JPRS ID: 8956 USSR REPORT EARTH SCIENCES SELECTIONS FROM 'PROGRESS IN SOVIET OCEANOLOGY'

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SELECT I 0NS FR4M ' RROGRESS I N SO~d I ET OCERNOLOG`' ~

, 29 FEBRURRY i980 tF0U0 3r88) 1 QF 2
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JPRS L/8956
29 February 1980
~
- IJSSR Re ort =
_ p
= EARTH SCIENCES -
_ CFOUO ~!80)
Selectior~s from 'f'rogress in Soviet Oceanology' ~
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JPRS L/8956
- 29 February 1980
- USSR REPORT
EARTH SCIENCES
(FOUO 3/80), -
SELECTIO~`!S FROM 'P~20GRESS IN SOVYET OCEANOLOGY'
Moscow USPEKHI SOVETSKOY OKEANOLOGII in Russian 1979 signed to
press 13 Apr 79 pp 3-49, 87-117, 136-164
[Monograph edited by L. M. Brekhovskikh, Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1218
copies]
= CONTENTS PAGE
_ Problems of SoviPt Oceanology in the Light of the Resolutions of -
the 25th Congress of the CPSU
(L. M. Brekhovskikh) 1
Large-Scale Interactions Between the Ocean, the Atmosphere and
- the Continents
(V. V. Shuleykin) 11
Interaction of the Atmosphere and Ocean
(A. S. Monin) 25
Synopti~ Eddies in the Ocean (A Survey of Experimental Research)
(M. N. Koshlyakov, L. M. Fomin) 34 -
Variability of the Distribution of Chemical Elements in Ocean `
Water
(V. N. Ivanenkov, 0. K. Bordovskiy) 51
= State of the Art and Problems of the Geology of the Ocean
- (A. V. Peyve, Yu. M. Pushcharovskiy) 64
Geological Prospects for the Mastery of Solid Minerals of the
Ocean Floor ~
(P. L. Bevrukov) 73
_ g_ [III - USSR - 21K S&T FOUO]
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CONTENTS (Cor,tinued) Page
Geophysical Studies of the Ocean and Sea Floor in Connection
With the Problem of Utilizing the Mineral Resources of the
Continen~al Shelf of the USSR and the World Ocean
- (V. V. Fedynskiy, et al.) 85
Basic Results of Research in the Ocean Regions of Polar _
Latitudes (POLEX Program)
- (A. F. Treshnikov) 96
Effect of Government Policies on the Development of Marine
Activity
(L. L. Lyubimov, G. K. Voytolovskiy) 108
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- PROB~LEMS OF SOVIET OCEANOLOGY IN THE LIGHT OF THE RESOLUTIONS OF THE
25th CONGRESS OF THE CPSU
-
- Moscow USPEKHI SOVETSROY OKEANOLOGII in Russian 1979 pp 3-12
[Article by L. M. Brekhovskikh]
- [Text] The role of the ocean in the life of man is growing continuously.
This arises from a number of circumstances. The biological resources of
the ocean~ although not unlimited as sometimes is thought, are enormous.
We are only just beginning to master the mineral resources of the acean,
_ but at the present time about 20% of the world production of oil and gas -
_ comes from the sea floor. Marine transportation has grown rapidly through-
. out the world in recent times. From 1950 to 1975 it increased by fivefold.
To a significant degree the ocean determines the weather on our planet.
- The role of the ocean is exceptionally important as the system which, in
- the final analysis, receives a significant part of industrial and domestic
pollution from the land, a system~,where, unfortunately, this pollution
- far from always completely decomposes and is neutralized. Finally, approx-
_ imately half of the atmospheric oxygen which we breathe comes to us from '
photosynthesis in the ocean. -
It is necessary to study the ocean as completely as possible in order to
make proper, efficient use of its resources. -
- In the "Basic Areas of Development of the National Economy of the USSR in
1976-1980" approved by the 25th Congress of the CPSU, the necessity for
"expanding the complex studies of the World Ocean" is indicated. ~?elow,
we shall present a survey of the basic areas of study of the ocean in the
current five-year period and indicate some of our achievements in recent
years.
The basic efforts of the scientists are aimed at studying the physical,
chemical and b:iological processes in the ocean, studying the geologir_al
structure of the ocean floor, creating research equipment and equipment _
for man to penetrate into the depths of the ocean, studies of ocean pollu-
tion and the prevention of it. -
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Ocean physics is faced with a very complex problem understanding the
laws of motion of varying scales in the ocean, beginning with currents on
a planetary scale and ending with turbulence on the millimeter scale in
which, in the final analysis, obviously the conversion ~f inechanical
energy of the ocean to thermal energy takes place. The understanding of
- the pr~blems of the dynamics of the ocean is entirely necessary for the
development of other sciences of the ocean. For example, the dynamics ~f -
' the development of their biological communities is directly connected with
vertical and horizontal displacements of water with turbulent mixing of it.
Heat transfer by the ocean currents and also the interaction of the ocean
with the atmosphere have primary signif.icance for numerical weather fore-
casting over the land and over the ocean.
It is necessary to consider the discovery of the equatorial subsurface =
countercurrent in the Atlantic Ocean in 1959 by the expedition of the
Tiarine Hydrophysics Institute on board the scientific research ship
"Mikhail Lononosov" among our achievements in the field of ocean physics. -
- A year later in the Indian Ocean t.he expedition of the Oceanology Institute -
on board the scientific research ship "Vityaz"' discovered an analogous
current. These currents have come to be called the "Lomonosov current" and
the "Tareyev current." On the fifth trip of the scientific research ship
- "Akademik Y.urchatov" the Antilles-Guiana countercurrent was discovered off
the coast of South America. Soviet expeditions have discovered characteris-
tic features of these countercurrents and als~ the subsurface Cromwell
current discovered in the Pacific Ocean by American scientists. The depths
- of these currents, their stability, speed and many other characteristics
have been established. Their origin has been explained in general t~rms.
Other numerous expeditions and theoretical studies have made it possible to -
discover the basic mechanisms of stationary, wind and thermochalinic circula-
tion in the oceans.
Ir_ 1970 as a result of the experiment which is now ca~led the "Poligon-70"
experiment, Soviet oceanologists raade a discovery which cardinally altered
the concept of the medium scale circulati.on of ocean water. In the tropical _
zone of the Atlantic Ocean gigantic eddies have been discovered with hori-
zuntal dimensions of several hundreds of kilometers includir~g energy
- comparable to the energy of the medium currents kncwn up to the present time,
- and in some cases, exceeding it by many times. The principal organization
for performing the experiment was the Oceanology Institute. These experi- ~
~ ments were continued later and developed by American scientists.
The study of the interaction of the atmosphere and the ocean (and also the
continents) has de~ining significance for weather forecasting above the
sea and above the dry land. The pioneer in the statement of these prohlems
invariably has been Academician V. V. Shuleykin. A number of the largest
_ research projects in this field, in particular, the creation vf the theory
_ of marine hurricanes are accredited to hi.m.
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- Important projects on numerical simulatifln of the atmosphere and ocean
to improve long-range weather forecasting are underway at the Computer
Center of the Siberian Dj.vision of the USSR Academy of Sciences directed -
by Academician G. I. Marchuk.
The Leningrad Division of the Oceanology Institute has developed a version
of the mathematical model of atmospheric and ocean circulation considering
their interaction.
In order to study atmospheric processes above the ocean and the large-scale
interaction of the ocean in the atmosphere two large experiments have been
- undertaken - the national TROPEX-72 and international TROPEX-74. ~
_ TROPEX-74 was participated in by 29 ships from 10 countries (including 13
- from the USSR) and also aircraft and artificial earth satellites. The -
materials from thes~ experiments have been partially processed. The.y have -
- made it possible to calculate the heat transfer and the transfer of water
- ~asses by the equatorial currents, the heat budget of the ocQan, the varia-
bility of the oceanographic parameters in the tropical zone. For example, -
- it was established that a Lomono~ov current meanders with periods f.rom
15 days to 1.5 months.
In studying the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans a great deal of attention has
been given to the dynamics of the ice cover. The influence of the coast -
- lines at distances of hundreds of kilometers from them, depending on the
packing and strength of the ice, was discovered. -
A large scale international experiment POLEX-North-76 was performed as a '
subprogram of the GARP program. Large-sca.le energy exchange between the
' ocean and the atmosphere was studied at high latitudes, and the role of
= polar regions in the general energy balance of the ocean-atmosphere system
was determined. Variations of the heat content.of the ocean and the
atmosphere, the advection of heat and moisture by air masses and the radia-
tion balance were determined in this experiment. On the basis of the data
_ obtained, the heat flw~es from the ocean to the atmosphere and the heat
advection by the currents were calculated. It turned out that the heat
transfer by the currents plays the primary role in the formation of the
heat balance of the atmosphere over the Northern European Basin.
Soviet-American work under ~he POLEX-South experiment was performed
- between Australia and Antarctica and in Drake's Passage. They made it
possible sionificantly to sapplement the ideas about the structure and
; dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, to estimate the flow rates
of this current (105-125 and higher) and to detect the mesoscale vortexes ~
on both sid~s of the front. The bottom countercurrent in Drake�s Passage�
was discovered. The two-valume ATLAS OF ANTARCTICA was compiled and
published ~rom the materials of many years of research.
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A broad cycle of works studying the acousric fiels in the ocean liave been
_ published. St.udies were made of the characteristics of the underwater
Gound cliannel and sound dissipatin~ layers in various parts of the oce~n.
'1'he laws of the scattering of sc;und from tlie ocean floor and surface were
defined. Acoustic engineering is beginning to be widely used in studies of.
tlie ocean floo~, its illumination, when measuring sea currents, turbulence,
and so on. Sign~fican~~ progress has been made in studying the ~ptical,
niagnetic, gravitational and other physical fields in the ocean. _
In Qrder to combine the forces of the various organizations to solve the
problems stai:ed by the 25th Congr.ess ef the CPSU, beginning with the current
five-year period, a iiew system of planning T~lorld Ocean research was intro-
duced. An I,tegrated Interdepartmental Five-Year Plan for World Ocean
, Research and the Utilization of its Resources developed by the Oceanographic
Commissi~n jointly with various departments, investigated and approved hy the
State C~nunittee on Sci.ence and Engineering of the Council of Ministers of `
the USSR consists basically of large-scale projects. Each such project has
a def ined specific purpose and will be executed by various organizations
with overall coordination by the head organization. Many of the projects
are international.
The processing oi the materials from the TROPEX-74 experiment will be con-
tinued under the international GARP program. The Oceanographic Atlas m~lst
be compiled as result. Soviet oceanologists will play a significant role
in its compilation and editing. In 1979, a new, still grander, global -
- experiment will begin. In contrast to 1974, the observations will encompass
all oceans.
In 1978 studies were continued c,n the 1976 progzam under the POLEX-North .
subprogram which is also part of the GARP program. Studies were made of the ~
_ radiation balance, the advection of heat in the atmospher e and ocean, heat
content in both media. The POLEX-North subprogram calls for an "energy
' exchange" test area in the Norwegian and Greenland Seas with ship observations
and three more test areas with observations from the ice. Laboratory air-
craft and artificial earth satellites will be involved in the studies.
An analogous subprogram for the Antarctic Ocean POLEX-South provides for
_ fourfold Soviet-American surveys and test areas in the Davis and Scotia
Seas between Africa and Antarctica. This makes it possible to estimate the
role of the ocean and the atmosphere in the energy balance of the southern
polar region, to discover the mechanisms of energy exchange, the structure -
_ of the water masses in ~he Antarctic Ocean and mechanisms of formation of
bottom Antarctic water, to construct physical-statistical and hydrodynamic
models of the structure and dynamics of the Circumpolar Current, to estimate _
the role of seaGonal and interyear fluctuations of the propagation of sea
ice in the long-period variati.ons of climate, to discover new areas of `
increased concentration of fish and krill and also ta make recommendations -
with respect to the assimilation of them.
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A~other important interaational project is the POL1fifODE program implemented
- as a development of the Soviet work on "Poligs~n-70" [test area-70] and
subsequent Americrin work under t~ie MODE-1 program. The goal of this pro- � _
ject is to discover the nature of the synoptic variability of the ocean
- and, in particular, the causes of the occurrence of inedium-scale eddies in
the ocean, their interaction with each other ar~d with the medjum current
- and ttieir final fate. In the theoretical part of tt~e program ths theory of
= nonlinear Rossby waves will be developad the possible cause ot' the
_ formation of inedium-scale eddies in the ocean. A model of the gen.^ral
- circulation of the ocean has been constructed with high spatial resolution.
- It is shown that this circulation will become unstable after some period of
- time, as a result of which eddies of a synoptic scale will be generated,
- moving to the west several kilometers a day.
_ The experimental work under this program was performed in 1977 and 1978 in
- the Atlantic Ocean. Experiments of three types were realized: the study
of the variability of the basic characteristics of the ocean using long- -
term (to 1 year) buoy installations, the study of the same variability tiy _
multiple hydrologic surveys and, finally, the study of the dynamics of the
currents by tracing i-he drift of acoustic buoys with neutral buoyancy
released at variou.s depths. As a result, it is pr~oposed that the struCture
, of the eddy f ield and geographic distribution of the eddies in the ocean
~ will be more precisely defined, the local ene~gy balance of the eddies will
be estimated, and the models of the structure and evolution of a single eddy
and groups of them improved. There is hope of creating the principles of `
a model of large-scale interaction of the atmospher.e and ocean with para- -
metric consideration of the existence of synoptic-scale eddies. -
The observation data will be used to estimate the nonuniformity of the -
hydrochemical structure and the bioproductivity of the water in connection
with synoptic eddies. Probably it will be possible to make additional
recommendations with respect to planning the ocean fishing.
Large studies of the dynamics of the equatorial curtents are planned (the
- DIrIEKT program). The ~;eographic boundaries of the flows of westerly and
- easterly transfers of water masses in t~~e deep layers of the oceans must be '
- established, the time-space variability of the equatorial currents, their `
dynamic and statistical characteristics and their reactions to atmospheric -
disturbances will be studied, and water and heat exchange in the syste.~ns _
of these currents and between the atmosphere and the ocean in equatoria~.
zone will be investigated.
_ Another program provides for comprehensive study of surface and internal
waves in the ocean their time and space spectra. Studies of wave move--
ments in the coastal zone caused by waves coming from the deep sea regi_or,~
will be continued. The understanding of wave processes on the shelves
ar.u shoals is acquiring greater dnd greater significance for the national _
economy.
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Further studies of the Caribbean region (including the Gulf of Mexico and
_ the adjacent ~arts of the Atlantic Ocean) are planned under the. inter-
national MOCA1?IB prcgram. It is proposed that a hydrodynamic model of the
= region be created and that maps of the bottom re].ief, currents, temperature
and water density be constructed. Zones of increased biol.r,gical productivity
_ must be disc^vered, a prediction must be made of the reserves 3nd distribu-
_ tion of the basic species of tuna, and prospective regions .for the iishing
industry must be discovEred.
The geological-geophysical studies of the bottom of Lhe ocean and its seas
- have exceptionally important significance. They are being performed in order
to understand the laws of composit-ion, structure and development of the
oceanic earth's crust and estimate the mineral resources in its depths.
- The results of the studies under the international program for deep drilling
of the sea floor and the creation of the concept of the tectonics of the
lithospheric plates are Rnost iznpressive in this area. This concept,
developiiig mobilism in geology undoubtedly has progressive significance.
: It has become the basis for understanding the global tectonics of our
planet, although there are still many questions on which work is needed.
Our geologis~s and geophysicists have participated actively in this program
- f_or many years. In 1970-1976 Soviet scientists participated in 20 trips
_ on the drilling ship "Glomar Challenger" and they processed the cores
obtained on those trips.
It must be noted tliat befor e performing the drilling operations in the ocean
- our scientists established by~lredging and studying the material of the
rift valleys of the ocean that there are basic b~isalts (a second layer)
under the sedimentary rock in the ocean under which, in turn, there are
gabbcoids and partially ultrabasites (a third layer). Obviously below that
are the ultrabasic rocks of the earr.h's mantle.
Soviet geologists have worked actively on the problems of a comparativ e
study of ~he continental and ocean crust and, in particular, they have
established similarity of the section of the ocean crust with sections of
ophiolites on the continents.
The coworkers oF the Ocean~logy Institute of the USSR Academy of SciencPs
}iave completed a large cycle of studies of iron-manganese concretions on
the bottom of the Pacific and Indian Oceans and a].so metal-bearing sed i-
_ ments occupying enormous areas of the ocean floor in the southeastern part
of the Pacific Ocean. The concretions and the metal-bearing sediments
are of industrial interest in a number of pl.aces.
Saviet oceanologists have made many geographic discoveries which have found
reflection on the maps. They discovered the maximum deprh of th.e ocean
(11,022 meters, the Mariana Trench), the underwater Shirshov Ridge, the
Zenkabich Bank, the Academy of Sciences Rise, the East Indian Ridge, the
underwater Shatskiy Seamount, the deep water Vityaz' Trough, and numerous
underwater mountains.
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- Schematics of the geologicai structure and maps of the prospectiveness of
oil, gas and metal deposits have been compiled, wh ich made it possible to
_ do prospective planning for marine geological exploration work. ~
An important problem facing geologists and geophysicists is the development
of a general lithologic theory which includes the problems of sedimento-
- genesis and subsequent transformation of the sediments in the oceans. These
studies are forcing reexamination of some of the ideas about the origin of
the sedimentary material, the laws of its spatial arrangement, and paleo-
geography of ancient bodies of water developed when studying the cantinents. _
As is known, large amounts of manganese, iron, copper, nickel, cobalt,
- phosphorus and certain other elements are concentrated in modern and young _
_ ocean sediments. The discovery of the essence of the processes of ore
formation and their mechanisms (coprecipitation, sorption, diagenesis, ~
metasomatosis, biological extraction, and so on) has great theoretical sig- ~
_ nif icance. A profound study of modern geochemistry by all of the most
precise methods not only of ore formations and surrounding sediments, but
also the suspensions of the bottom and silt water, the discovery of the
_ relation of ore formation to vulcanism, geothern~~ and the landscape are
required here. The investigation of oceanic ore genesis is not only an
ind ependent problem, but it has important significance for understanding -
- the peculiarities of the f ormation and the placement of a number of minerals
on the continents.
The systematic petrologic-geochemical study of magmatic and metamorphic -
rock is a problem of exceptional signific3nce. It will permit establishment '
- or the composition and the nature of the rock of che upper mantle and
_ lower part of the ocean crust. The understanding of the planetary tectonic
laws and cardinal problems of the history of magmatism on the earth's sur- _
face requires significant expansion of the petrologic studies in the oceans.
For these purposes it is necessary first of all to perform detailed work -
at the geological test areas located within the limits of different large
structures on underwater ridges, in the fractur e zones of the ocean floor,
on ocean islands, and so on, with aubsequent detailed comparative petro-
chemical analysis of magma tic rock of the ocean f loor, ocean islands and
continents of similar composition.
With the further development of deep sea drilling (in cooperatioz~ with the
~ United States and other countries) and dredging in the oceans, it will
_ become possible to study the vertical sections of the magmatic formations,
to obtain direct information about the composition and structure of the
second and third geophysical layers of the oceanic earth's crust, the
development of the general theory of the origin and development of the -
ocean floor, and the geo? ogical history of the ocean.
The expansion of geophysical studies of the ocean floor has great stgnifi-
cance. Further observatiozis of the seismic conditions of the ocean plates,
troughs and also various sections of the middle ridges are needed. The -
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study of the details of the magnetic f ield, the relation of the magnetic -
anomalies to gravitational state, the relief and specially the geological
� data on the composition ar.d structure of the ocean floor have special
~ significance. Use of the methods of deep seismic sounding, bottom -
seismology and other possible methods to study the deep structure of the
crust and mantle to the asthenospheric layer is of great theoretical -
- interest.
- The studies of the chemistry of the sea have been performed primarily on
- the regional level. T~.e content and the limits of variation of the nutri-
- tive salt and organic materials in various parts of the Ldorld Ocean have ,
been discovered. In addition, a scudy was made of the salt and gas exchange
through the ocean-atmosphere interface, and the salt and oxygen balance '
' of various oceans and their seas as a result of advection, continental
- runoff, exchange with the atmosphere and other processes was calculated.
