N~11 OItlN6Kl~
p~C9l11 QaCC~la1In10N� ~ ~1
3 4 5
6~0~ tto~6p~ 20~ ia ( ib ( d~
3p ~3,4 2: Q6 15~4
~ 21 AeK~6pa :l,0 : ~ 38 ~~8
31 2'~~~ a~ 40 ~.0
8 IO ANO~pA ~ b1 40
3Q.~ b1 ~
31 31..t 59 63 8,~
4 fI~O ~OQ~11M ~ ~ ~ ~
28 ~0.0 69 74 8,8
~ 10 ~ wapto +3~1 7~ 73 . 1.4
~3,0 74 67 10,4
31 ' S t.3 91 7b b~
Key:
1. Date for ahich computations made 4. Actual 7. December
2.~Freezing depth, cm 5. Relative error 8. January
3. Computed 6. November 9. February
10. March
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U~ing Ch~ d~xl,v@d ~qu~~ic~n, �oc dif~~~~n~ p~~i~d~ i,n wine~r w~ earri~d -
clue ~am~utneic+nt~ n~ eh~ cl~peh of f.rc~z:tn~ h~ a d~ain~d dep~~~.e ~nd ~om-
~iue~d ehe error ;tn eomputaeion~ .~~~m th~ nctuaL v~lu~~. Tt~2 gr~ate~e
~rroY i~ ~0.6x. Tl~p re~ults of ~h~ compueatione are pre~ene~d ~n Tab1~
Ie must be r2m~mbex@d ehgt the ~ormula was derived on eh~ b~si~ of ~
~ho~t, 8~ri~~ a~ ob~~rvseion~ ~nd r~quir~~ fu~the~ ~h~ck~ng, but ~v~n now
ie can b~ xecommend~d for eompueing the dep~h of greezing af l~wi~nd
~wamp~, d~r~ined for et~e purpoe~~ df p~~t praduceion, ~itvated under
phy~iographic condit~one a~mi~ar Co th~ T~rman~ki.y ~wamp compi~x.
SummBry
1. This inveaeigation of the proceea of freezing of en undrained d~po~ie
und~r th~ conditions prevailing in th~ ~ouehern p~re of Tyumen~k~ya Ob-
iaet made i~ po~e~bl~ ro r~fine a gerie~ af comput~d charac~~rl~tics of
fr~ezin$ for iowiand typ~~ of gw~mp microl~ndecapes.
u) The ~now d~pth for the eondiCion~ pr~vailing in Ch~ T~rman~kiy gw~mp
complex, uith Which ehe winter period of freezing of th~ p~ae depn~it
l~~gina, i~ 6-8 cm.
L) The intengiCy of freezing i~ considerably greater during ~utumn and
varipg even w3ehin ~he limits of a single microlandacape. In win~~r, gs
c~ regult of leveling-ouC of the thermal resigtance of Che gnow cover,
the intensity of freezin~ is virCually idenrical over the enrire area.
C) The depth of freezing for posit~ve forms of microreli~f in ~wampa
l~pO9 considerably exceede the depth of freezing of negative forms hneg;
the hp08/hneg ratio attaine ite maximum values during the autumn gnowfre~
period.
2. The depth of freezing of a drained area in peat production exceede by
20-40 cm the depth of freezing of an undrained area.
3. The intensity of increase in the frozen layer in drained swamps during
winter is considerably greater than in undrained saamps.
~
4. Under conditiona of inaignificant snow cover deptha, for computing
the freezing depth of a drained deposit it is possible to use only the
~ir temperature values. The greateat relative error in the compuCations
in this case is 21X.
122
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~
1~Uk 01~'~'tCtAt, IJSL t)NI,X
I? [ I~1~ i f1tSltAt'IIY
1. ~elot~erkov~lc~y~, d. A. , I33L~DOVIW~YC '~Cf~LOVOGB REZNiMA TORF1fAN0Y
ZAL~~NI VERKt1~VOG0 TIPA (Inv~agig~tion o� the Th~~tnal Regim~ of ~
PQgC D~po~3,t of ~h@ Upp@r 'Pyp~), A~tt~or~e Suc~~ry nf C~ndid~t~'g Di~-
~~~t~tion, K~~inin, 1968, x6 p~g~~.
1; Vveden~kay~, E. D., Ru~inov, I. "W~e~r R~gima and Bal~nce in Dried
Dreinag~ 9ygteme Under eh~ Concl3tion~ of ~he For~~t 2on~ in W~at~rn
Siberia," M~ZHDUNAROUNYY Sit~~ZiUM PO GiDROLOGIi ZABOLOCHENNYlW TER-
RITORIY (Intiernationgl Sympo~ium on ~he Nydrology of Swampy T~rritor-
i~s), Minsk, 1972, 8 pagee.
~ 3. G~yel', A. G., "~r~~zing and Thawing of 5oi1 and around in Cha Northern
Ara1 Region," POCHVOVEDENiYE (5oi1 Science), No 7, pp 429-444, 1948.
4. Domanitekiy~ A. P., "Pa~~ability of Frozen Sw~mps," TR. NIU GMS (Tran~-
actione of tha Scientific Ree~arch Inetit~tes of ehe Hydrumeteorolog-
ical 3erviae), ~uries VIII, No 4, 1943.
5. Dubakh, A. D., OCt~RK2 p0 t32bROLOGIi BOLOT (Outline~ on the Hydrology
. of Swampe), Moacoa, ReChizd~t~ 1936, 120 pageg.
G. Zepol~ekiy~ I. A.~ ISStEDOVANIYE VLIYANIYA M~LIORATSII NA VODNYY BALANS
R. TRUBBZH (Investigation of the Ynfluence of MelioraCion on the Waeer
Balanc~ of the Trubezh River), Author's Summary of Dieaertation, Kiev,
1969, 24 pagee. ~
7. Kibal'chich, A. D., "Freezing and Thawing of Peat Saamps and Mineral
Soils,'~ TRUDY KONPERENTSII PO MELIORATSII I OSVOYENIYU BOLOTNYKH I
. ZABOLOCHENNYKH POCHV (Transactions of the Conference on Melioration
and Exploitation of Swamp and S~ampy Soi],s), pp 248-250, 1956.
9. Koloskov, P. I., "Seasonal Soil Pera?afrost," TRUDY II VSESOYUZNOGO
CIDROLOGICNESKOGO S"YEZDA (Transactions of the Second All-Ueion Hy-
drological Congreas), pp 36-43, 1948.
h. Pechkurov, A. F., Kaplan, M. A.~ "Determination of the Depth of Freez-
ing and The~aing of SWamps," 03VOYEt1IYE ZABOLOCHENNYKH ZP.MEL' (Bxploit-
ation of Swampy Lands), Moscow-Leningrad, VASKhNIL, pp 78-86, 1937.
10. Romanov, V. V., Rozhanskaya, 0. D., "Experience and Investigation of
Physical Properties of the Freezing I.ayer of SWamps," TRUDY GGI (Trans-
actions of the State Hydrological Inatitute), No 7(61), pp 93-105, 1948.
11. Romanov, V. V., GIDROFIZIKA BOLOT (Hydrophysics of SWamps), Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1961, 359 pages.
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12. Rom~nav~, Xp. A~, U~~vr~, L. "G~abo~~ni.cai ~nd B~~~f Nydra~.ogi~nl
Char~ceeriz~t~,on d~ Sw~mpy 1~and~c~p~~ of eh~ W~t~r~h~d df eh~ Vakh ~nd
Vatinsk~.y X~ga~n Ri,v~r~ in WesCern 5i.ber~.~," TRUDX GG~ (~rr~n~~ctiinn~
of the Sea~e Hyd~ological Zneti.~uC~), No i57, pp 98-122, 1969~
~ ].3. Rom~nov~, Y~. A~, T.vanov, K. Ye., "Sw~mps of the An~dyr~k~ya Lowl~nd,
Their G~ob~e~nicn~, and Kydrolo~ic~l Char~crari~tic~," TRUnY GGI, No
1.57, pp ~.23-137, 1969. ~
~.4. Romanov~, I. M., "Computation o� Fr~~zi.ng b~p~h of Swamp~ of Ch~ Low-
land Type in the Example o� eha ~~rman~k~,y Sw~mp Compiex," MET~OR
OLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Met~orology and Hydrology), No 9, pp 103-105,
1974.
15. Romanova, I. M., "Influence of Dra3nage on the Tempe~ature Rggime and
~vaporation of Lowland Swamps (in the ~xamp].e af rhe T~rman~kiy Swamp
Complex in Tyumenekaya Obia~t)," TRUDY GGI~ No 229, pp 169-176, 1975.
16. Romanova, I. M., "Influence of Economic AcCivity on Che ~tydrological
and He~t Regim~ of the Tarmanakiy Swamp Complex~" METEOROLOGIYA I
GIDROLOGIYA, No 5, pp 76-80, 1917.
17. Serebryanekaya, P. I., "Phenomena of Seaeonal Freezing and Thawing
of Soils in the Central Baraba~" TRUDY POCHVENNOGO INSTITUTA (Trans-
actions of the Soils Inatitute), Vol 42, pp 37-41, 1954.
. 18. Chachkin, 3. A.~ VODNO-TEPLOVOY RE2HIM NEOSUSt~tENNYKH IIOLOT I Y~GO RAS-
CKET (Water-Heat Regime of Undrained Swamps and its Computation),
Leningrad, Gic~rometeoizdae, 1970, 205 pageg.
19. Shul'gip, A. M., KLIMAT POCHVY I YEGO REGULIROVANIYE (Climate of the
Soil and ita.,~tegulation), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1972, 341 pages.
~~N ,
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~
t~'Olt tlH't~'ICtAI, USl~~ ONLY
Unc 55i.S0:633.1(470) ~
. it~ASON3 FOR UNU~RSI2ED GRAIN FORMATION ANU t4EASU1~5 ~OR PR~~':.NTING ZT ;
t4oscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Ruagian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 101-106
(Article by Cnndidate of Gaographical Sciencae O~A ri1v1918~~ Weather Bur- ,
eau, ttoetov-on-Don, ~ubmitted for pubtication 2 p
~ Abatxnctforhunderaizedggraingfoarmetionsinfgrain
re~eens ~
crope in 1977 in th~ Northern Cauc~sus, in Che ;
Lower Volga Region and in ltostovskayg Oblast.
~1n attempt is made to predict theCaB~eofmthencr p ,
introduce corraceions to the for barle . Reco~ !
' ' yield of winter wheat and epring Y .
mendations are made on the alleviation of the
harmfulnesa of undersized grain formation.
[Text] In investigating the We~8Vo1 a~regionfand in~Rnetovakayai0blastgi~
in the Northezn Caucasus, 1.0 8
we became convinced that they aYe not Che same, being dependent for the
most part on weather conditiona develo~uYa1d~echniquessemployed.~er per-
iod, and to some degree on the agricul
The principal reason for the formation of undersized grain in these regions
ia drought, due to which, on the average, in rain is formed which isn
in different regions in the mentioned territory g
not fully developed. The aecond reaeon is exceasive overmoistening during
the period of grain farmation, reaultimelinrarelyBiDuringatheflast~40nyearsr
great areas this reason prevails extre y
it was oLaerved only twice: in 1933 and in 1977.
In 1977, in the eastern regiona of Volgogradskayheoundersizedigrainewasuth-
eastern rayons of SCavropol'skiy Kray (Fig. 1) t
caused by drought. ~e S~ a~o�particulatilyaseveregdYOUght. Therelduring
nkaya Oblast were subjecte p
the period of grain formation tb,e moisture reserves in the meter soil layer
~~ere leas than 10 ~ions98 tless30han 20 mm.cThettaassnofe1,000 grainsewasr-
iod, and in many reg
i~ot more than 30 grams.
125
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~
,i;:;I' ~j;~~!.'~'~.
?
. ; ,1: ~ .
. �,;1 �
`
~y,, ,
~ ~ i 1~ ~ 4'~ .j\ ''�~,~r~i
, \ ~ ~i
, �
~ ~ ~ ~'h,~ ~
�'i~ ~
,�~i;. s`
, , , . ~ ' ~
.1. ;1.~'..".~~" X�.:,t~f.',k~'
: ,
~ . , 1
~ ; Ji " ;:l:+t..
u:,
.~~~1~' 1
?
, ~c,r, J
~ 4
Fig. 1. Mass of 1,000 grains of winter wheat in harvest of 1.977. 1) 21-29 g
(drought), 2) 30-39 g(drought), 3) 40-49 g, 4) 30-39 g(undereized grain
formaC~.on)
In the eastern regions on the right bank of the Volga there was also
~ (although lesaer) undersized grain formation the mass of 1,000 grains
was 31-38 g. Here the supplies of productive moisture during Che period
of grain formation in the meter soil layer were 40-70 mm, but during this
period there was from 20 to 50 mm of precipitaCion. In addition, at the
end of the phase of milky ripeness there was a marked increase in daytime
temperatures (from 20-22 to 28-31�C). This caused an acceleration of the
end of grain formation,~ and in the long run, incomplete filling of the
~rain.
Similar conditions also developed in the eastern and northeaseern regions
~ of Stavropol'skiy Kray, with the single difference that there the period
of formation and filling of grain occurred approximately a week earlier
than in Volgogradakaya Oblast and therefore the marked temperature increase
at the end of the third ten-day period in June was virtually noC reflecCed
in the yield formation. In these regions filled grain was formed (Che mass
of 1,000 grains exceeded 40 g), whereas in Ipatovskiy Rayon, where the sup-
plies of productive moisture.in the meter soil layer during the period of
forming and filling of grain were held in the range 40-60 mm and about 50
mm of precipitation fell, a good yield was obCained for the conditions
prevailing in this region.
The condiCions were somewhat poorer in the Blagodarnenskiy, Prikumskiy,
Stepnovskiy and Kurskiy Rayons in Stavropol'skaya Oblast, where during
the period of formation and filling of grain the moisture reserves were
inadequate (in the meter layer 15-20 mm) and also little precipitation
f.ell 20-30 mm. This also caused undersized grain in winter wheat. The
mass of 1,000 grains in the enumerated regions was 34-39 g, that is, the
same as in ~he eastern right-bank regions of Volgogradskaya Oblast.
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~
i~~oti ai~t~'ICLAL U51: ONLY
F~vornUl~ c~ndiGinn~ fnr ehe ~~rmin~ und ~i11~ng of ~rnJ.n w~re craneed in
;i nnrrnw znnc in ttie w~~H~~rn r~t;idnH, nf Vnl~,~~rudsk~yn ~bl~~e, in m~~e nC
el~c r,iyc~ng c~E Stnvrup~l'~kiy ~nd Kru~ndd~r~ki.y Kr~ye, wh~tc~ during th~
porind of forming ~nd f~t111n~ of YrFiin Che moigrure r~serve~ in Che m~tpr
layer remained for rh~l~dd~npth~g~ttr~gionen~he4m~ss to~f 1n000~gr~in~~wns~
tmm p~ecipit~tinn f
40-G3 g, 1oc~l~y even gre~t~r than 50 g.
