JPRS ID: 9145 USSR REPORT SPACE

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• Sequence Number: 31
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/9145 .
17 June 1980
USSR Re ort
p
- SPACE
CFOU~ 6/80) _ ~
~ Fg~$ FOREIGN BROADC~ST INFORMATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/9145
].7 June 1980
USSR REPORT
SPACE
(FOUO 6/80)
Moscow NOVOYE V ZHIZNI, NAUKE,'TEKNIKE, SERIYA 'KOSMONAVTIKA,
ASTRONOMIYA, ' in Russian No 3(NAUCHI~TYY ORBITAL' NYY KOMPLEKS
1980 pp 1-63
(Brochure by K.P. Feoktistov, professor, doctor of technical `
sciences, pilot-cosmonaut of ~he U5SR, 30,300 copies]
CONTENTS
SCIENTIFIC ORBITAL COMPLEX ~
'Aanotation ~
A Little Hietory 2
5tructural Deaign of the "Salyut-6"-"Soyuz" Orbital Complex II
"Salyut-6" Station Flight Syateme 17
4rientation and Motion Control Syatem of the
Station (SOUD) 17
Combined Power Plant (ODU) 17
Electric Power Supply System (SEP) lg
_ Solar Cell Orientation System (SOSB) 19
Heat Regulating Syatem (STR) lg
Life Support System (SOZh) 21
Station Radio Equipment 24
Docking Assembly 25
Syatem for Controlling the On-Board Complex (SUBK) 26
_ Scientifi~ Equipment Z~
"Soyuz" Manned Transport Ships 27
"Progress" Cargo Tran~port Shipa g~
~
- ' a- jIII - USSR - 21L S&T FOUOJ
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i vu va r ivina+ u.au va~t~ t
Role of Automation and Maa on Board the Orbital Complex 40
Proapecta for the Development of Orbttal Complexes 45
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- SCIENTIFIC URBITAL COMPLEX
Moacow NOVOYE V ZHIZNI, NAL"'iC.E, TEKNIKE, SERI~ZA 'KOSMONAVTIKA, ASTRONOMIYA,' ~
in Russian No 3(i~AUCHNYY ORBITAL'NYY KOMPLEKS), 1980, pp 1-63
[Brochure by K. P. Feoktistov, profeasor, doctor of technical sciences, -
pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR, 30,300 copiesJ
[Text] In this brochure a atudy is presented of the "Salyut"-"Soyuz"
- orbital complexea. The author of this brochure~ one of the creators of this
complex, pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR, Prof K. P. Feoktistov, presents
intereating data on syatems, equipment, and the experimental base of the
complex. He discusses the prospects for ite development.
.
The brochure is designed for engineera, teachera and students of the
inatitutions of higher learning and the technical high schools participating
in the advance classes and also a broader clasa ot readera inte::ested in the
moderz~ achievements of ~cosmonautics.
1
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A LITTLE HISTOP:Y
In 1958 the Deaign Office of S. P. Korolev began work on the first future
epacecraft, the "Voetok." Evea then the participants in this work thought:
"And what next? Where will we go after "Vostok"? Some thought the moon,
othera thought Mars, and atill othera thought orbital statione. The next
yesr when we had still only begun the production of drawings, circuit dia-
grame, and the f irst parts of the apacecraft had begun to appear in the plant
shopa, the argumente about the future became still hotter.
The engineers were united the path to the development of manned apace-
craft lies in the solution of the problem of the rendezvous and docking of
spacecraft in orbit. A group was formed which was charged with the inveati-
gation of this problem. This group was assigned the goals of discovering
the technical problema connected with rendezvous and docking, planning
vereions of the aolution, finding organizatioas which could develop the
neceaeary equipment. At the beginning of 1962, the theoretical work had
been completed by the efforta of this group, on the basis of which it was
poseible to proceed with the deaign.
The design problem was stated by the deaigners themselvea, and then it was
- more preciaely defined aeveral times by S. P. Korolev. The decision was
made to design a new apacecraft on which it would be possible to work out
all the problema of rendezvous and docking. It was proposed that simul- ~
taneously this apacecr.aft would be ured to increase the duration of flight~
improve the living and working conditions of the crew, reduce the G-loads
affecting man when returning to the earth, and expand the posaibilitiea for
performing research and experimenta. It wae thought that on the basis of
thie epacecraft with time it would be possible to create a tranaport unit
for aervicing orbital stationa.