In the field of biology of the acean, the primary Froblem is the develop-
_ ment of the problem of controlling the bic~logical productivity of the ,
ocean. At the present time 9/10 of the world catch of fish comes from J_/5
of the ocean, almost exclusively from shoals. In the last decade there
iiave been broad-scale projects to study the ecosystems oF the open sea,
the processes of the production of the biomass in them, the regions of
upwellings to determine the paths of maxi.mum extraction of the biclogical
~ resources of the ocean without doing harm to th~ biological communities ,
and the use of them in the food rations of the population and means of
conversion to the develc?pment of aquaculture. The methods of estimat-ing
the structural and functional characteristics of the ecosystems of the
pelagic zone have been developed for this purpose, models of the functioning
_ of the ecosystems have been created, and numerical experiments have been
- performed with respect to the development of them. The energy flux through
~ the system and its dissipation on various trophic levels have been estimated
quantitatively. The net and gross production of the eneire comuiunity as
a whole and its various trophic levels has been estimated.
riathematical models have been constructed of the development of the ecosys-
- tems permitting prediction of variation of their productivity and achieve-
ment of an increase in it with directional change of individual parameters
of the system. There have been experiments in simulation of the simplest
bottom communities in order to proceed to the creation of models including
tl~e communities of the pelagic zone and the shelf floor required for most
- effective conduct of mariculture. All of these projects are continuing
_ in the current five-year period.
Other studies will be aimed at the direct estimation of the productivity
of various parts of the open sea and the shelf and the fishing reserves
o� fish. Thus, in 1977-1980 it is necessary to characterize the funda-
mentals of biological productivity of the Atlantic Ocean, a number of
regions of the southern part of the Pacific Ocean and in the Indian Ocean.
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- Intensive oceanological studies must be conducted on the shelves of ttie Bar-
_ en~s Sea, the Baltic and Rlack Seas, the seas o~ the I'ar East with more
~~recise esticnates of ttie biological productivity, first ot all, the dis-
- tribution of fishing organisms, their feeding base and pr~.mary production. -
The institutes of the Ministry of the Fishing Industry are doing a great . _
deal of work in this area. Its importance has increased especially in
connection with the claiming of the 200-mile economic zones by many coun- ,
. tries, as a result of which fishing in the open sea must be expanded sig-
- nif icantiy.
- Oceanology combines many sciences of the ocean. The interrelation and
mutual penetration of all of these sciences are characteristic. Biologists
~ cannot solve biol~gical problems of the ocean in isolation, physicists and
= mechanical engineers cannot develop the dyr~amics of ocean water, and
geologi.sts cannot study the structure of the ocean floor in isolation.
Al1 of the processes in the ocean are interconnected. For example, the -
_ structure of the sediments on the ocean floor arises directly from the
; dynamics of currents in the past, which the pnyslc~~t~ must define. The
- Uiolo~ical productivity of various parts of the ocean is connected with the
relief of the sea floor, currents, and the rising of deep water. The _
expPri.ments perf ormed several years ago by our biologists in the deep parts
of the Caribbean Sea demonstrated that endemic species of fish correspond ~
to the fauna of the Pacific Ocean. Consequently, some time in the past
tne Caribbean Sea was part of the Pacific Ocean and not the Atlantic as
it is now. This fact obviously follows also from analysis of the movements
of the lithospheric plates of this region. _
- The cooperation of representatives of almost all sciences in the ocean is
_ needed to solve any large-scale problem which the ocean poses for us.
The control of pollution of the ocean is a clear example. Chemists,
biolcgists, physicists, specialists in the f ield of maritime law, and so
on must work jointly on this problem.
. The commonness of the research method also unites representatives of .
various sciences of the ocean: in practice all studies are being performed _
= at the present time from a ship. The practice of specialized and complex
' expeditions has entirely justif ied itself. In a number of cases the
- participation of many ships directly in synchronous operations in the
test areas is highly expedient. Our scientists have a large number of
large research vessels ror long-term expeditions at sea. As a result of ~
the efforts of many scientists in recent years various summary publications -
have appeared the multivolume monograph on the Paci~ic Ocean, the
Atlas of the World Ocean, from which the volume on the "Pacific Ocean"
has already been printed; in the near future a volume will appear devoted
to the Atlantic and Ir.dian Oceans; the O~eaiiology Tnstitute is completing
the preparation of the multivolume monograph "Oceanology."
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The new , highly prospective~method of studying the c~cean from artificial
satellites and �rom manned or orbital stations must also be used ~omplexly
by representatives of various sciences. In particular, tl~is meLhod can
_ provide information about the state of surface water, the upper layers of
the ocean and also the atmosphere above the ocean immediately over .
enormous bodies of water. Specialists from the world data gathering centers,
_ collecting all of the information about the state of the ocean water and
the air masses in the atmosphere confirm that the volume of current -
. information about the state of the oceans is still a Lhousand times less
_ than about the atmosphere. Only satellite oceanography can eliminate this
gap.
Satellite oceanography can determine by a number of attributes the zones -
of increased biological productivity in the ocean, it can find points of
accumulation of f ish, and so on. It can also provide exceptionally valuable
data for understanding the geological structure of the ocean floor in the
shelf zones.
- The means of penetration of man to the depths of the ocean intensively
' developed at ':he p?-,.sent time (manned underwater stations, remotely con-
trolled autonomous stations, robots) will be useful for all sciences of
the ocean, especially. when assimilating the resources of the World Ocean.
_ Frcm what has been stated it is obvious that oceanology is a federation of
~cier!.ces the physics of the ocean, biology, geology, chemistry,
engin~3ering which can be successfully developed only with close inter- -
= action among each other although it is clear that each part of this federa-
tion has its own specific methods and means of investigation, the develop- ~
~ ment of oahich must also be supported in every possible way.
Collectives of many well-known research institutes of the USSR are working
on the solution of the broad class of problems of understanding the oceans. _
~ Among them are the Institute of Oceanology imeni P. P. Shirshov of the
USSR Academy of Sciences, the Geology Institute of the USSR Academy of
Sciences, the Pacific Ocean Oceanological Institute and the Institute of
- Biology of the Sea of the DBNTs of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the
Marine Hydrophysics .Institute and the Institute of Biology of the Soutl~ern _
Seas of the Ul:rainian SSR Academy of Sciences and also many other institutes
of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Ministry of the Fishing Industry, the
Ministry of Geol~gy, the State Committee of the USSR on Hydrometeoro].og}?
and Monitoring of the Natural Environment.
Soviet oceanologists are combining their efforts to fulfi.ll a goal of
- great importance to study the World Ocean as completely as possible in
order to create a scientific basis for using its resources �or the good
of the Soviet people and a11 mankitid.
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LARGE-SCALE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE OCEAN, THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE
CONTINENTS
Moscow USPEKHI SOVETSKOY OKEANOLOGII in Russian 1979 signed to press -
13 Apr 79 pp 13-25
J [Article by V. V. ShuleykinJ
- [Text] Divisions of physics of the ocean a~v~*ed to the study of large-
scale, mesoscale and small-scale intFractions between the ocean and
atm~sphere are noted in the officjal program of the First Congress of
= Soviet Oceanologists. After the word "Atmosphere" there is a period. This
is remarkable: as a rule, this is a problem of oceanologists. It is
- silently accepted that atmospheric phenomena above the continents must be _
an object of research only for specialists in atmospheric physics. On
their side, the specialists in atmospheric physics bearing responsibility -
- for improving the methods of forecasting the weather, elemental disasters
and climate variation, are forced to be satisfied with any random materials
characterizing the boundary conditions on the surface of the ocean when -
they integrate the differential equati.ans created by them.
~ As a result, in spite of the enormous work done by the founders of the _
hydrodynamic theory of long-range weather forecasting (Ye. N. Blinova, `
G. I. Marchuk, their followers and coworkers), these forecasts are contin- ~
uing to remain unsatisfactory.
A special section of the Resolutions of the 25th Congress of the CPSU -
points directly at this disastrous situation in the most important division =
- of modern geophysics.
This is the incentive ~or the author to write an article on large-scale
interaction between the ocean, atmosphere and the continents on which
- the lif e and activity o� man take place and the vi.cinity of which is often ~
- aggravated by storms in the ocean.
I state c~tegorically that it has long been time to provide an exact
solution to the problems of the physical roots of the climate and weather
which were stated or solved in the first approximation many years ago -
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and which up to the present time remain outside t}~e tradltional methods of
Eorecasters. These are the problems of the operation of heat machines oE
_ the second type in the atmosphere above the ocean and continents for which
- the surface water of the oceans and seas serves as a heater during the ~
cold part of the year and the continents as coolers. In the warm rart of
the year the heaters and coolers change place (with the exception of tt~e
regions of Antarctica and Greenland).
Beginning with the basic work of Ye. N. Blinova, who studied the dynamics
- of zonal atmospheric circulation and the "centers of activity" beginning
with the given temperature distribution of the underlying surface, the ~
main argument in the hydrodynamic equations of the forecasters is the
_ circulation index which depends in turn on the thermal conditions on the
underlying surface. However, these thermal conditions themselves are
created not only (and of ten not so much) by the operation of the f irst type
of heat machines (with heaters in the tropical and equatorial zones and -
- coolers in the high latitudes), but also by the operation of the second _
- type machines. Their roles are the subject of this article.
- The seasonal�interchange of heaters and coolers leads to interchange of
the monsoon seasons known to man since time immemorial. A summer monsoon
- in countries with a sultry summer was well known. The winter monsoon was
= faintly expressed there. However, why has so little attention been
=~~tracted by the winter monsoon in countries where the winter is es~ecially
severe and where the summer monsoon is weakly expressed?
The proposed map (Fig 1) compiled by Pl. L. Byzova and T. V. Bonchkovskaya -
at the Ma.rine Hydrophysics Institute gives a quantitative characteristic
- of the moonsoon activity in the countries of the ancient world.
= Above the areas indicated in red, orange and yellow on the map excessive '
masses of air are concentrated by comparison with the warm part of the
year. Above the areas in blue and light blue, there is a decreased quantity
of air: it is transferred from the ocean to the continents. The numbers
pl.aced next to the isolir~es indicate what the excess or deficiency of the
air is above the corresponding points of the ~ontinent and the ocean (in
- hundreds of t.on/hectare). Taken altogether 5�1012 tons of air are carried
into the territory of Europe and Asia. '
- A type of "twin-peaked ridge" is clearly visible on the map in the south
and southeast, that is, where there is a po~erful summer monsoon caused
by strong overheating of the continent. The power�ul "ridge" above our
country is just as clearly obvious. Undoubtedly, it originates from the
winter monsoon, the power of which arises from the sharp cooling of the
air above the continent.
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However, the continents are arranged asymmetrically on our planet wi~h
respect to its axis of rotation. Therefore, tl~e seasonal displacement of
= the air masses from the ocean to the continents and back causes continuous
_ wandering of the axis of rotation of the earth: this ~xiG ~e~cribes cones
- with respect to the average position taken as the geographic a~:is o� the
planet. Correspondingly, the North and South Poles of the esrtll move
along complpx narrow trajectories around the geograpliic pole~. Using the
Euler equations for a freely rotating body, N. L. Byzova calculated
this trajectory for the motion of the true North Pole for the first time -
for the time from January 1907 to January 1909. This curve is highly
_ compatible with the actual trajectory of the North Pole determined by -
A. Ya. Orlov on the basis of observations of an entire network of astronomi- -
_ cal observatories of the variations in latitude of the observatory loca-
tions.
The contrastsbetween the ocean and the,continent are especially clearly
seen on the diagrams constructed as applied to a section of the shoreline
_ directed exactly along the meridian (the Bay of Biscay). Tracing the ~
variations of the temperature gradient with respect to the normal to the
shore during various months at various altitudes above sea level, we dis-
~ cover that the amplitudes of the seasonal variations of the gradients are
the largest at sea level. The temperature wave is propagated somehow
_ upward. It is noteworthy that at an altitude of about 4 km the gradients
in January and in July are identical both with respect to modulus and with
_ respect to sign. Then at an altitude of 1~0 to 13 km the temperature
~ gradient the year around is directed from the continent to the ocean. This
= means that the layer at 4 km is the active layer in the second type machines,
- and third type machines operates above 10 to 13 lan. -
An analogous diagram constructed for atmospheric pressure gradients supple- `
ments our iddas of the seasonal variations of the contrast between the
atmospheric conditions above the ocean and above the continent.
What do these contrasts lead to? The results of their effect on the climate
_ of the continents find refTection on the maps of the temperature isanomals
_ constructed, for example, for January and July, If the thermal conditiuns
of the atmosphere over the Eurasian continent were created only by zonal
fluxes directed from west to east, the minimum air temperature in January
- would be observed in the Far East and then it would decrease constantly on -
going along the meridians to the north. In reality, the minimum tempera-
ture is at the Asian "pole of cold" near Verkhoyansk. This means that
the heat comes to the continent from the ocean not only from the west, but 6
~ also from the east and even from the north, from the Arctic Sea. Analogously,
in July the greatest heating is observed deep in Asia, far from the sea
_ coast, playing the role of a cooler at this time. ~
In the ordinary ~~roblems of thermal pnysics, knowing the isotherm field
and the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the medium it is possible
~ 13
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_ to calculate the thermal fluxes penetrating the medium and the quantity of ~
heat released at one point or another of the field. ~ntirely analogously, _
knowing the temperature isanomal field and the heat transfer coeff icient
- in this field it is possible to calculate the heat �luxes in the
- atmospt~ere from the ocean to the continent or in the opposite direction.
It is possible also to calculate the quantity of heat releasPd by the
- fluxes in a column of air per unit of underlying surface and extending up-
ward to the boundar~ of the active layer. ~de made such ca;culations in
their time as applied to the vicinities of Leningrad: the quantity of _
heat released per unit column of air near the city of Pavlovsk by fluxes
from the Atlantic Ocean during one month or another was determined. Ttie
quantity of heat released by the fluxes along the meridian from the south -
_ was also calculated. The points obtained on the basis of direct observa-
tions of the Pavlovsk Aerological Observatory (the residual term of the
- radiation heat balance of the atmosphere having a negative sign) fit
excellently near the summary curve calculated by our theory.
Knowing the quantity of heat released by the fluxes from the ocean ~o the
continent and assuming that the influx of heat from the ocean to such
sections of the continent as the vicinity of Verkhoyansk in the central
part of the Sahara is entirely absent, it is possible to calculate what -
the air temperature distribution would be along the meridians (from the
equatorto the pole) if our planet had no oceans and seas at all.
~
It is of interest that when the results of our calculations were first
published in 1949 they were met with skepticism on the part of the -
meteorologists. It was claimed that cold of near -80� was unthinkable in
the winter in Antarctica. This was motivated by the fact that at the -
North Pole it is appreciably warmer in the winter. It was forgotten that
air at the North Pole is heated more by the heat fluxes coming from the
ocean across the ice cover than by the fluxes which run along the meridian
from the south. In Antarctica this is not the ca~e. As is known, after
the beginning of operations of the stations in Antarctica in 1957 it was
established that the air temperature there can drop even below -80�. _
_ On the basis of what has bee~1 stated, the idea arises of absolute air
temperature anomalies: if the heat from the ocean does not reach the -
_ pole of cold in Antarctica at all and a negatively small amount reaches
_ the Asian pole of cold and also the center of the Sahara, then it is -
- possible to stipulate that the air temperature at these points be considered
normal for the planet entirely free of the water shell. Then for all -
points of the earth's surface it is possible to determine by the
climatological isanomal maps by how many degrees the air temperature at
these points is above the "purely dry land temperature." This characteris-
tic will be called the absolute *_emperature anomaly.
If we compare the maps of the temperature isanomals cons::ructed for -
~urope as applied to January and the maps of the climatological isobars
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cot~structed for it also for ti~e same month, then a striking similarity is
cleLectecl between these maps. They are almost alike. Wtiy almast? Because
~ the climatological isobars, following even the fine details in behavior -
of the isanomals, are less inclined to the parallels than the isanomals -
everywhere. Of c~urse, this is no accident. We aiscover the cause if we
consider any isobar intersecting an isanomal and constructed normals to =
- both curves at the intersection point. The gradient of the temperature '
anomaly is directed along one of them, and the atmospheric pressure gradient -
along the other (in the opposite direction). The direction of the latter
would be exactly opposite if it were created only by the temperature .
contrast between the ocean and the continent. In reality, the total
atmospheric pressure gradient is the geometric sum of two vectors: one of
them is directed exactly opposite to the temperature anomaly gradient, and ~
- the other, along the meridian to the north. In the regions of our counrry
which are especially subject to the thermal effect of the Atlantic Ocean
in the winter, the modulus of the first of the mentioned vectors exceeds
the modulus of the second vector (directed along the meridian). Hence, it _
follows that the pressure gradient controlling the monsoon circulation in
_ the active layer of the atmosphere plays a more significant role than the
vector controlling t.he zonal circu]:ation.
From the equation of state written as applied to the active layer of the
atmosphere in the winter monsoon field an approximate expression follows
which relates the pressure gradient to the temperature anomaly gradient: -
- grad p=-~r grad T. Here II is a constant which can be calculated, assuming
that the thickness of the active layer is equal to 4 km. Actually, n=1.6
- mb/deg. This expression is valid in the majority of continental regions. _
It is also applicable to the gradients characterizing the temperature and
pressure variations in time.
.
The joint analysis of the air temperature anomalies above the Atlantic
Ucean and above Europe gives very important results. A small section on
the surface of the ocean surrounded by the absolute temperature anomaly -
of 50� attracts attention. Thus, the air is sharply superheated here by
comparison with the temperature which would exist at the same latitude
(near 66�N) if there were no ocean. In order to discover the physical
- roots of this phenomenon we tried to calculate the temperature distribution _
theoretically along the Arctic Circle, being given a simplified model.
A thin imaginary circle was drawn in the active layer of the atmosphere
on which two alternate quadrants rested on the ocean surface, and the =
other two, on the surface of the dry land. In Fig 2 the thin curve
represents the result of analyzing the temperature conditions o~ the
atmosphere above two adjacent sections of the underlying sur�ace: above
= the ocean and above the dry land. In nature they encompass not 180�,
but 240� with respect to longitude along the Arctic Circle. The longi- -
- tudes are plotted on the x-axis. From point "12" to point "13" two
segments of cubic parabolas describe the temperature conditions of the
_ atmospherP above the ocean. From point "13" a segment of a stra.ight line =
15 -
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- also obtairied theoretically drops to the x-axis. After that another
segment of a straight line rises to the point "14." They characterize
the theoretically defined temperature conditions ~f the atmosphere above
the dry land. The values of the absolute temperature anomaly are plotted
- on the y-axis~ As has already been mentioned, it is considered that at
- ttie continental "pole of cold" the absolute temperature anomaly is equal _
to zero. Un the same figure the heavy curve is the actual air temperature
distribution in January along the Arctic Circle. It is constructed by -
_ the data from the Great Soviet Atlas of the World. The temperat~ire near
the Asian "pole of cold" was taken as zero.
~ r,rpad ~l~ �
, y -
SO ' �
3
' y0 Z I S .
~
!2 i 6 1J
30 1 I
~
~ _
~ ~
%'0
i ~ 10
~ -
!0 I
. I g
- W
~ 60 30 0 30 60 90 !ZO lSO~' ~ 2~ _
_ Figure 2. Section of the temperature isanomal field along the
Arctic Circle
- Key: -
1. T, degrees
2. a, degr~ees _
The stage at which the Arctic Circle passes across Greenland lies between =
point~"1" and "2." This causes the sharp peak downward; therefore the -
air temperature there is below that which would occur over the ocean.
_ OvEr the ocean temperature becomes equal to that theoretically calculate~
_ at point "3" and at another same point lying to the east of the sharply
expressed type "4." The peak "4" is extraordinarily interesting: it -
corresponds to a segment of the surface of the Atlantic Ocean surrounded
by the 50� isanomal which was mentioned above. Then the heavy curve drops
quickly as at point "5." The Arctic Circle enters the Scandinavian
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~ Peninsula. The small amount of warming between points "5" and "6" is
caused by the effect of the Baltic and White Seas, and after point "6"
the Arctic Circle goes to point "11" over the broad territory of Asia.
Here the deviations of the heavy curve from the f ine curve theoretically
calculated are explained by the relief of the terrain (the presence of
the Ural Mountains, and so on). Point "11" lies below the theoreti.cal
_ poin.t "1" because the thermal conditions of the Pacific Ocean are difFer-
ent ~rom tk?e conditions of the Atlantic Ocean: *_he winter temperatures of -
~ the ~urface water are significantly lower there.