Table ~
Decregae in Gr~in Unit After Entry of P1~nts ~.nCi n�~~~M~r~~arveRting~Per-
1)ependence on the Quantity of ~'alling Prec~.pitigC 8
iod According to ObservationS~e~hof~1977ons of Rostovskaya Oblast ~.n the
CyMMB OCBAKOD yMCNbWlHUC
nepuoA, e~.~ N0Ty~41 3@pli8 t10
PaAoN Kyn~rypa 3 nepuonaM,r 4
1 2
b-~I/Vil~ 1~-16Nii[ 5--31/V11~ 1--16/V111
5 Mareeeeo�KypraHCK~~i~ O~uNaa nwenFiua ~ 194 83 15 ;0
Sipoeoit n~iMeut,
6 3ep?iorpancKUtV ~~uNaa nweunua l14 63 11
ftposo~ a4~eub ~ 7
3~IMOBHHKOHCKN~ ~pOB0f1 nA4MpHb~ 8 64 2 2 7
' 7 9 r - ~
_ ~
Key: ,
1~ ~yon 6. Zernogradskiy
2. Crop 7. Zimovnikovskiy
3. Precipitation sum during per- Spring barley
iod, mm
4. Decrease in grain unit by
perioda, g
5. Matveyevo-Kurganskiy
In the extreme weatern regions of Volgogradskaya Oblast, in the entire ter-
ritory of Rostovskaya Oblast and in the norChern rayons of Krasnodarskfy
;;ray, where during the period of forming and filling of ~rain there was
from 90 to 150 mm of precipitation, and locally up to 200 m, there was
also undersized grain formatinn, but there it was caused by a phenomenon
~ohich is very rare for these regions an inadequate development of grain
size. It was established in the investigations of S. I. Kharizomenov [3]
that undersized grain formation is most probable when there is abundant
precipitation both before and after the onset of grain formation. M. I. [
i;nyagichev and A. I. Nosatovskiy [1, 2], citing investigations of g number
nf scientists, inc~icate that the undersized formation of grain in the case
of very moist anTesul~ ofgahgreatrexpenditureiof dryfmatter indrespirat~on
transpires as
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F~R UFFIC~AL U~C dNLY
~nd di.r~ct w~~hin~ out n~tir~,~nt~ by r~~,n~. Th~ ~xp~ri.m~neg o� N~ G�
Kho~.odnyy wh~,eh ehey hav~ eitied shaw rh~ti und~x eh~ i.n~~.u~n~~ a~ ~~:~i�-
ie~,al ~pri,nkl~.ng rhe w~i.ghe n� eh~ ~~~i.n c~n b~ x~du~~d by 16. S-48y, d~M
pending on Che m~turiey ph~s~ oE th~ ~rai.n during which ehe ear was expo~-
ed to the eprinkl~.tig. Th~ fdct eheC undQr thM ~,nE~.uence o~ rain eh~~~ i~
nn exosmoei.s oP sugar, a hydrolyt3~ breakdown of ~~arch ~nd ~�.n oueflow nf
plae~ic eubetances wae demonstrneed by rhe pr~~en~~ of ~up.r i,n the wae~~
~low3ng from the ~ars. The under~iz~d forn~Cion o� ~r~in c~n ~l~o o~cur
~feer harve~t3ng, as ~ong as tih~ ~r~in moi.~Cur~ conti~nr 3~ gr~ati~r eh~n
~5~ [2~, that is, a~.so in eheaves ~fCer maw~.ng o� eh~ ~rain~. Thi~ i~ ~1ga
indieated by the daCa publ~.~hed by K. Ye. Muraghkin~kiy, who noti~~ ehae in
Guch cases "~we~e dew" appeara on the eara~ thi.g bein~ an indicatoti df eh~
washing out of mobile carbohydraeea.
M. I. Knyagichev [1] menCion~ Cha possible diaturb~nc~ of inetabo~~.sm und~r
the inEluence of direct wagh~.ng-out of augars. This al~o lead~ eo an in-
creage in puniness of rhe ~rain.
Our inve~CigaCions, carried ouC over great areg~ in eumm~r in 197'7,~how
that the underaized formation of grgin frequettCly ie gccomp~nied by o~her
damage to plante, especially Che fa111ng down of grgins, increa~ing the
moisture content of the grase aCand and woraening metabolic candiciona in
the plant.
In addition, there is a washing out of mobile forms of nitrogen from the
~oil by abundant raine before and after Che onaeC of filling of the grain,
especially in unfertilized fields of nonfallow precuraore. In 1977 in the
upper soil layera during the period of formaeion and filling df gr~in
there were only traces of such nitrogen.
Tabl.e 2
Decrease in Crop Yield of Winter Wheat in nep~ndence on Delays in its Har-
vesting and Quantity of Precipitation During June in Some Regions of Ros-
_ tovskaya Ob1asC in 1977
CYiAMi 3attp~Ka y6opKn CH~~iKCitNC
Pdao~i oca,iKOe nocnc uacryn~cimn YpoM~A,
3a HIONb. ~?a~N nnaaott ~~~tu,
1 2 cnenoct~r, ann 3 ~ 4
5 OKTe6pbcKnR . 134 10 45
6 4npt~on~tiufi . 1~0 8 39
~ Kawcuc~a~1 : 130 ' S ~6
BepxeeAOncKaii 1l8 5 20
g ,1~oac~:ui~ . l28 5 lo
10 ~iopo~aoc~;uti . 85 1 0
11 plNOHTItCHCKlIII . 122 I 3 0
1~$
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Kays
iteginn
2. Sum nE p~acip~.L~tiion fnr Jun~, mm
D~lay in h~rvast dfCer on~er of total m~eur~.ty ph~~~, d~yg
4. Reducti~n in crop y3eld,,z
5. Ok~yabr~~kiy
~i. Ct?artkovekiy
7. Kamenek3y
g. Verkhn~dnngkiy ,
9. Azovskiy
10. Morozovskiy
11. Remontnenskiy
The undersized grain formation wae accompanied ae wall by th~ "invas~on"
ph~nomenon due to dam~ga of tha piante by rust and oeher fungal di~e~see.
Blight .locaiiy c~uaed a premature dying off o~ the leavas and c~seation
of aeeimilation pro,~esea in plant~ even before they enCet~ed into the pha~e
of golden'rip~neea, which also led to the formgtion of unders3zed grain.
A decrease in grain ma~s elso transpired after onset of total maturiey of
the gra',na; this is traced ensily in Table 1, cited beloa.
It ehould be noted that under identiical cmo~gt~nn~hoae placesewhereCthe 898 ~
of grain during thig period aas obeerved
graina after their entry into total maturity ren?ained unmoWed for a longer
time. However, in fields where the grains were mo~red not later than 3-4
days afrer their entry inro the pha~~ di total roaturity the decrease in
yield wae ineignificant. With an increaee in timfeld also increased (Table ~
~ total maturity and mowing the decrease in crop y
2).
A deley in the harvest due to heavy rains led to a stronq overgrowing of
low-growing grains (eapecially spring barley) by weedy vegetation, Which
also increased the yield loeses.
In clarifying the nature of the underaized grain formation, We attempted
ro find the correlatinn between the masa of 1,000 grains as an index char-
acterising the completenees of filling af the grain and meteorological con-
ditions. We used the correlation of the mass of 1,000 grains and air tem-
perature and precipitation for different perioda during the spring-summer
groaing aeason. Since the aummer of 1977 the different regions of the ter-
ritory aere exceptionally divereified ~?ith reapect to Weather conditiong;
this made it possible to carry ou~ investigationa in a aide range and
clarify simultaneously the iafluence of both drought and overmoistening on
the �arming and filling of winter aheat grain.
The closeat correlation between the mass of 1,000 grains (y) Was found .
With the precipitation sum during the period from flo~rering to golden
ripeness (x). An influence aas also exerted by the techniques and
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equi,pmene u~ad in eu1C~.v~rion. Si.x ~qu~~i.nn~ w~re de~iv~d for w~.nti~r whene
~nd ewo ~qua~~.one wa~~ deri.vad f~r ~pr~.ng bgrley.
For w3nC~r wh~~C ~~r ope~.mum eowing eimes on bgre F~iiow ~n sovkhnz ~nd
kolkhoz fielde
~ e-0,0024 x~ ~ 0,3G x~ 31,2,
~ ~or wineer wheaC of Che 3everodonskaya variery in tihe seate gtrain Cese~ng
station under theae eame condieione
y~-0,00038 x~--0,067 x+ 32,06, ~ 2 ~
For winCer wheat, sown at optimum eimes in Che case of nonfallow fereilized
precureors~
" y~-0,0023 x~+0,325 x+32,06.
~ (3)
~or winter whe~t aown ati late times in the case of nonfgllow ferCilixed
precuraora,
y~--0,0033 x~+ 0,520 x} 22,57,
(G)
For WinCer wheat sown at opCimum Cimes in the case of nonfallow precursors
wiChout fertilizera,
~ y=0,00003.x3-0,0095x~+0,83 x+ 19,3. ~5~
For winter wheat~ sown at late times in the case of nonfallow unfertilized
precureore, "
y~ 0,000004 x3-0,0051 x~+0,65 z~-180. ~ 6~
For spring barley with optimum sowing times in kolkhoz and sovkhoz fields
y~-0,070 x+51,0.
For spring barley wiCh optimum eowing times in fields at atate strain test-
ing stations
y~~-0,067 x+56,0. ~8~
'
The correlation ratios and correlation coefficienta for the cited equations
fall in the range 0.72-0.96. The errors in the equations are S a f4-9 g.
A graphic representation of equations (1)-(8) is shown in Fig.y2.
The derived equationa show thaC an increase in precipitation to 70 mm (60-
80 mm) during the period of formation and filling of grain improves the
conditions far the Cranspiring of these highly important processes, as a
130
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, ,
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resu].C of which the mnsa of ~.,000 grains is incre~sed. Wirh 70 mm of pre-
cipitati~.on it ia highest, and ~hereafeer wiCh nn increas,e in precipie~~ion
during Chie same pariod there is a decrense.
y � : 21 ~J, oo x~ X . ~ x , ~ ,
40 ~ . (41
, " � i
~
~
?0 '
(d1 '
. . (7) ' '
rs~ � ~ � �x . , � �
4a ~ 6) ~ ~ ~ . .
x ( �x x2 ,
?20 60 t00 140 ~0 60 ~00 ~`~M ~
Fig. 2. Dependence between mass o� 1,000 grains (y) and the quantity of '
precipitation (x) falling during period of formation and filling of winter
wheaC and spring barley grain. 1) optimum sowing times, 2) late sowing
times, 3) optimum sowing times in fields of state strain testing stat3ons. i
Table 3
Correction for Undersized Grain Formation for Different QuantiCies o�
Precipitation Falling During Periods of Forma!:ion and Filling of Grain
~ ~
CH~i;iceFUic Cn!~~cewte _
C~~~a ocaa~:ou. CyuMa ocaatioe, yPoxta~NO�
Y .NM YPO)KB~HOCTfi, AIM ~,~,N~ O~
1 ~0 2 2
80 ~ Igp l6
130 20
90 4 140, ' 27 '
100 6 1FJ 35
I10 11
Key: . ,
1. Precipitation total, Bun
2. Decrease in crop yield, %
A mass of 1,000 grains is formed which is higher in the case of fzllow pre-
cursors, optimum sowing times, in fertilized fields and in fields of state
strain testing stations. The course of formation and change in the mass of
1,000 grains is similar to the course wiCh any agricultural techniques used
in cultivation. But in absolute terms a higher mass of 1,000 grains in the
case of undersized grain formation corresponds to a higher level of agri-
cultural engineering practice. Therefore, for introducing a correction far
undersized grain formation, we computed the mean values of the possible
. 131
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FOft d~'~ICiAL U~3E (INLY
d~e~~a~~ i.n ernp yi~].d, whi,eh w~ ~~eamm~nd b~ u~~d und~r ~t~~ condi~i.on oE
~pp~~r~nc~ of eh~ ph~nomendn of u~d~r~ixpd ~r~in ~urmaeien (~'eb~.~ 3).
Th~ inv~~ti.g~eion~ show eh~~ ~he ph~nnm~ndn o~ und~r~~,z~d gr~in farm~einn
cgn b~ conei.d~rab~.y lessened by ~n incr~a~~ in ehp ~ppli.e~rion nf f~re31-
iz~ra on eown grain fi~lds, eh~ carrying our of ~ow~.ng of winC~r crop~
only op~i.mum ri.me~, rh~ us~ af opCi.mum ~r~~~ og f~~.low p~~curenr~ wieh
th~ gnwing df win~~r ~rap~, ~nd ~he o~g~niz~eian d� h~rv~~Cing in y~~rg
nf po~~ible undereiz~d gr~in formatiion by ~~ap~~~tie m~ehod in the ~horteat
po~s3b].e time.
BIBLIOGItAPHY
1~ Knyag3chev, M. I., BIOLOQIYA PS~IENLTSY (B~ology of Whe~C), Mascow-L~nin-
grad, Sa].'khozgiz, 1951, 415 p~gee.
2. Nosatovekiy, A. I., P3H~NI~SA ~BIOLOGIYA) (Wheat (giology)), Second
Edition, Moacow, "Ko1os," 1965, 568 pa~es.
3~ Kharizomenov, S. I., "Influence of Precipit~t~.on ~nd A~r T~mperature
on Grain Yie1d," SEL'SKOKHOZYAY3Tt1~NNYY VE3TNIK YUGO-V03TOKA (Agricu].-
rur~l Herald of the Southeast), No 3-6, 1911.
~
~
132
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,
~'d1t (1~'~'ICtAL US~ [~Nt,Y
UDC 551.465.75(470.23) ;
1
CALCULATION3 OF WA'PFR SUR(iE5 A'~ Tfi~ MOU~t~t n~ ~HE NEVA ,
Moecow M~TEOROLOGIYA I(3IDROLOQIYA in Ruseian No 11, Nov 1918 pp 107-108
(Article by G. A. Kru~lyak, Candidate of Geographical Sciencea K. S. Pom~r-
- anete and E. N. Turuntayeva, Leningrad Divigion Stata Oceanngrgphic Inet-
irute, eubmitted for publication 21 I~ebtiuary 1978~
Abatiruct:'The areicla preeents th8 resulrs of
compurations of Chree casea of dangaroue watier
gurges ati the mouth of the Neva. The computetion
error for all the minimum and hourl.y levela does ~
uot exceed 20 cm, which ia evidenc~ of tha poasib-
ility of ueing the hydrodynamic method fQr pre- ~
dicting aurgea.
(Text) Leningrad floode have long ago acquired wide reknown Howeveririnunay
and predicCion is now being devoted considerable attention. ,
dations are only one of Che manifestations of aperiodic level fluctua- ;
Cions which are observed in coeatal seas. At Leningrad, in particular,
in addition to inundations there are considerable decreasea in water level, -
also disrupting economic activity. However, thia phenomenon has not been ,
especially examined in the literature, other than a study by A. I. Freyd-
zon (4]. It is noted thaC considerable decreases in le~~el are a result af ,
atmospheric processes over a considerable area when the regions of reduced ~
preasure are aituated primarily in the southern part of the Baltic Sea. It
is pointed out that a reliable method for predicting eurges of water at the
mouth of the Neva is yet Ca be developed.
Recently Leningrad inundationa have been investigated by a hydrodynamic
method based on numerical integration of one-dimensional equations for
shallow water [1~. Testa were carried out of a method which includes com--
putationa of about 70 casea of real level rises, including 19 inundations
at Leningrad above 180 cm during the last 30 years [2]. ~or checking
the univeraality of the method and for practical purpoaeg it was of interest
to apply it to computations of considerable reductions in level at the Neva
mouth.
~ 133
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Now w~ wi~.i ~x~min~ rhr~~ c~A~~ of w~e~r ~ur~~~ ~e eh@ mouch af th~ N~vtt
du~ing eh~ 1~eC 10 y~ar~t 22 9QpC~mb~r 1~73, ~ Octobpr i974, ~0 Nnv~mb~~r
i975, wh~n ehe mi.nimum i@v~i~ ate~3n@d eh~ r~~di.ng~ -90 cm, -~.16 em ~nd
-~.03 em r~gpacti.veiy. Th~ comput~ei.on~ w~~~ m~d~ for i8 hour~ from eh~ i.n-
itial t~.m~, 6-8 haure prior ~o ~h~ on~~t af eh~ mi.nimwn i~v~i. Th~ meehod
for computing Ch~ ~urg~s i~ eampl~t~ly ~imil~r ~a Ch~ cdmpue~ri.ong af in-
undaCion~ ~nd wae app~.~.ed u~ing ac~u~~, hydrom~Cearaio~ica~. infdrmgtion.
We u~~d ob~~rv~eion~l d~ta coilected ~t ~hor~ ~t~~ions in th~ Guif af ~in-
land and th~ B~ltie 9~~ ~bove the i~ve1 ~e rh~ ini.ti~l momene ~nd wia8 ~~ch
~hrae hours. Lin~ar inCerpol~Cion d~ eh~~~ d~t~ w~~ earri~d our on the
longitiudinal axie af the b~sin from rhe m~ueh af rhe Nev~ eo ~h~ D~ni~h
Straitis at point~ of intersacC~on ~itu~e~d ~ach 75-i20 km. Th~ v~lue o� eh~
e~ament at euch an axiel. point wa~ found u~3ng Ch~ formula
. ~i ~ + ae f~ ~
where fA, fg are the obeerved v~1ue~ of thp element at stat~,on~ A and B,
gituated on oppos~Ce shor~e of the basin on th~ ~am~ line with the inCer-
polation point i; c~t A~ o~g ar~ ].inear interpolati.on coeff3.cients;
a~ ~ rg Ir, ae ~ rA?r,
r ig rhQ diatance between A and B, rA, rg i.s the diee~nr~ from the ge~tiong
Co the point i.
'The ahearing stresa of. the wind over the sea wa~ computed using Che formula
'G = 3.2~10'6 W2 coe ~(W is wind v~locity tn m/gec, ~3 i~ th~ ~ngl~ db~erv~d
between the wind direction and the azimuth of the axi~).