The work of designing the new spacecraft (subsequently called the "Soyuz")
etarted in 1962. Obviously, that yes.tr has to be conaidered the year of the
beginning of work on orbital stations. -
The basic problems which were solved when developing the "Soyuz" spacecraft .
are the creation and the development of ineans of ineseuring the parametera
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of motion of two space vehicles relative to each other, the control of the
rendezvous and docking proceas, the mechanical-electrical docking of the
apacecraft, the creation of aervice propulaion engines and coordinate _
engines providing for the rendezvous and docking processea. In addit::ton,
it was neceseary to create and develop in flight new systems for orientation
and control, mean,s of ~ieacendiug to the ground using aerodynamic lift (for
reducing the G-laads when descending and for decreasing the diepersion of
the landing part of the spacecraft when returning to the ground), a new la:~d- -
ing syatem with redundancy of the parachute eyetem, and so on.
In the middle of 1962, the firet initial data wer.e prepared for the develop-
ment of the technical documents, and work was atarted on the preliminary `
deaign. As the drawinga, tha circuit diagrams of the individual systems
and the ship as a whole and the test inatructions, and so on were developed,
it became clear that the "Soyuz" spacecraft wss aignificantly more compli-
cated than the "Voetok." Hundreds of inetruments, thousands of parts, tens ~
of kilometera of cables. All of this had to be connected into a uniried
operating whole; it had to be worked out in tens of experimental aetupa.
" Whereas from the b,egi:nni~ng of the design of the "Voatok" apacecraft (ati11
umnanned) to its~firet flight took approximately a year and a half, the
time required to build new spacecraft turned out to be appreciably longer.
A great deal of time was taken up, for example, working on the simulation of
the internal compoaition of the landing vehicle, the development of the heat
ehielding, means of applying it and checking out the fitness of it, aero-
dynamic and thermal studiea, thearetical investigations of atability and
control of the landing vehicle on returning to the atmosphere. The work on
the new landing syatem required the creation of special modela of the 1r~nd-
i.ng vehicle dropped from an aircraft and a large number of full-ecale exper-
iments. It was necessary to build a new propulaion unit, a system of
control engines, new units for the heat regulating, life aupport and other
systems.
Theoretical difficulties arose not only in the development of the system for
determining the parameters of relative motion of two spacecraft (durin~
rendezvous), tre control system for this procesa, but also when creating the
- means of monitoring auch aystems on the ground before flight. Such means
are created for all on-board systems and assemblies inasmuch as wiChout a
monitor check in the autonomous system and on the asaembled spacecraft, not
o:~e inatrument, not one ayste~ can be allowed to fly. The complexity of
checking out the system for measuring the parametezs of relative mation on
the ground iR cannected with the fact that when checking out the system it
was nec~:aeary to simulate the motion of two apacecraft relative to each
other ancl ~~heck out ita operation with relative mutual orientatior.. of the
epacecrafr. Not only the functioning of the aystem ia checked out, but also
the accuracy of ineasuring the range, velocity, anglea, and so on.
Al1 of these operations took several years, and the f irat manned flight took
place only in April 1967. It ended tragically: on landing, the pilot nf
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the apacecraft, Coemonaut V. M. Kou?arov, was dead. The reason for this
accident was a failure of the parachute landing syatem. The uncalculated
operating conditione of the parachute aystem were manifested on this flight _
although che flight of the first "Soyuz-1" spacecraft had been preceded by
succeseful aircraft teet~ng of the landing syetem and urmoanned flights.
- In 1967-1968, a large number of additional tests were run an the landing
system. In October 1968~ the apacecraft flights were again started. The
flights of the "Soyuz" spacecraft in 19~8-1970 made it possible to accumulate
the neceaeary experience which permitted coaversion to their uae ae trana-
port vehicles. The moat important milestones along thie path were the
flighta of the "Koamos-186" and the "Koemos-188," "Koamos-212," and
"Koamos-213" satellites to work out the problems of docking in the automatic
mode in 1967 and 1968~ the docking of two manned "Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5"
spacecraft in 1969, and prolonged flight of the aingle "Soyuz-9" spaceccaft -
in 1970.
In 1969 it became clear that the problem or rendezvoue and docking of space-
craft was in practice aolved. Next was the problem of creating the orbital -
etation itself, and in 1970 work was started on building the "SAlyut" station.