It remains to explain the cause of the interesting deviation of the actual
air temperature distribution from the theoretically calculated at point _
"4" to find what causes the actuul center of heat that so sharply super-
heats the air in the region near the Scandinavian Peninsula.
This problem can be solved by the map presented in Fig 3. A family of
� isolines can be seen here indicating how much hpat the ocean gives up to
- the atmosphere as a result of turbulent heat e:xci~ange between the water
and the air at the given point. This amount cf h~pat depends on how many
degrees warmer the surface water is than the a:Lr an.~i also the wind velocity. _
_ The expeditionary materials permit calculation of ihe desired values with
suff icient reliability. The data by means of which it is possible to
calculate the quantity of heat picked up from the ocean as a result of
evaporation of the water and subsequently released in the atmosphere on
condensation of vapur in the clouds which then is transported to the -
- continent are less reliablF. However, it is possible to assume on the
average without large error that in the investigated region the heat
transferred to the atmosphere with thia condensation is 1.5 times more -
than the values which are characterized by the numbers placed on the iso- _
lines in Fig 3. This means that the total amount of heat can be obtained
by multiplying the numbers on the isolines by 2.5. In Fig 3 it is obvious
that the maximum heat removal (160x2.5=400 cal/cm2-day) takes place from
the section surrounded by the inside curve of the family of isolines. _
This section lies near to the one which is surrounded by the absolute _
temperature isanomal of 50�. The latter is shifted somewhat seaward for
the completely understandable reason of the effect of the cold air which
flows in the winter from the Scandinavian Peninsula toward the ocean.
Thus, the "center of heat" which manif ests itself when analyzing the
air temperature isanomal map over the Atlantic Ocean is created by the .
loss of a large amount of heat by the ocean to the atmosphere in this
section of the ocean surface. However, where did the ocean get this heat?
Fig 3 also answers this quest~,on. ~
The midstream of the North Atlantic Current which becomes the warm
Idorwegiar_ Current is plotted by the broken arrows in Fig 3.
As we see, the midstream runs precisely in the section outlined by the
"160" isoline in Fig 3, thar is, it runs through the center of the
"center of heat" on the ocean surface.
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Our calculations show that the most active region of the ocean surface
bounded by the "40" isoline on Fig 3 loses heat to the atmosphere which -
- in energy units is expressed as a heat flux power of 78 billion kilowatts.
It is unclcrstandable that not all of tl~is power goes tc~ the atmosPhc~r~
above Europe and, in particular, above osr country. About 55 billion
_ kilowatts goes to the Scandinavian Peninsula. Some part of this power is -
expended on radiation into interplanetary space, and about 50 billion
kilowatts in all probability reaches our borders. The calculations show
~ that this is approximately 1/4 of all the power received by our country
in the heat fluxes from the Atlantic Ocean.
- 73 70 63
o
~ ~
o
-s"' � : . ~ -
~o
0
40 ~ 1
_ ' ~ ~
~ '
. ~
I ' 1: ~
t . ' ` ~ _
160..
,
11
'1
170 ~
i 10~
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~ ~ bC
~ 11~
~
- � \
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1
= / _
6
~ ' ~O
30 ~
- ~
Figure 3. Heat picked up by the air as a result of turbulent ~
- exchange with the surface water of the ocean, in cal/cm2-day
19 '
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~ It is quite obvious what a decisive role is played by the variability of
all of these fluxes with respect to the long-range forecasting of the
- thermal conditions of the winter and the long-range forecasting of summer
drougtit. It is jiist as obvious that full-fledged long-range forecasts
will become possible oniy when the artificial separation of the two
divisions of the single physical-mathematical science geophysics
the separation of the physics of the atmosphere and the physics of the
= ocean, is eliminated.
The necessity for creating a united front of geophysical research is still
more persistently dictated by the fact that such problems as the problem
of the occurrence of the most severe cold during the thermobaric seiches
in the atmosphere over the continent and the ocean will remain incompletely
~ resolved for many years. A correct solution has not even been obtained
for the corresponding equations of thermal hydrodynamics describing the
nonlinear autooscillatory phenomena in the Coriolis force field. In 1940 ~
these autooscillatory phenomena created extremely serious conditions in
our country: the air temperature dropped in places by more than 30� by
- comparison to the average climatological norm. The approsimate theory of
thermobaric seiches was constructed in our country even earlier. It was
demonstrated that they led to highly regular air temperatur.e fluctuations i
above the Atlantic Ocean and over Europe which were first described by
the Swedish geophysicist Sandstrom, and he mapped them in 36 "frames" as
' applied to the various wind directions in Lofoten. Sandstrbm~proposed that
such variability of the temperature f ield of the ocean and above the
- continent (in opposite phask.s) is caused by certain hypothetical f luctua-
tions in the condi+tions of the Gulf Stream and that the wind direction
serves as a type of indicator of such phenomena. In reality, it turned
- out that there are no fluctuations of the conditions of the currents with
the corresponding period (about 8 days), and we are dealing with a genuine
- autooscillatory proc:ess in the atmosphere over the Atlantic Ocean and
- Europe. The atmospheric pressure fluctuates together with the temperature.
The amplitude of the pressure oscillations is relat~d to the amplitude of
the temperature oscillations by the same expression which was mentioned
above. Even the numerical value of the constant lI turned out to be approx-
imately the same. Hence, it follows that there should be no apprehension
about closing the system of equations of thermal hydrodyna.mics by the
mentioned approximate relation between the gradients. It is hardly possible
- to avoid it when trying to close the system.
~ The changes in wind direction at Lofoten taken ~y Sandstrbm as variation of
- some argument naturally occurred in complete agreement with the phase
- variation during the temperature fluctuations, for they were created by
regular variations in the baric field over the ocean and over the continent.
The integration of our approximate equations in Bessel functions led to the
- family of isalotherms closely resembling the family of curves in the
Sandstrom "frames."
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lde wer~~ not able analytically t~ consider the eff ect of the Coriolis
forces, but it was established that this effect causes reciprocal varia-
tions of the temperature f ield and, consequently, ttie baric field: on ~
tl~e one hand, antinodes and nodal lines occur during te.znpera.ture and
pressure fluctuations; on the other hand, the entire set of the antinodes
and nodal lines rotates counterclockwise around some point located at the.
Atlantic-Europe boundary.
Subsequently it was established that sin~ultaneously with the general
fluctuations in the broad Atlantic-Europe system partial seiches occur in
tlie territory of Europe itself and, in particular, in the territory of our
country. They resemble the Chladni figures observed during vibrations of
thin elastic plates. The oscillation period is equal everywhere to the
period of the general fluctuations in the entire broad system. The nodal
lines and antinodes rotate everywhere around certain points of the terri-
tory and always counterc.lockwise. -
A very long "train" of thermobaric seiches also leading to extraordinarily
severe cold was observed f rom 15 November 1965 to 15 February 1966. -
S. IC. Olevinskaya an.alyzed 11 successive waves occurring during this
3-month period. The average value of the oscillation period was also
about 8 days. The ratio of the amplitude of the pressure fluctuations to
the amplitude of the temperature fluctuations was 1.5 mb/deg, that is,
it was very close to II=1.6. The antinodes and the nodal lines at that time
- rotated counterclockwise around a point lying in the region between
_ Perm' and Syktyvkar. -
~ General thermobaric seiches were also observed simultaneously in the
_ Atlantic-Europe system. The temperature fluctuations (in opposite phases)
in Kursk and in Reykjavik (Iceland) had the greatest amplitudes. The -
- pressure oscillations, as always, occurred in phases opposite to tr~e
temperature fluctuations. The amplitude ratio turned out to be the same,
close to the theoretical value of II. The long-�awaited completion of the
theoretical work on th~ thermobaric seiches undoubtedly will be helped by
analyzing the results also obtained very long ag~ by N. L. Byzova in
Katsivel'. She discovered autooscillatory phenomena in the thermal convec- ~
tion fluxes which were created in a laboratory water trough. The
experiments were set up to simulate another, also important and interesting
phenomenon: the May cold periods occurring when the winter monsoon season
is replaced by the summer monsoon season and the so-called "baby summer"
a short term warming occurring on replacement of the summer monsoon
season by the winter monsoon season.
After the first quantitative i.nvestiga~i.on of these phenomena by the -
- Czechoslovakian geophysicist N. Konchek, a comprehensive analysis_of -
thermobaric seiches at the change o~ seasons was performed by Z. I. Gavrilova
= as applied not only to our country, but also to Western Europe. Tn
essence, on changing of the monsoon seasons the fluctuations occur for
the same reasons as for changes in the conditions in other systems connected
- with the movement of inert masses. All forms of thermobaric seiches
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arise because the heat is transferred from the ocean to the continent not
by moleculax thermal conductivity and even not so much by turbulent t~eat =
transfer, but by advection of inert air masses.
The large-scale interactions between th~ ocean, t?~e atmosphere and th.e
continent are exhibit~d ~n the purest form in Australia. Gn the one hand,
this continent lies at the interface between the region of West-East
transfer of air masses and the Trade jdinds region, and therefore, in -
- practice the air circulation over Australia is connected only with contrasts
- between the ocean and the continent. On the other hand, the shape of the
coastline of Australia and the structure of its surface are very simple.
~ Therefore, the general picture of the thermobaric field above Australia
- and around it is also simple: both the temperature isanomals and the
- climatological isobars follow the coastline of the continent to a suff icient _
- degree. The relation between the pressure and temperature anomaly gradients
is satisf ied well: II=1.5 mb/deg. The actual temperature conditions of
Australia agree well with the theoretically calculated conditions.
- Divergence is observed only deep in the territory of the continent where
the winter temperature turns out to be much higher than calculated.
The basic complications of the monsoon field occur where the coast line
differs from a smooth running line: where some large island has a sharply
elongated shape or where sharp-pointed peninsulas or capes protrude into
the s ea..
It is theoretically possible to calculate the increase in the temperature
and pressure gradients opposite the ends of an island having the shape of =
- an ellipse with large eccentricities. The gradients opposite the ends of
the major axis in this case are as many times larger than the gradients
opposite the ends of the minor ax:.s as the major axis is longer than the
minor axis. The increase in gradient opposite a cape of parabolic shape
was quite precisely determined by Ya. I. Sekerzh-Zen'kovich, who also
confirmed the validity of our calculations for an elliptical island.
If the curvature of the coast line at the end of a peninsula or ~ape is
especially large, then the complex equation of the thermobaric monsoon field _
can be replaced by a Laplace equation with sufficient approximation. This -
opens up the way to a simple electrical simulation of the monsoon field, _
for example, to discover the causes of the extraordinary intensification ,
- of the monsoon storms opposite Cape Horn. We performed this simulation
and obtained interesting results.
The origin of the severe storms opposite the Cape of Good Hope whi.ch was _
_ called Cape Storm in ancient times, opposi.te Cape Lopatka in Kamchatka,
Cape Farvel (Greenland), Cape Zhelamiya (Novaya Zemlya), Cape Kanin =
Nos and other similar formations is the same.
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Theory indicates that in the i:erritory of the most sharply pointed capes ~
and peninsulas the temperature and pressure gradients must decrease near
_ the tip itself a nd on the midline of the peninsula. Herein lies the
basic cause of the type of "trough" seen on the air mass transfer net
= (see Fig 1) between two "peaks": rarefaction of the isobars ~ver the
- Industani Peninsula, the peninsulas of Malacca and In.do China decrease =
the amount of air on replacement of the summ~r monsoon sea;~on by the
winter monsoon season. -
- The physical essence of the well-known af ternoon summer storms (with a
- completely c].ear sky) on the shores of the Crimean and Black Seas where
the wind velocity often exceeds 25 m/sec and the Yalta harbor master denies
the steamships entry to the port is o~ great interest. Ye. I. and N. S.
' Potapovy demonstrated that this phenomenon is connected with sharp super-
heating of the air above the dry iand by comparison with the air over the
sea, and the greatest superheating occurs at 1400 hours and is accompanied
by a maxi.mum increase in wind velocity. We observed such a phenomenon
whi].e moored in Gibraltar. The events develop according to a standard
schedule. In the early morning there is a complete calm. About 8 or 9
o'clock a slight wind comes up which gradually intensifies and reaches
- maximum velocity at 1400 hours. This wind velocity gradually diminishes,
and a complete calm comes at night. This phetiomenon occurs still more
sharply on the west coast of Africa. On the one hand this is explained
by the fact that, f~r example, according to the navigational data, in the
vicinity of Port-Etienne the air temperature in the daytime can be 10�
higher than the night temperature, but primarily by another reason. The =
sharp fluctuations in the temperature conditions generate inertial oscilla-
tions in the signif icant layer of air with a period which, as is known,
depends on the latitude. At a latitude of 30� the period becomes equal
to exactly one day, that is, it coincides with the oscillation period in _
the thermobaric f ield. It is possible to demonstrate that a genuine hydro- _
_ d~namic resonance occurs in the summer months in fluxes leading to a -
_ si~;nificant increase in the oscillation amplitude~ of L'he wind velocities,
to the occurrence of a storm wind at the time of greatest superheating of ~
the air above the dry land. The intensification curves we constructed
i ~or the wind velocity component normal to the shore and the tangential
wind velocity componer.t demonstrated that even at the latitudes of the
soutli coast of the Crimean Sea, ourside the region of total resonance,
= the intensif ication of the wind must be significant. In addition, non-
coincidence of th~ period of the inertial oscillations with the period of -
the diurnal oscillations of the temperature conditions must cause beats -
with the period of which amounts to 3 days here. It is noteworthy that -
according to the observations-of local seamen and fishermen, storms of
- this t_ype stop either after 3 days, or after 6 days, or 9 days, that is,
_ at the nodes created by the beats.
The storms of described origin play a decisive role in the formation of "
- the Canary Current the typical, powerful surging current bringing up
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deep cold water to th~ surface of the ocean. In the southern hemisphere
the resonance in the summer monsoon fluxes must intensify still more the
storms off the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn arising, as was pointed
- above, as a result of peculiarities in ~he shape of the shoreline. These
capes are at a latitude which is only 5� from the "resonance" latitude. _
Wirhout a doubt the described effect influences ~'~e formation of the Bengel
~ Current and the Cape Horn Current.
~ i
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INTERACTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN
Moscow USPEKHI SOVETSKOY OKEANOLOGII in Russian 1979 signed to press
13 Apr 79 pp 26-34
- [Article by A. S. Monin]
[Text] The interaction of the atmosphere and ocean (IAO) is a grand,
majestic natural phenomenon playing a most important role both in the -
existence of the ocean and in the formation of many of the processes that -
develop in it and in the process of supplying the atmosphere with heat
and moisture (heat primarily in the form of the latent heat of vaporiza-
tion together with the evaporative moisture), leading, in partic.ular, to
the formation of atmospheric phenomena with the greatest concentrations -
of energy hurricanes and typhoons and the formation of long-range -
weather and climatic anomalies.
Tt is expedient to distinguish the small-scale (local) and large-scale
_ (~lobal) IAO processes. The local IAO consists first of all in the
excha�ge of momentum, heat and moisture through the free surface of the -
_ ocean (an important, but somewhat lesser role is also played by gas -
- exchange, primari]_y c3rbon dioxide and oxygen, and also the transfer of
sea salt from the ocean to the atmosphere and the deposition of aerosols
from the atmosphere in the ocean). A quantitative description of these
processes~is obtair~ed from the coefficients of resistance CT, heat exchange
Cq and evaporatior,i C~ first introduced by V. Shuleykin in 1928 and _
def ined by the following formulas
- s q E ~1
Cr = Fu2 ' Ce CnpubT ; CE = pubQ ' 1
where T, q, E are the vertical ~luxes o� momentum, heat and moisture
at the ocean surface (T is also call.ed the frictional stress, and E is
called the evaporation rate i.f the mo~.sture i~ transferred from the
ocean to the atmosphere); CP and p are the specific heat capacity at
constant pressure and air density respectively; u is the wind velocity
(at the ship mast level, about 10 meters); dT is the difference between
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the surface temperature of the water and the air temperature (~t the
- ship mast level); 8Q is the difference between th.e specific ;aturation
- moisture of the air at the surfacF~ temperature of the ocean and the
actual specific humidity of the air (at the ship mast leve].) . Ttie
standard values of ttie coefficients of local IAO (1) are taken equal to
2�10-3, but these coefficients obviously increase with an increase in wind
velocity. Accordi.ng to certain data, the resistance coef�icient CT
increases linearly, *_hat is, according to tne law CT=CTQ (l+bu) where
b=(10 m/sec)'1. Cq and CE increase still more rapidly with an increase
in u.
If, in addition, we consider that strong winds are encountered noticeably
more frequently than would occur in the case of gaussian probability
distribution for the wind velocity vector, then it becomes clear that the
- primary contribution to the exchange of momentum, heat and moisture
bet~aeen the atmosphere and ocean is made by storm regions. This is con-
firmed by the available few data for measuring the fluxes q and E(for '
_ example, the data of ri. Garstang 1965). Here the situation turns out to =
be analogous to the situation with variations in bottom relief in the
coastal zone of the sea, negllgibly small in calm weather and significant
_ only during several of the biggest storms of the year. From this point of
view the interesting result obtained by G. I, ria.rchuk in 1977 beco,r~es
understandable. As a result of numerical integration of the so-called _
conjubate equations of hydrodynamics, he established that the regions of
long-term influence on the weather in the territory of the USSR are the
_ regions of the tropical hurricanes in the Caribbean Sea and the typhoons
of the western tropical zones of the Pacific Ocean.
The vertical f].uxes of momentum, heat and moisture formed during the local
~ IAO processes together with the quasiconatant "buoyancy parameter" (that
is, the product of the gravitational acceleration times the coeff icient of
expansion of the air characterizing the magnitude of the Archimedes forces)
- determine the structure of the layer of air just above the surfar_e of the _
ocean. The similaritv theory haRP~ ~n rh~G nroposition for the layer of
_ the atmosphere next to the ground was developed by A. M. Obukhov and
the author of this article in 1953, and then it became the basis for
interpretation of ineteorological data on the ground layer of air under
various conditions of its temperature stratif ication. From the point of
- view of the similarity theory the layer of air next to the water differs
from the ground layer only very little (namely, by the possibility of the
formation of dri~t currents and therefore another boundary condition for
_ the wind velocity instead o~ the condition of adhesion to solid walls and
_ also some inverse eff ect of the waves on the water surface on the movement
of the air over them). The similarity theory permits calculations of the
basic characteristics o~ the 1oca1 TAO by the data from standard meteorolog-
ical measurements of the wind velocity a_nd the vertical temperature and ~
moisture differences in the layer of che air next to the water; special -
nomograms were constructed for these calculations.
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The similarity theory For thP layer of air next to the water can be
expanded so that it will encompass the entire atmospheric boundary layer
- (ABL). For this purpose, it is necessary to add the thickness of the
ABL to the set oF defining parameters of similarity theory or in the case
of stationary and horizontally uniform (SHU) ABL (this SHU-ABL is called -
the Eckman boundary layer, EBL), the Coriolis parameter f determining its
thickness h~(T/p)1/2f'1. This similarity theory was f irst proposed for _
the ~BL by the author of this article in 1950, and then he developed it
in a number of papers jointly with A. B. Kazamskiy and S. S. Zilitinkevich.
The effe~ts of the local IAO determined both the structure of the ABL and
the analogous structure of the upper mixed layer of the ocean (IJML). In
this last case the defining parameters of similarity theory are the vertical
fluxes of the momentum, heat and salt and also the buoyancy parameter and
the Coriolis parameter (in the dynamic theory, one of the most important
additional values turns out to be the vertical turbulent energy flux).
- The similarity of the temperature and salinity profiles in the UrII., was
established by S. A. Kitaygorodskiy in 1960. The semi-empirical dynamic
theories of UML are devoted both to its structure and to the synoptic and
seasonal variations of its thickness and also the magnitude of the density
discontinuity in the discontinuity Zayer forming the lower boundary of the
UML.