Table 1
~rrors in Computations of WaCer Surges at Mouth of Neva
~o
Wt,una~>~a~y _ ,~fio e~cr~~acNwN y(1011NA~t, tM
. ,QaT~ 1 e cx I er ~ 'e I ~:1 ~ I o
201X 1973 +13 +1,0 +~i ii 14
9 X 1974 -3 +3,.~ --5 13 16
20:~I IJ75 +14 +2.0 +7 1~4 I?
Key:
1. DaCe
2. For minimum
3. For hourly levels, cm
4. houre
The results of computationa in comparison with level observations at Lenin-
~;rad are given in Figure 1. The errors in compuCations of minimum and
I~ourly levels, similar to the evaluations of computations of inundations
~2, 3J, are given in Table 1. For each case we determined the errors for
134
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th~ minimum ~~nd tti~ eim~ df ie~ dn~~e ~1e, th~ mean (ef 1~ haurly v~1uQ~)
~rror~ p, th~ t~~~n eb~oiue~ @rror~ ~d ~ a~d eh~ m~~n ~qua~~ ~rror~ 0' .
cM Q)
D~ ~
n ~
.;p - ~ ~
eA p i
`~~MI
~ 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 ! f 1 ~
~ ~s ~e rr oo
0
aJ b ~ :
�OJ ~ `
..~r ~
�fp0
o e~
~ c .
.
? ~i . ,
-eo ' ~
. ~
-t:o ~ }
~ fs re pr co J 6
i'ig. 1. Observed (1) and computed (2) levels at mouth of Neva during eurgee.
a) 22 Septemb~r 1973; b) 9 OcCober 1974; c) 20 NovembeY 1975
It follows from the figu~e and table that the quality of the computatione is ~
quite eatisfactiory. The errore in computing each surge case aith reapect to
any index, other than tim~ of onset of the minimum, Ware almoet fialf the
computation errore in the four individual caees of inundations at Lenin-
~ grad during recent years [3). It can be postulated that the aare satis- .
factory results of computations of surges in comparison With inundations are
associated with different level changes with time during theee phenomena.
During surges the level changes conaidered here during an hour did not ex-
ceed 20 cm, whereas in the case of inundations, including those computed
in (3~, these changes were 50-80 cm. A emoother change in level with the
exiating thre~-hour discreteness of ineteorological observations is repro-
duced better by numerical aolution of one-dimensional equationa for shallow
water. With respect to the sy8tematic error in computationa at the time of
onset of the minimum, it means that the actual minimum level sets in later
than the computed level. This circumstance has a definite positive import-
ance in prognoatic reapecCs. The source of this systematic error can be es-
tablished using some numerical experimenta. Their purposefulness, however,
is not obvious, aince all other errors in computing surges are small.
135 .
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FOR OFF~CiAL U5~ ONt~Y
Th~ r~~u1e~ indicae@ eh~e e~~ hyd~adyn~mic mQettod c~n b@ ~ppii@d not anly e~
compuC~e~one, but ~i~a:ea pr@di~eeion~ of ~ur~~s, ~h~ ~~m~ ~e i~ ~ppii~d ed
pr~diceion~ of inund~Ciong~ 9inc~ [e-mail]~ dif~~~ f~atn ~ompu~~~ion~
only wi,eh r~~p~ne ~o m~~~oralegicai ini~i.~i inform~Ci.on, ie i~ obvieu~ th~t
in th~ con~3dgred ca~~~ ah~n ehere w~~~ ~atii~factory pr@di~eiat~~ ~f wi~d ~nd
~urface preseu~r~ fi~lda eher@ w~~ ~ pa~~ibility ef eaei~faceory pr~dictiion
of levei decrea~e~ aC eh~ mouth of eh~ N~v~.
~~~LlOdttAPllY
1. Vol'e~inger, N. Y~., Py~~kov~kiy, R. V., TEORIYA M~LKOY VODY (Th~ary
~f 3h~iiaa W~t~r)~ tQn~.ngrad, G~dram~teoi~dat, ~977, 2A7 p~g~~.
2. Krugly~k, G. A., Pom~ranet~, K. S., "R~guit~ af Appiic~tion of ehe
Hydrodynamic Method for Pr@dicting ~nd Compueing inundat3.on~ ae L~n-
- ingr~d," METEOROtO(iIYA I GIDROLO(iIYA (Meteorology ~nd Hydroiogy),
No 11, pp 46-54, 1976.
3. Kruglvak, G. A., Pomeranar~, K. 3., Turunt~yev~, E. N., Ch~rnyshev~,
Y~. 3., "Num~rical For~c~~tg ~nd Compue~tion~ of th~ C~n~id~r~bi~
Inund~tiong of 1973-1975 in L~ni.ngr~d," TRUDY GGO (~r~ng~ctiong di th~
M~in Geophy~ical Obg~rvaCory), No 3~2, pp 99-10~, 1977. .
4. Fr~ydzon, A. I., "Water Surges at the Mouth of Ch~ N~v~ River," SBOR-
NtK RABOT LENINaRADSKOY GIDROMLTOBSERVATORYI (Colleetion of Pap~r~ of
th~ Leningrad Nydrometeorologic~l Ob~~rv~~ory), No 3, pp 119-125,
1966.
' 136
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,
~OR O~F~CIAL U3~ ~NLY
unc ss~..4~i c26~.35) (2~2. aa~ ~ z~) ~
P40DELINQ OF SUP~RPOS~TI~NING OF MAXIMA 0~ THE SL~ICHE LEVEL, WtND-INDUCEn
SURGE AND A LONO WAV~: IN THE NEVA INL~T
Moscow t~TE0ROL0QIYA I CIDROLOGIYA in~Ruesian No il, Nov 1978 pp 109-110 ~
[Article by Candidate of Geographicai 9cianc~s V. G. Noskov, 3tate Hydro-
iagicai InsCitiut~, submirted for publ3cation 18 January 1978~
AbeCrnct: It has been estabiiahed using large-scale
itydraulic modele of the Guif of Finlgnd and the
Baltic Sea Chat with mutual superpos~tioning of
sei:he~ long-wave and westerly wind-induced var- ;
iations of WaCer tnagse~ th~ resultant maximum '
rise in water 1eve1 at the head of the Gulf of ,
~inland ie lega than the sum of.the individually ,
taken variation components. An explanation of the
. reasone for this phenomenon is given. ;
(TexrJ When there are ~eQ~-ig~bitrarin~asriteis$possiblegto diatinguish f
Finland, aith eome deg
three principal types of rises: eeiche, long-wave riees and riae due to
surge of ~ater masses under the influence of the West~rly aind. Sometimes
at the he~ad of the gulf only one of the mentioned types of rises is noted,
but more frequently there is a superpoaitioning of variations of t~o or
all three types. In the course of the investigations of a hydraulic model :
' of the Gulf of Finland for determining the mechanism of forroation of sea
inundations in the Neva delta We reproduced the mutual superpositioning of
the mentioned types of level rises.
The Neva delta, Gulf of Finland and the northeastern half of the Baltic Sea
proper were formed in a model constructed in a chgnnel laboratory at the
State Hydrological Institute in 1974. The horizontal scale of the nwdel
was 1:10,,000 and the vertical scale ~as 1:200. The area of the model aas
1,200 m2. Long ~aves of different dimenaions were reproduced by a special
wave generator, aind-induced sutges were prnduced by centrifugal fans
mounted in sufficient number over the water surface of the model, and
~eiche variationa developed in the model ag a result of reflection of long-
waves at the head of the gulf and had the nature of inertial, gradually at-
tenuating variations.
137
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~
-i
~
,~,f ~ _
f
~
I
, /
I
~6 f ~ 1
~ ~
~ ~ ~ .
i!r ~ l ~ 1 , I
O ~ l~ 1~,�~
. ,
~ ~
L ~i
.
~ .
.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
's~ e,~ 6e houray
~ig. 1. Variation of water level in Neva delta with auperpositioning of dif-
ferent types of level riaes (model). 1) ob8erved resulCant level variarion,
2) long-wave variatione, 3) 1eve1 variation c~uged by wind-induced surge,
4) seiche variation.
The haight of the riae and the level variation were registered using auto-
~ matic recorders of electric measuring equipmene simultaneougly at 20 sta-
= tions in the model (1 in the Neva delta, 12 at the head of the gulf from
the mouth.of the Neva to Shepelevo and 7 in the remainfng part of the gulf).
As a control system we used ape~ial rules (rulers) which at these same
points regietered the roaximum height of the water level rises wiCh a mean
square error of f0.5 mm or f10 cm for the natural scale.
In the course of the experiments we reproduced four combinationa of super-
posiCionings of differenC types of level risea:
a) rise due to the long wave running into the rise from the seiche;
b) rise from the wind surge "on top" of the rise from the seiche;
c) rise from the wind aurge "on top" of the rise from the long wave;
d) rise from the wind aurge "on top" of the rise from the long wave, which
at the same time was superpoaed on the rise from the seiche.
The experimenta were carried out in such a way thaC the maxima of the super-
posed rises coincided in time. With such superpositioning there Was excita-
tion of seiche oscillations giving level rises in the Neva delta of
138
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nppraxim~t~ly ~00 em, wic~d-~,ndue~d ~urg~s ~.50 cm and r~.~@~ c~etribut~bl~
td ].~ng w~v~e 250 cm, ~h~e i~, ris~~ wieh ~n ~xc~~dingly r~r~ fr~quency
a~f r~~urr~nce~ ~inc~ in ~h~ case of hi.gh~r r~.~eg ehe r~~.aCive m~e~uremenC
~rror will be l~as.
An ~naly~3~ of the ~xp~rimantal dst~ indir~tad eh~ti tih~ r~~1. pi~tur~ of lev-
~1 vari~ti.one i.n Che ca~~ of muCugl guperp~s3tioninga of different kinds of
irragul~r long-ppriod var~ntions dif�ere ftiom ehat wh~.ch is ae~umed ~n cam-
puta~ion~ mnde using we11-known ~heor~e~.c~l mod~ls. In paxt~.cular, in el- ~
most th~ enCi~e gulf from Tolbukhin beacon the magn~.eude of th~ resUleanC
r3s~ obeerved ~.n the ca~e ng ~unh superpo~itioninga is equal rn (or in any ~
case is cloae to) the arithmetical eum of separately taken rise ~omponents.
In the Neva delta and in rhe Neva inlet (including the northgrn and souehern
"ggtes") the regultgnt magn~tude of Che rises in tihe casQ of such ~uper-
poaitionings nf phenomena is lees than the sum of t:he enmponent~ of thQSe
riaeg. In other words, at the h~ad~of Che gulf Chere ia no supprpositionin~
nf phenomena. Nn reao~ance phenomena wetie deteCted in experiments with
~uperposiCion~.ng of >>henomena.
Figure 1 ghowa an ex~mple of guperpositioning of phenomena in rhe Neva de1-
ea for three eimultaneous rises of different origin. In this case the re-
sultant risa wag apprnximaCely 17~ less than the aritihmetical sum of the
separaCely taken rises. This phenomenon Can arbitrarily be called 1~ve1
loss. Its approximate value for differenC combinaCions nf aup~rpoaitioning
of phenomena in individual cases attains 20~.
Z'he level loga in the case of auperpoaitioning of a long wave on a aeiche
is attributable to the differences in the hydraulic conditions for propaga- .
tion of the long wave:'in one case it is propagated in an undisturbed water
medium where there are no currente, and in another case, in a water medium
which has first lost equilibrium and experiences seiche oscillations complic-
ated by Che peculiar plane outlinea of the Baltic Sea and the great nonuni- �
formity of depths. It goes without saying Chat in the second case the loss-
es of wave energy will be greater than in the first ca$e.
The magnitude of the wind surge (whose dependence on depth of the water
body is known) with its auperposiCioning on a seiche or on a long wave
probably becomes less because in this case the surge takes place with a
depth which ia increased as a reault of the rise from the seiche or long
wave. In addition, wiCh a level increment there is an increase in the area
of the water body,and Cherefore a definite volume of water mass, advancing
in the head of the gulf with a higher initial level will give a lesser lev-
el incremenC than the same volume advancing vrith a lower level.
The level loas when.there is a superpositioning of all three mentioned
types of riaes is evidently attributable to these same factors.
. 139
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~1n I:h~ bu~i~ nf numc~rau~ expgrimenCd c~rricd nue u~i.ng our mod~l oE eh~
G~].f of ~'inlnnd nnd canf~.rm~cl by ~xp~rirn~nr~ usatn~ ~neth~r mndel nf eh~
enrlre t3alCic Sga ati n dcui~ o~ L:100,000 iti can be as~umed th~t th~ 1ev~1
loe~ phenomenon in ehe ca8e o~ euperpn~irioning of irr~gular 1~ng-p~riod ,
variatione under,aimilar tiopogr~phi.c ~nd hydrau].ic cond~.Ciong hgg n gener~l
character and is characCerisCic noC only nf tihe head of ehe Gulf df Fin-
].and~ buti a].so tihe heade of otiher marine embayments, b~ys and esCuaries,
a~.though wiChouti queaeion the magnitude of the leva]. 1osa, to a coneidez-
~b1e degree dependent on tiheir tiopogr~phy, will be different.
140
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~
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. ~
I
tt~C 551.509.616 ~
INVESTIGATION OF AN AI~tC1tAFT LIQUIn ~EN~RATOR OF ICE-~'ORMING AEROSOL5
Moecow 1~LFT~OROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in 'ciusaian No ].1, Nov 197g pp 111.-115
(ArCicle by :,andidate of P?iysical and Mathematical Sciences S. P. Belyayav,
N. S. Kim and Yu. N. Matveyev, Institute of Experimental Meteorology, aub-
mitited for publ3cati.on 29 MaLCh 19~8~
Abatract: The articlg describes a model of an .
aircraft generator, the apparatua and method
used in ita testing. Also given are the regulte '
of determination of the ice-forming activitiy of I
aerosols of a number of reagents. A~tive aerosols ,
, ware obtained either with Che comb~sstion of an
acetone or morpholine aolution of eilver iodide
or in the thermal aublimatiotr of t;opper acetyl
acetonate.
[Text] In the araenal of modern means for the modiffcation of aupercooled .
clouds, in addition to antihail shalls, rocketa and pyrotechnic mixtures~
use is being made of aircraft generaCors of ice-forming aerosols in which
an active aerosol is formed witih the combuation of soluCione of silver io-
dide, for example, in acetone. Their uae ig ~ustified by Che fact that
airrraft supplied with such generators can seed clouds of different areal
extent with an active aerosol; the denaity of such seeding can be prestip-
ulated. Aircraft generatora are widely employed abroad and the literature
deacribea the resulta of their teating both under natural conditions and
~n wind tunnels (5]. However, in our country they have not yet come into
extensive uae, for example, in wind tunnels. Por the most part we employ
pyrotechnic generators of ice-forming aerosols and generatora operating
on the explosive dispersion principle, but aircraft generators could be
uaeful for many practical aituaCiona.
In this paper we describe the results of wind tunnel tesCing of a model of
an sircraft generator. Three series of generator teats ~aere carried out.
In the first series of tests the active gerosol was produced by combustion
of a 2X~(by weight) solution of AgI in acetone; in Che aecond series
with combuation of a 2X (by weight) solution of AgI in morpholine; in the
~ 141
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I~'t111 ttl~'i~'tt~lA'~ 1141~ t1N1~Y
P
~
, ~w~~ D
-e
~ J 4 6 ~ ~
eaBywHU~ ~ ~9 i -
-
n~morr _ : , `1 - _
A ~r ~ ~ -
.r
~
�C~waR?~i~ a3om ~
~ ~ .
P - Om6op D
`S a OipWORI
C~ram~~~f Ansd,~x
C
=
: . . , ~s
.
!d . ,
.
' ~ ' ' ' fQ
. ~
.
. ~p
A A~~u~~aw~r~ f1 . f7
E i~o~~?oK . . , � : L
.
~ r
' ' fe
.
Fig. l. Diagram of testing of generator of ice-forming aerosols.
Key:
. A. Air flow
B. Compreased nitrogen
C. Compresaed air
D. Outflow of aerosol
� E. Pulsating gas flow
third seriee with thernial eublimation of pulverized copper acetyl ace-
tonate.
The first series of tests with acetone solutions af eilv~r i~did~ was carr-
ied out for the purpose of comparing the results obtained using our gener-
. ator With the results obtained abroad in the testing of similar generators.
142
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~AR OF~ICIAG U9~ ONt,Y
Mt /
~o y,
?
. ~
/
/
f0" f 60
- / .