The initial statement of the problem was defined as establishing a type of
beachhead in the field oi manned orbital stations. The decision was made
to develop the f irat atation as a laboratory~ on which the basic principles
of creating manned orbital etattona were to be etudied, a number of
ecientif{c and technical experiments were to be run, and the posaibilities
of prolonged human flight in orbit to be inaestigated. The work on the
"Salyut" atation was participated in by many collectives of designers and
appcialiats of the various deaign orfices and acientific research inatitutes.
The "Soyuz" Apacecraft was modernized simultaneously in order to convert it
to a transport vessel for servicing the orbital station. Here the primary
goal was to provide the poasibility of transf erring to the station through
the docking unit (after docking the spacecraf t with the s~ation) in order
not to have to use locks to make the transfer or cross through outer space
in epace suits. In order to solve the given problem, it was necessary to
redesign the backing units aignificantly to say nothing ot their operating
system.
The document for the atation and for modification of the "Soyuz" space-
craft (conversion to the transport version) was basically completed in the
firat half of 1970. The drawinga for the hull of the atation were completed -
i in the apring. This made it possible to manufacture the stntion by the
end of the year, and to inaert it into orbit on 19 April 197].. The first
"Salyat" atation operated until 11 October 1971, rraving spent about a half
year in orbit.
During tha course of thie first flight of the "Salyut" type orbital� station
a comprehensive check was made of the fitness of the station. Its
equipment, the life support syetema were studied under actual space flight
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conditions. Another goal was considered no less important. The prospect~
for the further development of the orbital atatiane, the manned epace fli~hte,
mastery of outer apace by man directly depend to a eignif.icant degree on how
long man can work under weightleseness conditions. During the flight of t:~e
"Salyut" ~tation~ a new step was taken along the path of increasing the
' flight time of man in orbit. 4 crew made up of cosmonaute
G. T. Dobrovol'skiq, V. N. Vollcov and V. I. Patsayev ~ived az~.~ werk~d for
23 days on board the station. They felt satie�actor.y dur~ng thi~ longest
flight of the timea.
It is necessary to note that before this flight the cosmonauta had nev~r
before dealt with such a quantity of on-board equipment. It ds ~uff:icient
to etate that the Cotal maes of the equipment installed on board the station
wae measured in tona. In the future the saturation of the stationa with
equipment wae to even be increased, and therefore it was necessary to check
how the crew could deal with the execution of a broad, varied program, work-
ing with such a large quantity of instruments under prolono~~d flight condi-
tions.
The atation crew performrd a series of ar~trophysica~ studies and technical
experiments. It performed many visual observations and medical-biological
studies and, the main thing, it made testa of the first orbital station in
_ space flight. The experience acqutred during the coursa of ~xecution of
_ the flight program made it possible td ~roceed with the building of improved
~ stations. This flight demonstrated simultaneously that when bui7.ding the
"Salyut" it was necessary to find sufficiently eimple and re.liable engineer-
ing sol~utions for all of the station asaembliea. Indeed, it was necessary
to do this in the first pasa: the "Salyut" was the first v~rsion of an
orbital laboratory.
When the "Soyuz-11" returned to earth~ before entering the at~uosphere there -
- was an emergency loes of seal in the spacecraft, as a zesult of which the
crew died. After r.his fli~ht, a number of chan~es were made in the des3gn
of the apacec~aft; the crew was equipped with spacesuits in case of
emergency decompression o~ the apacecraft in the most complicated parts of
the flight: insertion into orbit, descent, docking (in ~hese parts ~f the `
flight the crew must wear their spacesuits). The refinements ~iade were
checked out in ground tests and on a single flight of the "Soyuz~l2" space-
craft in 1973. In subeequent years several "Salyut" stat:~~~.s :aere built
and inserted into orbit.
Here I should like to discuss the "Salyut-4" and "Salyut-6" stations, for
these stations operated for the longest time in the mrnne3 mode. On the
basis of the accumulared experience, the "Salyut-4" stati~n was modif.ied _
aignificantly. Firat of all, it is necessary to note the modificafiion of -
the power aupply syatem (beginning with the "Salyut-3," salaz cell,s which
_ oriented themselvea on the sun were introduced), the c.reation of a:~
aconomical orientation syatiem~ and improvement of communications ~aith the
ground (telegraph communications of the earth a station with an alpha-
betic printer), the development o� an experimental ays~.zm for regennrating
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the water obtained from the atmospheric moisture condensate, expansion of
the composition of the scientific equipment~ and so on.