One of the most important problems of the theory of the UNII., is the descrip-
tion of the wind-driven waves their generation, the distribution of
the fluxes of momentum and kinetic energy coming from the atmosphere -
- between the wind-driven and internal waves and the drift currents, the
breaking of tYee surface waves and the generation of dynamic turbulence by
them creating (together with the normal turbulence, that is, convection) -
mixing of the UNII~ and at the same time determining the thickness of the UMI.
and its synoptic and seasonal variations. All of these problems have been -
_ far from completely resolved. In particular, precision experiments have
= demonstrated that the elegant theories of wind-driven wave generation of
0. Phillips and J. Miles are still inadequate, for they lower (by an order)
_ the growth rates of the wind-driven waves; the proposals of M. M. Zaslavskiy
_ and S. A. Kitaygorodskiy to define the theory more precisely considering
the random nature of the turbulent wind velocity prof iles in the layer of -
air next to the water are still not constructive. Among the new
approaches, the numerical experiments of D. V. Chalikov in the generation
- of wind-driven waves deserve mentioning.
- Summing with respect to areas and time, the effects of the local IAO lead
to the formation of a number of global processes in the ocean and atmosphere. -
One of the most practically ituportant (above all for agriculture) processes '
of global IAO are long-range weather anomalies. Here, above all, it is
_ necessary to mention the anomalies studied in the series of papers by
V. V. Shuleykin created by the processes of the type of thermobaric seiches
in the atmosphere. Let us also note the arguments of the authors (1963)
that the most important initial field for long-range weather forecasting
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_ is the water surface temperature field in the world oceans; here even
highly sibnificant heat content anomlies of the upper layers of the ocean -
can correspond to the small anomalies of the water sur�ace temperature
field as was indicated by V. G. Kort according to the data of many years
- of observations in one of the sections through Kuroshio.
The E1 Nino phenomenon studied by J. Bjerknes (1966) can serve as a clear
example of the large-scale IAO process. It consists in attenuation of the
- easterly winds of the eastern part of the equatorial zone of the Pacific _
Ocean (on the southeastern periphery of the I~awaiian anticyclone); a
consequence of this turns out to be attenuation of the equatorial rise of _
cold water (upwelling), the heatin~; of the upper layer of the ocean and
thPn the atmosphere above it, intensification of the Trade Winds circula-
tion, and after it the west-east transf er in the temperate latitudes and
deepening of the Aleutian cyclone. This phenomenon is among the elemental
= disasters, for weakening of the upwelling leads to mass destruction of fish
- and a sharp reduction in the anchovy fishing. In the Atlantic at the same
time the west-east transfer is attenuated in the temperate latitudes, the
Iceland minimum is filled out, the easterly winds to the north of Iceland
are attenuated, and the Arctic turns out to be under the effect of the _
~ anticyclone in the northern part of Alaska. Thus, this process encompasses
- the entire northern hemisphere,
The globnl IAO is one of the most important factors of climate fo.rmation
_ (defined as the statistical set of states which the atmosphere-ocean-
dryland system goes through during time periods of several decades; until
not so~long ago the climate determination included the state o� only the
ground layer of the air; at the present time it has become clear that it
is necessary to take the entire atmosphere and the ocean in their inter-
- action and also the active layer of the underlying surface on the dryland). -
- Let us note that the maps of climate types are not strictly zonal. On `
- them,of course, d,ifferences are manifested between the continents and the
- oceans (the criterion of importance of these differences can be the rota-
, tional mach number Ma=wR/C, where w is the angular velocity of rotation of
the planet, R is its radius and C is the speed of sound in its atmosphere;
for large Ma, the eff ect of latitudinal zonality predominates; for small
Ma, the difference between the day and night sides of the planet predomi.nates;
on the earth Ma~1.4, and the nonzonal effects of the differences between -
the continents and the oceans are comparable to the effects of latitudinal _
~zonality).
From the point of view of the e�fect on the atmosphere, the oceans dif~er
from the continents prinia.rily by their thermal properties much greater -
thermal conductivity (in the oceans this is turbulent thermal conductivity) -
and tieat capacity, and therefore also thermal inertia, which smooths out -
- the short-period and temperature fluctuations (includin~ diurnal ar~d
seasonal). For this reason, by comparison with the oceans, the continents -
are cooled much more in the winter and are heated more in the summer and, -
- consequently, in the winter they turn out to be colder than the oceans,
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_ and in~the summer, warmer than the oceans. Thus, in addition to the
_ average annual temperature contrasts between the equator and the poles and
the atmospheric and ocean circulation in the lower atmosphere created by
_ them (trying to smooth them), seasonal (changing sign from winter to
summer) temperature contrasts between the continents and oceans and ~the
seasonal circulations created by them (trying to smouth them) which are
called monsoons also arise. In the seasonal fluctuations the most sharply
manifested is the difference between the continents where the amplitudes
' and seasonal temperature fluctuations of the ground layer and the air are
_ very large, and the oceans where these amplitudes are small so that on the -
map of these amplitudes (see the figure) the distribution of the dryland
- and the ~ea is obvious even without indicating the shorelines. -
_ In addition to the differences in the thermal conductivity and the heat
= capacity, on the average there is some difference between the oceans and
the continents also with respect to their aapacity to reflect the short
wave solar radiati.on. Satellite maps of the albedo indicate that along
with the general increase in albedo from the equator to the poles, an
_ increase in albedo from the oceans to the continents is also noticeable
on the same latitude so that for this reason the continents must be some-
what colder than the oceans on the average for the year. Let us note that
some interyear variability of the planetary albedo map is observed; this ~
- is one of the sources of the long range weather fluctuations and, possibly,
climate variations.
The seasonal temperature differences between the oceans and the continents
are demonstrated by the maps of the average monthly temperatures at~ sea -
level; the regions of greatest cold in Antarctica, Yakutia, Northern
Canada and Greenland attract attention on the winter maps, and on the summer '
maps, the regions of greatest heat in the subtropical deserts of Africa,
Southern Asia and Mexico. The monsoon effects are clearly seen on the -
- average monthly atmospheric pressure maps at sea level; quasipermanent
subtropical high pressure regions are visible on the oceans of these maps,
intensifying from winter to summer (in the northern hemisphere, the Azores
and Honolulu, and the southern hemisphere, St. Helena, Mauritius and the
- South Pacific Ocean high pressure regions), and low pressure regions located
closer to the poles and intensifying from sumnier to winter (in the northern
hemisphere, Icelandic and Aleutian; in the summer hemisphere, Circumantarctic); -
winter high pressure regions are visible on th~ continents (in Siberia,
Canada, South Africa and Australia) replaced in the summer by regions of
_ reduced pressure. On the global map of the annual precipitation totals,
the humid zone of the intertropical convergence zone and the arid zones of
the subtropical deserts are well expressed, and ~.t is possible to trace
the trends toward an increase in precipitation from tl-~e subtropics to the
temperature latitudes, from the continents to the oceans and also in the
coastal areas of the monsoon regions and on the windward (primarily western)
" slopes of mountains.
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30
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In the description of the climate of the ocean significant progress was
made by V. N. Stepanov (1974). Let us present some of the zonal
characteristics of ocean climate obtained by him. The thermal budget of
- the ocean is positive (the ocean is heated) in the tropical zone between
= 30� north latitude and 15� south latitude and it is negative (the ocean
is cooled) outside this zone; the greatest positive budget to 80-100
kcal/cm2-year is observed in thz equatorial zone of the Pacific Ocean;
the greatest negative budget to 75-100 kcal/cm2-year in the Gulf
Stream and Kuroshio zones. The average zonal surface temperatures of the
ocean for the year in the tropical zone exceed 25�, reaching a maximum of
27.4� somewhat north of the equator, and at temperature latitudes they
quickly decrease in the direction of the poles, passing through zero in
the 60-65� south latitude zone and the 70-75� north latitude zone. Ttie "
average temperature of the entire body of water of the World Ocean (with-
out the Arctic basin) is 5.7�C.
The water budget of the ocean is positive (there is more precipitation
than evaporation) in the equatorial zone between 10� north latitude and
5� south latitude and in the temperature latitudes; it is negative (evap-
oration exceeds precipitation) in the tropics and subtropics; the greatest
positive budget - to 150-200 g/cm2-year is observed in the western -
part of the equatorial zone of the Pacific Ocean; the greatest negative
budget - to 150 g/cm2-year is observed in the subtropics, especially -
in the Atlantic. The salinity of the surface water of the ocean is maximal
in subtropics (35.75 parts per thousand in the 30-25� north latitude and -
20-25� south latitude zones). It has a partial minimum in the equatorial
_ zone (34.43 parts per thousand in the 10-5� north latitude zone) and
decreases toward the poles in temperature latitudes, passing through _
_ 35 parts per thousand at latitudes of about +40� and dropping to 33.5 -
parts per thousand and lower in the Antarctic and to 31-30 parts per
thousand in tlhe Arctic. The average salinity of the entire body of water
- ~f the World Ocean is 34.71 parts per thousand.
The density of sea water which is conveniently measured in units of -
Qt=1000 (p-1) on the Qcean surface is minimal in the equatorial zone
_ (22.18 in the 10-5� north latitude zone), and it increases toward the poles:
- to 27.30 in Antarctica, to 26.16 at 55-60� north latitude and then at
_ higher latitudes of the Arctic it decreases to 24.55. The quasistationary
ctsrrents on the surface of the ocean obviously have wind origin; their
average velocities are 12-20 cm/sec. The tides created by them and also
the thermochalinic expansion and compression of the water create deflections 4_
of the ocean surface from the equilibrium geoid level on the order of `
= decimeters; the greatest deflections upward are noted on the wPStern
= peripheries of the oceans, especially ir~ the subtropics, and the down- _
~ ward, in the polar regions. A contribution to the mo~~ement of the ocean -
water comparable to the quasiscationary currents is made by the synoptic
eddies with horizontal scales on the order af 102 km and time scales on
the order of months.
31 -
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The global IAO makes a contribution both to climate formation and to _
_ generation of a number of processes of climate variations. This is most
clearly obvious in the example of climate f luctuations with periods of
teL1s and hundreds of years observed in historical time. Thus, the climatic
warming of the first half of the 20th century according to the data of
J. Mitchell in 1963 occurred in the oceans and on the continents; con-
versely, at that time there was a minor cooling. The "small ice age"
of the 17th to 19th centuries, according to the propositions of J. Bjerknes
- (1965) can be explained by the positive feedback between the development of
negative temperature anomalies of thc AtlantiC water in the vicinity of
- Iceland and the positive anomalies in the Sargasso Sea on the one hand, _
and weaker.ing of the winter atmospheric circulation in the temperate _
latitudes of the Atlantic as a result of weakening of the IAO, on the other
hand (the development of this process at some Ievel is curtailed as a
result of the appearance of negative feedback with meridional heat trans-
~
fer by these ocean currents).
_ The alternations of glacial periods with grand continental glacial shields
and interglacial periods when these shields in practice completely melted
noted in the Pleistocene and having periods on the order of 20,000 to -
].00,000 years duri~?g this age (analogous interchange obviously occurred
' also in the Permian-Carboniferous and still earlier ice ages of the Wendian,
_ the Upper Riphean and Lower Proterozoic) according to M. Milankovich can
be exp].ained as resonance intensified forced oscillations created by
astronomical oscillations of the elements of the earth`s orbit and inclina-
tion of the equator to ecliptic. Direct evidence in f avor of this explana-
tion (astronomical periods in the climatic indicator spectra) not available
- in the paper by J. Hayes, J. Imbry and N. Shackleton, 1976.
- During the warmgeological ages the resonance intensification of astronom-
_ ically forced climate variations did not occur, and these variations =
remained negligibly small, for at their minima the climatic background =
_ still remained so warm that the continental glacial shields did not form.
_ In this system the variations (cooling and warming) of the climatic ba~k-
- ground of the geological ages with time scales on the order of 10$ years
still require explanation. The qualitative variations of the global �
IAO with variations of the configurations of the oceans and continents -
(and the poles) as a result of movement of the continent can serve as
such an explanation,
The quantitative theories of global IAO can be constructed on the basis
of certain physical-mathematical models of the atmosphere and oce~n in
- their interaction (or, more completely, the entire atmosphere-ocean-
dryland system). Among the various possible classifications of such models,
here we shall indicate their division into small-parametric (nonhydrodynamic, _
models with lumped parameters) and multiparametric (hydrodynamic). ~
32
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_ The f irst of them cannot pretend to quantitative detail, but before
creating the superpowerful computers (which permit statement of statistical- _
hydrodynamic numerical experiments with multiparametric models) they can
offer a number of constructive results although, of course, a genuine
theory having approving power is provided only by the multiparametric
models.
The minimum number of parameters in the models of the first type must
include the average global temperatare of the air layer next to the ~aater
and the standard temperature difference between the equator and the poles.
Such models can be constructed by the example of similarity theory for
planetary atmospheric circulation developed by G. S. Golitsyn (1973) with
the addition of parameters characterizing the role of the oceans and the
continents. As an example we have the model constructed in the paper by
S. S. Zilitinkevich and the author of this article in 1976. Let us also
- indicate the model with lumped parameters of V. Ya. and S. Ya. Sergin
designed for the description of the interchangeability of the glacial
periods.
Now in various countries of the world several tens of inultiparametric
- models of the atmosphere have been constructed, but there are still only -
two genuine multiparametric models of the atmosphere-ocean-dryland system.
The first of them constructed by S. Manabe and K. Bryan in 1969 offered a
number of hopeful results. Its deficiencies include the assignment of
prescribed cloudiness (according to the climatic data) and artificia~
splicing of large time intervals in the ocean to small intervals in the
atmosphere. These deficiencies have been corrected in the model, the
development of which was completed in 1976 at the Leningrad Division of
the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences by -
D. V. Chalikov with the participation of V. G, Turikov, S. S. Zilitinkevich
and the author of this article. A further development of the models of
- this type must create a basis both for long-range weather forecasting and
climate theory.
33 ~
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SYNOPTIC EDDIES IN THE OCEAN (A SURVEY OF EXPERIMENTAL RES~ARCH)
Moscow USPEKHI SOVETSKOY OKEANOLOGII i.n Russian 1979 signed to press
13 Apr 79 pp 35-49
[Article by M. N. Koshlyakov, L. M. Fomin]
[Text] By the "synoptic ocean eddies" we mean the nonstationary disturbances
- of the ocean circulation with horizontal scale on the order of the Rossby
scalP [Rossby, 1937-1938] R=Nh�f-1, where f is the Coriolis parameter,
h is the thickness of the baroclinic layer in the ocean and N is the
average Vais~la frequency with respect to the baroclinic layer; in middle
latitudes R=50 km. The inclined experimental data permit rough separation
of the synoptic ocean eddies into two classes:
a) Frontal eddies formed as a result of splitting off of the meandering
streams vf the frontal currents of the Gulf Stream or Kuroshio type;
b) Open-sea eddies which are more like two-di.mensional quasihorizontal
waves of a synoptic scale.
The most fundamental contribution to the investigation of the synoptic
eddies of the open sea has been made at the present time by the Soviet
expedition "Poligon-70" [Brekhovsk3kh, et al., 1971] and the American-
English expedition "MODE-1" [U.S. POLYMODE Organizing Committee, 1976].
Both were a logical continuation of the studies of the nonstationary ocean
currents performed by the oceanologists of various countries before. Thus,
- the "Poligon-70" program was the next in a series of Soviet experiments
especially aimed at studying the time and space variability of ocean
currents. The basis for all of these experiments was the long-term measure-
- ments of the currents on buoy stations. These "test area" studies were
performed in the USSR by the initiative of V. B. Shtolanan, who in 1935
performed a series of current measurements in the Caspian Sea [Shtokman,
Ivanovskiy, 1937]. Then came the test area in the Black Sea in 1956
[Ozmidov, 1962], the test area in the North Atlantic in 1958 [Ozmidov,
Yampol'skiy, 1965] and the test area in the Arabian Sea in 1967 [Shtokman,
et al., 1969]. Of the enumerated expeditions the test area in the
34
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, Arabian Sea ("Poligon-G7") was the first in which sy:~optic ocean eddies
were detectec~ by a predominantly indirect method [Koshlyakov, Galerkin,
= Ciiyong Din' Khiyen, 1970].
The results of ineasuring the currents at depths of 2 and 4 km performed
using the Swallow floats in the vicinity of the Bermuda Islands in 1959-
1960 [9wallow, 1971] and indicating the presence of very powerful (up~to
_ 40 cm-sec 1 at a depth of 4 km!) nonstationary c~~rrents with approximate
scales of 50 days and 100 km experienced great resonance among the
oceanographers. The spectral analysis o~ the density fluctuations in the
pycnocline layer at the "Tango" station (24� north latitude, 135� east
longitude) in the Pacific Ocean (Yasui; 1964), the ter~perature iluctuations -
in the thermocline in the vicinity of the Bermuda Islands [Wunsch, 1972]
and the fluctuations of the current velocity in the entire body of the
ocean at a point located directly to the north of the Gulf Stream (39�
north latitude, 70� west longitude) [Thompson, 1971J revealed very clear
energy density peaks at periods of 100 (the first two cases) and 40 days.
The basic cbservations were not the only ones (but they were the most _
important); by the end of the 1960's to the beginning of the 1970's they
demonstrated the existence of powerful nonstationary long-period movements
of the water in the depths of the ocean. However, a number of important -
problems remained unclear. -
1. Are these currents universal for the ocean? Do they exist to great
distances from the frontal currents of tihe Gulf Stream or Kuroshio type?
2. What is their nature? This is turbulence or waves, and if waves, then
- which plane or two-dimensional? Do they saturate the space continuously
- or are they individual disturbances?
3. What are the true scales of the current field? How are the space and
time scales related to each other? Is this relation included in the known _
models of the nonstationary ocean movements? -
4. What ~s the energy of these currents by comparison with the energy of
_ other components of the spectrum of movements of ocean water? What is the
most probable mechanism of their generation?
The necessity was obvious for an expedition in. which answers to the formu-
lated questions would be obtained at least in part and on a preliminary
_ level by primarily direct current measurements. The "Poligon-70" became
such an eicpedition.
- The "Poligon-7A" experiment was performed in the spring and summer of 1970 ~
in the tropical zone of the North Atlantic., in the eastern part of the
Northern Trade Winds Current [Brekhovskitch, and so on, 1971]. The basis _
for the observations was mea~urements of the currents at 17 buoy stations
loca~ted along the rays of a rectangula-r cross with its center at 16�30'
north latitude, 3~�30' west longitude (Fig 1); the least length of
35
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- each ray was 100 km. The measurements werP performed on ten h~rizons
from 25 to 1500 meters; this system was maintained continuously from the
end of February to the beginning of September 1970. The analysis of
numerous current patterns on a synoptic scale constructed by the data
from "Poligon-70" for various horizons and dates (some of ~hese patterns
� are shown in Fig 1 for the 300 meter level) ied to the following basic
conclusions (Koshlyakov, Grache~r, 1974; Grachev, Kosh~yakov, 1977;
Koshlyako~, 1977~. -
1. Several cyclonic and anticyclonic eddy type velocity disturbances were
~ recorded on "Poligon-70." One anticycloiiic eddy, the center of which _
ran near the center of the test area in the second half of May was
measured especially well.
- 2. The "tight packing" of the eddies predominated explicitly. The periods -
of the weak currents in the center of the test area are interpreted as
periods of passage of th.e saddle type regions between the four eddies _
- through the test area.
, 3. The transverse scale of the eddies (the distance from the center of _
the eddy to the point with maximum velocity) was very stable, decreasing
from 110-120 km at a depth of 300 meters to 100 km at 1000 meters.
4. The eddies moved to the west (with a small component *_o the south) with
a m~an velocity of 5-6 cm-sec-l. This value was especi~lly stable for
the main anticyclone. _
S. The slope of the axis of the main anticyclone in the direction -
approximately opposite to its displacement was recorded reliably. This
slope led to a 60 lan shift between the positions cf .the center of the =
= eddy at de~ths of 300 and 600 meters in the second half of May which for ~
- a disturbance "wave length" of 440 lan corresgonds to a phase shift of the .
velocity oscillations by 50�.