/
/ ~
~ ~D
~3 f
t0 ! ~ p0
~ i j
~ J ~
. ~
( ~0 �
~o~~ r �c ~ i s ~ �
Dia ram of activit of ice- ~
pi,g. 2. D~pQndeace of yield of ec- F~B� 3� S Y
tive nuclei N on temperat~re T of forming nuclei. 1) copper ac~eyi
supercooled fog. 1) combustion of ~ce~ongt~ (rhermal aublimation);
acetone eolution of AgI-KI; 2) com- AgI (combuetion of acetone eolution
- buaeion of morpholine solution of of Agi-KI); 3) AgI ~combu8tion of
Agi; 3) thermal eublimation of pul- Uyrotechnic mixture).
varised copper acetyl acetoaata.
7'he daehed curve repr~sente the
theoretical Fletcher curve. .
In the 8econd series of tests ae invest3gated the possibility of obtaining
an active AgI a~erosol using an aircraft generator with combustion in it
of an AgI solution in morpholine instead of the usually employed Agi-t~14I,
Agi-KI or Agi-NaI aolutiona in acetone. Morpholine is a colorless oily
hygroscopic fuel fluid with a loa viscosity and an ammonia amell. The chem-
ical formula is C4HgN0. The deneiiy is 1 g/cm3. A 2X silver iodide solution
is obtained by the diesolving of a corresponding quantity of silver iodide
in morpholiee without any additives. The first communicatioas on the use
uf morpholine Without its ~oinc use with AgI for the modification of cumulus
ciouds were given in a series of studies ~4, 6, 7~. It Was noted in (7~, in
particular, that there ere facts indicating that some organic amines, among
uhich morpholine is included, tn scaall quantities can favor, or on the other
hand, impede the formation of ice crystals.
143
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~n th~ ~hi~~d ~~x~~~ w~ c~xri.~d ou~ ~n ~,nv~~t3g~e~.on ok rh~ pd~~3bil~.ey nf
u~ing an ~~rc~a#t g~nar~eo~ .~ex obea~,nin~ eceiv~ ~~ro~o~~ o~ or~ani~ ~ub-
~tanc~~. ~r~ part~cu~.d~, we used coppe~ ~c~Cy~, aee~c~nat~ ~he r~~g~nr.
Th~ ~.e~-fot~m~,n~ prope~ti,~~ e~ ehi.~ r~a~~ne w~re di~covered fnr Che Eir~e
eim~ by M~1k~,na and Pa~rik~yev [3, Copper acety~ ~ce~ac~ae~ ~.g ~ powd~r
of a blu~ eolor wi.eh parCieie ~ize~ me~suring ~evaral microne. I~~ ch~m-
iegl farmula 3~ Cu~CgH~02)~. AC ~ high ~~mp~reCur~ copp~r ~n~ey1 ~~etidn~e~
I~r~ake down and ~ASe~ 3t~ i.ce-form~ng proper~ie~. Ther~for~, ~.n nrd~r ed
~~beain a h~ghly diep~r~ed aare~ol Ch~ therma~ ~ub~3m~tiian of the rec~gen~
~nu~e E~k~ pl~e~ ~~mp~r~rur~~ whi~h are cdttsid~rab~y 1e~s th~n the rem-
p~r~tur~s w3th~n ~he a~,rc~afe ~eneratore. `The develnp~d mode]. nf an ~ir-
cr~fe g~nararor ~.s eaeily transformed ~.nCo a generator of capp~r gceeyl
~c~eona~~ aero~ol if within eh~ generator ther~ is cumbuatiion, fnr ex-
ampl~, pure aeeeone and powdere of thie raa~en~ ati~ ~neroduced inro
the low-temperature P1ame zone~ by means of a special aprayer.
- Generator and method for ite teseing. The generatior and a diegram of ies
Ce~ting are ~hown in Fig. 1. In the f iret two series of testa we combust-
~d acetona or morphol~ne solut~ons of silver ~.odida. A solution of s~.l.ver
indide ig fed to ~ pnewnatic nozzl~ 3 from the Cank 2 under the influence
of tha pressure of compr~ssed nitrog~n, whereag gir ie fed from a com-
pre~aed air line; a result, 3n t~e combusrion chamber 5 with a vo].ume
af 2.8 dm3 there is a eprayed mixture of a fuel solu~ion and air which
is ignited using the ~parkplug 4. Combustion of ehe solueian causee far-
mation of a atream 9 of highly dieperae silver iodide aerosol. 7'he expend~
iture of silver iodide was selected at the level 0.05 g/sec; this corres-
ponds to ehe uaual expenditure of reagent for aircraft generators and ex-
ceeda by aeveral timee the expenditure of reagent for ground generators
Csl�
In the third eeries of teste we combusted pure aceCone for the Chermal sub-
limation of copper acetyl acetonate ~n the generator. Copper aceeyl xceton-
nte was inCroduced into the flame zone 6 with a eemperature of about 430�C
by means of a apecial aprayer of ineasured quantieiea of the powder P
through the line 8. The reagent w~s fed toward the flame plume. At some
distance from this line there was a light screen 7 for preventing the re-
agent from entering the zone of higher temperatures, where its decompo-
sition can occur. After Chermal sublimation of the reagent and its subae-
quent condensation beyond the generator a stream 9 of highly dispersed
copper acetyl acetonate aerosol was formed.
The sprayer for delivery of ineasured quantities of powder P which we devel-
aped is a modernized variant of the sprayez described in (8]. The detailed
~esign of this aprayer is ahown in the lower part of Fig. 1. In the housing
nf this sprayer 12 there is a hopper 13 having a grid bottom 16. The powder
15, which is to be aprayed, is loaded into this bin and the latter is cover-
ed with the lid 14. It is mandatory that there be a free spa~e between the
powder and the li.d. A gas flow is fed through the entry line ~1 into the
144
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The dosed feed~.ng
powder ~rx~y~~; ehe pre5sure ~.n ehi~ 1~.ne E1.uctiuates. u~,s~tiing change
o~ Cha powde~ ~'~he tiAg medium~under~thec~~l.d~bo ~om o~gthe bi.n and g pu1.~
i.n pr~~eure of t g in ~~s pressure nver ehe powder wiCh-
g~Cing change (w~.~h some phase 1~8)
itt the bin. ~or bettier spr~ytng df. Che powder, at ~he be~3.ttn3.ng oL the
nuepuC ].lne Chere is g diaphragm 17 and the 1i.ne itself or a part o~ iC
is bent in ehe ~nrm o� a ring ].a�
' 'i'he expendi~ure of ~he reagent pnwdex from Che sprayer is set by the area ~
seceion of the boCtom of the bin, the ~ize of the grid ~
o� the working
_ npeningg, the area of ehe diagh~ngChepg~suf].ow~.~a ~he freqUency and n-
Cenaity of pr~ssure pulsation
er Chere is a bin having an internal volume of 75 cm3, an in-
The gri
~n the spray
ternal radius o� the upper base 2.5 cm, and a lower base ~m�
openings in the bin measure ~..5 x~e ~u~gal~~n$tlchange in pressurefofhChe ~
enCry and outpuC 1ines were 6 mm P
gas �low was enaurc:d by use of he ~uLgationsn2~Hzlwithnanhamplitude~of
air line. With a frequency o� t p
- nbout 1 atm rhe expenditure of reagenC powder was 0.1 g/sec.
The method used in all three tiolveseth~gzollowingg~ThegBeneratorcisforming
aerosols was identical and inv
mounCed in an ad~ustable air flis formationnoftanstream9iof ac~iveiaerof '
the generator, behind it there
sol thaC is mixed uniformly in the section of the tunnel by spaciaT~aof
tators 10. At a distance of 5 m downstream from the agitator, P
Che aerosol is coritinuously reCedeb ~huregairn A definiteevolume8of Che _
necessity this aerosol is dilu Y P
The
' aerosol sample is intr~auced on~glasses~and ontthe basiscoflthefnumber of
forming crysCals are t pp
crysCals observed in the microscope fiea~atus,iwe~ascertain Cheaiceufor~
the characteristics of the employed app
ing activity of the reagent (yield o� ice-forming nuclei from 1 g of re-
agent) for a sCipulated operating regime of the generator. The test meth-
od is described in greater detail in [2].
Test resulCs. In the tests the generator of ice-forming aerosols operated
under conditions close to achievedrby itsrventglationtbynan airhflowrhav-
craft generator, this was
ing a velocity up to 60 m/sec. The greatest number of tests was carried
ouC for an air flow veloc~es~sfofOthisegenerator~is~madetonlya�orcthis
comparison of results of
one velocity.
Figure 2 shows the results of all Chree series of 8eofr~earentsas anfuncCh
1 we determined the yield of active nuclei N from 1 g 8
- tion of temperature T of a supercqoled fog.
145
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T~bl~ 1
t3~xuA nttTUU~i~tx ~arp c 1~ Agl n~~u ,
1'eHe aro NcnoneayeMdr Pnaxc~,t d~uKCUhouaiu~ail Ta~~nepnType nepr~:c�
P P pacT~opw 2 Agrn 3-- ~at~cAenFto~o ryMaNa 4
1 I ,
~.8r~~ ~
y MoAenb caMOner�
itoro reuepaTOpa, Agt~ MOp~lOAllll 7 O,OS 3~1014 1,3~10~~ 4,b~10~~
uawu,qai~H~ce, Agt-Ki, aucrnii g 0,05 I,b~10~~ 1,1~10~~ b~10~~
6 CaWOneTHde re~{e�
paropw [6];
Atmospherics, Inc, Ag1-NH4t~ 811hT011 0,035 9~10~~ 2,5~10~~ 1~10~~
NOAA B, , Agi-NW~i, auerou 0,09 7� 1014 5~ 10~~ 9~ 10~~
NOAA 8.. AgI--NaI, aueton 0,09 2~10~~ 3~10~~ ?~10~~
~ Key:
1. Generetor
2. Solutiuns used
3. AgI expenditure, g/sec
4. Yie1d nf active nuclei from 1 g of AgZ for fixed CemperaCure of
supercooled fog
5. Model of aircraft generator, our data
6. Aircraft generAtors
7. Mor~holine ~
8. Aceeone
'The results of Che first series of generator CeaCs with iCs operation with
acetone solutiona are given in Fig. 2(curve 1) and in Table 1. In addi-
tion, the table givea the results of similar CesCs of aircraft generators
carried out by Garvey [5~ using a.wind tunnel. The aircrgfC generators
operated using 2X AgI acetone solutiona. The table shows rhaC in the en-
tire temperature range the yield of nuclei from 1 g of AgI for our gener-
ator approximately corresponds to the yield of nuclei for foreign aircraft
generators. Thus, on the basis of the resulta of tests of a model aircraft
generator which we developed it is possible to evaluate the effectiveness
of aircraft generators of thia particular type.
The results of the second series of generator tests, with its operation us-
ing a morpholine AgI solution, are also given in Fig. 2(curve 2) and in
Table 1. It can be seen Chat in the temperature range for a supercooled
fog, -11 --16�C, the ice-forming activity of AgI aerosols obtained by
the combustion of acetone and morpholine AgI solutions virCually coincides.
The difference is observed for the temperaCure range -7 --11�C. In Chis
temperature range the yield of active nuclei during tests of a generator
with an AgI solution in morpholine exceeds the yield of active nuclei for
tes[s of a generator with an AgI-KI soluCion in acetone (curve 1). For a
temperature of -8�C this difference attains 20 times. However, in work
with a morpholine solution there was found to be a number of shortcomings:
more difficult ignition of the sprayed reagent in the combustion chamber
146
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~
ro~ n~~~~YnL tis~ oNLY
and the formneion nf n thick ~ncruAtiation on rha inr~rnul ~urface oE Ch~
combug~ion chambpr. Z'her~fore, fur the time U~ing thie ~oluCidn c~nnor
ba recomtnpndad ~or preericul uge withouC tihe d~v~lopmQnt of applicable
methode For itg combuge~.dn, d~~p~.c~ ~otn~ advantageg which it hag in ~he
high-CemperaCure r~nge.
In ehe third ~erieg of t~srs, ~g alx~udy mention~d abov~, the gener~tior
np~rgted in a regim~ of producCion of ~ highly di~perse copper ~cetyl ;
~c~tonate aerosol. In order to nscprtttin the ice-forming activity o� !
this ra~gent~ a pagsg8e of vnpor w~s firsc employed in a cold chamber for `
cre~ting a model eupercooled cloud; then tha aarosol to ba L�esCed was in-
troduced there and we c~lculatad the numb~r of precipiCnting ice crystals.
'Che numbar of crystals wae relaCively small. Wi,th thp repeaeed introduc-
tion of vapor into this same volume the ice cryatale again formed, but in
ehia case in a consider~bly gr~ater nucaber. Ice crystals continued to bp
formed in ~ubeequent 3ntroductiong of vapor, bue each time their number
decreased. Figure 3(curve 1) illuaeratee theae exp~rimental data. Along
Che y-axie we have rlotted the percenCage of nuclei manii~sCing their ac-
t3vity after the correaponding introduction of vapor, ar.d along the x-axia
the number of the vapor introduction. Aa a comparison, on this same
graph we have shown the depQndences which we obtained when using a wind
Cunnel for invesCigating pyrotechnic compoaitions with AgI (curve 3-- ;
very rapid dropoff) and in an investigaCioc of acetone aolutions of AgI- !
KI, combuated in our generator (curve 2-- elower dropoff). ~
These reaulta of atudy of the ice-�orming acCivity of copper acetyl aceton- ~
ate aerosols confirm what was found earlier by othes. authors [1]: a strong '
sensitivity of aerosols of this reagent to brief aupersaturations of water
vapor. � ~ -
The yield of active nuclei from 1 g of copper acetyl gcetonate (see Fig.
~ 2, curve 3), if it is calculated by firet summing Che number of nuclei
1 manifesting Cheir activity after each introduction of vapor, with a tem-
perature of the model cloud -6�C, ie 2.5�1012, at -8�C 1.2�1013, at
-10�C 4�1013, at -12�C 1�1014, at -14�C 2�1014 and at -16�C
4~1014~
Thus, the reaulta show that the presently used aircraft generators can be
used for the sublimation of organic ice-forming reagenta. This requires
their insignificant modification; in parCicular, the sprayer of ineasured
quantities of pulverized subatances developed by the authors can be used
for the spraying of reagents.
147
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13IgLI0G1tAPHY
1. Aksenov~ M. Ya., ~romb~rg, A. V., Dychkov, N. V., KordyukeviCh~ N. G.,
Pl~ud~, N. 0., "InvesC3gaeion af Che Ice-Forming Propert~.~~ of Cnpp~r
Ac~Cyl Acetonat~ A~rosnlg of Di,ffer~n~ lli.spareiviCy," TEZISY nOttLAI)OV
VIII VSE~OYU2NOG0 NAUCNNOGO SOVESHCNANIYA PO PROBL~M~ I~YSKANIYA I
I33LEDOVANIYA L~DOOBRAZUYUSHCHIttll REAGENTOV I IKH AER020LEY (Summar-
ies of Report~ at the Eighth A11-Un~.on Sciene~.fic Conference on the
Problem of Seeking and Teating Ice-~orming 1t~agenCs and ~'heir Aero-
eo18), Kishinev, pp ~6-17, 1977.
Belyayev, S. P., D'yachenko, Yu. D., Kim, N. S., MaCVeyev, Yu. N., 5i-
doYOV, A. I., "InveaCigaCion of the Effectiveness of Action of Fu11-
Size Pyrotechnic Generatora of Ice-Forming Aerosnls," TRUDY IEM (Trans-
acCions of the Inetitute of Experimeneal Meteorology), No 14(52), pp
2~-32~ 1976.
3. Malkina, A. D., Patrikeyev, V. V., "Peculiarieies of Aernaols o� Metal
Acetyl Acetonates ae Tce-Forming Reagentg," TEZISY bOKLAUOV VIII
VSESOYUZNOGO NAUCHNOGO SOVESHCHANIYA PO PROBLEME IZYSKANIYA I ISSLED-
OVANIYA L'DOOBRAZUYUSHCHIKH REAGENTOV I IKH A~ROZOLEY, Kishinev, pp
15-~.6, 1977.
4. Sedunov, Yu. S., "American Investigations of Che 'Weather Modification'
Problem," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGI:A (Meteorology and Hydrology), No
9, pp 107-111, 1975.
5. Garvey, D. M., "Testing of Cloud Seeding Materiale at the Cloud Simul-
ation and Aerosol Laboratory, 1971-1973," J. APPL. I~TEOROL., Vol 14,
No 8, pp 883-890, 1975.
