JPRS ID: 8787 WEST EUROPE REPORT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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• Sequence Number: 51
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/8787
28 November 1979
~1/est E u~o e R e o rt -
p p
- SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY =
(FOUO 3/79~
- Fg~$ FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORIVIATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/8787
28 November 1979
WEST EUROPE REPORT
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(FOUO 3/79)
CONTENTS PAGE
FRANCE
Present State of Scientific, Technical Research Reviewed
- (Pierre~Aigrain; LE PROGRES SCIENTIFIQUE, -
Mar-Jun 79) 1
- Policies, Methods for Petrole:im Recovery Reviewed .
(LE PROGR~,S SCIENTIFIQUE, Mar-Jun 79) 55
- a- [III - WE - 151 5&T FOUO]
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FRANCE
- PRESENT STATE OF SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL RESEARCH REVIEWED
Paris LE PROGRES SCIENTIEIQUE in French No 199-200, Mar-Jun 79 pp 3-42
[Report by Secretary of State to the prime Minister in Charge of Research
- Pierre Aigrain: "Research Policy--Interdisciplinary Report on the State of
French Science and Technology"J
[Text] France has a substantial scientific and technical _
potential playing a decisive role in its economic and
social development.
To give a just evaluation of the medium- and long-range
prospects provided for the various sectors of activity by
the national research and development effort, it is in-
, dispensable to understand precisely its assets and its
- weaknesses, both domestically and on the international
level.
y And so it was that the governmer?t decided to provide our ~
country with a permanent apparatus for evaluating French
research: the report bei.ng submitted to you today
represents a f irst and still-imperfect stage in the -
= development of such an apparatus. In synthetic form, ~
it sets forth the main conclusions resulting from the more
detailed sectorial analyses undertaken by the General llele- -
gation for Scientific and Tecl~nicaY Research (DGRST) a~td
submitted for study to the Consulting Comtnittee on
Scientif ic and Technical Research (CCRST). -
I hope that it will serve as a tool both of information .
_ and decision for all those assessing the importance of
- research in the economic and social ventures which our
country is called upon to undertake in the coming years.
This report is a f irst step toward the establishment of a permanent instrument
panel for French research. It sets farth, in necessarily condensed form, the
main conclusions drawn from the more detailed sectorial analyses undertaken by
the CGRST and the Consulting Committee on Scientific and Technical Research.
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Making an assessment of scientific and technical research involves first of
all adopting a suitable subdivision of the very broad fields covered by
research. We have used here categories similar to those adopted for the
drafting of the Seventh Plan and the annual budget. This divis.ion involves
some 15 sectors focused either on scientific realms or economic and social
activities, or again on the study and exploitation of natural environmenta.
Draf ting such a balance suggests morecver two types of questions:
What is the quality of French scientific production?
Is it suitably adapted to our national needs?
The answer to the first question can only be given after adopting an
international context, for it is on this level that scientific results are
disseminated and evaluated. One is thus forced to view the production of
FrEnch teams in relation to those of the ma.in countries, additionally taking
into account the current state of advancement in the various disciplines
throughout the world.
The presence of brilliant individuals in the sector is a prerequisite for the
quality of the sector as a whole, but it is not enough. Thus while
mentioning certain laboratories of international renown, it would be well to
take into account the whole of the work force available in this evaluation
effort.
We have sought moreover to set forth certain factors in success or failure,
so that this understanding can lead to thought about the scientific policy.
Some of the factors explaining the situation described are historical. Others
_ may be linked with general problems such as training, personnel policy,
structures, methods of disseminating knowledge, the international exposure
of the teams, the planning of research, the concentration or scattering of
facilities in space, etc. -
Is research adapted to the needs of the country? This is a second axis for
evaluation, with very differ~nt implications. The reference here is no
longer the international scientif ic community, but the economic and social
goals of the country as a whole, to which research makes, or should make,
its contribution. Thus the evaluation must necessarily be related to
correctly def ined needs or goals. We will see that this is not always the
- case.
Research exists in time. Its role is to prepare for the future by clarify~ng
options. The results achievpd now and henceforth, therefore, would not suf-
fice to indicate adaptat~.on t~f the scientific and technical potential, which ;
is also judged by its capacity to measure up to new goals. This is par- ;
ticularly true in new fi~lds such as those dealing with space and the oceans,
but equally so in seemingly ~aore traditional sectors such as agriculture,
which must face up to n~w developmental problem complexes.
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Finally, the adaptation of research to needs is measured not only by the
ability to mobilize a high-quality scientific potential, but also the
capacity to transfer these results to structures more or less suited to
utilizin~ and evaluating them.
Thus overall there are two different complementary approaches which lead to
_ two types of evalu~tion. These two aspects coexist, in differing degrees,
in each sector.
For the purposes of clarity, the overall report is divided into three parts,
corresponding to the main goals of research:
the major fields of knowledge;
' research and economic goals; and
research and the goals of society. .
The first part involves scientif ic evaluation, and the latter two an assess-
ment with ref.erence to needs. The majority of the sectors are discussed in
both regards, insofar as they play a role in the general advance of knowledge,
while at the same time involving the resulting economic and social activities.