6. Compiling on the average a value on the order of 10 cm-sec-1 at depths
of 200-1000 meters, the current velocity in the eddy field at individual
times and individual points reached 25 cm-sec-1 at 200-300 meters,
35 cm-sec-1 at 400-600 maters, 20 cm-sec-1 at 1000 meters and 10 cm-sec'1 -
at 1500 meters. The increase in velocity in the rear of the main anti-
cyclone during May-June from 10 to approximately 17 cm-sec-1 at the 300-
meter level and even to a greater degree at the 600-meter le~~el was
obtained ~uite reliably. _
~ In a number of papers [Koshlyakov, Grachev, 1973; Koshlyakov, Grachev,
1974; McWilliams, Robinson, 1974; Fomin, Yampol'skiy, 1977; Brekhovskikh, -
et al., 1977] it was demonstrated that the drift of the "Poligon-70"
eddies to the west is very well described by the linear models of the
baroclinic P.ossby waves quasihorizontal and quasigeostrophic wave move- ~
ments on the s;~noptic scale, the local dynamics of which are determined _
by the eff ects of the lati.tudinal variation of the Coriolis parameter ~
_ 36
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/,IOd ~I i ~i04
~
- qy -B 0 :
L ' ~
P
~ ~ �
- i�'_40~f ~ -i~. R
; ~ ' ~ ~ " y
-y ~ ~ _
. ~~o ~ ~J i
y B i i ""-d
_ BB I ~ y
~740 2i~0.f \ - 2S116
r _
- e o
_ , ia y
' ~y 'Fi~ ~6
o\ B~ ~ i -
9 J6 ~Ze~ V~ _
_ y -Y
~-~z B -B -i6 -
l.~07 ~ ~2. 1408 y _
_ Z ~ ~
e ~ _y -B/J /y
0 ~ ~ i ( -B
9 ~6 o b a o~� b~
y ~
~ ~,yl ~ ~1 gl '
'~I ~ 'y y' ~ B y ~y -B -!/H ~ -
-B OCM~GY B ~~.fM'.,(!d
� W\1J `~2~ ~
- Figure 1. Evolution of curre:nts of a synoptic scale on the
� 300-meter level according to tt:~ "Poligon-70" data (Grachev, _
Koshlyakov, 1977J. _
The dates are indicated in the ].ef thand upper corners of the
figures. The arrows are the velocity vectors at the observation
points obtained as a result of low-frequency (with a period of
- 3.5 days) filtration of the initial time series of the velocity;
the dotted arrows are the result of interpolation with respect to -
" depth or time. The absence of an arrow at the observation point
means the absence of ineasurement data. The isolines are current
. lines calculated using the optimal Gandin interpolation [196];
the numbers on. the isolines indicate the values of the current -
. function at 10~ cm2-sec~l.
B is high pressure; H is low pressure. The distance and velocity
scalgs are given at the bottom. The c~enters of the squares at
the point 16�30' north latitude, 33�30' west longitude, and the -
side of the square is 280 km. In the upper lefthand corner the
_ distribution of the measure of the interpolation error of the _
_ current function is presented for th~ presence of initial data
- for all 30 of the measurement points used.
Key:
- 1. cm/sec
- 2. miles
" 37
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~ and divergence of the horizontal curve [see, for example, Monin, -
~ Kamenkovich, Kort, 1974; Ka.menkovich, Reznilc, 1977]. This makes it
- possible to state that the baroclinic Rossby ocean waves were measured for -
the first time by the "Poligon-70" expedition. Let us then note that the -
properties of the main "Poligon-70" eddy noted above in items 5 and 6
(inclination of the axis and intensification in time) can be considered _
- altogether as evidence of intensification of the eddy as a result of
baroclinic instability of the large-scale current [Koshlyakov, Yenikeyev, -
1977], that is, the process (see, for example, Kamenkovich, Reznik, 1977], -
for which the eddy scoops up energy fromthe available potential energy of
the large-scale current connectel with the slope of the isopycnic surfaces
- in its field. The last conc:lusion is of great interest from the point 4f `
_ view of the cardinal problem of the generation of synoptic ocean eddies.
- The vertical structure of the synoptic current~ on "Poligon-70" was _
_ studied by Vasilenko and Mirabel' [1977] by expansion of the curre~it measure-
_ ment data with respect to a system of vertical natural orthogonal functions
[Obukhov, 1960]. It was demonstrated that the f irst three modes of this
expansion in practice exhaust the vertical variability of the currents.
"MODE-1" [Mid Ocean Dynamics Experiment] was the second experiment after
"Poligon-70" speclally aimed at studying the ocean currents of a synoptic
scale [U. S. POLYMODE Organizing Committee, 1976]. Its intensive phase was
carried out Uy oceanologists of the United States and Great Britain in -
- March-June 1973 in the vicinity of the Sargasso Sea with the center at
28� north latitude, 69�40` west longitude and a radius of approximately
= 200 km. A broad set of inethods and means of oceanographic observations
were used in MODE-1 of which the main ones were measurements of the currents
and temperature on more than 20 buoy stations in the layer from 500 meters
_ to the bottom of the ocean, measurements of the currents by SOFAR floats
at a d~~pt:~ of 1500 meters and density surveys of the region predominantly
to the ocean floor. The basic result of MODE-1 and "Poligon-70" must be
considered to be the detection of several predominantly "tightly packed" -
synoptic eddies [McWilliams, 1976a; U.S. POLYMODE Organizing Com,nittee, -
1976]; one anticyclonic eddy was measured especially well which with
respect to a number of parameters greatly resembled the main anticyclone.
of "Poligon-70" and propagated to the depths ot the ocean to its floor.
The average dri�t of the "MODE-1" eddies to the west (with a velocity of
about 2 cm-sec'1) was well placed within the framework of the linear
theory of Rossby waves [McWilliams, Flierl, 1976; McWilliams, 1976b].
At the same time the observations by the SOFAR floats indicated a notice- :
able proportion o~ the transferred ("turbulenc") form of the motion in ~
- the eddy tield in the depths of the ocean [Rossby, Voorhis, Webb, 1975];
- the corresponding effective coef~icient of horizontal turbulent di~fusion
turned out to be 8�106 cm2-sec~l [Freeland, Rhines, Rossby, 1975]. -
At the present time a large quantity of experimental data has been
- accumulated demonstrating the presence of synoptic eddies in the most
38
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- parts of the World Ocean. Tt is of interest that in many cases the
traces of the eddies are reliably detected in old data (predominantly in
the results of the density surveys) accutnulated before the 1970's, but not
attracting special aCtention until the "Poligon-70" expedition and
"MODE-1." Accordingly, first of all let us mention the detection of
~ very powerful (current velocity in the eddy field to 70-100 cm-sec'1i)
synoptic eddies in the western part of the Intertradewind Countercurrent
in the Pacific Ocean in 1958 [Burkov, Ovchinnikov, 1960], in the Eastern
Australian Current in 1964 [Hamon, 1965], in the region to the southwest -
of the Cape of Good Hope in 1967 [Duncan, 1968]. The disturbances of the
oceanographic fields connected with the baroclinic synoptic eddies were -
rel.iably detected in the Northern Trade Wind Current in the Pacific Ocean
- [Bernstein, White, 1974], in the southwes~ern part of the Sargasso Sea -
[Beckerle, La Casce, 1973], in the regions to the south and directly to the
north of the central part of the :Qorth Atlantic Current [Gill, 1975] and
in many other parts of the World Oaean. In addition to the eddies of a
_ synoptic scale, in the upper layer of the ocean eddies of essentially
smaller scales from 5 to 50 km - were observed in the upper layer of
the ocean many ti.mes. Their nresence was reliably recorded in the Northern
- Tradewind Current in the Atlantic [Kort, Byshev, Tarasenko, 1974], in the
California Current [McEwen, 1948], under the ice in the Arctic Basin
- [Hunkins, 1974] and in other parts of the oc.ean.
Even the far from complete presented list indicates the standard nature of
the ~;henomenon of synoptic eddy formation for the World Ocean, which
forces the proposition of a universal mechanism of this formation. Before
we touch on this problem again at the end of the survey, let us briefly
consider the frontal eddies, considering above all the discovery of their
basic diff erences from the above-described eddies of the open sea.
- ~
The classical example of the separation of the cyclonic meander of the -
Gulf Stream and conversion of it to a cold cyclonic eddy south of this
current which remains the best in oceanographic literature even today was
described by Fuglister and Worthington [1951]. The formation, movement
and ev~I.ution of the thermal anticyclonic eddy to the north from the Gulf
Stream were described by Saunders [1971J; analogous processes for cyclonic
and anticyclonic eddies of Y.uroshio were described respectively by
- Masuzawa [1957J and Kawai [1972). From Fig 2 it is obvious how quickly
the separation of the frontal eddy takes place accompanied in the given -
- case by intensive arrival of cold water from the northeast in the separation
_ zone. The size, power and li~etime of the intercyclonic eddy are expressed
- in Fig 2. The velocity o~ the sur~ace current in the eddy f ield immediately
after separation reached 2 m-sec-1. It must be noted that in contrast to
the frontal eddies of the Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio cyclones, the -
Kuroshio anticyclones do not bear the naU.ure of individual eddies drifting
among the surrounding relatively quiet ocean after their separation. On
the contrary, a broad part r~f the Pacific Ocean to the east of Japan -
approximately to 180� east longitude is a uniquely complex region in
hydrologic and hydrodynamic respects, solidly saturated by pulsating
_ streams and branches of the Kuroshio, Oyasllio and Northern Pacific Ocean
- 39 -
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Currents moving anlcontinuously deforming eddies of both signs formed
predominantly as a result of segaration of ineanders o~ the above-mentioned -
currents but partially as a result of the simple recirculation eff ect on ~
the insides of the wave like bends in their streams. The results of the
studies of the structure and the dynamics of the mentioned region of the _
ocean are described in papers by Masuzawa [1955], Ichiye [1956], Bulgakov
[1967], Barkley [1968], Kawai [1972], Byshev, Grachev and Ivanov [1976],
Pavlychev [1975], Kitano [1975] and other researchers. _
67'W 60�W lOO~.w
0 -
20' ,
~.f~
S00 ~
~J" :\I1�
FSO
9v'1? ' yo�W M-AR
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SO~i ' ic� . ,
~SO , _
ZO'I+/ ~~�W -
O
J
7.f~ -
- .f~
Q
d0 ~
7.5~ -
Figure 3. Tetnperature distribution (�C) in the section .
- through 34�30' north latitude in the Atlantic on 22 January -
to 2 February 1975 according to G. Seaver [U.S. POLYMODE
Organizing Committee, 1976].
The distance between the bathythermographic stations was
- 20 km. i4-AR position of the North Atlantic Ridge axis.
42
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The transverse cross section of the standard cyclone ("ring") of the
Gulf Stream is investigated in the western (at 60� west lon,~,itude) part
of the section in Fig 3. The individual nature of the i:orrnation is clearly
visible. The ;~oung Gulf Stream rings are characterized by the following ~
parameters [Fuglister, 1972; Cheney, et al., 1976]. The "diameter" of
the ring defined as the transverse of the region of the cold anomaly is
equal approximately to 200 km. The horizontal temperature gradient in the
layer of the main thermocline can reach 10-12�C, which corresponds to an -
altitude gradient of the isothermal surfaces at 600-700 meters. Correspond-
ingly, the speed of the rotationa~. motion of the water in the upper part
_ of the ring often reaches 2 meters/sec and even more. The young rings
"are marked" on the surface of the ocean by a spot of reduced temperature, -
_ which makes it possible to detect them from satellites [Vukovich, 1976].
As the ring occurring basically in the process of layer by layer turbulent
mixing of its water with the surrounding t~ater of the Sargasso Sea ages
[f.or example, Lambert, 1974], a slow decrease in the ring diameter, the -
horizontal temperature gradient and the rotation rate of the water in its
field occurs [Fuglister, 1972; Cheney, Richardson, 1976].
After their formaticn, the Gulf Stream rings drift, as a rule, to the west
and the southwest in the Sargasso Sea with an average velocity of about
3 km/day. [Lai, Richardson, 1977). It is possible to assume that this
_ drift is caused both by the natural dynamics of the rings [Warren, 1967]
and by the effect of the large-scale current. The observations of the
- hydrophysical and hydrochemical properties of the ring [Lambert, 1974]
and the measurements by the central buoyancy float [Cheney, et al., 1976]
certainly demonstrated that the upper part of the rings approximately to
a depth of 700-1000 meters is occupied predominantly by water moving
together with the ring. On the contrary, in the depths, the "wave" form
of the motion predominates in which the trajectories of the particles
intersect the ring region [Cheney, et al., 1976]. The rings finish their
exisrence either by absorption of them by the Florida Current or final -
extinguishing in the Sargasso Sea. The average lifetime of one ring is
estimated at 2 or 3 years [Lai, Richardson, 1977]. Combining this estimate
with the estimate of the number of rings formed during a year (5 or some-
what more) [Fuglister, 1972], we find that in the Sargasso Sea about 15
rings must be observed simultaneously. The latter conclusion agrees well
with the experimental: result giving 11 rings for November 1971 [Lai, -
Richardson, 1977].
_ The general properties of the fron~al ocean eddies and the above-investi-
gated eddies in the open sea permitting combination of them to a single -
type of sy-noptic ocean eddies are obvious: this is the horizontal scale, "
quasigeostrophicity and the defining role of the latitudinal variation of
the Coriolis parameter and divergence of the horizontal current in their -
local dynamics. From what has been stated above, however, the following
peculiarities,of the frontal eddies obviously distinguishing them, let
- us say, from the "Poligon-70" or "MODE-1" eddies are clear.
43
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1. The frontal eddies are formed in the regions of frontal ocean jet
streams as a result of separation of the meanders of these currents;
accordingly, immediately after formation the frontal eddies contain water
inside themselves of diff erent origin by comparison with the surrounding
water. -
2. The frontal eddies are quasiindividual formations (this conclusion
does not pertain, strictly speaking, to the Kuroshio anticyclones). Only
anticyclones are formed to the left of the frontal current and cyclones,
to the right.
3. The advective form of the movement plays a significant role in the
displacement of the frontal eddies; in any case it predominates in the
upper parts of the frontal eddies.
4. The frontal eddies are ext~aordinarily concentrated formations. Their
specific kinetic energy exceeds by two orders the specific kinetic energy
of the standard eddies in the open sea.
It would be naive, however, to assume that there are no formations in the
ocean which are intermediate with respect to their properties between, let
us say, the rings of the Gulf Stream and the eddies of the "Poligon-70"
eddy type. From what has been stated above it follows that the eddies of
the frontal region of Kuroshio-Oyashio are in a defined sense such inter-
mediate Formations. Another example of such formations is the central
part of the section in Fig 3. Whereas the standard Gulf Stream ring is
visible in the western part of tl:e section, and a continuous symmetric
field of wave disturbances is present in the eastern part (for example, in _
the vicinity of 20� west longitude) similar to those observed during the
"Poligon-70" and "MODE-1" expeditions, the entire central part of the
section is occupied by disturbances of an intermediate type; these are not
the single formations of the ring type, but also not the symmetric field _
of rises and falls of the isothermal surf aces; the regions of rise -
corresponding to the cyclonic sign of the eddy are more localized here
and more clearly expressed than the regions of fall of the isotherms. -
Let us give attention to the fact that the increase in the degree of "self-
containment" of the disturbances from the east to the west in Fig 3 follc~~~s
the increase in their energy; the latter necessarily find its explanation
_ in the modern theory of nonlinear Rossby waves [La�richev, Reznik, 1976]. _
In conclusion let us discuss some of the energy estimates. The results of
measurements of the ocean currents by the navigational method were u~ed
as the basis for constructing the density distribution maps of the kinetic
energy of the large-scale currents (Km) and the mean density of the kinetic `
energy of the synoptic ed3ies (Ke) in the surface layer of the North Atlantic
[Wyrtki, Magaard, Hager, 1976]. Both maps turned out to be surprisingly
- similar. With the exception of the Gulf Stream section up to 6C� west ~
longitude, a si~nificant (on the average by an order) rise in Ke over Km
- was obtained. The distribution of the average density of the admissible -
potential energy of the synoptic eddies Pe (the reserve of potential energy
44
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_ connected wifh the deviation of the isopycnic surfaces from the horizontal
position in the eddy field) in the principal thermocline in the North -
Atlantic was studied by Dantzler [1978] by the bat~ythermographic data.
A very strong maximum in the Gulf Stream region, weak maxima in the region
southeast of the Azores Islands and in the vicinity of the Northern Trade-
wind Current ("Poligon-70"!) and the clearly expressed minimum approximately
along 25� north latitude, that is, in the zone of practical absence of -
large-scale currents, were obtained. By analyzing the te~nperature sections
from the atlas of F. Fuglister [1960], Gill, Green and Simmons [1974]
obtained Pm/Pe~10 (P~) is the density of the admissible potential energy
of the large-scale currents for the layer of the main thermocline in the
_ central part of the basic anticyclonal circulation of the North Atlantic.
The results of "Poligon-70" and "MODE-1" giving (Ke/I~)~100 for depths
corresponding to the thermocline agree well with this estimate.l The analysis
of the results of long-range measurements of the currents at depths from
2000 to 5000 meters in the Gulf Stream region from 70 to 55� west longitude
and to the south of it again demonstrated a good decrease in the value of
Ke in the direction from the Gulf Stream to the south [Schmit~, 1977]. -
_ The ratio (Ke/Km) at these depths at 34� north latitude turned out to be
- on the order of 10.
All of these results can be reduced to two items: -
1. The eddies are stronger where the large-scale currents are stronger. _
2. The kinetic energy (and the admissible potential energy approximately
equal to it) of the eddies is essentially higher, as a ruley thar_ the =
kinetic energy of the large-scale currents and at the same time essentially
lower than their admissible potential energy. These conclusions are highly
. significant experimental evidence in favor of the theory of eddy generation
as a result of baroclinic insta'~ility of the large-scale ocean currents. _
The authors express their appreciation to Academician L. M. Brekhovskikh
and corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. S. Monin for
helpful discussion of the problems of the synoptic eddies and the
specific content of this article. -
_ lIt is necessary to consider that on the average throughout the ocean -
Pm exceeds I~ by approximately three orders [Stommel, 1966; Gill, Green, -
- Si.mmons, 1974;[Bulis, Monin, 1975J; at the same time Pe and Ke are values
of the same order [for example, Kamenkovich, Reznik, 1977].
45
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BI~LIOGRAPHY
1. Brekhovskilch, L. II. ; Grachev, Yu. ~I. ; Koshlyakov, M. I1. ; Fomin, L. M.
"Some Results of Studying Synoptic Eddies in the ~cean," -
METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA [Meteorology and Hydrology], No 2, 1978,
pp 5-14.
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Yampol'skiy, A. D. "Test Area Hydrophysics Experiment in the Atlantic ~ _
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4. Burkov, V. A.; Qvchinnikov, I. M. "Study of the Equatorial Currents
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1960, pp 121-134. -
5~ Byshev, V. I.; Grachev, Yu. M.; Ivanov, Yu. A. "Study of the Meso-
= structure of the Velocity Field in the Northern Pacific Ocean Current,"
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6. Vasilenko, V. M.; Mirabel', A. P. "Vertical Structure of Currents in
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of the Atmosphere and Ocean], No 13, 1977, pp 328-331. ~
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OKEANA [Hydrodynamics of the Ocean], T4oscow, Nauka, 1978.
- 10. Korg, V. G.; Byshev, V. I.; Taxasenko, V. I~. "Synoptic Variability
oF Currents in the Atlantic Test Area," ATLANTICHESKIY GIDROFIZICHESKIY
POLIGON-70 [Atlantic Hydrophysics Poligon-70 [Test Area 70]],
- edited by V. G. Kort and V. S. Samoylenko, Moscow, Nauka, 1974,
pp 181-188.
46
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11. Koshayakov, M. N. "Synoptic Eddies in the Ocean," GIDROFIZIKA
OKEANA [Hydrophysics of the Ocean], edited by V. M. Kamenkovich -
and A. Monin, Moscow, Nauka, 1977.
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structure of the Geostrophic Currents of the Open Sea," OKEANOLOGIYA,
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13. Koshlyakov, ri. N.; Grachev, Yu. M. "Medium-Scale Currents in the
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GIDROFIZICHESKIY "POLIGON-70", edited by V. G. Kort and
V. S. Samoylenko, Moscow, Nauka, 1974.
14. Larichev, V. D.; Reznik, G. M. "Two-Dimensional Isolated Rossby Waves,"
_ DOKL. AN SSSR, No 231, 1976, pp 1077-79. ~
15. Monin, A. S.; Kamenkovich, V. M.; Kort, V. G. IZMENCHIVOST'
MIROVOGO OKEANA, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1974.
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Scienees. Geophysics Series], No 3, 1960, pp 432-440.
17. Ozmidov, R. V. "Statistical Characteristics of Horizontal Macro-
turbulence in the Black Sea," TRUDY IN-TA OKEANOL. AN SSSR [Works
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No 60, 1962, pp 114-129.