6. Henderaon, T. J., Duckeing, D. W.~ "Ice Crystal Inhibition (ICI Pro-
~ect). An Applicationa Program of Chemical Diapereal in Small Cumulus
Clouda," REPORT AD-775630. Atmospherics Incorporated, Fresno, Califor-
nia, 15 June 1973, IV, 35 pages.
7. Henderaon, T. J., Finnegan, W., "Results from the Field Application
of Morpholine and Ethylamine to Small Cumulus Clouds," PROCEEDINGS OF
THE FOURTH CONFERENCE ON W~ATHER MODIFICATION, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida,
pp 210-213, 1974.
8. Palmelund, A..J., "Gerat zur Verstabung von Pulver, insbesondere Schad-
lingabekampfungspulver," West German Patent, K1. 45k 902, No 811882,
1951.
9. Patrikeev, V. V., Malkina, A. D., Kartsivadze, A. I., "Method of Crys-
tallization of Water in Supercooled Clouds and Fogs and Reagent Useful
in Said Method," USA Patent, C1 252-319, No 3887580, 1975.
148
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UDC 556.53S.6 '
INVESTICATION OF PE~BLY CHANN~L SEDIM~N'TS IN RIVER5 USING UND~RWATF.R
I'NOTOGRAPHY ,
Moacow METEOAOLOOIYA Y GIDItOLOGIYA in itusgian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 115-117 ~
(Article by CandidaCe of Geographi.cal Scienceg R. V. Lodin~ and A. I.
Sh~raukh, Moscow StaCe University, aubmiCCed for publicaCion 19 December
1977~
AbettiucC: The paper examinea the use of an un-
derwater photographic aurvey in a study of chan-
nel pebbly and bouldery aediment. The authora
~ deecribe an apparatus for underwater photograph- ~
ic work. A method for carrying out work with an
underwater photographic aurvey of the channel bot-
Com is preaented.
[Text] Many sCudiea have been devoted to an investigation of channel de-
posits in mountainous and semimountainous rivera [1-3, 5, 6]. However,
the conclusions and regularities defined by different reaearchers are
based excluaively on materials from studies of the pebbles making up
the shoals along the channel which emerge from beneath the water at low ,
water. Data on the underwater part of the channel a~e lacking, which reduces
the value of the resulta and limita Che possibilities of their use. In ad-
dition, the content of pebbles of different particle size was determined .
in samples or in areas aelected or laid out in the shoals along channels,
on the basis of which iC was posaible to compute the mean diameter or
other morphometric characteristics of the pebbles. The mapping of pebbly '
channel sediment~in the channel with respect to their types, as has been
done for lowland rivers with sandy alluvium (Lebedeva, Chalov [4]), has
never been accompliehed. Nevertheless, the solution of different problems
related to channel sedimenta (construction of mountain reservoirs, stabil-
ity of cuts in navigable rivers, etc.) requires more detailed data on their
composition. Therefore, the Channel Expedition of the Soil Erosion and
Channel Processes Problems Laboratory of Moscaw State University, working
on the Kirenga River (a right Cributary of Che Lena River), used an under-
water photographic survey in a study of channel pebbly and boulde~y aedi-
ments, which in combination with a complex of traditional methods for
making investigations in shoals, made it possible to obtain valuable
149
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1~'f~R di~'CIGIAL U5~ ONLY
m~eerial~ e~ncerning th~ p~euli~ri~i~~ df di~eribuCian df ~~dim~~its ~ldng
th~ ~ntirc~ ch~nn~1 of tlii~ ~~mimeunenin~u~ riv~r in ~ r~~ch with g l~ngeh
nf 240 km. The av~r~g~ width nf the eh~nn~1 liee~ ig 400-500 m; eh~ m~~n
annuai wgt~r di,ech~ra~ is 644 m~/~~e.
~
2
0
, I
I
Nxrt ' ~ ~
~~.m ~ ~
~
.s
4c
( ~
a
9
~
~ ^ i
Fig. 1. Diagram of underwater photographic apparatus for survey of pebbly-
bouldery alluvium for depths from 1.5 to 6 m for current velocity from 0
to 2.5 m/sec. 1) directing arm; 2) shaft; 3) unit for supplying currenC Co
flashbulb; 4) lever for camera ahutter; 5) housing with camer$; 6) handle
for winding film; 7) rod for driving shutter lever; 8) camera flash bulb;
9) scale-lever for activating shutter
The most itnportant characteristic feature in the morphology of the Kirenga
channel is that it is highly branching (broken by islands and shoals into
great number of arms and subsidiary channels). The exceptional transparen-
cy of the water at low water in the Kirenga River channel (turbidity
0.0050 g/liter or less), when even at ~iepths as great as 6 m it is possible
~ 150
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FdR O~~LCtAL U~C dNLY
t~ s~~ ~~.mose ev~ry fragm~nt ~nd it i~ pugs3.b1~ Cd c~rtiy out ~n underw~t~r
photographic ~urvey of boteom ~~dimenr~.
`~h~ inveeeigation nf eh~ eompo~ieian ~nd distriburion o� pebb].y ~1luvium
wa~ ea~ried out 3n ~r~g~~. in the firet ~t~~~ w~ m~de a granulometric de-
e~rminaeidn of th~ granul~m~tric compe~ieion ~f eh~ ~urf~c~ ~.~yer of
pabbl~s in ~hnala ia ar~~~ ~n~~~uring 1 x 1 m us3ng ~h~ method degcribed
by Ye. I. S~kharovn ~r?d N. V. t~bad~v~ (6j. An ~nalysis of dae~ from 200
gampling areag m~de 3C po~si.b1~ eo fdrmulat@ g clas~ific~eion nf eyp~~ o� `
pebbla depogit~ ba~ed dn g pr~domin~nce af th~ fr~ceiong within the limits
'nf th~ e~mplin~ er~a. In the naxt ~tag~ we carried out photographing of ~
these eame areaa on shoals with aub~equent measurementia of pebblea by frac-
t~ons within Che limitg of aach eurvey fYame. W~eh photographing o� the
gample are~a there was adherenc~ to the condition of v~rticaLity o� the
c~n~ra ob~ective axig to the eurface of ehe grea by means of attachment
of the camera Co the tripnd. A scale ruler was photographed ng part of
~ach frame. The diacrepancy in the regulta of determi.naeion of direcC meas-
~remente of the meh;~ diameter of pebbles in an area and the reaulte obtain-
ed by the processing of a photogYaph was nor mnre than 10-151.. In rhia com-
parison it was found Chat the fractions of bouldprs, large gnd intermediate-
gized pebblea are conCained in approximately equal quantity both in the
processing of photographs and in indirect measuremenCs on slioals and there .
gre aome discrepancies for small pebblee only.
A comparison of the reaults af determinatiion of the mean weighred diameter
by the measurement and photogYaphing methoda made it posaible to uee a
gingle method for the mapping of sediments along the entire channel and
determining the mean diameter both for the parts of the channel above Che
water at shallow water and for the underwater parta. However, at different
water levels the above-water ahoals can be submerged below the water, and
vice versa. Therefore, the method for determining the mean diameter of
pebbles by the photographic method, developed for shoals, is applicable
for the procesaing of underwater photographa.
An underwater survey of the channel bottom was carried out using an appar-
atus constructed by A. I. Shtraukh (Fig. 1). The operating principle for
the apparatus was based on use of a camera hermetically isolated from the
water medium. The aurvey was made under low water conditions. Precisely
during this time a waCer thickness with a depth up to 6 m had a. very high
transparency. The current velocity in the river varied in the range from
0.5 to 2.5 m/aec. The proposed construction ensured the poasibility of a
survey at depths from 1.5 to 6 m. The upper range was limited by the maxi-
mum extent of the area taken in by the frame using a wide-angle ob~ective
with a focal length of 37 imn and constituting 0.8 m2. The lower limit
6 m-- was the depth at which with daytime solar illumination there was a
sufficiently good bottom visibility. The use of a synchronized photoflash
hermetically isolated from the water medium makes it poasible to use this
apparatus independently of the intensity of solar illumination, which con-
siderably broadens the possibility of a photosurvey of the channel bottom.
151
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~ FOR B~FICIAL US~ dNLY
The ~pp~ratu~ �or underwater phoCogr~phy ~ fr~m~w~rk-~rcn ~~~~mb].y in
which ie mounted a housing ~nd a rigid couplin~ in eh~ form ~f g~p~ci~~.
scale coupled to the camera ~hutr~r by ~~ysr~m of levera. Ati rhe moment
of eonCace between Ch~ ob~eee Co b~ ~urv~y~d $nd th~ gp~~i~l ~cg1~ th~
e~m~rt~ ~hueC~r wil~ be Cri~~~r~d. T1� ~up~dre wieh eh~ c~m~ra hdu~ing
ie maunead on a wooden ahaft 6.5 m iong fiteed intio a slor 3n the diract-
ing ~guiding) arm. ~n this eha�t there ~r~ ~raduaCione makin~ it po~~ib1~
to ascertain bottom depth during elie phoCograph~e work. ~fie d~.recting arm,
mounted r3gidly Co the prow of the vessel, made ie pog~ibl~ ed m~in~~in
the vertic~lity of the ob~ective axis ro th~ ~urf~ce o� the glluvial
~hoa1, which excluded scele distortion in g c~se when the phoeogr~phin$
~~as carr~.ed out with a sma11 angle of inclinaCion to rhe surveyed ob~ece.
The apparatus was mounted on a vesael of the "MKrI" Cype wiCh an outboard
motor. Photographing was carried out ~1ong longitudinal runs wieh a dis-
tance betiween ad~acent points of 50 m. The number of run~ in eh~ chann~l
was determined by the width of the 1ar.ter. ~he distance beeween runs w~s
SO-100 m. A derailed ~urvey was made in sectore of rapids; gmnoth sectorg
were investigated in less detail. The points of photographing of rhe channel
bottom were registered on Che plan insrrumentally uaing twn plane Cables.
In all, we obtained about 5,000 frames under water gnd 2,000 frames in Che
shoals.
The subsequent processing of the photographa was carried out under office
conditions. On the photographs, ueing a ecale grid for each fr~ction,
nounted on a"Clara camera" cartographic insCrument, we auccessively dis-
criminaCed the pebble fractions. The discriminated fractions were ourlined
with ink and by means of a"Ladoga" electrnnic planimeter we ascertained
the percentage content of pebble fractiona of different sizes. Then we
carried out computations of the mean diameter of the pebbles on the photo-
graph. From the 300 photographs proceased in this way we aelected standards
("keys")for the visual determination of the types of pebbles on the photo-
graphs taken in great numbera. This deCermination was made by an inapection
of the filma on a"Mikrofot" inatrument and by a comparison of each frame
with the atandard for a particular type of pebbles.
The bottom material aurvey made gave us the possibility of compiling a map
of the distribution of channel pebbly aediments in the channel of a semi-
mountainous river; this is of very great importance for an analysis of the
condiCions for channel formation, computation of its stability, discrimina-
tion of zones of predominant erosion or accumulation of alluvium during
channel-fot~ning diacharges, determinaCion of noneroding velocities, etc.
In addition, the results of mapping of bottom materials in sectors of
. rapids are very importane in the planning of bottom-deepening work.
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uxnt,~ar~nr~~x ~
l. Bor~uk~ n. A., "Sam~ It~~u1.r~ of Crnnulnmetric gnd Morphomc~trie Study
of AlLwi.a~ Deposita of SoutliEn~e~rn TrAnsbayka].ia," KOLICHESTVENNYY~
METODY V G~OGRA~ZT ~Qu~.nC~tative MgChodg in Geogrgphy), Md~cdw, Izd~vd
MGU, pp 21-24~ 1964.
2. Zudina, N. I., "On the Problam of rormae~.on of Channel DepnsiCe of th~ ~
MounCainoug Chadak River,~~ ~~2YSY UOKL. I VSESOYUZNOY i~ZHVUZOVSKOY
KONFERENTSII PO PROBLi~i~ ~'ZAKONOM~RNOSTI p1t0YAVLENIYA E1tOZZONNYKH Z I
AU5LOVYKH PROTSESSOV V RA2LICHNYKH PRI120DNYK1~ USLOVIYAKH" (Suromarieg `
of Reporeg aC the FirsC All-Union Intercollege Conf~rence on the Prob- ;
lem "Patterna of Appenrance of Eroaionel and Channel Pr69e79e~1972ar
Di.fferenC Natura1 CondiCiona Moscow, Izd-vo MGU, pp
Kroshkin, A. N., "Determination of the Mean Weighted Diameter of A1~ ,
luvium of MounC~?in Riv~rs in Kirgizia," SELEVYYE POTOKI I C~ORN'YYE~re-
RUSLOVYYE PROT5i:SSY (Mudflowe and Mountain Channel Proceasea),
van, Izd-vo AN ArmSSR, pp 169-173, 1968. ;
4. Lebedeva, N. V., Chalov, R. S., "Experience in Uae o� the Cartometric ;
Method in Study of the GranulomeCry of Channel Alluvium,GeoEra hical ~
MOSK. UN-TA SER. GEOGRAF. (Herald of Moacow UniveraiCy, S P ,
Series), No 3, pp 92-94, 1966. !
5. Lodina, R. V., "Sorting of Alluvium in the oaion andWChannel Process,-
EROZIYA POCKV I RUSLOVYYE PROTSESSi~35148,~1974.
es), Moscow, Izd-vo MGU, No 4, pp ~
6. Sakharova, Ye. I., Lebedeva, N. V., "Change in the Mean Grain Size of ;
Alluvium Along the Length of a Mountain River (in the Exa~nple of the
Mzymta River)," LITOLOGIYA I POLEZNYYE ISKOPAYEMYYE (Lithology and
Minerals), No 1, pp 97-109, 1967.
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FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF T1iE ROSTOV WEA7'N~R BU1t~AU
Dtoacow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 118-ii9
(Unsigned, aubmitted for publication 13 March 1978J
[Abstract: The article briefly discusses the his-
tory of development and results of work of Che
Rostov Weather Bureau.]
[Text] The Northern Caucasus Kray Weather Bureau, as it was then called,
began iCs operationa at Rostov-on-Don in February 1928. This was the
first tiny weather service institute on the Don and its mission and its
task included the aupplying of ineteorological informgtion and forecasts
to the workers of the Northern Caucasus Railroad, airlines, agriculture and
the fishing industry in the Sea of Azov. Weather information was senC to
the bureau only twice a day by telegraph from several tens of ineteorolog-
' ical stations in Severo-Kavkazakiy Kray, and from ad~acent territories
by radio from the Moscow Meteorological Center.
The first weathermen (physicists) at the bureau were N. K. Krylov, Profe~sor
p. M. Yerokhin, F. L. Monoszon; I. V. But, V. A. Dzhordzhio, V. P. Dubentsov
and oChers arrived somewhat later.
In those years it was difficult for Rostov meteorologists: there was a lack
of actual information on weather from ouClying areas, a lack of technical
facilities and equipment, a shortage of the necessary specialists; methods
for foreseeing the weather were not developed; local peculiarities of atmo-
. ~pheric circulation and weather were not known. But the years passed and
; there was a growth and improvement of the weather service in the country,
' including on the Don. In the 1930's Rostov weathermen began to use so-call-
ed frontological analyais of synoptic processes, proposed by the Norwegian
school of weathermen and later improved by Soviet meteorologists. In this
respect much was done by the former chief of the Rostov Weather Bureau, now
Professor I. V. But. These and other scientific innovations considerably in-
creased the quality of all the meteorological information, including weather
forecasting.
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i~olt c1t~t'TCtAt, U~L r1N1,Y
In eh~ aurly 1930'g ewn r~l~eed ~~rviccn w~r~ ~~enbli.~hed in Ch~ w~dC1t~~'
bureau: hydroldgic~l Cnrectt~eg ~nd n~rdm~tenrologi~~l infarm~eian ("Yi~ld
~ervie~~"), whdsc pur.poq~ w~s eh~ rnuri�e c:c~ll~cridn ~nd dig~~minueion Cn
tntar~stPd organizutionq o~ infhrmntion nn the st~t~ of rtver~ ~nd hydrd-
logicnl fnr~caets, on chnc~~es iu th~ qt~t~ r~k s~wn ~~rinuleur~t~. ~ropg in
relaeion to w~~~h~r. edndieions. i~br ehe snmc r~~~dn~ a~ for w~aeh~rman, ie
was diff~.CU1e fnr tiydrnlo~;i~Cg nnci ngrom~teoroln~i~C~. A?id nav~rehelec~s
~he modesC inform~~eion whiGh ehey CdlitCC~d and Ch~ fnr~ea~es which eh~y
prepared en~oyed n grene d~m~nd fram wuter nnd n~riculCur~1 orgsniz~tion~. ~
Uurin~ rhe wur yegrs ehe work nf Clte Ftostnv tJ~aCher ~ur~nu w~q brie�]y in-
eerrune~d~ ~Eter whiah n qudlituCively new gtag~ began in its hisCory.