This duality represents a profound reality in research, which is not by any
means always properly understood. It is to be hoped that this report will
contribute to showing to what extent it is research as a whole which is the
- issue, rather than only the aspects of it which are most applied or best _
adapted when it comes tfl meeting the needs o~ tl:~ natiion.
The Major Fields of Knowledge
Mathematics
Mathematics is a science which is moving ahead actively. This di,scipline,
which has developed greatly, is characterized today by the impor::ance and
the frequency of contacts br~nging researcl~ers in each f ield o~~' various
fields together. It is the mutual enrichment of their ideas and work which ~
probably produces the greater part of the results achieved 'coday. _
It is undeniable that a country must attempt to maintain contact with advances
in this f ield. The only way of doing so is to encourage researchers to
remain in the vanguard. This requires only relatively limited investment,
but on the other hand demands adequate recruiting of young researchers.
If we do not enjoy a monopoly situation in any particular branch, we do =
currently rank among the leaders in a number of them, while the others,
moreover, are not without tY~eir brilliant personalities.
Without a doubt, Erance is contributing to world mathema.tical production;to
- an exten~ far exceeding its demographic importance.
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Finally, it might be noteci that the resolution of the problem of difficulties
in communication between mathematicians and possible users of their knowledge -
seems to have been begun.
If the current situation is favorable, it is important nonetheless to con-
template its future development.
Work in the f ield of mathematics is a long-term effort which bears fruit -
- only in the relatively distant future, on a time scale considered in terms
' of dozens of years. Good teams only develop through relatively broad initial
recruiting, and it is therefore necessary to guarantee the maintenance of _
a-suff icient flow to allow for the turnover in personnel. It is even more
important that this flow be`regular in order to ensure the rejuvenation of
~ the teams.
A second point involves meeting centers. The very special nature of mathe-
- matical research work requires sufficiently frequent exchange. It would
thus be useful to strengthen or establish meeting centers such, for example,
- as the Marseilles-Luminy International;Center. Some of our European neighbors
are well ahead of us in this regard.
Physics
This very broad sector covers a sppctrum ranging from the most basic research
(elementary particles) to fully applied sciences (electronics, metallurgy,
energy), t,.roughout which it is necessary to maintain con*inuity in order to
avoid the development of a barrier to the propagation of innovations and
= the redeployment of personnel which is one of its most effective methods.
- This is also the sector which uses the most substantial equipment, on a
. scale which is sometimes continental, soon to become international. If there
is such a thing as "light" physics, it too is tending to use heavier and more
complex equipment, t'ne utilization of which moreover is spreading to other
scientific disciplines.
There are currently 10,000 individuals, including 4,500 researchers and
teachers, engaged in basic physics research, with an overall budget of about
1.7 billion francs. The phys~.cal engineering sciences represent a supplement-
ary potential of about 3,500 researchers.
By long tradition, this is a strong sector of French science, as recognized -
by Nobel prizes and illustrated by laboratories of international renown such
as those of the Ecole Normale, the Ecole Polytechniquey and those at Orsay
and Grenoble.
Its quality is based on extremely selective recruiting, the policy of labor-
atory aff iliation with the CNRS [National Center for Scientific,ResearchJ,
and the allocation of jobs and credtts. This selection, on the other hand, -
is hardly found in the univex~sities, where the criteria for distribution, '
based mainly on teaching needs, leads to wide scattering and as a result, a
lack of eff iciency.
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In this sector as in others, the privileged status of our research is
measured in terms of international comparison. Our physics research is well
advanced. It must be encouraged still further, particularly on the level of
publications and participation in international meetings.
For the analysis of the quality of French scientific production, we Fiill
examine four sectors which represent different structures in the field, and
finally, the physical engineering sciences.
Elementary Particle Physics (2,800 Persons, 580 Million Francs)
This field has developed in spectacular fashion in the past 10 years. In
- Europe, it is above all the success of the ECNR [European Council for
Nuclear Research] which accounts for almost all of the research in the ~
sector. This European grouping of facilities has made it possible to surpass
the USSR and to reach the front ranks, internationally, with the Americans:
This is a particular strong point of French science, which plays a leading
role in the success oi the ECNR. Research is concentrated in a few large
laboratories. Worthy of inention among the successes is the development of
_ the Gargamelle bubble chamber, with which the name of Andre Lagarrigue is
�
associated.
Mention should also be made, on the other hand, of the shortcomings of the
work on gravitation and cosmic rays.
Nuclear Physics
Nuclear physics, with more than 2,000 persons and a hudget of 400 million
francs, has been given a clear priority in our country since 1945 (third-
largest budget in the world, following Germany and the United States), with
the internationally recognized quality of our laboratories as the result.
_ This sector is currently undergoing revision of its guidelines and as a
result its methods with the advent of machines of national dimensions
~ (Ganil, Saturn II). This will eventually mean shutting down a number of
regional machines, and thus will pose rather delicate problPms of adaptation.
Thermonuclear Fusion
In the thermonuclear fusion sector (400 persons, 100 m~llion francs), the �
concentration of efforts on fusion by magnetic confinement led to brilliant
successes with the Tokamalc in Fontenay-aux-Roses, from which the European
Jet project and a supplementary French project, the Tokamak superconductor
~ T~resupra, will take over.