The "Salyut-4" atation was launch~d at the end of 1974, and it stopped
operat ing only in 1977 oa instructions from the ground. Ttao crews worked �
on it for approximately 1 aad 2 monthe. At the same time the next important
etep was made in increasing the duration of Soviet maruied space flighta.
At th~ end of 1975~ th~ unmanned "Soyuz-20" spacecraft was docked with the
atation in order to perform long-term resource tests on the spacecraft under
orbital flight conditions in the atation makeup. During flight of the
- atation, numeroua atudies, observations and experiments were performed in -
astrophyaics~ geophysics, in the field of developing methods of studying
natural resources and ~he en�airoinnent, and medical-biological experiments.
The next theoretical step in the development of the work to modify the
orbital atations was building the "Salyut-6" station, as a reault of which
it was necessary aignificantly to expand the possibilitiea of realizing
proloaged manned flightg.
The duration of a manned flight in the abaence of systems on board the sta-
~ tion to insure a cloaed material c,yclel, is determined by the atores of
life support means and the posaihilitiea of prolonged storage of oxygen,
water, food~ linens, domestic ele~ments, hygienic materials, and so on. In
addition, fuel ie needed to control the orientation of the station and also
for the control of its braking in the upper layera of the atmoephere.
,
~
~ -
,~'xn
' ~ZSo
~
(1) o sv x~ ,v~ -
BpenR cyu~etmGolnnua,cym. ~ 2 ~
Figure 1. Time of existence as a function of height of
- circular orbit
Key:
1. fleight of circular orbit, tan
2. Time of existence, days
~ 1Such a sys~em exiats at the present time, and it operates reliab~y only
~ on the ground in its biosphere; the equ3pment providing for individual
elementa of the closed cycle is still only ~ust being developed.
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Snu '
~ ,
C1)'~ � .
1G'? Z50 3G17 JSO �q7
eer~nr,~ Kos�~ a~,Kti(2)
Figure 2. Fuel expenditures on maintaining orbit as a
function of orbital altitude
Key:
1. Ex~enditures of fuel, tons/year
2. Circular orbit altitude, km
Two graphs are presented in Figures 1 and 2 which illustrate the time of
exiatence of the atation as a function of the orbital altitude and I:he
quantity of fuel which must be apent per year to maintain ita orbit. It
must be noted that the fuel is also needed to correct the orbit, in order to
ineure optimal conditions for rendezvous with tranaport vehicles launchecl
from the earth: before launching each spaeecraft in turn ~t is necPasary
to "correct" the orbit so that the pa*h followed by th~ atation will pass
o~?er the laur.ch site of the vehicle a- the time it is Zaunched.
If we remalr. on the level of the mid-1970's~ it turna out that about 10 kg
per man per day of etoree are required for life suppart alone. In addition,
it is neceseary to add fuel and equipment which muat be replaced ~n flight.
If everything is taken into account, it turna out that in order ta provide
for the operation of the station in manned flight for 2 years it would be
necessary to create about 20 tone of life support means and fuel on board-
the station. However, this exceeda the weight of the ex~tire "Salyut-6"
station. In addition, it has equipment designed for cosmnnauts to warlc on
board.
It was necessary to aolve the problem of prolonged operation of thP station
in the manned mode by cxeatin~ r_argo tiansport vehicles to deliver equip-
ment, food, water, oxygen, fuel, and so on to the station. In order thaC
Che atatfon be able to receive the cargo vehicles, a dock with a d~cking
unit was installed on board on the service module sider and a new combina-
tion engine was inatalled which could be refusled i~n f3.ight from the cargo
vehicles. Accordingly, the Soviet deaigners built the "Salyut-6"-"Soyuz"
ecientific orbital comple x.
The work on the "Salyut-6" atation and the "Progreas" spacecraEt began in
1973. The station was launch.ed in 1977. In the elapsed t3me, aevernl
expeditiona visited the station, including the internazional expedi.tions;
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the "Progress" cargo vehicles flew to the station many times. They deZivered "
equipment and refueled the station engineo The most important achievement
obt~ined on the "Salqut-6" station was a significant increase in the given
flight time under weightlessness conditions, as a result of which our coun- -
try took the leading poaition ia thie field.