7'his w~s ch~r~cCerized by Che rapid Cechnical gc~d acientific growth c~f t~11
iC~ s~rvices. Uur~ng ehiq period the speci~lisCs ~.n all fi~1d~ creaCed
mnre eh~n 130 geienrific nnd meChodaingicul ittnov~Cions fnr prediCeing th~
clemenCs of eh~ hydrnldgic~l r~gime of waCer bodies, most weather phenompn~
~~nd ttgrnmeCeorological i.ndic~s. Some of Ch~se scienCific sCudies, such gs
predictions of water tnf.low tnto Tsimlyanskoye Reservoir, hurricanes and
th~ choice nE the opcimum times for Che sowing of winter wheae, r~c~ived
a high evaluaCion nt scientific organizaCinns and tiheir authorg (I. M. Cher-
noivanenko, N. K. Parshina, I. V. 5visyuk) were awarded Che ~cad~mic degre~s
of Candidates of Sciences.
In Clie everyday work of weathermen they introduced new, computation methods
Eor predicting almost all weather parameCers, which conaiderably ob~ectiv-
ized the preparation of forecasts. During Che postwar years weathermen re-
ceived the most modern equipment: electronic computers, meteorological earth
satellites, surface radiomeCeorologicgl rad~rs, high-speed radiotelegraph
and facsimile apparaeus, automatic transponders, etc. The introducCion of
new weather forecasting methods, local scienCific developments and tech-
i~iques had an appreciable effect on increusing the quality of short-range
weather forecasts. For examplz, whereas in the 1950's their mean probable
~~iccess was 78-809~, during the last five years it has been 84-86~. Weather-
men have learned relatively well how to predict marked warmings, coolings,
freezings, strong winds, blizzards and frontal continuous precipitation.
I;ut it is still difficult to predict such phenomena as local summer heavy
~howers, hail falls and squalls.
Uue to the great amount of research work, there is a firmer scientific ba-
:;is for the hydrological and agrometeorological forecasCs, the probable
success of which is now 85-95~, and for shore-range forecasts of water
levels in rivers 98-100~. The mean rayon yields of winter and some
spring crops are predicted wiCh a period 1.5-2 months in advance with an
error of not more ehan 5-10;6. The agrometeorologisCs of the 1930's could
nnly dream about this.
Uver a period of 50 years the Rostov weather bureau has introduced a major
contribution ro socialisC construction in the Northern Caucasus and on the
I)on. Advance warnings of dangerous and especially dangerous hydrometeorolog-
ic;~l phenomena always served as an acute signal for the taking of some �
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~m~r$ency ~n~~~ur@~ far pr~v~nein~ ar ~~duein~ m~e~ri~i 1~~~~g ~ram eh~ ~c-
eion af m~~~ordingie~l ph~nare~na. Du~it~g eh~ 1~gr ehr@~ y~ar,~ alon~ eh~
~acanomic ~ff~~t from th~ ue~ of hydrom~e~oro~,o~i.c~i inform~eidn, ~nr~~a~tir~
~nd warn~ngs, ~cedrd3.ng td pre].iminary daea, w~~ ~bouC 27 mil~,ian ~ub1~~.
A particuldriy gr~at ~eonomic ~ff~eC is obCain~d from ~eono~nie m~asur~s
e~k~n on eh~ b~~i~ of eh~ w~rnin~~ of hydralogige~ caneernin~ ~ntieip~t@d
fionding~ o~ eh~ flaodp~.ain aiong ~h~ mdu~h ~~ceor of Che Don wh~n eh~
~oatar~ ~r~ driv~n by eh~ wind, long-rang~ for~eagks of eh~ 3nfiow of aee~r
into Teimi.yanskay~ R~~~rvoir, w~rning~ of w~~eherm~n wiCh r~~p~ee ed ~har~
Gooiinge, frose~, �oree~sr~ of ~gromereorologi~t~ cdnc~rning ~pring ~upplie~ i,
df goil moieeur~, result~ of wintering of winC~r crop~ and gr~s~~~, con-
aerning optimwn rimes of sowing and yields of agriculeur~l crops, and ~l~o
different kinds of reeommendaCions on agr3.culturAl te hniques and equip-
ment to ba uged, sueh as may be ind3cated by eh~ curx...ie ~nd ~xpecr~d agro-
mateorological conditiona.
Now n larg~ gC~f� specialisC~ ig working in the w~ather bur~gu. Fnr th~
mo~e parti ehese are young, knowledge~ble, work-loving p~nple: V. A. Kirnog,
L. I. Malygonovg, N. Ye. Veremeyenko, N. K. Parehin~, V. A. Vnsi1'y~va, and
_ nthers, who are carrying forward the work of aervica veeeran~ Ye. F.
Goncharova, N. S. Taran, A. V. Z~revskaya, A. I. Durasova, I. M. Chernoiv~n-
~nko, N. S. 1?vurechenskaya and R. G. Yeritgpokhova.
We are also proud of the scientiste Whm h~ve now gone frdm our we~ther bur-
~au, those from whom we acquired a love fnr creative work: Corresponding
ttember USSR Academy of Sciences Ye. N. Blinova, Doctorg of Sciences I. V.
l~ut', V. R. Dubentsov, V. A. Dzhordzhio, A. D. Zamorakiy, L. S. Minina,
Candidates of Sciences S. A. Malik, A. M. Basin, all of whom have mxdp a
considerable contribution to the development of hydrometeorologicgl sci-
ence.
In the coming years Rostov hydrometeorologists and agrometeorologists are
anticipating new acientific research and more modern and higher-speed
computers, by means of which it is planned to carry out new and improve
old numerical programs for ahort-range weaCher forecasting and especially
showers, thunderstorms, hail, precipitation and also ldng-range forecasts
of individual elements of the hydrological and agrometeorological regime.
In this way still another step will be taken on the path to highly accuraee
computed hydrometeorological forecasCs.
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ttEVIEW OF MONOGRAPK nY A. N. POLEVOY: AGIt~I~~T~OROLOGICN~SKIY~ USLOVIYA ~
PRODUKTIVN03T' KARTO~ELYA EgN~NHE~RNONONCHEttN02LM~ NE)~tLENIN g~NDITIONS
AND PRODUCTIVITY OF POTAT
GIDROMETEOIZDAT, 1978, 118 PAGFS
Moscow t~TEOROLOGIYA Z GIDRALOG2YA in Rug~ian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 120-121
(Article by Candidc~t~ of Geographical Science~ M. S. Kulik~
(Text] Thi~ revi~wed book by A. N. Polev~y generalizea th~ experiences in
ngrometeorological suppart of potatn production. It exgcnin~a recommenda-
tions on the cultivation of potatoea~ taking fnto accoun~re8~ ~mpoYtance
agromet~orclogical conditione, which is of particularly g
for the Nonchernozam zone. In this zone plans called for the consolida-
tion of exieting and theioe of~ZOtato culCivationineareindustrialecentere.
potato farms, the expans P
AgromeCeorologiets have publiahed a number of sCudies devoCed to the prob-
lems involved in evaluating the corre~pondence between the climatic condi-
tion~ in different regions in our country and Che biological peculiarities
of the potato crop and methods for evaluating and predicting agrometeorol-
- ogical conditions for the formation of the yield of this crop. First of
all we should mention the studies of A. N. Rudenko VLIYANIYE ZASUKHI NA
UROZNAY KARTOFELYA (Influence of Drought on the Potato Yield) (1958), 0. M.
~opovskaya METOnIKA OTSENKI AGROMETEOROLOGICt~SKIKH U5LOVIY PROIZRASTAN-
IYA KARTOFELYA V TSENTRAT'~t'1YKH ~BL~TY~K YeTS (Methods for Evaluating Agro-
meteorological Conditions for the Cultivation of Potatoea in the Central
Ublasts of the European USSR)(1957), Xe. A. Tsuberbiller PUTI POVYSHEN-
IYA UROZHAYNOSTI KART'~FELYA (Ways to Increase Potato Yields) (1969) and
others. The importance of these atudies far the agrometeorological support
of potato cultivation ia very great. However, during the last decade there
hsa been a aubstantial increase in the level of agricultural engineering in
the cultivaeion of potatoea, new varieties have been introduced, the large-
scale use of mineral fertilizers was begun, the use�of more effective means
for contending aith P~imtO~ovementiingthe agr meteorologicalbsupportuofdpotato
All this requirea the p
cultivation.
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New Cyp~~ of 8g~om~C~ordlog~.c~1, nUs~rv~~~.nn~ (cone~n~lesa meaguremenra, aer-
i~~, inv~~C~.g~tiion~, ~~c.) m~k~ ~.e possibl~ tio bro~den and deepan ~grometeor-
~s.og~C~i servieing.
The book by A. N. Po].~voy is Che firs~ gCCempC a~ fill~.ng th~ gape in the
1iC~r~CUr~ cone~rn~.n$ eh~ n~w ~~quirean~nti~ on ~gromee~ordlog~.c~1 suppor~
n~ poCatio culCivatiion and Che pregent-day pose~.b~.~.ities of agrometeorolog-
~c~l pred~cC~.one and computiat~.on~ applicable to the poCaCo crop.
The book exam~.nes problems ch~racCer~.z~.ng ehe ob~ece of the inves~c~.gAtinn,
Che influence of environmental factora on the groweh, development and pro-
durtivitiy of potatoee, the probleme of predict~.on of yields ~or differetit
e3meg 3n ~dvance; Che author gives an evaluaCion of the possible yield loss-
~a during harvesting in connection with Che unfavorable weather conditions;
rhere 18 a diecusaion of the apatial-temporal variability o� the potato
yield.
The author hae succeeded in bringing togeCher fragmentary studies on ehe
.gvaluaCion and prediceion of the agrometeoro~.ogical cond3r.ions for Che
formation of the poCato yield in the Nonchernozem zone.
'rhe firet ~wo chapters o� the book set forth the metihods for evaluating the
state nf potato planCings and deCerminaCion of Che phases of development
over greaC areas by meana of aerophotometric measurements, as well as meth-
, ods for predicting the phases of potato development.
In examining the rates of formation of individual plant organs, the author
in sufficient deCail dwells on Che great importance of the rates of develop-
ment for crop yield. Chapter III gives a crieical generalization of exist-
ing methods for predicCing the moisture supply of potato plantings and
evaluating the current and predicted conditions for yield formation.
The principal conCenC of ChapCer IV is an analysis of the influence of
meteorological condiCions on formation of the potato yield: on this basis
the author has proposed a meChod for predicCing the mean potato yield for
territory (rayon, oblast). Also given is an evaluation of the possibility
~f predicting the random component of the Cime series for the mean oblast
potaCo yield; also given is a quanCitaCive evaluation of Che dynaraics of
the mean oblast yield through the temporal change in the structure of the
influence of environmental factors characterizing both agrometeorological
conditions and the agricultural techniques and equipment used in cultiva-
tion. ~
For the lon~-term planning of the development of agricultural production
iC is necessary to predict the crop yield level for the years immediaCely
ahead. The possibilities of sucli prediction are set forth in Chapter V.
Chapter VI describes methods for evaluating agrometeorological conditions
during a period of harvesting; it gives the characterlstics of the depend-
~nce of losses of tubers during harvesting due to unfavorable weather
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condit~.on~. ChapCer VII exam:ineg ehe spatial-temporal variabiliCy o� the
yield of potatoes in ~relnCi.on to the pecult~rieies of climate of Che Non-
chernozem zone. In rhe Nonchernozem Cerrirnry the author has discriminated
zones of different climaCic: variabiliey of Che yields of poCatnes and com-
putc~rions oP synchronous variations of yield have been made.
~n evaluation o� the sparial and temporar variability of potato yields was '
supplemented by dara characterizing the degree of favorable agrometeorolog- ~
ical conditions for the harvesting of Cubers. j
The book is not wiChouC its shorGcomings.
tlow there are different approaches to a quantitative description of the 3n-
fluence of environmenCal factors on the productivity of cultivated plants.
l~or this purpose the author has made extensive use of the meChods of anath-
ematic~l etatl.stics. However, the book does not include work done by the
auChor on creating a dynamic model of formation of crop yield. One such
nodel was published by the author. The use of dynamic models for the devel-
opmenC of inethods Lor evaluating Che condiCions for the formation of the
productiv3ty of agricultural crops is an extremely promising approach to
the evaluation and predicCion of agrometeorological conditions. The creation ,
of dynamic models remains unmentioned by the author. In developing methods ,
for predicting the potato yield it is necessary to take inCo account the ,
importance o� the variety sCrucCure of potato plantings for the mean oblast
yield in years with different moistening conditions and also a possible de-
crease in crop yield due to damage by predators and diseases.
In general, the book merits a high evaluation. Without question, it will be
read by specialiats with interest and profit.
159 ~
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I~UIZ OI~'l~ It,1.~1L llyl~; UNLY
S~V~tdTIETH BZRTI3DAY OF AL~KSEY NIKOLAY~VICH L~13ED~V
Moscow METEORaLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA ~.n ttuseian No 1~, Nov 1978 p 122
[ArCicle by tt grnup nf comrades]
(Text] On S July 1978 Doctor of Geographical 5ciences Alekaey Ntknlayevich
Lebedev, one of the leading acienCiaGg in Che fie~d of climatology, marked
hi~ seventieth birChday.
Aleksey Nikolayevich d~dicated almost forCy years o~ his 11fe in the s~r-
vice of climatology.
In 1939, after graduation from Leningrad State University, he began hia
work activity at rhe Main Geophysinal Ob~erv~Cory. In October 1940 he
entered the ranks of the R~d Army and participated in the war with rhe
uelofinns and in the Grear FaCherland War. For his defense of the mother-
land he was gwarded the Order of the FaCherland War (secnnd degree) And
many combat medals. After demobilization Aleksey Nikolayevich became a
graduate student at the Main Geophysical Observatory, from which he grad-
uated in May 1947.
5ince 1950 A. N. Lebedev ha~ continuously headed the Earth Climatography
SecCion of the Division of Applied Climatology at the Main Geophy^ical Ob-
aervatory. He was the initiator in creating a series of studies on the cli-
mate of the USSR which constitute a multivolume description of the climate
of our country. This seriea af studies was carried out under the direction
and with the personal participation of Alekaey Nikolayevich. Ke invested "
considerable work in preparation of the SPRAVOCHNIK PO KLIMATU SSSR (Hand-
book on the C1imaCe of the USSR).
A distinguishing characteristic of all his acientific investigations is an
inseparable relationship to the needs of the national economy.
The monograph PRODOL2HITEL'NOST' DOZHDEY NA TERRITORII SSSR (Duration of
Cains in the Territory of the USSR) i~s of broad scientific and practical
importance; it received great praise from planning and construction organ-
izations in the country.
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Ile hn~ plny~d m m~~dr rnl~ ln rh~ wr~.ei.ng of monogrnphie ~tiudi.~~ on th~
~~nrtl~'q climnee. t)up tn hip inrxl~nuqeibl~ aitc~r.ky cind cr~n~iv~ pnrhu~iu~m
;;c,vlcl: c:llmne~~.Lnky Ii~tH b~~~n nnrLchud wiel~ n~uJor wa~kg ~n rha ~lim~C~~ of
eha nnntinenes.
'?'he c:~.im~engr~phy of the ~~~th cx~~ted ~r eh~ th~ Mnin Geophygic~l Obsarv-
~tiory und~r Ch~ dir~ceidn d~ A. N~ LebQdev C~n s~~v~ ~g ~n ex~mpl~ of ~ci-
entiifiC and p~n~ti~.c~~ rEy~~rCh. ~
1t;La work PARAMETRY TFtOPICH~SKOGO KL~MATA DLYA T~Kt~NICti~SKlKti TSELEY (par~~ ~
ngC~rg of Tropical Clicn~ee for ~echnicnl purpose~) r~caived mer~.ted recog- ;
nit~.on among m~ny degign and ec~.enti~.�ia r~~~arch org~n~.zations.
In all hig rea~nrch studies Aleks~y Nikolayavich devotea parr~.cular atten-
tion Co meCeornlogical prnblems he is con~t~ntly refining, working on
and improving research meChods.
The multisided scien~:ific activiGy of Aleksay Niknlayevich has been highly ,
recogniz~d by the P~rty and the government: he has been awarded the order
"Badge o� Honor" nnd Che medal "For Illustrioua Work."
ite willingly shares his rich experience and knnwledge with his gtuclpnta.