On the other hand, research along the other line, inertial confinement, using
laser beams, is scattered throughout Europe and in particular in France, and
?~ecause of this, lagging far behind the United States and probably the USSR.
The future of this research is a matter of concern and should be studied
- soon.
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Light Physics
Light physics (4,700 persons, 640 million francs). Atomic physics has
been dominated for 20 years by 2 laboratori2s--Aime Cotton an~ the Ecole
~ Normale Superieure, which have expanded, in Paris and in the provinces,
making of this sector one of the strong points in the French research f ield.
Molecular physics has not developed so prestigiousl} in Franc:e.
= The study of the reaction processes in atomic or molecular jets, with
precise preparation of the initial stages and analysis of the f inal stages,
represents a new direction which may restructure a large part of the atomic
an~ molecular physics research in Paris, Orsay and the Aquitaine region.
Astrophysics and atmospheric physics also represent new targets for certain _
teams.
Condensed Matter Physics
Condensed matter physics can claim major achievements: the laboratories in
Grenoble and Orsay, the microprobe in Castaing, the basic work on liquid ~
crystals, the use of the Lure, and the economic microscopes in Toulouse.
This physics discipline is offered in all the universities, which is a clear
advantage facilitating relations with local industrial activity, but an
inconvenient aspect from the point of view of dispersed equipment. The
, development of the discipline has been dominated in recent years by the
~ localized use of major equipment (nuclear reactors, Lure, high-tension
microscopes) and the expansion of the discipline to ever more diverse sub-
jects (]~iquid crystals, micelles, composite materials, single- or -
two-dimensional properties).
Background research on electronic components is of excellent quality: optical
and magnetic properties of semi-conductors, metal semi-conductor transitions,
single-dimension conductors. Surface and interface physics is a strong pcint,
and its applications are widely varied: adsorption, catalysis, corrosion,
~ electrochemistry. -
Engineering Sciences
The basic knowledge acquired in physics, mainly light ~hysics, spreads out
into all the scientif ic sectors, and numerous applications will develop as
this relation continues (electronicss components, instrumentation, energy, ~
- etc.). We will analyze the main sectors briefly: ~
a) Optics is a traditional field in France. It is being continued by a
number ~~f excellent i.ndustrial achievements (Angenieux, Job in Yvon,
. Quantel)`'and ranks high internationally in high-performance optics. Serious ,
gaps are to be seen in the development of materials, in optics with wide ;
commercial application, and in laser applications.
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b) Data processing and automation have only recently gained the status of
independent disciplines. They are closely linked with rapidly expanding
industrial activity. Scientific production here is of gcod quality, as
witnessed by the number of reports by French researchers at international
- congresses. French participation in the IFIP [International Federation of
Information Processing] and the IFAC [International Federation of Automatic
Control] has now reached a level comparable to that of countries such as
Japan and the FRG. The renown of the main French government laboratories,
such as the IRIA-LABORIA [Data Processing and Automation Research Institute-
Data Processing and Automation Research Laboratory], the Programming
- Institute in Paris, the Institute of Applied Mathematics in Grenoble, the
Automation and Systems Analysis Laboratory in Toulouse, the University of
Toulouse, the ONERA [National Office for Aerospace Studies and Research],
the LIMSI [Data~Processir~g and Mathematics Laboratory for the Engineering
Sciences] in Orsay, t:~e Automation Laboratory in Grenoble, the ENSM [Higher
National School for Mechanics] in Nantes, and the University of Lille, is
now established.
c) Mechanics and the science of materials off er a potential in tizis sector
of about 2,000 researchers, distributed among the universities, higher
schools and a certain number of bodies. In evaluating this scientific
sector, we will examine mechanics and the science of materials separately.
The former broadly dominates the whole, having more than half of the human
resources.
Fluid mechanics is well developed in France, for despite its close links
with mathematics, it has consistently developed as a f unction of engineering
needs. Focused on hydraulic problems in the last century, it experienced
its greatest expansion with the development in aeronautics and turbojets,
and just recently the needs of nuclear engineerir~g have taken over. The
quality of scientific research in this sector is in general excellent, a good
part of the potential being very suitably located on the international level.
~ The number of government researchers is adequate and well located regionally.
- As to the distribution of personnel in terms of scientif ic sub~ects, some
redeployment of university teams should be undertaken, making use of the
influence of the CNRS.
Solid mechanics, on the other hand, is experiencing diff iculty in freeing
itself from its mathematical origin. Fxcluding a few brilliat~t exceptions
(theoretical mechanics, and a few narrow breakthroughs in applied research),
scientific production is at a barely mediocre level, with an orientation
which is too of ten purely basic and academic. University researcr in solid
- mechanics for applied purposes is clearly inadequate in volume, accounting
for only 15 to 20 percent of the human resources. The resolution of this
problem demands a major revision on the level of research goals, to which
end the sponsoring authorities (Ministry for Universities) should take action,
altering in particular the allocations of credit and positions. The Director-
ate of Physical Engineering Sciences at the CNRS is entirely aware of this
situation, and since 1977 has been pursuing an eff icient orientation policy,
_ combining the criteria of scientific quality and applied uses.