18. Ozmidov, R. V.; Yampol'skiy, A. D. "Some Statistical Characteristics
of Velocity and Density Fluctuations in the Ocean," IZV. AN SSSR.
FIZIKA ATMOSFERY I OKEANA [News of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
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in the Northwestern Part of the Pacific Ocean," IZV. TIKHOOKEANSKOGO
NAUCH~-ISSLED, IN-TA RYBNOGO KHOZYAYSTVA I OKEANOGRAFII [News of the
Pacific Ocean Scientif ic Research Institute of the Fishing Industry
and Uceanography], No 96, 1975, pp 3-18.
20. Fomin, L. M.; Yampol'skiy, A. D. "Local Kinematics of Synoptic Eddy =
- Disturbances in the Velocity Field of Ocean Currents," DOKL. AN
SSSR, No 232, 1977, pp 50-53.
21. Shtolanan, V. B.; Ivanovskiy, I. I. "Results of a Stationary Study of
Currents off the West Coast of the Central Caspian," METEOROLOGIYA I
GIDROLOGIYA, No 3-5, 19~7, pp 154-160.
22. Shtolanan, V. B.; Koshlyakov, M. N.; Ozmidov, R. V.; Fomin, L. M.;
- Yampol'siciy, A. D. "Long-Term Measurements of the Space and Time
Variability of the Physical Fields in the Ocean Test Area as a
New Phase in Ocean Research," DOKL. AN SSSR, No 186, 1969, pp 1070-1073.
47
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23. Yasui, M. "Internal Waves in the Open Sea," VNUTRENNIYE VOLNY
[Internal Waves], translated from the English, Moscow, Mir, 1964,
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24. Barkley, R. A. "The Kuroshio-Oyashio Front as a Compound Vorter.
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25. Beckerle, J. C.; La Casce, E. 0. "Eddy Patterns from Horizontal -
Sound VElocity Variations in the Main Thermocline Between Bermuda
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26. Bernstein, R. L.; White, W. B. "Time and Length Scales of Baroclinic ~
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27. Crease, J. "Velocity Measurements in the Deep Water of the Western -
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1948, pp 188-216. -
49
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rux urr~l~t[~L U5~ UNLY
- 51. McWilliams, J. C. "Maps from the Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment:
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1976a, pp 810-827.
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Potential Vorticity and Its Conservation," J. PHYS. OCEANOGR., No 6,
1976b, pp 828-846.
53. McWilliams, J.; Flierl, G. "Optimal Quasi-Geostrophic Wave Analysis
of MODE Array Data," DEEP-SE RES., No 23, 1976, pp 285-300.
54. McWilliams, J.; Robinson, A. R. "A Wave Analysi~ of the POLYGON Array
in the Tropical Atlantic," DEEP-SEA RES., No 21, 1974, pp 359-368.
55. Rossby, C. G. "On the Mutual Adjustment of Pressure and Velocity
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56. Rossby, H. T.; Voorhis, A.; Webb, D. A Quasi-Langrangian Study of
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of the Gulf Stream," DEEP-SEA RES., No 18, 1971, pp 1207-1219.
58. Schmitz, W. J. "On the Deep General Circulation in the Western North _
Atlantic," J. MA2. RES., No 35, 1977, pp 21-28.
59. Stommel, H. Tl?E GULF `,:TREAM. A PHYSICAL AND DYNAMICAL DESCRIPTIOiJ. -
. 2d edition, Univ. Calif.orn~a: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1966, 248 pp. -
- 60. Swallow, J. C. "The 'Aries' Current Measurements in the Western ~
l~orth Atlantic," PHIL. TRANS., No 270, 1971, pp 451-460.
_ 61. Thompson, R. "Topographic Rossby Waves at a Site North of the Gulf
Stream," DEEP-SEA RES., No 18, 1971, pp 1-19. _
62. U.S. POLYMODE Organizing Cammittee. U.S. POLYMODE Program and Plan,
Cambridge, Mass. Inst. Technul., 1976, 98 pp.
63. Vukovich, F. M. An Investigation o� a Cold Eddy on the Eastern Side -
~ of the Gulf Strea:a Using NOAA 2 and NOAA 3 Satellite Data and Ship _
' Data," J. PHYS. OCEANOGR., No 6, 1976, pp 605-612. �
64. Warren, B. A. 13otes on Translatery Movement of Rings of Current in
the Sargasso Sea," DEEP-SEA RES., No 14, 1967, pp 505-524.
65. Wunsch, C. "The Spectrum from Two Years to Two Minutes of Temperature _
Fluctuations in the Main Thermocline at Bermuda," DEEP-SEA RES.,
- No 19, 1972, pp 577-594.
- 66. Wyrtki, K~; Magaard, L.; Hager, J. "Eddy Energy in the Oceans,"
- J. GEOPHYS. RES., No 81, 1976, pp 2641-2646.
50 -
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VARIABILITY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL ELIIKENTi IN OCEtiN WATER
, , Moscow USPEKHI SOVETSKOY OKEANOLOGII in Russian 1979 signed to press
13 Apr 79 ~p 87-9$
- [Article ~y V. r:. ivanenkov, 0. K. Bordovskiy] -
, [Tex;.] The chemistry of the o`ean involves the study of the chemical
- properties and chemical composition of sea and ocean water, the layer of
- the atmosphere next to the water ans liquid phase of the bottom sediments
this is the so-called ehemical statics. However, the heart of chemical ~
_ oceanology is chemical dynamics the study of the variabiiity of the
- distribution of the chemical elements and by the chemical dynamics, -
- the study of the direction and speed of the chemical processes [Bruyevich,
- 1945].
= Definite piogress has been made in the study of the chemical stati.cs of ~
the seas and oceans. The chemical co.~nposition of the sea and ocean water,
the general laws of salinity distribution, th~ pH, alkalinity, dissolved -
o~rygen, forms of phosphorus, nitrogen and silicon basically have be~n well
investigated. The trace elements and organic materials have been studied
to the necessary extent. This is indicated by the lar.ge surveys, monographs
and atlases with respect to entire oceans appearing in the 1960's to 1970's
discussing a large complex of chemical elements. There is a monograph on
the Pacific Ocean by the coworkers of the chemical div'ision of the -
Institute of Oceanology directed by S. V. Bruyevich, "Chemistry of the
Pacific Ocean" [1966], on the rndian Ocean, a survey by V. ~N. Ivanenkov
and F. A. Gubin [1960], the collections "Oceanological Kesearch" [No 4,
- 1964], "Indian Ocean Research" [1964], "Oceanographic Atlas of the Indian
Ocean" [Wyrtki, Bennett, Rochford, 1971], the Atlantic Ocea.n, the survey _
- by V. A. Bubnov [1966, 1970], B. V. Volostnykh ~1973), Yu. I. Lyakhin and ~
, V. N. Ivan~nkov [I975J, and V. N. Ivanenkov [1977a].
The classificatian and circulation of the ocean water, the laws of the
distribution ~f salinity and dissolved oxygen in them are reflected in -
the monographs by A. M. Muromtsev [1958, 1959, 196] and V. N. Stepanov -
[1974]. -
51
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From the works summing up the results of chemical research in the World -
- Ocean, first of all it is necessary to note the mono;raphs "Chemical
Oceanography" [1965, 1975], "Chemistry of the Ocean" by 0. A. Alekin -
- [1966], "Introduction to the Geochemistry of the Ocean" by A. P. Vinogradov .
[1967], "Marine Chemistry" by R. Horn [197] and the monograph from the -
series "Oceanology" "Chemistry of Ocean Water" published in 1979. -
~ The general laws of thca distribution of dissolved oxygen, pH, alkali -
ch'__oride ratio, phosphates, nitrites, silicates and chemical-oceanographic -
division of the oceans into d~stricts in the "Hydrochemistry" Division of
- the "Atlas of the Oceans," Part I-- Pacific Ocean (1974) and Part II
Atlantic and Indian Oceans (1977) were demonstrated most completely and =
purely. This division contains more than 150 maps, sections and graphs. _
It was created by V. N. Vinagradov, t3. V. Volostnykh, A. N. Gusarova,
_ V. N. Ivanenknv, M. E. Istomina, V. A. Konnov, Yu. I. Lyakhin, A. N. Osipova=
V. V. Sapozhnikov and A. M. Chernyakova under the scientific direction of
V. N. Ivanenkov. When creating the "Atlas c{ the Oceans" the doubtful
and indirect data were excluded, and when selecting the values of the iso- _
_ lines on the maps and sections, the diurnal variability caused by the
biochemical processes was considered in the sections. Any of the atZases
_ constructed by the data averageci over many years reflect a somewhat idealized
picture of the distribution of one parameter or another, correctly
- reflecting only the main laws. In order to know what the distribution of :
- the chel-nical parameters will be at any point in time, in addition to their
_ average values, an idea is needed about the diff erent-period chemical
variability caused by the physical, biological and chemical processes.
The problem of chemical variability acquired primary significance long ago,
for it is by the variability of the distribution of the chemical characteris-
tics that it is possible to determine the rates of the chemical processes~
in situ and also the exchange rates of the chemical elements inside the
body of water and at its interfaces with the atmosphere and the bottom. -
_ The study of the variability of the distribution of th e chemical elements
must be performed simultaneocsly with an investigation of the variability
~ of the physical, biologicai and anthropogenic factors causing chemical
variability in order to learn how to forecast it. Forecasting the
_ variability of the chemical regime is the theoretical ba~is for forecasting
' ~he variability ~f the biological productivity and also the scientific
basis for the element of ineasures to preserve the natural conditions in
the seas and oceans. The urgency of the problem of studying the variabil- �
= ity of the distribution of the chemical elements in the oceans and sPas
- among other problems of chemicaZ oceanology is obvious. .
A. S. rionin [Monin, Kamenkovich, Kort, 1974] isolates seven types of
= oscillations of the distribution of the physical parameters and the chemi-
cal parameters that depend on them. These fluctuations are created by
- pc?ysical pr~cesses for whi~h specific time and space scales are characteristic.
, 52 _
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Beginning with the time scales, this variability is called small-scale,
- mesoscale, synoptic, seasonal, interannual, intracentury and intercentury. ~
_ The materials from the hydrochemical observat_i~ns accumulated at the present
time can characterize ~nly the interyear seasonal and mesoscale variability
and that very approximately and for a small number of regions of the ocean.
_ Sufficient data have still not been accumulated to characterize the synoptic
including the intracentu,r~ and intercentury fluctuations of the hydrochemi-
cal regime. With the dzvelopment of the test area method of research with
- the introduction of oceanological studies of new equipment into practice
for continuous measurement of physical and chemical parameters, the possi-
bility appears for broad study of the small-scale, mesoscale, and synoptic
variability of the distribution of the physical and chemi_cal characteristics. -
The interyear variability in the distribution of the ch~mical parameters of
- the ocean water with the period from one to several years is manifested
accordingly with respect to all chemical characteristics over large spaces.
measured in hundreds of miles with respect to the meridian and thousands
of miles with respect to the parallel. It is caused by variability of the
intensity of the glol~al circulation of water. and atmosphere. In the regions
of the ocean where the meeting of water of different origin differing sig- -
nif icantly. with respect to chemical charac~teristics takes place, the inter-
yea.r chemical variability can be manifested at all depths of the ocean to
~ ultraabyssal. -
The water of the surface structural zone in all three oceans at the inter-
face between the Subarctic and Northern Subtropical Zones, between the
Subantarct~ic and Southern Subtropical regions, especially in the western
and eastern peripheries of these zones have the greatest diff erences of
chemical and physical characteristics.
During the years with severe winters and heavy icing, the cold and oxygen-
enriched surface subarct~c water of the Labrador Current (in the Atlantic
Ocean) and the Oyashio Current (in the Pacific Ocean) penetrate far to the
south, lowering the temperature and salinity and increasing the oxygen
concentration and the concentration of biogenic elements of the upper 200-
_ meter layer.
Off the coast of Peru and Chile in individual years warm tropical waters
impoverished with respect to biogenic elzments penetrate hundreds of miles -
_ to the south, which leads ta lowering of the productivity of the coastal
water.
In the Atlantic Ocean between 10 and 30� north latitude the intermediate,
deep and bottom water of North Atlantic Ocean meets with the intermediate
. and bottom Antarctic water. The former differs from the latter by the
high degree of salinity (0.1 to 0.3 parts per thousand), the greater
- oxygen content (by 0.5 to 0.8 ml/liter), the larger values of the pH (by
0.10-0.15), lower alkalinity (by 0.02 to 0.03 mg-equiv/liter) and sig-
nif icantly lower content ~f biogenic elements (phosphates by _
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0,2-0.4 ug-at/k, nitrates by 2-10 and silicates by 10-30 ug-at/R,). In
individual years on intensification of the northern component of the water
circulation, the Antarctic water penetrates to the north farther than usual
- and, on the contrary, with intensification of the southern component the
- North Atlantic water penetrates farther to the south. With respect to
chemical characteristics this phenomenon is clearly obvious. -
:Ln the Indian Ocean between 10� south latitude and 10� north latitude the
intermediate, deep and bottom Northern Indian water meets with the inter-
mediate and bottom Antarctic water. The water of the Northern Indian
origin is distinguished from the Antarctic water by greater salinity
(b~ 0.1-0.02 parts per thousand), greater content of biogenic elements
(phosphates by 0.2-0.5 ug-at/Q, nitrates by 5-10 and silicates by
10-30 ug-at~~.), lower oxygen concentration (by 0.5-1.0 ml/liter), smaller
pH (by 0.1-0.2) and greater alka.linity (by 0.02-0.03 mg-equiv/liter).
Therefore with respect to chemical indexes it is possible uniquely to -
determine the intensification or weakening of advection to the north of
the waters of Antarctic origin. The.meridional sections through the Indian
Ocean along 65 and 90� east longitude were made in the last 20 years by -
expeditions of various countries no less than 10 times. -
The variability from year to year matched with respect *_o all parameters
_ in the intermediate, deep and bottom layers was noted. However, it turned
_ out to be especially large by the observations in May-June 1976 on the
_ 22d trip of the scientif ic research ship "Akademik Kurchatov" [Bordovskiy,
1976].
In the large straits between oceans, large interyear variability of chemical
and physical characteristics was detected, for the transfer of surface,
intermediate, deep and bottom water formed in . different oceans through _
them is realized. In the body of water between Africa and Antarctica .
water of the Northern Indian, North Atlantic, Subantarctic and Antarctic -
origin is carried, diff ering signif icantly with respect to salinity, -
= pH and oxygen and especially with respect to concentration of biogenic
elements. The deep and bottom water of the North Atlantic origin differs
from the corresponding water of the Northern Indian and Antarctic origin '
by the greater salinity, the larger oxygen content and higher pH, smaller
va~ues of alkali-chloride ratio and the main thing, signif icantly smaller -
concentrations of phosphates, nitrates and especially silicates. If we -
construct graphs of the vertical distribution of the chemical characteristics
for points of the section through 20� east longitude 60 miles from each
other with respect to individual years, in the northern part of the section
_ we shall see the matched interyear variations with respect to oxygen by -
several tenths of ml/liter, with respect to phosphate by several tenths -
of ug-at P/II, with respect to nitrates by several ug-at N/k, with respeet
to silicate, by several tenths of Ug-at Si/k, and with respect to salinity,
from 0.02 to 0.10 parts per thousand. All of this indicates the intensif i-
cation (or attenuation) of the flow of water from the Atlantic to the -
- Indian Ocean or, vice versa, from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean.
54 ~
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_ In the southern part u� the section it is possible to see the increase (or
- decrease) in cross sectional of the ocean occupied by water of Subantarctic
and Antarctic origin.
= In Drake Passage it is possible to expect interyear variations of the
salinity, oxygen, pH, alkali and biogenic elements, for in the southern
_ parts of the oceans the ~.tlantic and Pacific Ocean water diff ers noticeably
with respect to the indicated parameters. The Pacif ic Ocean water has
lower salinity, greater magnitude and pH and, oxygen and greater concentra-
tion of phosphates, nitrates and silicates by comparison with the Atlantic
water. if there is two-way transf er of water in Drake Passage, it will be
noticeable with respect to the chelnical index. It was previously considered -
- [Kort, 1962, 1963; Treshnikov, Maksimov, Gindysh, 196fi] that in practice
one-way transfer of Paci:fic Ocean water to the Atlantic Ocean is realized
through Drake Passage, V. A. Burkov [1972] demonstrated that deeper than
2000 mete.rs the transfer of water through Drake Passage goes from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. V. N. Ivanenkov and A. N. Gusarova ~
[1973] estimated the transf er of bottom Antarctic water from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Pacific Ocean at 0.1�106 km3 per year. The studies performed
in the vicinity of Drake Passage at the end uf the 1960's an~:i continuing ~
at the present time (see the article by A. F. Treshnikov i.n this collection), -
- demonstrated that the water transfer from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific
was a widespread phenomenon. It is noticeable not only with respect to
oxygen as was first noted by A. N. Bogoyavlenskiy [1963], but also with
respect to all the chemical parameters. Depending on the interyear variabil-
ityof the intensity of the transfer of Pacific Ocean and Atlantic waters
through llrake Passage, the distribution of the chemical characteristics
_ in this region also varies.
~ At the ultraabyssal depths, the following law is in effect. If the deep
water trough is filled with bottom water of one origin, the intrayear
_ variations of the chemical characteristics will not exceed the errors in -
the chemical analysis [Ivanenkov, 1970]. These include a11 the deep water -
troughs of the Pacific Ocean and the southern sandwich trough in the
Atlantic Oeean. If the deep water trough can be filled with bottom water
_ of different origin differing significantly with respect to chemical
= characteristics, great intrayear variability of the chemical parameters
and the presence of maxima and minima of the chemical parameters with
respect to the vertical of the trough is unavoidable [Ivanenkov, 1977b].
The latter include the deep water troughs of Puerto Rico and Romanche
Yn the Atlantic Ocean, the Java Trench in the ?ndian Ocean. The distribu- -
tion of the chemical characteristics in the deep water trenches of
- Kurilo-Kam~hatka and Puerto Rico is demonstrated in the table. -
The Puerto Rico trench can be filled with bottom water of North Atlantic -
_ or Antarctic origin or a mi.xture of them. In the table a case is pre-
_ sented with respect to observations on the 14th trip of the scientific
research vessel "Akademik Kurchatov" where bottom North Atlantic water
is present in the upper part of the trench (with high salinity, high ~
55 -
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oxygen content and low phosphate and silicate concentration), lleeper =
down is the layer with a large portion of bottom Antarctic water (reduced
- salinity, reduced oxygen content and increased phosphate and silicate
concentration). At the bottom of the trench, below 8200 meters, there is a
layer of bottom North Atlantic water with increased salinity and increased
_ oxygen content and relatively lowered concentrations of phosphate and
silicate. In the Kuril trench similar maxima and minima of the chemical _
parameters are absent for it is f illed with bottom water of one origin ,
Antarctic water ;ahich has experienced great transformation along the ~
path of its prapagation.
Distribution o~ the mean values of the salinity (parts per -
thousand), the dissolved oxygen (ml~liter), phosphates (ug-at P/~,) -
and silicates (ug-at Si/!C) in the deep water Puerto Rico trench
(the Atlantic Ocean) and the Kuril trench (the Pacific Ocean)
Puerto Rico Kuril Trench
Denth,
meters S 0~ P Si S 02 P Si
50U0 34.94 5.8 1.5 33 34.69 3.7 2.4 145 -
6000 34.90 5.6 1.7 55 34.69 3.8 2.4 145
_ 7000 34.86 5.4 1.8 55 34.69 3.8 2.4 145
8000 34.90 5.5 1.8 54 34.69 3.8 2.4 145
~200 34.92 5.8 1.6 50 34.69 3.8 2.4 145
Deviati.on from
- the mean +0.01 +0.1 +0.1 +2 +0.01 +0,1 +0.1 +5 ' -
The seasonal variability of the distribution of the chemical characteristics _
- was studied more purposely than the interyear variability. A large quantity
of materials which have not been completely processed have been accumulated -
on it. The information about the seasonal variability of the temperature, -
the salinity, the dissolved oxygen and the biogenic elements has found
_ reflection in the "Atlas of the Oceans" and in the above-mentioned monograph,
surveys, and also in a number of articles. In the "Atlas of Oceans" for
the 0 and 50 meter levels, maps are presented for two seasons summer
and winter and in the monographs, surveys and articles, the limits of
seasonal variability of the di~tribution of the chemical characteristics
- :nu the physical and biological factors causing tl-iem are given in the form
of tables and graphs. -
The seasonal variability o.f the chemical parameters reaches the largest
values in the regions of polar and temperate latitudes in the photosynthesis
]_ayer up to 50-100 meters thick. The oxygen content in the photosynthesis
layer from winter to summer in the coastal highly productive regions
_ increases from 6-8 to 9-10 ml/liter and more, and the concentration of
biogenic elements in inorganic form decreases in the rorthern parts of the
56
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- ocean to values close to the analytical zero, and in the southern parts -
of the ocean, by 30--50% or more (the content of the biogenic elements
increases by several times in organic form). In the open parts of the
_ ocean with smaller intensity of photosynthesis, the seasonal variability
of the chemical parameters in the photosynthesis layer is appreciably
less ttian the indicated dimensions.