Under his direction many graduaCe atudents have succesafully defended thP~.x
candidate's dissertations.
The broad vision of the scientiat-communist, tha deep ideologica2 ~:onvicki~n,
Che businesslike approach to solution of the arising problems, his dcst~.ca��
tion and devotion, brought him Che love and reapect of a11 his col].eaguee
and atudents. Nikolayevich Lebedev meets his 70th birthday full of ~trc~ngth '
and creaCive thoughCs.
In congratulating Aleksey Nikolayevich on his noteworthy birthday, we wieh
1?im good healCh and new creative successes.
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N'f)IZ f11~'I~' lG I.AL 11~1: UNLY
WORK OF TH~ ALL-UNION SEMINAR SCHOOL 0~' YOUNG SCIENTISTS
Mn~cow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Ruasian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 122-126
[Articl~ by Sh. A. MuagyelyanJ
(Text] An A11-Union Seminar on the Problem "Numer3cal MQdeling of Large-
Sca1e Atmoapheric Processes and Long-Range Weather ForecagCing" was held
during.the per3od 17-30 October 191~ et Uilizhan (Armenie). Such a aeminar
w~s c~rried out for the f.irat time and ~.t is as~umed that it wi11 be held
periodically.
The aeminar achool was ~C~ended by more than a hundred apeakers, repnrters
nnd ~udienrg. 7'here were two diacussions on the sub~ecta: "The PredicCabil-
ity Problem" and "Physic~l and Maehematical Difficulties in Long-Range
WeaCher ~'orecasCing."
Th~ sub~ect matter of the seminar school included the following matters:
1) Methoda for long-range weaLher forecas~ing; 2) Modeling af larg~-scale
~tmospheric-oceanic proceasea, general circulation of the atmosphere and
climate; 3) Energy aspects of the earth-atmosphere system. Bo~~ndary layer
of the atmosphere. Parameterization of nonadiabaCic factors; G) Pred~cta-
bility problem; 5) Problem of aeromet~orological ~r~d hydrQphy~ical inform-
.ti tion.
The experience in modeling of Che process of formation of the homogeneous
layer of rhe ocean on the basis of integration of the equations of hydro-
thermodynamics, very important for lottg-range weather forecasting, was the
sub~ect of a joint report by Academician G. I. Marchuk, V. P. Kochergin,
V. I. Klimuk and V. A. Sukho`rukov entitled "rtathemaCical Modeling of Tur-
bulence in the Surface Layer of the Ocean." The report dealt with the prob-
lems involved in the mathematical modeling of turbulenC transfer processes
in the world ocean within the framework of semiempirical Cheories. Empha-
sis was on investigation of the upper Curbulent layer of the ocean. Using
the concept of the coefficient of turbulent viscosity, the authors have
constructed a model consisting of two energy equations: the energy of tur-
vulence and the rate of turbulent dissipation. The coefficient of turbulent
viscosity is determined by a simple algebraic expression. Using the propos-
ed turbulent model, the authors examine the physical aspects of formation
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di tha homogan~ou:~ 1~?y~r in Ch~ onegn. dn ehe ba~~.~ of th~ ~nlarion~ ob-
t~in~d for rh~ aur~a~~ Curbuj.~ne l~ycr in ~ha nc~c~n, ug~.ng th~ nnergy
equatidng th~ ~uthor~ vulidnte th~ Obukhov f~rmulc~s in combi.naCion with ehe
aonCepC of the prnndel mixing 1~ngrh Enr eh~ co~ffici~nt of turbulent v3g~
~ ~ogity. 'rh~ ~~ugnnul v~riability di the turhul~nG luyer generated by Che
mnd~1 w~~ survey~d on motinn picCure film. '~h~ in~ormation nbtai.ned in
rh~ Cuurg~ n� the numerical exp~rimc~nC wns fed nut Cd ~ microfilming
machine af thg Knr~t eype, c:nnnent~d tn a g~SM-6 ~~eceronic computer,
u~ing a~yseem Eor the maChem~Ctcal guppore of gr~ph~c devicas devel.oped i
at the Computeeinn Canter Siberi~n 1~par.timeut USSit Acndemy n� Sciencee. As ~
gn illustraeion of the eolution th~ au~horg ehowed a motion picCur~ �ilm
nf the evnluCinn of the surface layer over Che ocean aurface.
~n his exeremely ineer~sting report entirled "Nonlinear Modcls in Problems
in Geophysical Hydrodynamics" Ac~demician A. M. Obukhov pointed out that
aC Chi~ atage in Che develnpmen~ of ~he probl~m of genergL circulati.on nf
Che atmo~phere ~nd wenther fnrecgsting it ig exeremely producCive to exam-
ine si~~lified models with few parameters. The latter gre nbtained by ex-
panding the �ield~ in some syseem of "contr~l" functions and approxima~
tion of the equaCion~ o� hydrodynamics by a finite-dimenaional system of
differential equations by the Galerkin method. However, it is necessary .
that there be reteneion of ehe most impnrCanC characteristiics of atmospher-
ic movements, the most important of which is the quadratic nonlinearity ~
of the equations. As is well known, in 1969 A. M. Obukhov inCroduced Che !
concept of systems of the hydrodynamic Cype (SHT), such dynamic aystems for
which: 1) Che phase space is finite-dimensional; 2) the phase volume in the
p~ocess of motion is conserved; 3) Che equations of motion are quadratic-
ally linear; 4) there is at least one quadratic posiCively determined inte-
~ral of motion (energy). SHT are convenient models for study of hydrodynam-
ic instability, evidently bei~:g one of the factors causing a sudden change
in the weather regime. They demonstrated the results of numerical and lab-
oratory experiments for modeling of both the simplest SHT and multieddy
~ currents which are described by chains of the cascade type. It is demon-
strated that depending on the external parameters the system can be in
different stationary states (characterized in the experiment by differ-
ent inclinations of the eddy axes) and under Che iufluence c~f different
types of noise or carefully applied external,force or removal of the lat-
ter can undergo transition from one sCate to another.
A group of reports was devoted to the development of ideas and theoretical
developments of G. I. Marchuk on the application of the conjugate equations
of hydrothermodynamics of the atmosphere-ocean-continent system to the
~~roblem of long-range weather forecasting.
l~or example, in a report by Yu. N. Skiba, for the purposes of predicting
temperature anomalies for periods of up to a season, the author proposed
hydrodynamic model, using as the prognostic equation the law of conserva-
tion of thermal energy in the atmosphere, the world ocean and in the soil
of the conCinents. The model assumes Che wind velocity in the atmosphere
and the velocity of currents in the oceans to be known and takes into
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accounr the radi~eion influxeg of heat Co Che eareh~~ gurfgn~. ~nr eh~
cnns3dered formul~r~.on of Ch~ problem ug~ made of the eheorem of
c~xi~tence and uniqu~nesg o� the g~ner~lixed golu~ion.
'The method for compuCing Ch~ eemperaeure anoma~.ieg usea a solution of the
formulated con~ug~te prnbl~m obe~i~~d ~.n ~ def~.n~.te way.
A report by V. P. S~dokov ~nd n. B. Shteynbok ex~m~.ned the ehermal conduc-
tivity equa~ion for mean eemperature, for which Che c:on~uggte equation is
written. In particular, ~n evaluae~.nn wga made of the contribue~.ona nf
d�ifferent factiore to Che temperatiure anomgly (c~.rculatiion, influ~nce of
rhe ocean, oCher eypea of he~t influx). Some prognoatic poss~.biliCiea of
the method were discusaed.
V. P. S~dokov and A. I. Vazhnik preaented the principlea of a me~hod for
numerical forecaseing for average timeg for the fielda of the 500-mb iso-
baric aurface for the northern hemisphere bgsed on an inCegrgeion nf a
system of non~ugate equations in hydrodynamics.
In a large group of reporta ehere was a discussion of problems important
in developing meChods for long-range weaeher forecasting; these related
ro the parameterization of large-acale nonadiabaCic factors and process-
es transpiring in the atmoapheric boundary layer. -
ll. L. Laykhtman, in a review lecture, pointed outi that aC the present time,
in accordance wiCh a description of Che effecCs of turbulence, four models
l~ave been developed: a) the K-theory with an a priori stipulation of Che
Curbulence coefficients, b) the nonlinear K-theory, c) aemiempirical
theory, d) a theory based on integration of unsmoo~hed equations wieh
parameterization of the high-frequency parr of the turbulence spectrum.
?lowever, the nonlinear K-theory is a rational description of the boundary
layer, satisfactory with respect to the required accuracy and correspond-
ing to modern capabilities of computers. An important part of the problem
in general is the constr~ction of a"splicing" of processes in the boun-
dary layer with processes in the free atmosphere and also a"splicing"
of the planetary boundary layer of the temperate latitudes with Che
boundary layer of the equatorial region.
Ye. M. Feygel'son discussed imporCant problems in ideology and practical
methods for taking into account radiant heat exchange in general circula-
tion models. It was shown that when taking radiant heat exchange into ac-
count in general circulation models there must be adherence to the follow-
ing principles: 1) The values necessary for computing radiation must eith-
er be reduced to parametric form using the characteYisCics generated by
the general circulation model or be stipulated by special models. 2) The
radiant fluxes must be expressed in explicit form through the parameters
of the principal radiationally active anthropogenic substances. 3) The
algorithms for computing the radiant fluxes must in explicit form con-
tain cloud parameters. The speaker dealt in greatest detail on the pro-
, cess of functioning of the integral albedo of the atmosphere-underlying
layer system. 164
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5h. A. Musayelygn, A. D. '~avadynn ~nd Ye. M. Chechetikina, on the baeie of
~arlier ~.nve~ti3gaeed agynchronoue rnl~rinnshipe beCween anom~li~s of Ch~
cloud cover over the oc~en gnd dev~.ariony of n3r tiemperature over the con-
Cinent from Che norm, proposed a mathod Eor dynami.c-stiat~.sC~.cul parameter-
ization ~f the proce~~ of ehe eh~rmal effect of the hydroephere on the at-
mosphere.
A repoYt by N. N. Knl'ch.itskiy, K. I. Mae~.ov, Sh. A. Musayelyan and Ys. M.
Chechetkina wae devoeed to an investigation, emp~oying a very eimple hydro- i
dynamic model, of the contr~.bution of canvecti~.ve heat transfer of thg ocean
to the formaeion of rhe BtIDOgpt1~~~.C temper~tur~ fie].d. As ehe ~.ower boun- ;
dary condition at eea i~~~i use was made of dara on the anomaly of convec- ;
tive heat transfer, computed uging the G. N. M~.leyko method. Also exami.ned
were the prognoatic aspects o� tha problem.
T. G. Berlyand devoted his reporr eo g climaC~~bogical description of the
dieCribution of cloud cover over the earth. :ti was pointed out by the
speaker that as a r~~ult of a climatological, generalizaCion of Che accumul-
ated observat~.onal data for Che land and oc,ean it has been possible to re-
~ fine and deepen our ideas concerning the ~loud cover regime in different
parts of the earth.
A number of reports dealt with specrr.al methods for investigating the dy- ;
namics of large-scale atmospheric r,rocesses. For example, a report by Cor-
responding Member USSR Academy of Sciences G. P. Kurbatkin and V. N. Sinya- ,
yev was a diacussion of a spectral dynamic-statistical model of prediction
of the pressure field up to seven days in advance. The basis for the model
is the idea of "atabilization" of ultralong waves using statistical deter-
mined sources. Nonadiabatic factors are included differentially, in depend-
ence on the scales of movement. The report gave a method for Fourier comput-
ations of the components af nonlinear terms of the equations, making iC pos-
sible to reduce to a minimum the expenditures of computer time in the inte-
gration of the prognostic system. Also discussed was Che problem of the -
"optimum" basis to be used in spectral formulation of problems in a quasi-
solenoidal approximation. The paper gave some resulta of experimental tests
of a prognostic eight-level model for a eime up to seven days.
S. A. Mashkovich, in his report, dealt br3efly wiCh the history of develop-
ment of linear spectral prognostic models. The speaker examined Che prin-
cipal~specCral methods for solving nonlinear prognostic equations. Inform-
ation is given on modern spectral models with use of full equations, on
experience with long-term integration of specCral models, and on routine
use of spectral prognostic models.
I. G. Veyl' described a spactral quasisolenoidal model based on use of ser-
ies in spherical functions and the use of interaction coefficients. Also
discussed were the results of numerical experiments carried out for the
purpose of studying the influence of waves of a subgrid scale on the evo-
lution of large-scale circulation components.
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~n the work nf the ~eminar-~chool much ~t`ent~.on wg~ devneed ro eC~ri~-
eic~l meChods of ~n~lysi.~ and ~ ~ong-range forec~~t~.ng of roe~eoroiog~c~i
Ei~ld~.
G. V. Gruza proposed a mulr~.aspect clase~.fic~tiion of ataCisCic~l long-range
forecagting meChods and maChods for the ~oine use of numericgl hydrodyn~mic
forecasts with araCistics. The speaker an~lyz~d the present atatua nf use o~
gtatietical automated forecasts in Che United Seaees and discussed the
proapeces for increas~.ng the advance eime of forecasta and ehe problems
involved in eva].uaCing the predicrabiliry of empirical-sCat~.atical methods.
The guthor examined problems relaeing eo the formulaCion of forecasrs in
~eochastic Form~ methods for evaluating eheir information content, qual-
iey and feasibility of practical uae.
In another report by the same auChor a study was made of the problem of
Caking inCo account in�ormntion on climatic trends during long-range fore-
casting. The author discussed some staeis~ical multifactor modelg nf
meCeornlogical processes, which are used for a quaneitseive evaluation of
variability factors. The paper dea1C with the problems involved in ev~1u-
aCing the information content o� smoothed temperature characteristiics,
and in addition possibilities of extremal climatic trends and their
~ use in long-range forecasting.
A report by E. Ya. Ran~kova was devoted to a meChod for the statistical ~
�orecasting of weaCher with application of the principle of group similar-
ity and possible aspects of its use in meteorology.
Methods for evaluating the success of forecasts were covered in a report
by L. S. Gandin. The use of correct methods for evaluating the success of
forecasts is of greaC importance in developing methods for making weather
forecasts, especially long-range forecasts. The use of inadequately sound
evaluations not only favors false ideas concerning the success of fore-
casts, but can also lead to the evolution of forecasting methods in an in-
correct direction. The auccess of the method for making forecasts in the
servicing of specific uaers must be evaluated using economie criteria. The
report gave examples of such evaluations.
� During the work of the seminar school there was repeated dis~:ussion of prob-
lems relating to Che predictability of atmospheric processes. For example,
a report by M. I. Fortus was devoted to the statistical p;edicCability of
climatic changes. The speaker proceeds on the assumption tha~ climate is
a realization of a stationary random process and considers the problem,
arising in such a case, of finding such linear functionals of the values
of ineteorological elements which can be predicted with a minimum mean
square error from the values of these elements "in the past." For tr,s
considered processes it was possible to obtain the best predictable charac-
teristics and the correspondi~g mean square forecasting errors.
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~o~ o~ricr.~, us~ ortLY
zn g~nint repore by I~. M. Uzh~b~r-z~de, Ye. M. 1k~b~y~hmRn, M. M. Foreus
nnd Yg. M. Kheyfeee ehe nuthnrs used srgeisCicnl m~thnd~ in examining Che
problem nL� inCeQxchann~bbetween~thehnerthler?~andgsouthernrhemiepherese
problem of aix 8
' In Che work of ehe ~~minur-schonl ~C~enCion was devoted tio the problem of
proc~saing and use o� uerometearnlogicnl and hydrophyeical in�ormation. In
g~oint repore by Correspoudin~ Me?nber USSR Academy of Sciences K. Ya.
Kondrat'yev and 0. M. pokrovskiy tihere was examinaCion of the fo~.lowing !
problema: preaenr seatus of the g~.obal observation ayse~m from Che point of
view of the interegrs of long-range weather ~Oandgeaeellitehmeteorological ~
of climaee; the relationghip between ordinary
information; validation nf satelliCe data aparticularcattention~wasrdevoCed
for the prediction of wenther and climate.
to the problem of the in~ormation content of data from epace remote aensing
and optimwn plgnning of ~ppl.i.cation of remoee sensing methods. The report
gave a conciae review o~ ~~~egndgthe~underlying~surfaceh~necessary~~o ining
parameters of the a_mosph
long-range weather forecasting and climate prediceions.