Structural Design of the "Salyut-6"-"Soyuz" Orbital Complex
The "Salyut-6"-"Soyuz " orbital complex includes the ~rbital ataLion itself
. (or the orbital module), the manned transport vehicles "Soyuz" and the ~
"Progresa" cargo transport vehicles. The orbital module is the base for the .
complex: it providea the capability for the crew to live and work under
space flight conditions, it provides for functioning of the complex (supply-
ing of the atation and the spacecraft with electriC power, insurance of the
- necessary conditions for the crew to work and the equipment to function,
maintenance of the orbital altitude~ orientation, communicationa with the
earth, and so on), and, final].y, it provides for performing acientific-
- technical studiea and experiments.
1 2 J 4 3 6 7
d 9 A7 ~ 1i JZ ~3
- Figure 3. Station compartmenta: 1-- forward docking unit;
2-- exit hatch; 3-- sm$11-diameter zone of the working
compartment; 4-- conical part of the ~*orking compartment;
5-- large-diameter zone of the working compartment; 6-- _
service module; 7-- rear docking unit; 8-- transfer compart-
a~ent; 9-- forward bottom; ~.0 hatch between the transfer
and working compartment; 11 scientific equipment compartment;
12 hatch between the intermediate chamber and the working
compartment; 13 intermediate chamber
- In order to maintain the necessary conditions for the crew to move and work
on board, the orbital station muet have a sealed ineide volume with a gas
atmoaphere acceptable for man and with the correaponding temperatur e, means
of eating, domestic aervices, and so on, and meana of communicating with
the ground, it must offer the possibility of observing outer space~ it muat
have control means (orientation and on-board equipment), equipment for
ecientific-technical research and experimenta, during the performance of
which the direct participation of the crew members is required.
t
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It ie deairable that tr~e sealed space and weight of the station be as lar~e
ae poeaible: in this cbqe a quite large amount of ecientific equipment,
oxygen, food, water, fuel, and so on will be placed on it. However~ with
an increase in the inaide volume, the dimensione and the structux�al weight
of the atation increase~ which contradicts with the capab~J.ities of modern
booster rockets available or apecially built for inaertion of the orbital
module.
The booater rocket used to launch the "Salyut-6" atation permits insertion of
- an orbital module with a maxi~um d~ameter of 4.15 metera and a length of
~bout 13.5 meters. Greater dimenaions of the station (in length or diameter)
would lead to an increase in the load on the s~ructural elements of the
booater rocket and therefore are inadmis4ible. Tn addition, the orbital
_ module ia plac~d~~ir. the upper part of.the booater rocket, and, consequently~
ite upger part, where the so-called transf er compartment ia located
(Fig 3), muat be fitted to the hull design of the noae cane, which terminates
the upper part of the entire rocket and orbital module complex. This is
neceasary to insure an acceptable load level on the booster ~nd expe~zd~.tures
- of fuel to overcome aerodynamic drag in the segment of movement ~f. the
complex in the atmosphere. The restrictions with respect xo size and,
conaequenCly, with reapect to inside volume are determined in this way. The
weight of the orbital module which can be inserted by this booster xocket is
about 19 tons, which is the restriction with respect to weight o.f the
module. When development the station it is necessary to begin caitk~ th.ese
_ restricti~ns and see to an eff icient distrib ution of volumes (and dimen-
siona, correspondingly) and weights among t~~e various "~~sers": the volumes
required for the crew to live and worlc; the vol:unes and masses allocatecl for
the propuleion units, equipment~ lifa aupport means, acienti~ic equipmen.C,
and so on.
Thus, when deaigning the station it is necessary to establish, and in all
futur,e phases of operations, conatantly monitor the weight, dimensional and
apatial budgeta, always making them commensuratile with the technical re-
~;uirements and capabilities. During the development, the designers had to
carry out and monitor an entire series of "budgets": the power supply (how
much electric power the instruments, the systems of the station use in the
various modes and how much of it can be obtained, using, for example, solar
cells with given orientation of the station and with given position of its
orbit with reapect to the direction of the sun), heat (how much heat is
released inaide the station by the crew and instruments, how much of it
gets into the etation from external sources such as the radiation of the
- sun and earth~ and how much heat is radiated into outer space through the
radiatora and other external elements), oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
station atmoaphere, water on board (how much the crew consume.s, now m~ich is
released by them into the station atmoaphere, how much water can be puri-
fied and used~ how much water wi11 be abaorbed by the regenerators, how
much ia adsorbed on the structural elementa and equipment~ how much water
must be used ger day in order to close the budget), and so on.