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We stiould note that the effort put forth by the DGRST with regard to stress
mechanics has been crowned with success. It should be pursued along the
lines of research on durability, as a complement to the actions undertaken
with a view to economy in raw materials and energy.
The science of materials is a relatively recent concept directly linked with _
engineering needs, representing a meeting ground for various classic
disciplines: solid physics and chemistry, rheology, solid mechanics. This
scientific body is as yet very weak in our country, for the government
~ research institutions (Ministry for Universities) have not yet incorporated
it in their policy. The quality of research is good, sometimes even of
international value, but extremely uneven fram one sector to another.
- The science of materials is a typical case in which the scattering of efforts
by chemists, physicists and mechanics experts hinders the development of -
= knowledge and tends to confine the latter to an academic circle cut off from -
~ the realities of the consumer sector. D espite the quality of the research, '
there is limited provision f or its application. It seems, f inally, that ~he
stature of the research teams is not such as to bear comparison with the
international competition. Thus it would be well to encourage the develop- _
ment of the main multi-disciplinary centers.
Chemistry and solid physics have won maj or successes on the theoretical
level, accompanied by substantial progress in the pra~tical realm (for
example special steels, glass, boron fib ers, etc.). However, these sectors
are hard pressed to keep up today, doubtless because of the increasing -
interest of engi.neers in the useful properties of materials.
A better balance of the research potential between metallic and non-metallic
materials, to the advantage of the latter, which have a great f uture, is to
be desired.
ChemiStry
Chemistry as a discipline, despite the b asic nature of a great deal of work _
being done therein, can never be entirely separated from industry, which, as
a user of chemistry employing 10 percent of the persunnel in industry, is a
key sector in the economy, which it supp lies with products of a11. sorts.
The interpenetration of the two is often great and should be greater still,
the chemical industry already being one of the sectors most frequently
dependent on research. The profound adaptation imposed on this industry
by the new world economic conditions further emphasizes this dependence.
Thus the discussion of chemistry, as it is undertaken in Chis report, in
terms of its scientif ic production on the one hand, and.in terms of its
contribution to industrial production, on the other, is more a difference of
viewpoint than an inherent one.
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- The national research effort in the chemistry sector is shared by public
university laboratories, the CNRS, the higher schools, and the AEC [Atomic
Energy CommissionJ, as well as the semi-public laboratories, technical
centers, and to a very great extent, the laboratories of heavily concentrated
industrial companies.
Naturally, by virtue of their purposes, the government laboratories devote
themselves above all to basic research work, and the industrial laboratories
to research for an applied purpose, almost exclusively.
It is true that chemic~Z research should have a very continuous flow from the
origin of a discovery in the laboratory, which may perhaps have seemed very
the~retical at the outset, to the perfecting of a new type of production. A
very special effort should be made to improve the collaboration between the
government and the private laboratories so that, on the one hand, the form~r -
will have a better understanding of the needs of.the latter and, on the other,
in order to speed up transfers of basic research to applied usage.
The chemical research personnel total some 2,000 individuals in the govern-
ment sector, to which must be added the teacher-researchers at the universities,
_ and 5,000 researchers and engineers in industry.
The position is especially strong in catalysis, a basic sector which has -
been the focus of a great effort, with however inadequate work in the realm
of catalysis by fixed enzymes, as compared to the activity in some foreign
countries (for example, Japan). The reseaxch in quantum chemistry, radio-
chemistry and nuclear chemistry is of excellent quality. It is very uneven -
in chemical kinetics, and more effort is required in the kinetics of
heterogeneous reactions having a bearing upon the reactivity of solids and
surface phenomena. Development bf this discipline would contribute needed
help tu the field of materials chemistry, which is active but still empirical,
- lacking adequate scientif ic foundation. Similarly, research is inadequate
in photochemistry and radiation chemistry. The excellent results achieved
in organic synthesis are the product of a ve.ry limited number of breaicthrough
teams, while there is a substantial volume of university personnel f ocused
on these problems, but most often with purely academic aims and mediocre
results. An effort needs to be made to motivate these teams and improve
their results, which should ma.ke a substantial contribution to the develop-
ment of our pure chemistry industry.
Basic research is also most inadequate in thermodynamics, and above all in
electrochemistry.
In the realm of engineering chemistry (analytical chemistry, processes,
chemical engineering), the contribution made by government research is ~
manifestly inadequate. Only a small number. of teams, excellent moreover,
- are to be found in this field, but the means put to use are far from adequaL�e -
and suffer by comparison with foreign effort. An improvement in this realm
doubtless involves the activities of new types of teachers in the universities
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_ an.l the engineering schools, for this kind of research requires a
multi-disciplinary approach to which chemistry in the French universities
- has had great difficulty in adapting, at least in practice.
� Sizable human rssources exist in the chemistry sector, but one might wish -
- for much higher "praducti.vity." To achieve this a number of small and
~ widely scattiered university teams would have to be grouped together, since
_ too few of them attain a critical mass, and permanent collaboration between
the goverr.ment laboratories and the industrial laboratories on a large
- scale must be developed. _
The Lite Sciences
- Research in the realm of the life sciences covers the basic sectors, the
- applied aspects of inedicine, agronomy and oceanology, and finally, the
technological repercussions: biologicai and medical engineering, pharmacy,
agro-food and biotechnology as such. Here we will analyze the situation in
basic or fundamental biology.