A report by V. V. Penenko was devoted to the problems involved in the use
of actual information in numerical models of Che dynamics of Che atmo-
sphere. The speaker reporCed on some numerical methods for solving problems
in the analysi~ and assimilation of hydrometeorological information, as
well as its assimilaCion and use in models of atmoapheric dynamics. The
basis for these methods is variational principles, Che splitting method
and the methods of the theory of perturbations and optimization methods.
Specifically, the problem requires thas ofeChefmodels~described byasystems
evaluating and ad~usting the parameter
of nonlinear differential equations in parCial derivatives. With an unin-
terrupted receipt of informarion one of the proposed "adjustment" schemes
realizes a feedback between the changes in the state of the gystem and is
, preferable in diagnostic investigations of the model.
A report by L. S. Gandin examined methods �or the numerical modeling of
observation systems.
There are two fundamentally differenC approaches to the modeling of observ-
ation systetns: statistical and dynamic. The speaker presented Che methodol-
ogy of the two approaches, gave a brief ouCline of their development, and
cited a comparison of their advantages and disadvantages. The statistical-
dynamic approach proposed recently by N. Phillips was also described.
The speaker noted that among the different types of new observations exist- ~
ing at the present time the most promising is the indirect sounding of
the atmosphere from satellites. In this connection, the report gave a de-
tailed examination of the methods and results of evaluation of observation
systems, including indirect sounding.
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The prob~ems ~,nvolved in Che introduction of ehe xeau].tis of sc~.ene~.~ic
rese~rch inCo precrical work were g~ven pximary ~mportance in the work
oE Che setuinar-achnol. In Chis connectiion leAding gpecia~iate in the
field of practical weather forecasCing wera invited to aCtend. 7'hus, the
fundamental principlea of preparaCion of a monthly wea~her forecast were
presented in a report by N. I. 2verev. The ape~ker emphasized th~C du~ing
recent yeara in the procesa of preparaeion of a monthly weatiher forecast
great attention is being devoted eo ~he role of Che und~rlying aurfnce.
Most of ehe time-conawning work o~ forecasters is being accomplished
using electronic computera. For Chese purposes ie ha~ been poegible to de-
velop simi~.arity critPria �or the compared meCeorological fielda.
A report by G. G. Gromova examined the dependence oE the auccesa of 3-10-
day weather forecasts on Che qualiCy of schemes for hydrodynamic forecast-
ing of the presaure field. His paper presented examples of ehe use of
numerical forecasCs and mentioned the imporCance of their further improve-
ment.
A number of reporta were devoted to the modeling o� oceanic processes.
For example, A. S. Sarkisyan, D. G. Seidov, D. G. Rzheplinskiy and V. N.
Drozdov, in their ~oinC report, examined the problem of modeling of large-
scale circulation of waters in the world ocean.
A reporC by V. I. Kalatskiy discussed the problems involved in long-range
forecasting of Che thermal structure of ehe active layer of the ocean, the
basis for which is the equation of motion, thermal conductivity equation
and equation for the balance of turbulent energy. The speaker demonsCrated
experimental forecasts of the spatial distribution of the thickness and tem-
perature of the quasihomogeneous layer in the North Atlantic in the summer
of 1976 and analyzed the prospects for. improving methods for predicting
the characteristics of the active layer in the ocean.
Taking into account the importance of the problem of contamination for Ar-
menia, the agenda of the seminar-school included examination of Che problem
of propagation of an impurity in the atmosphere over Armenia. M. Ye. Ber-
lyand presented the principles of the theory of atmospheric diffusion with
its applications to computations and forecasts of air contamination. The
speaker cited a series of results of both an experimental and a theoretical
nature, and in particular, applicable to the conditions prevailing in Ar-
menia. ~
A report by G. A. Melkonyan examined problemQ r~lating to numerical model-
ing of the process of propagation of substances contaminating the atmo-
sphere over Armenia.
In addition to those mentioned above, several interesting reports were pre-
sented on the general problems relating to atmospheric dynamics (L. V.
Rukhovets, Ye. Ye. Kolenkovich, and others).
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'Thg work of ~he seminar-~Chon1 d~mnnserneed thnt such a m~ehod ~or Ch~
bro~d digcus~ion nnd pdpuluriz~.ng nr ~.de~s nn m~~or and impo~C~nt prdblems
in Che science of �orecase~ng eh~ sCate of the ~nv~.ronm~nt ~a ug~fu~ and
promising. 5uch ~eminar-echool~a ~avor noC only the attraction of cgpable
youeh ro the prnblein o� long-rang~ weath~r fereciiseing, buC ~.lso goluCion
oF ~he prnblems developing in tihe coneid~red eub~ecC maeeEr fi~1d.
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NOTES FROM ABROAD
Moscow~ MET~OROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in ltuseian No 11~ Nov 19~8 pp 126-127
[Article by B. I. Silkin)
[Text] Specialiata in the field of atmospheric elecCriciCy B. Edgar (Aero-
~pace Corporatiion, Los Angeles, California) and B. N. `ierman (Center for
Applied Aviation Technology, United 5tates) presented a repnr~ aC a con-
ference o� the American Geophyaical Union, held in 5an F'ranciaco in Decem-
ber 1977.
The report describea the reaults of a firse investigation of lightning dis-
charges carried out using equipment carried aboard the "DMSP" meCeorolog-
ical satelliCe. There was regiatry of lightning diacharges associated
with meteorological activi~y along fronts, occurring over all the etaCes
of the southeastern United States, over the Gulf of Mexico and Che Caribbean
Sea.
The analyais revealed that at sunrise lightning is observed most frequently
over the ocean, whereas at sunset it is obaerved most frequently over the
land.
A map compiled on a preliminary basis gives reasan for assuming Chat on a
global scale during the sunriae period thunderstorms are d3stributed rather
uniformly over the earth, whereas during the sunset period there is a ten-
dency for them to be concentrated over the continents. The thunderstorms
occurring in the second half of the day are associated with upward-directed
thermal convection of sir masses receiving heat from Che sun-heated under-
lying surface of the land.
'1'he strength typic~l in the observed lightning is about 10 billion watts.
The duration is approximately 1 msec. However, several times there were
discharges with a strength of about 100 billion watts and a duration up
to 2 msec. Lightning with a strength of 10 trillion watts, earlier report-
ed on the basis of observations from aboard the VELA satellite, for the
rime being has not been registered in these experiments.
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1~'dCi (~H'~'tCCAG U~~ dt~LY
in July 1977 ~ciEnrifiG ~h~ciali~C~ ~t NnM in ~he Uni~ad 5tak~s H. B. SCu-
rire ~nd ,1� ~'1'et1~~ c+Ht~~b1.1Hhc.i~1 CIl~1t in ehh GuIE bf M~xi~n rherp i~ an nnnular
wn nn currc~nti. ~hig ~urranC i~ ~ clog~d fl~w o� elc+wly meving wgCer ma~s~s
wi.Ch ~ d3amatc~r of about 225 n~ile~. '1'h~1r temp~raturn is approxi.mately ~�C
I~igh~r Ghan th~ ecmp~r.~ture o� th~ ~ur.rounding w~Cerg.
Continuin~ th~ nUs~rvaCic~nn, H. Stunrt and J. Proni disrovered g rela-
ti.onghip b~tw~~n thi.~ curr~nt nnd hurricane Aniti~, d~v~lop~.n~ on 28 Auguar ;
1977. Ag th~ hurrl.cnna mdv~d in eha direction of the c~nrer o� thi~ nnnular
current the irireng~ry of the hurricane incre~~~d. The beginning of ehe ~
~harp increase obq~rved h~r~ c~in~ided w~.eh ~he mom~nL� wh~n ehe hurriCgn~
~nter~d the "ring" of Ct1P. currenC on 3Ca west~rn gide.
Detailed meCeor~ologicgl and aceanoingic~l observaeinng were m~d~ both a
month befor~ the huxricane and duzing ite couree and afCer iC; this yielded
~ greaC mase of d~ta characterizing interact3.on between the ocean and the
ntmogphere. An importane face was th~ti the ~ea gurf~ce aftier pgsgnge of
ehe hurricane was r~oled by 4�C.
'I'he opininn is expregsed that hurricanea can draw part of their energy from -
w~rm annular currenea and as a reault of tltis process can subatantially in-
crease their inteneity.
According to the opinion prevailing up to now, in Che event of a parCial ~
melting of the glaciers in Western AntarcCica there should be an increase -
in sea level and Chis rise ahould be identical in all regions of the world
ncean.
Now J. A. Clark (University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado) and Z. S.
Lingl (University of Maine, Orono, Maine) express a new opinion. They in-
dicate a need for Caking into account the inevitable changes in structure
of th~ ocean floor under the influence of Che changing loads arising with
transformation of part of the ice into sea water and iCs redisCribution
in different basins.
In addition, in their opinion, the degree of rising of sea level should
also change with time, since the rapid initial elastic deformation of
the ocean bed must be followed by processes of inflow of viscous mater-
ials from the deep layers of the earth, which would gradually compensaCe
the effect of the new dietribution of the weight load on the crust.
In parCicular, according to the calculations of these specialisCs, as a re-
su1C of inelting of the West AntarcCica ice dome over the period of the,next
1,100 years, near the shores of the Ross ice shelf and Cape Horn the sea
level should fall off as a result of a rise of the ocean floor in the ad-
~acent regions. Near Che Hawaiian Islands the rise in sea level must be
25~ greater than the average for the entire world ocean. Similarly, in
all regions located distant from the glacier cover, for example, along the
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~hor~~ dE New York SCnre nr ~ln Ch~ Nnreh S~n, Chr. r~.s~ in aen level w~.11
Ln~.Cinlly ba 10-],5K Kr~nt~r th~n ~hn uv~rag~ Eor rh~ earth, nnd then, ~fter
npproximately ~ rhouennd years, wi].1 gr~dually become equ~1 t~ ie.
A porCable lidar, used for observing Corn~dne~ and waterapoutig, based on
uae of ~he Doppler efEece, has been construceed at ehe ac~.en tific research
, laboratori.es of NOAA in the Unired SCatea.
7'he new inatrumene, whose 1engCh ia 120 cm and whose he~.ghC ~.s 50 cm, ~s ~
easily carr~ed aboard aircraft-laboratories of any tiype ~C the disposal
nf American meteuro].ogieta. The ~.nstrument consists of an ordinary 30-cm
telescope and a laser operating on carbon dioxide. It makes 3t possible,
w~.th a great accuracy, to determi.ne the veloci~y and direct3on oE movemen~
o� ehe air captured by the waterepouti.
Uuring the first flighte in ehe summer of 1977 this apparatus already made
iC poseible to aGudy the previously mysterious "double-walled" waeerspouts.
Ir has been esCabliahe@ Chat Cheir diameter can attair 30 m. The struceure�
of such waterspouta differs, it was found, in that they consist of two
different eddies which roCate at different velocitiies, bue in one and the
same direction.
The velocity of such rotation can attain 90 km/hour. In section a"double-
walled" waterspout has the configuraCion of two concentrically arranged
bells. ,An investigation of such winds, sometimes dangerous for both sur�ace
structures and for aerial Cransport, is continuing on a ma~or scale with
ever-greater use of the latesC instrumentation.
J
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~'Olt 01~ F'~IC 1:AL U5C 4NLY
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OBITUARY OF S~RGEY VASIL~XEVICH SOLONIN (1923-1978) '
Moscow M~TEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 11, Nov 1978 pp 127-128 ~
[Article by a group of comrades]
[TexC] Professor Sergey Vasi~.'yevich Solonin, Doctor of Physical a~d MaCh-
ematical Sciences, rlied after a short but severe illness on 24 June 1978.
lie was an outstanding scientisti and a lead3.ng specialist in the field of
aviation meteorology, head of the Department of Space and Aviation Re-
search Methods in Hydrometeorology of the Leningrad Hydrometeorological
Institute. S. V. Solonin was a member of the CPSU.
S. V. Solonin was born on 6 October 1923 at Sukhinichi in Kaluzhskaya
Oblast.
In L952, upon graduating with distinction from the meteorology deparCment
of the hydrometeorological faculty, S. V. Solonin was senC to serve as an
insCructor at the Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute. All his subse-
quent creaCive and pedagogic activity is associated with this institute.
There he moved along the long route from instructor to department head.
There the creative capabilities and talents of Sergey Vasil'yevich were
developed to the fullest degree. During 1952-1957 he carried out a.whole
series of investigations important for aviation meteorology and aerial
navigation. A brilliant mathematician, Sergey Vasil'yevich during this
period solved a series of problems related to the movement of an aircraf t
in the field of a variable wind, the problem of the trajectory of the
minimum flight time for an aircraft (Tsermelo problem), for the first
time applied the Fermat principle, well known from physics, for calculat-
ing the tra~ectory for the minimum flight time of an aircraft. In these
studies fundamenCal scientific findings were combined with mathematical
refinement. S. V. Solonin was one of the founders of a new scientific di-
rection navigational meteorology. .
In 1959 S. V. Solonin was awarded the degree of Candidate of Physical and
Mathematical Sciences.
Sergey Vasil~yevich was the initiator and propagandist of a new approach
in the scheduling of aircraft traffic for civil aviation which takes into
account the climatic characteristics.of the equivalent wind.
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Uu tihe ba~ig nF eh~ r~~u1C~ eh~~~ ~.nve~e~.g~eians, ~hinely wiefi G. G.
"l~rd~rl.y~nakiy, in 1562 h~ publ~.sh~d tih~ mnnngr~pli EKVIVAL~NTNYY t/~mCit i
i�t~TOllY YCGO ~2I15C11L`~A (7'h~ ~quiv~l~nC tJind ~~nd M~Chnd~ Eor iC~ CompuCnri~n).
~n 1967, aC Ch~ USSIt Hydrom~eeorologie~l Cene~r, S. V. Solottin d~�end~d -
his doctnr~l disge~tuCion, ~nd in 1971 he w~g nw~rd~d Che ti~le nf prn-
fe~snr.
'The perind L96S-1h78 in ehe 1i�e of Serg~y Vas~.1'yevich wag chttrac~~riz~d
by gr~ae cre~ei.ve ~CC~~.nm~ttrs.
S. V. Solnnin publiehed ~ eoeal of more ehnn 130 ~cienrific ~tud~.eg, among
which, ~s a co-auChnr, he wrote the Cextbook AVIATSIONNAYA MCT~OEtOLOGIYA
(Aviation Meteorology), which has gone through two ed~.eions.
Dur~.ng recent ye~rs S. V. Solonin has been ncC~.vely engaged in problems re-
lating Co space met~orology.
Sergey V~si1'yevich was no of�ice scientis~. He pue a11 his gcienti�ic ideas
eo prncCical application, over a period of yearg being the scienCific direc-
eor of many investigations carried our �or Che enterprise~ of Che Civil
Aviation MinisCry and for insCitutea of other depgrCmente.
The "Automated System for Meteorological Supporti of F1i~hCS" (AvCnmatizir-
ovannaya SisCema Me~eorologicheskogo Obeapecheniya Poletov ASMOP), in
comb ination with the "AutomaCed System for Navigation CompuCations" (Avto-
marizirovannaya Systema Shturmanskikh Raschetov ASShR),wns developed ~
under Che direction of S. V. Solonin.
S. V. So'lonin successfully combined his scienCific-teaching activity with
public work. He was repeaCedly elected a member of Che Party buresu of the
institute. He headed different Party-public commissions.
5. V. Solonin was a ma~or scientific organizer. He inspired the idea of
centr~lization and coordination of all Che scientific research work in
rhe field of aviation meteorology. In 1965 he created Che ScienCific Re-
search InsCiCute of AviaCion MeCeorology at Che Leningrad HydromeCeorology
InstituCe and in 1972 the Department of Space and Aviation Research Methods
in Hydrometeorology and remained its head to the end of his days.
5. V. Solonin generously shared his knowledge and experience with his stu-
dent. More than 20 Candidate~s dissertations were prepared and defended
under his direction.
- 5ergey Vasil'yevich had exceptional purposefulness, persistence, unlimited
~levoCion Co science, enormous love of work, optimism, complete dedication
to work, and at the same time modesty and good will. He left this life at
the height of his creative forces, full of scientific innovaCions, remain-
ing on the job to tliA last minute.
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ro~ o~,~'~CiAL U51: (~NLY
':'1~~ bri.ghC m~mnry n~ ~~rc~e ~CientiH~, un entihu~i~~e ~.nd npeimist, e~ncher,
colle~gu~ and comrada w:i11 fax~v~r rem~in in our het~r~~.
CO~Y~tIGHms "MeCeornlogiya gidrnlogiya", 1978 ~
S 303
CSO: 1864 -L'ND-
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