The seasonal variations in the polar and temperate latitudes penetrate by -
- convection in the winter to depths of 200-300-400 meters or more. At
these depths the seasonal variability of the values of the chemical
parameters is relatively small, but several times greater than the measure- _
ment error.
In the subtropics and tropics the seasonal chemical variability is also
detected, but it (on the average for the region) is appreciably less than
in the polar 4:~d temperate latitudes. It is manifested in the regions
where the water circulation conditions leading to a different degree of -
enrichment of the photosynthesis layer with biogenic elements vary. These _
include first of all the regions where the monsoon shift takes place and -
_ also the regions of the intensification or decrease in intensity of the
cyclonic or intercyclonic circulations.
From the mesoscale variability a study was made to the highest degree of
the variability caused by the tidal phenomena and the diurnal behavior of
~ polar radiation on changes between day and night. The variability as a
~ result of tidal fluctuations is manifested at all depths and depending on
_ the degree of stratification of the water can reach 0.1-0.5 ml/liter with
re5pect to oxygen, 0.02 to 0.10 with respect to pH, 0.1-0.5 ug-at P/k
with respect to phosphates, 0.2-2 ug-at N/Q with respect to nitrates, -
2-20 Ug-at Si/~. with respect to silicate.
_ The chemical variability as a result of changes between day and night is -
felt only in the photosynthesis layer. It is maximal in the highly
productive regions and minimal in the oligotrophic regions. In the
highly productive regions it can reach 1 ml/liter with respect to oxygen,
0.3 ug-at P/2 with respect to phosphates, 5 ug-at N/R. and 10 Ug-at Si/R
with respect to silicon. In the low-productive regions it is an order less,
- and in the oligotrophic regions, two orders less.
_i
With the development of the new equipment the appearance of temperature
gauges, salinity gauges, gauges of dissolved oxygen, pH, transparency and
others it became possible to introduce measurements of these parameters
that are continuous with respect to the vertical. This equipment can be
used not only in the sounding regime, but also for measurements that are
continuous in time at the selected horizons from a drifting ship or anchored =
- buoy. It is possible also to use them on the path of a ship, towing them -
behind the stern in a container at defined depth or on a towed "bar."
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58
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lhe f irst use of the new equipment led to the discovery of the fine
structure of the water with respect to the physical paramet~rs and also
- with respect to chemical and biological indexes, the discovery of the f ine-
" scale variability as a result of micropulsation of the water with a period
of several minutes [Fedorov, 1972, 1976; Ivanenkov, 1973], The latter was =
traced most clearly during continuous operation of the oxygen sensors and
temperature gauges during a prolonged time at the previously selected
horizons, In the Atlantic "Poligon-70" the oxygen probe (having a mixing
device and temperature compensation) and the thermochalinic probe AIST
joined together operated 3.5 hours each at the 70, 110 and 170 meter levels, -
that is, in the upper, middle and lower parts of the density discontinuity
- layer. Water samples were taken in parallel by bathometers from the -
60, 70, and 80 meter; 100, 110 and 120 meter; 160, 170 and 180 meter levels,
and they were analyzed by the ordinary chemical methods. Part of the
- results are shown in the figure. The maximum chemical variability with
a period of 10+5 minutes was noted in the middle of the density discontinuity -
� layer at the 110 meter level. With respect to salinity it reached 0.30 -
parts per thousand; with respect to oxygen 0.5 ml/liter, with respect to
phosphates 0.5 ug-at P/Q, with respect to nitrates and silicates 2-3 ug-at/k,
and with ~espect to temperature it reached 3-4�C [Ivanenkov, 1973].
The studies in the test area led to the following conclusions. It is _
inexpedient to construct the distribution maps for the physical, chemical,
and biological parameter~ for the levels located in their discontinuity
layer with respect to one time, random measurements. In order to isolate
the variability of the chemical parameters as a result of the chemical ~
processes, it is necessary to consider this variability not on the horizontal
_ surfaces, but fln the isopycnic surfaces, that is, the conclusion drawn
earlier is confirmed experimentally [Ivanenkov, 1961]. -
The study of the chemical process rate in situ can be carried out in test
areas over very long periods of time not measured in days, but in weeks. '
The hydrochemical observations over many days performed in the Atlantic
"Po].igon-70" and in the test areas of the Tropex-72 and Tropex-74 expeditions -
= provided material for estimating tbe oxygen production and the extraction =
_ of phosphorus, nitrogen, silicon during photosynthesis and also for
estimating the biochemical oxygen demand and the regeneration of nitrogen
and phosphorus in the photosynthesis layer. -
_ It turned out that in the tropical and equatorial zones of the Atlantic
Ocean the oxygen production determined by its diurnal variability in situ
is 3 to 4 times greater than was considered earlier beginning with the data _
obtained by the hour-glass radio carbon method. In the tropics 95% of
the organic material created during the daylight is oxidized in the photo-
synthesis layer in 24 hours, and the phosphates and the nitrates released
1 are agaia used for photosynthesis [Ivanenkov, et al., 1972].
- In the tropics half of the produced organic material and oxygen is created
_ during photosynthesis in the lower part of the photosynthesis layer,
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near the biogenic element and density discontinuity. The mechanism of
- this phenomenon consists in the mutual effect of the inertial, tidal and ~
short-period fluctuations [Ivanenkov, 1977c]. The inertial fluctuations
during the halfperiod lasting from a halfday at 30� north latitude and
south latitude to 5 days at 3� north latitude and south latitude in the
tropics raise the water of the density discontinuity layer by 20-30 meters
. together with biogenic elements and phytoplankton to the well-illuminated
layers, creating optimal conditions for photosynthesis. The other half-
period, unfavorable conditions for photosynthesis are created. Thus,
tidal f?_uctua.tions are operative anly with the period of 6 to 12 hours.
As a result of s'~ort-period fluctuations, the water together with the
r~issolved and suspended mat2rials, in~luding with live phytoplankton under-
goes undulating oscillatory movements with an amplitude of 5-15 meters
in the density discontinuity layer. As a result of the short-period
oscillations, the phytoplankton can be found under good illumination con-
ditions for almost half of the daylight hours.
Taking into account the above-discussed mechanism, M. Ye. Vinogradov~ et
al. [1975] introduced a correction in the model of the ecosystem of the
tropical zone of the ocean as a result of increasing the primary production
every S days as a result of ~.nertial oscillations,
The limits of chemical variability under the effect of climatic and physical
processes of different periodicity were indicated above. By comparison
with tt:e biochemical processes at all deptl-?stheir influence has predominant
significance. For example, the variation rate of the oxygen concentration
on any level under the effect of short-period oscillations is within the
- limits of 0.01 to 0.10 ml/liter per minute, and as a result of photosynthesis
. and destruction processes, 3-4 orders less.
- In conclusion, it is possible to state that at the present time we more or
less know the average picture of the distribution of the salinity, the
oxygen, the pH, the C02, Alk, phosphates, silici.c acid, nitrates, nitrites,
ammonia, organic phorphorus and nitrogen in the oceans. The study of the
chemical variability under the effect of physical and biological processes
is only beginning. In order to learn how to predict'chemical variability,
ebmplex physical, biological and c~iemi,cal studies are needed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alekin, 0. A. KHIMIYA OKEANA [Ocean Chemistry], Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1966.
2. ATLAS OKEANOV. CH. I. TIKHIY OKEAN. [Ocean Atlas, Part I, Pacific
_ OceanJ, Leningrad, Izd-vo Glav. upr. navigatsii i okeanografii
MO SSSR, 1974.
3. ATLAS OKEANOV, CH. II. ATLANTICHESKIY I INDIYSKIY OKEANY [Ocean
Atlast, Part II. Atlantic and Indian Oceans], Leningrad; Izd-vo
= Glav. upr. navigatsii i okeanografii MO SSSR, 1977.
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4. Bogoyavlenskiy, A. N. "Oxygen Distribution in the Waters of the
Antarctic Ocean," OKEANOLOGIYA [Oceanology], Vol III, No 2, 1963.
5. Bord~vskiy, 0, K. OTCHET GIDROKHIMICHESKCGO OTRYADA. OTCHET 22-GO
- REYSA NIS "AKADEMIK KURCHATOV" [Report of the Hydrochemical
Detachment Report of the 22nd Trip of the Scientific Research
Ship "Akademik Kurchatov"], Moscow, 1976, fondy In-ta okeanologii
im. I. P. SHIRSHOVA AN SSSR.
6. Bruyevich, S. V. "Some Problems of Chemical Oceanograthy of the -
Arct~c, " DOKLADY NA YUBILEYNOY SESSII - 25 LET A.~ICTICH. N.-I.
IN-TA [Reports at the Meeting and Celebration of the 25th Anniversary
- of the Arctic Scientific Research Institute], Leningrad, Moscow,
Izd-vo Glavsevmorputi, 1945. _
7. Bubnov, V. A. "Distribution Laws of the Minimum Oxygen C~ncentrations
in the Atlantic Ocean," OKEANOLOGIYA [Oceanology], Vol VI, No 2,
1966.
8. Bubnov, V. A. "Formation of the Oxygen Minimum in the Ocean,"
TRUDY ATLANT. NIRO [Works of the Atlantic Scientific Research Institute -
of Oceanology], No 27, 1970.
9. Burkov, V. A. "General Circulation of Pacif ic Ocean Water,"
TIKHIY OKEAN [Pacific Ocean], Vol X, Moscow, Nauka, 1972,
10. Vinogradov, A. P. WIDENIYE V GEOKHIMIYU OKEANA [Introduction to the
Geochemistry of the OceanJ, Moscow, Nauka, 1967.
_ 11. Vinogradov, M. Ye.; Krapivin, V. F.; Oleyshman, B. S.; Shushkina, E. A.
_ "Use of the Mathematical Model for Analysis of the Behavior of the -
Ecosystem of the.Ocean Pelagic Zone," OKEANOLOGIYA, Vol XV, No 2,
1975.
12. Volostnykh B. V. "Basic Distribution Laws of Phosphates in the Waters
- of the Atlantic Ocean," KHIMIYA MOREY I OKEANOV [Chemistry of the Seas
and Oceans], Moscow, Nauka, 1973.
13. Ivanenkov, V. N. "Primary Production of the Bering Sea," TRUDY IN-TA
OKEANOL. AN SSSR [Works of the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR
- Academy of Sciences], Vol 51, 1961.
14. Ivanenkov, V. N. "Chemical Characteristics of the Deep Water of the -
Kuril Trench," TRUDY IN-TA OKEANOL. AN SSSR, Vol. 86, 1970.
15. Ivanenkov, V. N. "Basic Scientific Results of Hydrochemical Operations
_ in the Test Area in the Atlantic Ocean in March-September 1970,"
KHIMIYA MOREY I OKEANOV. [Chemistry of the Seas and Oceans], Moscow, _
Nauka, 1973.
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16. Ivanenkov, V. N. "Chemistry o~ the Atlantic Ocean Water,"
ATLANTICHESKIY OKEAN. [Atlantic Ocean], Moscow, Mysl�, 1977a.
17. Ivanenkov, V. N. "Chemical Characteristics of Water Filling the
Deep-Water Trenches of the World Ocean," KHIMIKO-OKEANOLOGICHESKIYE
ISSLF~OVANIYA [Chemical-Oceanological Research], Moscow, Nauka,
_ 1977b. ~
18. Ivanenkov, V. N. "Oxygen and Photasynthesis in the Ocean," PRIRODA
- [Nature], No 2, 1977c.
19. Ivanenkov, V. N.; Gubin, F. A. "Water Masses and Hydrochemistry of
the Southern and Western Parts of the Indian Ocean," TRUDY MORSKOGO
GIDROFIZ. IN-TA AN SSSR ~Works of the Marine Hydrophysics Institute
of the USSR Academy of Sciences], Vol 22, 1960,
- 20. Ivanenkov, V. N.; Gusarova, A. N. "Annual Exchange of Dissolved
_ Oxygen, Silicic Acid and Inorganic Dissolved Pliosphorus Between the
Oceans," KHIMIYA MOREY I OKF.ANOV [Chemistry of the Seas and Oceans], -
Moscow, Nauka, 1973.
21. Ivanenkov, V. N.; Sapozhnikov, V. V.; Chernyakova, M. A.; Gusarova, A. M. ~
"Chemical Process Rate in the Photosynthesis Layer of the Tropical ~
Atlantic," OKEANOLOGIYA, Vol XII, No 2, 1972.
= 22. "Studies of the Indian Ocean," TRUDY IN-TA OKEANOL. AN SSSR [Works of �
the Oceanology Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences], Vol 64,
1964.
23. Kort, V. G. "Water Exchange Between the Oceans," OKEANOLOGIYA, Vol II,
No 4, 1962.
24. Kart, V. G. "Water Ex change of the Antarctic Ocean," OKEANOLOGICHESKIYE
ISSLEDOVANIYA [Oceanological Research], No 8, 1963.
25. Lyakhin, Yu. I.; Ivanenkov, V. N. "Elements of the Carbonate System -
in the Waters of the Atlantic Ocean," KHIMIKO-OKEANOGRAFICHESKIYE
ISSLEDOVANIYA MOREY I OKEANOV. [Chemical-Oceanographic Studies of the -
Seas and Oceans], Moscow, Nauka, 1975.
26. Monin, A. S.; Kamenkovich, V. M.; Kort, V. G. IZMENCHIVOST' '
+ MIROVOGO OKEANA [Variabil ity of the World Ocean], Leningrad, !
Gidrometeoizdat, 1974. ,
_ 27. Muromtsev, A. M. OSNOVNYYE CHERTY GIDROLOGII TIKHOGO OKEANA [Basic
- Characteristics of the Hydrology of the Pacif ic Ocean], Leningrad, -
Gidrometeoizdat, 1958. ~ -
- ;
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28. Muromtsev, A. M. OSNOVNYYE CHEFcT'Y GIDROLOGII INDIYSKOGO OKEANA.
[Basic Characteristics of Hydrology of the Indian Ocean], Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1959.
29. Muromtsev, A. M. OSNOVNYYE CHERTY GIDROLOGII ATLANTICHESKOGO OKEANA. ~
[Basic Characteristics of Hydrology of the Atlantic Ocean], -
Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1963.
- 30. OKEANOLOGICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA [Oceanological Research], No 4, 1964.
31. Stepanov, V. N. MIROVOY OKEAN (DINAMIKA I SVOYSTVA VOD) [World
; Ocean (Dyna.mics and Properties of Water)], Moscow, Znaniye, 1974.
32. Treshnikov, A. F.; Maksimov, I. V.; Gindysh, B. V. "Great Eastern
Drift of the Antarctic Ocean," PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI
- [ProbLems of the Arctic and Antarctic], No 22, 1966. ,
. 33. Fedorov, K. N. "Interna.l Waves and Vertical Thermochalinic Micro-
_ structure of the Ocean," VNUTRENNIYE VOLNY V OKEANE [Interal Waves in _
_ the Ocean], Novosibirsk, Izd-vo SO AN SSSR, 1972.
34. Fedorov, K. N. TONKAYA TERMOKHALINNAYA STRUKTURA VOD OKEANA _
_ [Fine Thermochalinic Structure of the Ocean Water], Leningrad, _
Gidrometeoizdat, 1976. -
35. KHIMIYA TIKHOGO OKEANA. SERIYA "TIKHIY OKEAN" [Chemistry of the
Pacific Ocea.n. Pacific Ocean Series], Vol 3, Moscow, Nauka, 1966. `
36. Horn, R. MORSKA~A KHIMIYA [Marine Chemistry], Moscow, Mir, 1972.
37. CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY, edited by I. P. Riley, J. Skirrow, London,
New York, Acad. Press, 1965. _
38. CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY, edited by I. P. Riley, J. Skirrow, London,
New York, Acad. Press, 1975.
- 39. Wyrtki, K.; Bennett, E.; Rochford, D. OCEANOGRAPHIC ATLAS OF THE _
INTERNATI~NAL INDIAI3 OCEAN EXPIDITION, Univ. Hawaii, 1971. ~
63 =
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STATE OF THE ART AND PROBLEMS OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE OCEAN
Mosr_ow USPEKHI SOVETSKOY OKEANOLOGII in Russian 1979 signed to press
- 13 Apr 79 pp 99-106
(Article by A. V. Peyve, Yu. M. Pushcharovskiy]
[Text] The develupment of modern geology depends to a great extent on _
_ our knowledge of the geology of the oceans and seas. It is hardly
necessary to talk about what enormous~practical signif icance this ~nowledge -
has. In a brief report it is. difficult to give a complete survey of the
available data on the geology uf the ocean iithosphere, and there is a
great deal of it at the present time; therefore we shall try to discuss only
the primary achievements and facts in generalized form with respect to the
basic divisions of geological science. The most urgent problems of future
research and geology, geoph5�sics and geochemistry of the ocean crust will _
also be touched on. .
The works with respect to the stratigraphic-lithologic studies of the
sedimentary layer of the ocean crust constitute a large divisi~n of
geological research.
Deep-sea drilling from the "Glomar Challenger" led to qualitative changes -
in the stratigraphy of the Cretaceous and the Cenozoic. For deposits of
this age in the tropical, subtropical a.nd temperate regions of the ocean ~
detailed zonal scales have been developed with respect to plankton _
foraminifers, nannoplankton and radiolaria precisely comparable to each
other. Zonal scales have been successfully crea.ted with respect to diatoms
and silicoflagellates, which is especially importar,t for the temperate
- a.:id polar regions. The zonal scales with respect to plankton used for
breakdown of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic of the oceans turned out to be
_ identical to those on the continent. Thus, the necessity has arisen for
creating a genuinely global stratigraphic scale of the Late Mesozoic and
Cenozoic (with resper_t to plankton) used for the oceans and continents, -
for the tropical and polar regions.
It is only by using such a zonal stratigraphic scale that it is possible
to solve~.one of the main problems of modern geology the problem of `
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synchrony (or asynchrony) of the geological processes and phenomena in
= the ocean basins and on the continents.
The application of the indicated scales during the course of deep water
drilling makes it possible to make a detailed breakdown of the meso-
cenozoic sediment of the first wave of the oceans, establish the age of
- the basal layers of the sedimentary mantle in many wells, discovei the
theoretical relation of the first and second layers of the ocean crust,
- obtain important data on the arrangement of the facies in space and time,
and the distribution of the thickness of the sediments, and to estimate Che
nature of the stratigraphic series.
~ The combination of stratigraphic and lithologic data serves as a basis
- for analyzing the evolution of the paleoenvironment of the oceans over
- the extent of deep Mesozoic and Cenozoic time, In addition, the deep
knowledge of the structure of the first layer is one of th~ components
in the theory of the occurrence of ocean depressions and their development
in the meso-cenozoic time.
In the future study of the geological sections of the ocean floor the _
problPm of the age of the basal h~rizons of the first layer have exceptional =
- significance. There is still clearly insuff icient data for compiling ,
geological maps of the propagation of these horizons with respect to the
ocean floor. Such maps (with respect to fractional subdivisions) would -
open our eyes to a number of complex problems of the dynamics of the ocean
- -floor.
Another problem is tiie analysis of the propagation and discovAry of the
- geolo~ical meaning of the discontinuities detected in many wells and
_ encompassing time intervals sometimes of tens of millions o~ year~. In '
the overwhelming majority of cases these probabiy are erosions connected _
- with variations in circulation of the water masses which, in turn, can
depend on the rearrangement of the structura~ plan of the oceans. How~~er,
to what degree this is so, what the rate of such erosi~ns is, what is the
_ situation with redeposition of micr,oorganisms all ,.f these are unsolved `
- problems.