The life sciences have developed rapidly. There is active research in the
~ field in our country. The scientific resources of the sector include ~
4,500 researchers and about 6,000 teachers engaged in part-ti.me research.
The initial consideration of basic biology is oriented toward increasing
knowledge. Its applications may come in the long range, but also in the
' medium and short run. An example of the speedy application of certain of
~ its discoveries is the birth and rapid development of genetic and enzyme -
engineering. _
Six sectors in basic biology seem to provide examples for rapid analysis.
Cellular and Molecular Biology
In a f irst stage, beginning in 1960, molecular biology has made it possi.ble
to clarify the.structure of the main biological macromolecules in bacteria, "
to interpret their functions in terms of structures and interactions, and
to identify the mechanisms regulating and expressing the genetic herita~e.
In a second and more recent phase, the techniques and concepts Iiave U~en
extended to nucleated cells.
The French teams have won recognition recently for important work on
molecular genetics and diff erentiation and the factors playing a role in
reject reactions on chromatin, on the functional-repressor functions, on
non-muscular contractile proteins and on cloning methods making genetic
recombinations in vitro possible. Foreign teams have distinguished them-
_ selves with various discoveries: plasmids, enzyme inhibition, ribosome
structure and function, and the new technique of producing monoclonal anti-
bodies.
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Technical innovations make it possible as of the present to embark upon new
- paths of research: study of the structure of the genetic expression of the
cells in higher organisms; study of intracellular and intercellular communi- '
catLons Find the rol.e of molecules in biomembranes; analysis of contractile .
E~rotel.ns and the cytoskeleton.
Genetics engineering methods (genetic recombinations; genetic manipulations)
have two main goals: analysis of the structure of genes and their regula-
tion, in particular the determir..ation of the sequence of the nucleotides of
_ the gene and the "domesticatic~:i" of microorganisms controlled by recombination
through having them syntheG~ze useful products. A number of bacterial strains
produce animal proteins i�.i this way. Successes to date are few: somatostatin,
dehydrofolate-reductase, rat proinsulin and ovalbumin. There are some 50
researchers and 4 reliable special l~boratories in France. Important applica-
tions of these techniques are expected in agronomy (f ixation of nitrogen)
and medicine (prenatal diagnosis of inetabolic errors), for example, deprano-
cytosis.
Immunology
Immunology is the study of the mechanisms of identification and recognition
situating the individual in relation to other individuals of his own species,
- individuals of other species and any foreign substance or tissue. This
system of recognition is complemented by a system of defense against the
"non-self." Its field of action ranges from molecular and cellular immunology
t;, very important medical and veterinary applications (cancer, autoimmunity,
parasitosts, renal and articulatory immunopathology, allergies, organ -
transplants, vaccines). -
Basic and applied immunology overlap in the majority of the laboratories. In
basic immunology, our country is no longer in the front r,anks in the field
of human and animal immunogetics, the molecular structure of immunoglobulins,
and cell differentiation with regard to immune action. On the other hand,
French teams are responsible for the understanding of the human histo-
compatability system (HLA), the conceptual importance of which is hardly
limited to the framework of biology, and.knowledge of the thymic serum
- factor playing a role in the development of T cell lymphocytes. -
There are very vigorous applications of immunology to medicine and agronomy
in France. Transplant immunity, i~unostimulation and immunosuppression, _
parasite immunology, the normal development of the immunity system in the
foetus and the nursing infant and hereditary lacks of such a system in infants,
immunopathology of the kidneys, joints, skin and nervous system are the main
objects of research in our country. The policy of training and encouragement
pursued by the DGRST since 1970, the quality of teaching, at the Pasteur
Institute in particular, the enthusiasm of young people for this discipline,
the establishment of new laboratories in Marseilles and the addition of an
important research area at the Pasteur Institute in Paris will,,contribute _
to an upsurge of research in this f ield. Like molecular biolo~,ty, research
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in immunology provides ott~ier fields in the "l.ife sciences" with techniques
and concepts, such r_hat their development depends upon it and double
- priority is justified. Molecular biology and immunology are the sources of
the transfer of research technology. A good example is seen in the extra-
ordinary development of radioimmunology techniques in the study of natural
and artificial mole~ules and their receptors, in experimental and human _
research and in clinical practice.
The Biology of Intercellular Information in Complex Organisms
When ever more complex living pluricellular systems are developed, the
signals between the cells and the organs undergo regulation, coor~lination,
adaptation. These signals are communicatad over short distances from cell
to cell (kinins, prostaglandins, chalones) or over longer distances by the
- nervous or circulatory system. The neuromediators and the hormones are the p
chenical substances which specify the message. The discoveries in this
field have made possible a new expression, in cellular and molecular terms,
of a part of the physiology of regulation and organs.