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Finally, it is neceaeary aleo to consider the time "budget," which is
expended on the perfor~qance of the corresponding operatione in outer space
(correction of the orbi.t, rendezvou~~ dacking~ fueling, tranafer of cargo,
repaire, waste, and so on), medical monitoring, coumiunications, rest, eating,
phyaical training and the performanca of research and experimenta. In
reality~ with respect t~ all of its parameters~ the station, just as a space-
craft, ~ust as any complex machine~ ia designed coneidering a compromiae
betwaen what {e desired and what ie poaeible.
The dimeneione of the "Salyut-6" atat~on in practice determine ite inside i
sealed volume equal approximately to 90 m3, the basic part of which goea to
the working compartment. In addition to the working compartment~ the sCa-
tion hae two other sealed compartmente (connected to the working compartment
through hatchea): the tranafer compartment (2 meters in diameter), and the
_ intermediate chamber (see Fig 3). The manned traneport vehicles are docked
to the transfer compartment, and it serves as the connecting link between
the spacecraf t and the orbital module.
In addition, the tranafer compartment ia used as a lock for exit of the
coemonauts to outer epace. Therefore there are apaces in it for working in
outer epace, their on-board equipment, fittings, the pressure release
vslves, monitoring and control pan~le. There are seven windows in the wells
of this compartment which are uaed by the crew during viaual observations
or experimenta connected with visual observations of the earth, the moon
and the horizon.
The cargo and manned traneport vehiclea are docked with the intermediate
chamber. This chamber which is 2 metera in diameter and 1.3 meters long is
used as the buffer epace between the working co~npartment of the station and `
the transport vehicles. It is used for partial placement of the delivered
cargo. Air ducts are run from the station to the epacecraft through the
~ tranefer compartment and the intermediate chamber after docking in order to
ventilate the inhabited compartmenta of the apacecraft.
The working compartment is the main compartment of the station; the crew
lives and works in thia compartment; the basic equipment of the station is
placed there. The etructural design of the hull of this compartment must
insure reliable~seal of t~?e inside volume (it is natural that these require-
mente are also valid for the transf Qr compartments and for the intermediate
chamber), protection from the eff ect of the externa.l vacuum, proCection o�
the crew and the inatruments from the effect of micrometeurites; it is per-
misaible to place inetruments and assemblies on the outside surfaces which
- are positioned to "see"~into auter space: the sensitive elements of the '
orientation syatem, solar ce11s, optical devices, scientific equipment
(which cannot "operate" through the windows), antennas, radiatora, and so
on.
The creation of an all~welded structural design of the hull of the space-
craft would be ideal for the solution of the problem with respect to sealing
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the apacecraft, but this is in practice impoesible. There are an entire
seriea of factors interfering with thia solution. In particular, it is
etill not possible reliably to weld glsas and metal without diseurbing the -
optical characterietics of the glaes. For technological arguments ir_ is
_ undesirable to weld the hull of the working and transf er com~artmente, the
working compaxtment and the ecientific equipment compartment: thousands
of electzic wirea and a large number of hydraul3c lines must run through the
sealed outline of the compartments on the outside. Fir.ally, it 9.s necessary
periodically tio connect the inside volume to outer apace (for example, for
- e~ectian of waste).
Therefore, in deaigning the hull of the stiation it ia necessary to introduce
hundreda of eplit aealed connections which, as a rule, are sealed by rubber
inserts. The choice of materials and atructural designs of these seals must
be made considering the thermal conditions of the sealing locations, the
- mobility of the ~oint, the i�equired open-shut reserve,the effect of the
eacternal hard (primarily, ul traviolet) radiation (if this seal is d:Lrectly
on the outer aurface), and Fo on.
In recent years when the duration of the manned flights increased sharply,
the problem of protection ~'rom micrometeorites became more acute. During
the flights of fihe "Vostok" and the "Voskhod" and in tlie f irst years of tl:e
flighCs by the "Soyuz" spacecraft this problem in practice did not exist.