; The data with respect to the lithologic study of the sedimentary deposits
_ of the oceans often have forced reevaluation of some of the concepts of
the origin of sedimen*ary material developed when studying the continents., `
the laws of its spatial arrangement, the sedimentation rate, th~ dis-
.
continuities in the sediment accumulation, the depths ~of the aiic;.~*!r -
sedimentary basins, and so on. As a result of a comparative study ci the
sedimentogenesis of the continents and oceans, many new discussion problems -
have come up. In particular, this pertains to the problem of types of
sediment accumulation in the oceans.
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The discovery of the clastic deposits in the oceuns forme~l as a result of -
destruction of the rock on the ocean floor is entirely new. Their study =
has only still just begun, but it, as is already now obvious, is of great -
interest boLh for recognition of the sedimentary process in the ocean and
_ for investigation of the movement of the deep water m.~ 1es and also tectonic
reconstructions. Serious scientific conclusions ca.~i ~ drawn from the
detection of such deposits on the continents. =
In order to estimate the oil and gas bearing nature of the oceans and the
borriering seas, the discovery of the composition, thickness and general
laws of the structure of the first layer of the ocean crust by the deep
_ water drilling data had special significance. -
~ The discoveries of sedimentary horizons in the oceans over broad space~
' enriched with ore components, the detailed study of the iron-manganese
concretions have great scientific and practical significance.
I should also like to emphasize that the study of the volcanic rock in the
oceans reveals the important role of the processes occurring at the
_ vulcanite and ocean water in~erface.
~ At the present time we have at our disposal broad petrologic-geochemical
- data on the magmatic rock ~f the ocean crust. In the lower part of the
ocean crust the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans the entire varied
set of_ ultrabasic rock and also gabbroids, basalts and a lesser number of
plagiogranite have been detected. As has now been discovered, it is thia =
; rock that makes up the solid ocean crust. This rock is found not only in
the mid-ocean ridges, but also in the trenches, troughs, bounding seas, -
- zsland archipelagos and in the faults of the abyssal depressions. Thus,
it i;~ now clear that over the majority of the expans~ of the oceans rock
has �eveloped which is comparable to the blocks of rock of the ophiolithic
asscciation on the continents. A�more detailed study performed in recent
tir~es indicates that in geochemical respects the rock does not have
r"aeoretical differences. Hence, the concept has developed whi~h is shared
by all mobilist-geologists that the ophiolites of the continents are blocks
of ocean crust of the geological past.
The findings in all the oceans of quite strongly metamorphosed rock
various amphibolites, including granatoamphibolites are a great di_scovery. _
~ The still more metamorphsed melanocratic rock is found in the inclusions
of the ocean basalts.
- All of this rock, with the exception of the basalts of the second layer,
is strongly dislocated, but we shall discuss this later.
At the beginning of realizing the plan for deep sea ocean drilling in
" August 1968 from the American ship "Glomar Challenger," scientists of
dzff erent countries established the basic peculiarities of the geophysical
- structure of the ocean crust which turned out to be 4 to 5 times thinner
- than the continent~l crust, and in the composition of which there is no
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granite layer so characteristic of the continent. V. I. Vernadskiy wrote
about this for the first timee Although by the end of the 1960's there was
a great deal of information about the composition of the geophysical layers
of the ocean crust, nevertheless, from the dredging data a geological
_ concept was developed according to which the first layer of the ocean
crust at the top is made up of sedimentary i�ock, and the secand, basically
basalts, and the third, metamorphic rock, gabbroids and partially ultra-
basites. Below, as was proposed, there are t:ltrabasic rocic of the earth's -
mantle. The idea was already then stated of the similarity of the sections
= of the ophiolites of the continents and oceans.
At the present time the geophysical and geological data completely sub-
stantiate the ideas of the composition and theoretical geological section
of the ocean crust, its s unilarity to tY~e ophiolites of the continents,
which now does not leave any grounds for further development of the fixistic
concepts.
We must note the fruitful results of studying the relief of the ocean floor.
The discovery of the system of mid-ocean ridges is a great contribution to
earth sciences. This discovery was the initial starting point for the _
concepts of plate tectonics. At the present time there are good maps in
the reliei .horizontals of the ocean floor without which any research would
be impossible. In the United States, for example, theoret~cally new
technical means have been created for continuous detailed topographic sur-
veying of the sea floor, which will have enormous significance.
The classical area of tectonic analysis the tectonic division of the
earth's crust into districts in the final analysis finding expression in
the tectonic maps has also yielded significant results in the geological
study of the bottom of the oceans and seas. It is demonstrated that the
oceans and large parts of them are essentially structural nonuniform, which
sharpens the attention on the differentiated analysis of their geological
history and geodyna~ics. -
- Two contradictory geological concepts fixism and mobilism have co-
_ existed in geological science for the last century. Many diff erent models �
explaining geological phenomenona have been advanced by representatives _
_ of one concept or another. We have already emphasized that fixism has
at the present time lost its signif icance, being in no position to explain
the results of studying the earth's crust of modern and ancient oceans.
Fixism, as has been pointed out by many scientists, is also incompatible -
- with the nek~ geosynclinal th.eory, the essence of which consists in the
- conversion of the ocean crust to continental. Fixism, on the contrary, is
forced to recognize the working of the continental crust into an ocean
= crust without shifting of the plates, that is, so-called oceanization. _
At the present time the model of "plate tectonics" is the most widely .
recognized in the theory of mobilism. In this generally known model, in
contrast to the mobilistic model of Begener, attention is given to two
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principal groups of phenomena: 1) spreading with the formation of a new
ocean crust in the mid-ocean ridges and 2) subduction of the ocean crust -
_ with respect to the Beniof surfaces with the formation of andesite
vulcanism in the archipelagos,
xr,e Geological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences has already for
- many years been developing and modifying the model of mobilism in general
. similar to the Vegenerov model based on a new understanding of the geosyn- -
clinal process leading to the formation of the continental earth's crust
by lateral diff erential displacement of large and small, thick and thin
plates of the continental and ocean crust with respect to different -
surfaces inside the lithosphere. By tectonic displacement and packing of
the plates in th.e oceans and on the continents crustal nonuniformities
J arise, and conditions are created for deformations, metamorphism and
magmatism. Accordingly, it is especially necessary to emphasize that, as
has now been explained, the ocean crust has complex and prolonged develop-
- ment, multiphase metamorphism and multiple deformations which must be _
taken into account by the model of p~.ate tectonics. Indeed, spreading in
_ its initial sense is, it is possible to say, "threatened," for there is
- no entirely new earth's crust anywhere, there isa crust which is renewed
as a result of introduction of inetal material i.nto it. -
_ Attention is attracted by the ubiquitous tectonic processing schist
formation, breccia formation, milonitization of the dunite-hartzburgnite
^omplex uf the lower crust of the modern oceans. If we consider the
ubiquitousness of these phenomena also in ophiolitic alloctons and protru-
sions on the continents, it is possible to propose not only the tectonic
na.ture of the Mohorovichich surface in the oceans, but also to think that
in petrographic respects it is represented by tectonized restite. There
are other zones of lateral tectonic flow of the rock masses in the litho-
sphere.
- For understanding of the essence of geosynclinal process, detailed geologi-
cal and geophysical studies of tiie systems made up of the deep water -
trench, archipelago, and bounding sea have v~ry important significance.
In these systems, in the f inal ana.lysis, conversion of the ocean crust to _
continental takes place and they correspond to the so-called iransition
_ stage of development of the earth's crust. These are the modern geosyn- ,
_ clinal syste~?s. The cardinal problem in the given area is the origin of
the deep water trenches and depressions of the bounding seas. The latest :
experiments have shown that the bounding seas can have different or_igin, ;
but in many cases it has been established that to one degree or another .
- these are strain structures. They represent an element of the tectonically
- unstable zones next to the ocean where along with the creative process
there are destructivP processes. Therefore the cause of forn.ation of
certain seas (the Sea of Jap~n, the Coral Sea, the Tasman Sea and a number
~ of others) is parting of olocks of the earth's crust.
, ,
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However, there are forms, for example, the'deep water depressions of the
Barents Sea the Aleutian-and Bowers cut off from the ocean bed by
the archipelagos that do exist. From the point of view of ~evolution of
the earth's crust such a phenomenon :.s entirely legal.
The origin of the deep water trenches (geosynclinal trenches) still cannot
_ be considered expla:ined. As is known, there is the point of view that -
they represent the structural expression of subduction zones. Accordingly,
it is necessary to mention the seismic profiles through the Kuril deep
water trench obtained by the expedition of the Yuzhmorgeo Association and
demonstrated at the Conference of the Interdepartmental Tectonic Committee~
in February 1977. A system of reflecting surfaces of the outer slope of
the trench scbmerged under the inner slope i~ visiUle on them. Analogous
prof iles are obtained also by the SakhKNII Institute expedition. However,
in the first case the "pleutectonic" interpretation is given, and in the -
second case, that the trench is a tension structure and that the second -
layer of the outer slope is facially replaced by the rock of the inner
slope. -
,
Geologists have been able to write more than once in the past that the
deep water trenches are tension structures usually coupled to chain type
of volcanic uplifts. It is worthwhile to note that the deep water trenches _
or, better stated, the slit type troughs, also exist ~utside the archipelago
systems, being found within the limits of the central regions of the ocean
floor. They include, for example, the Diamantina or Obi trench in the
Indian Ocean. In the central part of the Philippine Sea we have the Yap
trench. This confirms the idea of the nature of the trenches being that -
- of a faixlt in which displacement is perpendicular to the breakage surface,
but it is possible that the trenches have different origin.
Then let us touch on the prob.lems of the shelf and continental slope -
geology. A great deal of attention is now fixed on the shelves. For more
than 10 years the United Nations has had a Commi~tee on Coordination of
- Research and Joint Development of the Mineral Resources on the Shelf of
Asia. On this committee many countries are represented: Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, Japan and a number of others. The
United States, the Federal Republic of Germany, Australia, Great Britain,
The Netherlands and Canada are intensely interested in the work of the
committee and participate in it. The committee has given special attent~.on -
to f inding and exploring oil and gas deposits and also to the sea coast
placers. At the present time the studies have assumed a very broad scale,
and several international geological and oceanological organizations have
- become involved in them. Moreover, a trend has been noted toward encompass-
ing not only the shelf but also the slupes to the abyssal regions and to
some degree, even these regions themselves, in the research. Additional
technical mean~ and qualified personnel and money are being,f,�.md for the
organization of this research. The developed capitalist countr-~es are
participating grea.tly in all of this work.
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This is only one example of the increased i,nterest in the study of the
shelves.
From the literature on shelf geology, however, it is obvious that the
_ required clarity is not to be found in the tectonic interpretation of thp
"shelf" cr~ncept.
- The new ideas of the geosynclinal process, as has already been stated,
offer the possibility of an entirely new approach to the understanding of
the process of the formation of the continental earth's crust. It can
- either be mature or not mature (uhere the granite-metamorphic layer is
still continuing to be formed) or decaying (undergoing destruction). ~
The shelves are formed in all of these cases, but they have signif icant
characteristic features respectively. The general geological def inition
of the term "shelf" can be proposed in the following form. The shelves `
are the edges of the ocean or sea floor bounded by the continental slopes
or sides of the deep water sea basins. Here the emphasis is placed on the
edges of the bottom and not the continents as is usually assumed. This is -
more precise. The shelves are divided into passive and mobile.l The
passive shelves have a plate structure and are a continuation of the
structural zones of the dry land with a mature continental crust. The
moving shelves are characterized by a more complex tectonic relief and
they are associated with the mobile zones where the granite-metamorphic
layer is in different s~ages of formation, and the continental crust as a .
- whole is still not mature. The passive shelves are characteristic, for
exa~nple, of the Atlantic, and moving shelves, for many regions of the
western part of the Pacif ic Ocean. ' n
By definition it is estahlished that the shelves extend to the continental
slope or the sides of the deep water basins. Of course, with respect to
structural role this is not the sa~~:; thing as is usually considered in
geomorphological literature. For exa~ple, the scarps separating the _
continents from the oceans cannot be mad? parallel with the slopes of tYie
deep water basins of the inland seas, and so on. However, they are -
- ch~~acterized by one cou~nun characteristic: in both cases there is thinning
and wedging out or breaking off of the granite-metamorphic layer. The _
r_ectonic essence of such scarps consists in this. Now we must d.iscuss the
program for future research, the results flf which will depend entirely
- on the technical means which we shall have.
~
_ The geological-geophysical and geochemical studies are being conducted ir. !
~rder to discover the laws of the composition, the structure and develo~--
ment of the ocean earth's crust and to estimate the mineral resources in _
its depths.
- 1For more details see M. S. Markov, Yu. M. Pushcharovskiy, S. M. Til'man, ~
"Tectonics of the Shelf Zones of the Eastern Arctic and Far Eastern Seas,"
SOVETSKAYA GEOLOGIYA [Soviet Geo.logy], No 1, 1978. ,
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As xs known, in the slielf regions of the ocean and seas great quantities
of oil and gas have been extracted for a long time, but it does not
appear possiblP to estimate the mineral prospects of the oil and gas-
bearing nature of the oceans themselves without deep sea drilling. The -
latter fact along with the primary scientif ic significance has stimulated
the development of a plan for deep sea d~illing and the construction of -
= a special drilling ship, the "Glomar Challenger" in the United States.
In the next 10 years it will be necessary to direct research toward the
development of the principles of earth sciences stratigraphy, lithology, _
tectonics, geophysics, geomorphology, petrology, geochemistry and the
studies of minerals using the materials from the national and international ~
_ scientific programs for ocean studies.
= Two divisions form the core of these programs:
l. The geologica.l structure and history of development of the upper part
- of the ocean crust predominantly by the deep sea drilling data, partially -
with respect to dredging and geophysical data.
- The leadership in compiling the deep sea drilling program and in performing
, these studies goes to the United States. our,goal is maximum use of the
core material from the wells for the development of a naticnal scientif ic
- program. In addirion, it appears expedient to extend Soviet participation
in the IPOD project. In addition to the direct participation in drilling
stipulated by the a~,reement, the Soviet Union could develop the comprehen-
sive study of the core material more broadly than at the present time and
_ resolve the scientific problems of stratigraph~~, lithology, petrology,
geochemistry and geophysics of the ocea.ns. The scientific research institu- _
tions of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Ministry of Geology and
the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR must be involved in this.
In the ftiture the scientists of the Soviet Union could participate in
= compiling general surveys of scientific data with respect to geology and
geophysics of the oceans by the drilling materials.
2. The composition, age and nature of the deformations under the condition
of occurrence of the rock in the lower part of the ocean crust and compara-
tive study of the lithosphere of the oceans and continents.
Above all, these studies are connected wi~th the study of rock corresponding
with r~spect to its physical properties tu the third and frequently the
second layers of the ocean crust. We have in mind the ultrabasic rock r
(lherzolites, dunites, hartzburgites, and so on), metamorphic rock (green -
. shales, amphibolites, grana.toamphibolites, and so on) and also basic rock "
(gabbro, diabase, basalts, and so on) known in the various structures of
the ocean crust of all oceans. All ~f the institutes of the geology,
geophysics and geochemistry division of the USSR Academy, of Sciences, the
Institutes of the Scientific Centers of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the
Republic Academies of Sciences and the USSR Ministry of Geology could unite
- their efforts around these experiments.
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The solution of the problem is possible by using purposeful detailed
multistage dredging (and in the future even by using special submarines)
accompanied by auxiliary geophysical studies in the various tectonic
structures of the oceans. The study of rock obtained from natural denuda-
- tions will be large contribution to understanding the geology of the
lower part of the ocean crust which, as is proposed, will not be studied
so quickly~.by dril~ing. It is also necessary to consider that the propo~ed
superdeep drilling cannot because oF the great expense provide the abundant
rock material which can be obtained when performing specialized, compara-
_ tively cheap studies of natural denudations on the steep slopes of the -
ocean floor. -
The comparative study of the lithosphere of the oceans and continents
_ includes not only the stratigraphic-lithologic, petrologic-geochemical -
and tectonic studies performed on a comparative level, but also special
- geophys~.cal studies to compare the lithosphere of the oceans and continents
and to solve the general problems of geodynamics.
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GEOLOGICAL PROSPECTS FOR THE MASTERY'OF SOLID MINERALS OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
Moscow USPEKHI SOVETSKOY OKEANOLOGII in Russian 1979 signed to press
13 Apr 79 pp 107-117
[Article by P. L. Bevrukov]
[Text] The interest in the study of the mineral resources of the deep
- sea regions of the World Ocean has increased sharply in many countries in
the last 20 years. This is connected with the ever-increasing demands for
new sources of mineral raw products, the development of technical means,
the expansion of knowledge about the geological structure of the ocean
floor. -
In this article a study is being made of the geological prospects for the
mastery of solid minerals at great ocean depths beyond the boundaries
of the shelves. This restriction is not at all connected with the fact
that.the minerals of the shallow water regions have secondary significance.
On the contrary, in the near future they will be the primary object of
development of the mineral wealth of the sea floor. The scientific aspects -
of the search for minerals on the shelves, abave all, the placers of
valuable heavy minerals, are discussed every year at various conferences.
At the same time the problem of the exploitation of the mineral resources
of the deep sea parts of the ocean still is given less attention inasmuch -
as it appears to be a matter of the remote future. In reality, there is
still no country that is exploiting the minerals of the deep sea regions
on an industrial scale. However, the preparation for 3.t in the form of
various research and experimental projects is proceeding at growing rates.
Therefore it is expedient tc look ahead, into the depths of the ocean and -
consider the modern state of the art of the knowledge with respect to this
= new problem.
At the present time, as a result of the work of numerous oceanographic
expeditions of varia.us countries and also deep sea dri.lling it is possible
to state with certainty that there are various forms of potentially useful
minerals or sediments and rock with increased concentrations of valuable _
= metals in the sedimentary series of the oceans and that some of them,
above all, the multicomponent iron-manganese ore con~retions, 3re already
acquiring industrial significance.
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In addition, it is necessary to note that both abroad and in the Soviet -
- popular scientific literature exceptionally optimistic conclusions are
being drawn regarding the possible practical value of certain mineral
formations of the ocean floor. However, the concept of the ocean floor
- as an inexhaustible storehouse of various types of mineral raw materials
still needs prolonged, serious geological and technical-economic substania- _
tion. Here it is necessary to consider the signif icant difference in
structure of the continental and ocean crust, the great uniformity of the
composition of the latter and the low accessibiiity of its deep regions.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that the degree to which
geologists have studied the oceans still remains thousands of times less
than the geology of dryland.
In addition to the sedimentary series, ore mineralization shows are
en~:ountered on the ocean floor and in magmatic rock predominantly in the
active volcanic ridges, in the fracture zones. However, the prospects for
finding industrial deposits in these rocks at great depths still are highly
indeterminant. Something will be said about the knawn shows of sulfide
mineralization in magmatic rock of the ocea.n floor below. In the deep sea
regions of the ocean at the present time primary attention can be attracted -
� to the minerals not of the magmatic rock, but the sedimentary series and,
above all, that occurring on the surface of the floor. '
~!snon~ them, above all, it is necessary to mention the iron-manganese con-
cretions covering enormous expanses of the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic
Ocean floors. In postwar years they were studied in detail by expeditions
of a number of countries, including the Soviet expeditions on the "Vityaz"~
and other scientif ic research vessels. In the last 10 to 15 years the
- United States and certain other countries have intensified their studies
of the iron-manganese concretions in conne~tion with proposed industrial -
use of them. _
The most important characteristic f eature ot� ocean iron-manganese concre- _
r_ions is the increased, and in places, quite high content of such valuable
- metals as Cu, Ni and Co in them, by which they differ from the shallow
water concretions similar to those exploited in the Baltic Sea. The _
average content of each of these elements in the Pacific Ocean is about
0.5%, and the maximum reaches 1-2"~. In addition to the mentioned metals, -
the concretions contain increased.concentrations (by comparison with the _
country sediments) of Zn, Mo, Pb and a number of other metals (a total of
more than 40 elements). ~ -
_ The iron-manganese concretions are widespread in the oceans under various _
tectonic and facial conditions and in a large range of depths. They occupy
ttie greatest areas on the floor of the ocean troughs at depths from
4 to 6.5 km, that is, below the critical depth of carbonate accumulation, _
in regions with minimum sedimentation rate (