Hormonology has been transformed in the last decade. The various hormonal
signals: amines, steroids, peptides and proteins are known, in terms of
chemical structure, and for the majority of them, total or partial synthesis
has been achieved. New hormones have been discovered (calcitonin, somato-
statin, somatomedin, VIP, endorphins, etc.). Their role is conceived as a
signal between diff erent cellular groups with a transmitter, sometimes
differentiated in an endocrine gland--an often v~ry specific system of
plasmatic transport--and a membranous receiver or nuclear cytosol. The
regulation of transmission and transport, the amplif ication of reception by
a second messenger--cyclical nucleotide, calcium ions, the adaptation of
receptors and signal intensity are under study and advancing. A large
number of French teams have distinguished themselves in this field, above
all in connection with thyroid hormones, sexual steroids, pancreatic and~~
digestive hormones, neuroendocrinology, the "growth hormone--somatomedin :
system, and the hormones regulating the metabolism of calcium. Basic French
hormonology is of excellent quality. It has won several high-level
international awards in the past two years.
- Neurobiology is undergoing rejuvenation in our country, and in certain
respects, it is extremely brilliant on an international'"level. Among the
major works one might mention the discovery of the acetylcholine receptor,
the isolation of inediators and neural hormones, the discoveries relating to
the physiology of sleep and the vertical position. This discipline has
" quite rightl.y been given priority within the Seventh Plan. The desired
grouping and coordination is being or will be effected: at the CNRS, Pasteur .
Institute, and the INSERM [National Institute of Health and Medical Research]. ,
A vast regional operation was undertaken in Bordeaux thanks to the eff orts
of two universities, the CNRS and the INSERM and the regional government
establishments. The most promising research trends have to do with mediators _
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and neurohormones, synaptic connectors, advanced understanding of the nature -
of inessages (multimicroelectrodes, sensory studies), neurogenetics and the
_ effect of the environment on the phenomena of plasticity. The results of
these new techniques, concepts and approaches in neurology and psychiatry
are not yet readily perceived. But the closer relations between specialists
in the hu~nan sciences and neurobiologists should allow a profitable
reciprocal exchange within a few years, and provide the applied "neurosciences," ~
psychiatry in particular, with an opportunity to develop a new style of -
scientific research. As a result, it can be expected that the efforts in
this field for which the Seventh Plan provides will be expanded in the course
of the coming years.
Biology of Reproduction and Development
The study of the cellular cycle with its four phases, a third of a century ago,
provided a simple model of cell development and division. On the other hand,
the deciphering of the time scheduling of the basic reproductive-developmental -
cycle of living pluricellular sexed systems, expressed in cellular and
_ molecular terms, is barely beginning. This aspect of biology observes the
phenomena deriving from the formation of ganetes and the fertilization of the
- egg, with the establishment of a living adult being capable of reproducing _
itself. The division of the egg before implantation, the implantation of
the egg, the development of the forms, tissues and organs and their
expression in terms of multiplication, differentiation, migration and death
of the cells; the life of the foetus and the maturing of its enzymes and
hormones, its nutrition and energy metabolism; perinatal~~biological adapta-
tions; growth and pubertal maturing are the main sub-themes in these studies.
This sector has considerable repercussions in the f ield of biomedical research:
- understanding spontaneous abortion, unraveling the mechanisms of malformation,
- avoiding premature birth and foetal malnutrition, decreasing the mortality
and morbidity rates for newborn infants. This complex has been the focus of
~oncerted action at the DGRST and a number of thema.ti~ undertakings at the
INSERM and the CNRS. The cooperation among a number of teams from the uni-
versities, the INSERM, the INRA [National Institute of Agronomical Research]
was established during the Sixth and Seventh Plans and still continues.
Fr~~nch teams have made considerable advances in this field: cellular
migration and the origin of various organs, isolation and purification of -
molecules allowing tolerance of the foetus by the mother, the role of
chromosomal aberrations in spontaneous abortions, perfecting of several
techniques for the prenatal detection of malformations or metabolic errors,
discovery of the activity of a special metabolism of vitamin D on the growth
~ cartilage, the discovery of several cellular or intracellular endocrine
receptors. The completion of a"study on foetal and perinatal pharmacology"
in four years was a model undertaking.
Biology of Interaction Between Living Organisms and Their Environment
Our country has a rather large number of team~ working on the social behavior,
population dynamics, natural or altered ecosysrems. From the prokaryotes
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(microbial ecology of soils and oceans) to the eukaryotes, frc:-. the vegetable
to the animal kingdom, these studies are of great interest. With regard to
man, a number of teams are doing excellent research on population genetics,
population dynamics, the relations between man and his physical, organic,
psychosocial and cultural environment. The DGRST is encouraging interesting
research, just at its inception, in the field of chemical envir~~nment, the
- biology of working conditions and athletic practice. Research c~n the
biology of human life. under extreme conditions and unusual environments,
and the adaptability of biological rhythms to lifestyle and environmental
_ changes (chronobiology) is to be encouraged.
Bioenergetics
This discipline developed following the application of thermodynamic studies
to living organisms. At the present time, a number of French teams are
firmly embarked on basic bioenergetic research (thermodynamics of biochemical
reactions and ecosystems, research on photosynthesis) and applied bio-
energetics (energy and biomass; production of inethane and alcohol from
plants; recovery of wastes and energy biotechnology). Active eiicouragement
of this sector is urgently needed in rhe form of joint action by the DGRST `
and the CNRS.