On the basis of the theoretical and experimental reaearch, jt was established
_ ChBt the probability of breakdown of the sealing wall of the spacecrnft by
a micrometeorite is very ama11 and it amounts to hundredths and even
thoueandtha of a percentage for a flight time of the cosmonauts of several
days (conaidering the aize of the spacecraft). These results of calculating
the probabilities are based on various mode].s of the micromEteor~.tic c7.oud
in the vicinity of the earth's orbit and the properties of the interaction
of the meteorites with the material at the spacecraft wa11,
At the present time the duration of the apace~flights is reckoned in months
(for epacecrAft) and even years (for orbital atations). Here the probability
of breakdown of a aingle-shell design of a apace vehicle by micromeCeoritea
comea quite large, and it must be taken into account when deaigning the
acientific, orbital complex. In the modern stations it is simply impossible
to use a single-shell structural design for the hull of the sealed compart-
ments. ~
Usually in the structural design of the hull of the working compartment,
in additinn to the aealing shell, screens are used which are installed at a
defined distance from the shell itself. The essence of the given method
of protection against the danger of micrometeorites consists tn the follow-
ing. On colliaion with the shie~d, the micrometeorite explodes (inasmuch
as the speed of movement of the particle with resp.ect to the statjon is
10-30 km/aecl), and the remains of the micrometeorite and the destroyed
ahield material, expanding rapidly (in the form of a~et) lose energy which
would permit the particle to penetrate into the sealed v~lume.
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Part of the hull o� the working compartment of the "Salyut~6" wae enclosed
- in the radiator o� the heat regulating system of the atation which at Chis
point plays the role of an antimsteoritic shield also. The remaining part
- of the hull of the working compartment, the hull of the tranafer and the -
inCermediate chamber is protected either by epecial antimeteoritic ehields
or by other etructural elementa (the panels of the heat regulating syetema -
the ehell of the eervice module, and so on).
The sealed hull of the working compartment ie formed of two spherical
bottoma (forward, on the tranefer compartment aide, and the rear, on the ;
intermediate chamber aide) and two cylindrical surfaces (one 2.9 m in
diameter and 3.5 metera lor.g, the other, 4.1 m in diameter and 2.7 m long).
These two cylindrical structures are ~oined by a conical surface (1.2 meters -
long). On the ahell of the large-diameter cylinder (4.1 meters) there is a _
hole in which the scientific equipment compartment is installed. There,
too, in the direction opposite to the scientific equipment compartment, two
locks are installed for e~ecting waste. The hull of the scientific equip-
ment compartment is simultaneously part of the sealed hull of the working
- compartment (see Fig 3).
The choice of this aealed layout of the working compartment arises from the
following reatrictions: the total length of the sealed compartments must
not exceed 13.5 metera, a max3mum diameter (considering the heat ahielding)
of 4.15 metera~ and the configuration of the forward part muat be fitted
ins3de the cone of the outer ahape of the upper part of the rocket and
orbital module complex. It is true that it ia possible to make the entire
~ working compartment in the form of one cylinder 4.15 meters in diameter. But
then it would be imposa~.bl~e to place the solar battery inside the atipulated
outer boundary of the complex. The decreaae in diameter of the working com-
partment in thia part to a length of 2.9 metera is also designed to inatall
the solar batteriea of the power supply system made up araund this cylinder,
ther e .
This entire part of the hull of the working compartment together with the
solar cella and the transfer compartment is enclosed by the nose cone which
is ejected when the rocket leaves the dense layers of the atmosphere in the
orbital insertion aegment of the flight. The nose cone provides protection
against the velocity and heat fluxea (in the generation section) not only
for the solar cells, but also the antennas located on the outside surfaces
of the transfer and working compartments (2.9 meters in diameter) and the
- optical indexes of the rendezvous system, the optical sensors of the auto-
mated orientation syateme of the station and eolar cella,the optical instru-
ments for visual orientation in the ~ase of manual control of the atation,
acientif ic equipment, panels with the heat regulating system unita, the heat
regulating system radiator (on the outer surface of the part of the working
compartment).
The ineide volwne of the working compartment is divic~ed into two primary
zones: inatrument (where the instruments and asaemblies are primarily
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- placed) and living (where the crew lives and works). The instrument zone
ie placed along the walla of the atation on the right and left si,dea, on
the aealing, An the floor and in the vicinity of the rear bottom. Of course,
the "right" and "left" (and the implied concepts of "forward" and "back"
respectively) are provisional coacepts for a apacecraft. For the "Salyut"
etationa, we mean the following. On one aide of the working compartment
there are optical infrared sensors for conetructing the local vertical, the
axia of which ia perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the station. Fo: -
orbital automatic orientation their axes coincide with the local vertical,
and thie side is turned toward the earth (th$t is, "downward") for orbital
orientation.