It is clear that in the realm of basic biology, the personnel training
policy has been of high quality. Three diff iculties should be underlined:
the insuff icient number of researchers and technicians; the inadequate
development of general research logistics (animal houses; cell and microbe
banks; production of antibodi.es, reagents and marked molecules); insufficient
adaptation of some disciplines involved in this research; limited teaching
of genetics; shortcomings in polypeptide and nucleotide chemistry. _
Finally, we should stress in conclusion two important sectors which are in '
real peril: bacteriology and nutrition.
_ Basic bacteriology and bacteriology as applied to medicine, agronomy and
_ oceanography is attracting few young researchers. It is taught above all at :
- the Pasteur Institute. It is urgently necessary to make an effort, in ,
relation to certain foreign countries. Microbiology will serve as the basis
of the biotechnological revolution, in genetic and enzyme engineering, in
fermentation technology and the renovation of agricultural techniques.
Important measures should be approved as of this year in this basic sector. ,
Research in food and nutrition is based on the activity of about 300 re-
searchers. The pri.ority programs which are underway are focused on three
axes benefiting from the concerted effo~t of the DGRST: "eating habits,"
"interrelation between food and the digestive tract," "food quality and
alimentary toxicology." Animal nutrition research is on an adequate level.
On the other hand, it is clear that the problems of human nutrition should
be approached in the coming years much more ambitiously and with determination
to provide incentives in terms of inen and means. Where the developed
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countries as well as the countries in the process of development are
concerned, it is c].ear in the realm of human lrtealth that the threat of death
- from food def icienc ies will increase in the f ormer and the threat of
starvation will increase in the latter. Now the existing system, in France
= and elsewhere, has major shortcomings which have accumulated historically.
The possibility of nutritional research demands a complete knowledge of the
- chain: food and consumption, digestion-absorption, metabolism and cellular
use. A common language must be acquired by the various speciaiists concerned
with the diff~r2nt parts of this chain, and training, on a co~non basis first -
- and later differentiated, must be provided for them. This is rarely done at
= the present time. Finally, research ~jevelopment cannot be effected in
isolation. A series of ineasures should be correlated by the Ministry of
~iealth, the Ministry for Universities, the Secretariat of State for Research
and the research bodies invol�~ed: independent teaching of nutrition for
medical students should be made compulsory; a separate post-doctoral course
in human nutrition should be established, along with hospital-university
careers (hospital departments, professors' and lecturers' posts) and a section
or sub-section of the CCU [University Advisory Committee] specializing in
nutrition. It is a vain hope that its former brilliance can be returned to
research in nutrition without taking steps involving the traini~ig of doctors
and th establishment of differentiated hospital-university careers. The
example set in this field in the coordination of research, health and uni-
versity activities in the field of health care for mothers and infants,
- which has provided an astonishing result in seven years, should persuade
the most skeptical.
Contact between research and the French agro-food industry shauld be
multiplied. There is J_ittle innovation in this industry and its recent work
is poorly supported from a financial point of view. Many instances of mis-
understanding or inertia hinder the transfer of knowledge in both directions
between government research and the private agro-food sector.
The Humanities
- The humanities as a whole have experienced a remarkable development in the
past few decades, characterized by the penetration, varying in degree
according to the discipline, of quantitative methods, and an increasing _
awareness of their interdependence. Where the f irst point is concerned,
the evaluation ~f the profits and risks of quantification which is now
beginning justif ies the hope that the problem of the relation between the
humanities and the exact sciences will soon be properly set forth, guarantee-
ing a satisfactory development of these disciplines. The second direction,
accompanied by a gradually more open approach to ~he natural sciences, and
in particular biology and physiology, paves the way, for its part, toward a
global understanding of man, his activities, and the conditions of his
- existence.
These new prospects rarely benefit from structures adequate for their
development. The human sciences have few specialized bodies and scientific
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prc~duclic~n, essential.ly in the universities, suffers from the main
shortcomings of these institutions: limited research penetration, scattering
of resources, Lack of evaluation, nonexistent program coordination. The
ef.forts made by the CNRS, and those made more recently by the research
mission have indeed contributed to altering this general situation, but it .
is disturbi.g to note, as those responsible for publication in the realm of
the human sciences recently did, that the outstanding individuals publishing ~
in recent years are almost entirely outside the universities. The most
notable non-specialized accomodating structure is currently the Ecole
des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (School of Higher Social Science
Studies), which since its establishment has been able to maintain high-quality
teaching and to develop real research programs. This institution seems to
meet all of the conditions needed to establish integrated training on a Yiigh
level, made indispensable by the development of this research sector. `
Where means are concerned, they seem to be adequate as a wY:ole, but their
distribution very often joins together the faults of feudalism and egali-
tarianism: maintenance of positions won, favoritism and scattering of
resources cancel out the efforts made on the fin~ncial and human levels
such that good teams often lack what they need while others, justified by
their existence alone, are supported without control.
The scientific analysis pursued, in particular by comparison with foreign
research, reveals the f ~llowing:
A very satisfactory situation in history, prehistory, and, generally
speaking, in anthropology. Tha French historical school is one of the most
notable and fertile on the international scene. It includes a wide diversity
' of talents and approaches and benefits from an excellent structure with the -
Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Prehistory is the most advanced sector in French
archeology. The application of rigorous scientific methods, the establish-
- ment of continuing relations with ethnology and the very high quality of ;
the recording of observations obtained fr~m excavations guarantee a broad I
effect for this specialty. Finally, French anthropology can boast of notable
achievements both in the realm of physi.cal anthropology, which interrelates
with t~ie biochemical sciences, and in social and cultural anthropology,
- thanks in particular to the original and rigorous research pursued at the
laboratory of the College de France, under the direction of C. Levi Strauss.
There is a situation which is honorable on the whole in demography, mathe- ,
matical economics and psychoanalysis. Demography benefits f rom an excellent
accommodating structure thanks to the INID [National Institute for Demo- ~
graphic StudiesJ. The concepts of this discipline are well established,
its methods are homogenous and the training satisfactory. Mathematical
economics represents a strong point in French economics: both the engineering
schools and public enterprises have encouraged research in this sector. As ~
' to psychoanalysis, the theoretical nature of which is closely linked with a i
- therapeutic aspect, it offers a richness and diversity in France found in '
- few foreign countries. ;
~
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There are a few remarkable achievements in an overall complex of average
quality: sociology, economics, philosophy and linguistics. French sociology
- has been clearly marked for some years by an often disordered proliferation
of empirical works undertaken in partic~lar at the request of administrations,
with widely varying success. However, this relative mediocrity of production
as a whole has been accompanied by research of high quality carried out by
several teams, most often in Paris. French economic science, which re~~ealed
- an undeniable lag on the international level until recently, seems to b~
beginning a new upsurge thanks to the development of a demand for researc~
for purposes of forecasting, the establishment of high-quality teams within
_ the ministries, the public enterprises and the General Planning Commissariat, -
and the penetration of economic instruction in the universities and higher
schools. Philosophy owes its real current impact abroad to remarkable 1~ut
isolated individuals. It suffers to a considera.ble extent from the ~~hort-
comings of the universities, which are its main structural accommodation.
As to linguistics, if the principal stages in its development are most
often taken outside France, it must be recognized that the crisis in ~
- linguistics characterizing the post-Chomsky period led to original and
fertile research on French territory.
A very middling situation exists in numerous sectors of the law, psychology
- and the archeology of historical periods. In the law, in which individual
research predominates, the achievements are not consistent with the important
university system available to us (with the exception of the study of
substantive law, in which satisfactory work has been done). This discipline,
which has had a certain influence abroad, is actually experiencing diffi-
culties in adapting to the changes in goals and methods which have come [
- about as a result of the development of knowledge and of modern society.
French psychology suffers from a scattering of teams and dispersed efforts.
It is competitive only in a very limited number of sectors. Archeology of
- historical periods is to considerable extent the victim of quite un-
satisfactory organization of research, lack of adaptation of training to
the demands of modern archeology, and a ma~or geographic and thematic
imbalance.
A frankly critical situation exists in political science, social psychology
and modern geography. In political science, the upsurge which followed
World War II and the establishment of the National Foundation of Political
Sciences seems ta have led to an uncertainty about the nature, the goal and
- the methods of this discipline, which is now undergoing real difficulties
in def ining itself clearly in relation to the neighboring disciplines. The
sector as a whole is tending currently to limit itself to electoral sociology.
Social psychology is currently underdeveloped, indeed moribund, in France.
It has few researchers and still fewer significant works.
As to human geography, after playing a very positive role in social science
- research at a time when the disciplines making up this sector were still
relatively undeveloped, it seems today considerably impoverished, to the
point of experiencing a veritable identity crisis, clearly seen in its
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splintering into sectors of unequal development, of scientif ic value which
varies widely and is poorly interrelated. _
Fnvironmental Studies
Space �
Space should be viewed from three viewpoints: knowledge of space, penetration
of space, and use of space technology.
' Where the knowledge of space is concerned, it is basically a matter of
fundamental disciplines, one being traditional astronomy, and the other,
more recently developed, spatial geophysics.
The position of French science in these two disciplines is quite honorable.
Although French researchers have not participated in the most spectacular
discoveries in recent years, they have contributed greatly to a more profound
knowledge in this realm, which is currently undergoing a real expansion.
They have offset the relative handicap resulting from the lack of high- -
performance telescopes in France by very great ingenuity in instrumentation.
The delay experienced in large telescopes is in the process of being ~
partially made up thanks to new investments. However, the very limited
recruiting in recent years and the decline in operational resources are
such that there is a risk that thesQ investments cannot be put to full use.
Moreover, these disciplines still remain too separate structurally from basic
physics, of which, however, they are tending more and more to represent a
basic branch. ~
,
_ The penetration of space and the use of space technology constitute a space ,
program as such. In this sector, France has pursued a very continuous and j
tenacious policy thanks to which, although sums considerably lower than what !
has been spent by the two major powers have been devoted to the purpose, it ~
has achieved very good results with limited but important goals (excluding ~
in particular the launching of inen into space;. This policy was drafted i
and implemented by the CNES [National Center for Space StudiesJ, which has ;
made an effort to develop the capacity and the competence of the government
and industrial research laboratories to this end. !
It was in this way that f irst of all mastery was acquired of the basid ~
techniques giving access ta space, launching and satellite technology.
With regard to launchers, this policy is reflected in the success of the '
Diamant (six successes out of eight launchings) and several