~,~"�R'w'n
a-a
~ C'
i �
O)
CZ' IN�UAOA !A'!Q
Figure 4. Instrument and living quarters of the working
compartment
Key:
1. Inatrument zone
_ 2. Living qua.rters
On this aide inatruments are installed for visual orbital orientation with
manual control (which are also turned "downward"). The 1~'-6M and the
KATE-140 cameras designed to photograph the earth's surface also "look" in
tt~e same direction. Therefore ~he given side is a]:so provisionally con- '
sidered the floor of the station.l The "forward" direction is defined as
~he direction of the transfer compartment (it corresponds to the "forward"
direction in the orbital insertion part of the trip). Finally, from these
two defined directions, the "right" and "left" sides of the station are
uniquely defined.
The instrument zone (Fig 4) ia separated from the living quarters by panels,
for the most part easily removable~ for access to the instruments and units
in case it ie necessary to inspect them or replace them in flight. The
control panels and displays are either located directly in tihe living
quartera or they are cut into these panels. In the instrument zone there
. ia equipment for the control syatems for the on-board complex, orientation
and control of the movement of the station, telephone communications with
the earth, a command radio link, television systems and also telemetry
systems, systems for orbital monitoring, power supply (buffered batteries
lAlthough more frequently the orbital station is realized without �uel
conaumption by means of gravitational forcea and then the 1oca1
- vertical ie connected with the longitudinal axis of the station.
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_ and autou~ation), life support, medical monitoring, and part of the heat
regulatin~ system automation. By ueing the ~ans, the gae-liquid and cold
drying units~ the aix is circulated through the inatrument zone and heat
released by the instrumenta duxing their operation and from the air moving
through the inatrument zone into the heat regulating system of the station
is removed.
5 8 9
~
; ; ~p i~~~ ~ ~
- s ~ ~ 9
Figure 5. Location of the control stations:
1-- atation No 1; 2-- station No 2; 3--- station No 3;
4-- station No 4; 5-- station No 5; 6-- station No 6;
7-- station No 7; 8-- right side; 9-- left side
The residential quartera take up all of the remaining volume of the working
compartment. In them it is possible to ieolate the control station at
which the crew controls the station, performs studies and experiments, ,
carries out medical monitoring of the condition of the entire organism and
gl~o the zone for the performance of physical exercises, places for eating
- and sleeping, and for the sanitary-domestic needs (toilet~ shower). '
In the working compartment there ars five control stations connected with
the execution of defined operatione (see Fig 5). SCation No 1 ia the central
control station. It has two work areas. There ie a main control panel with
conmiand eignal eignals for isauing commanda with an indicator of the eta-
tion position (as pointe) relative to the aurface of the earth~ indicatore
of the automatic programs being executed, optical and sound aignals~ clocka,
and so on. The optical instruments for visua.l orientation with respect to -
the earth~ the control panel for the on-board computer, the information
unit all are iristalled here.
Station No 2 is uaed for manual astronavigation of the station. It is
equipped with a panel~ communicat3on media, astronomical instruments and a
~control handle. Station No 3 ie designed to control the submillimeter
teleacope and the sutonomous cooling system of the teleacope receivers.
This station is also equipped with panels, communications media, a viewer
and control ?~~ndles. The medical-biological equipment is worked with at
station No 4. This station is in the lower central part of the working
compartment at the ~unction of the large and small-diameter cylinders. The ~
equipment for movie and photographic surveying ia placed here. Finally, -
atation No 7(stations No 5 and No 6 are located ia the transfer compart-
ment) ie uaed to work with the control panels of the system for regenerating
water from condensate and scientif ic equipment. All of the stations are
- equipped with lights and communication media.
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The zonea for performing physical exercises are located near statioii No 4.
On the first long ~lights the necessity for so-called weightl~essness pro-
ghylactice was diacovered. The ~act is that under the conditione of pro-
longed orbital flight when a man ia not under the effect o� gratir~.tvp the
load on the heart decreasea noticeably (the heart does not have to ~vercom~
~ the hydrootatic presaure of the blood on the order of 0.15-0.2 atmospheres);
the groupa of muacles providing for the poasibility of standing~ w~llcing,
sitting, and so on are not loaded, the internal muscles supporting the
internal organs (lunga~ stomach, liver, intestines and so on) are not
loaded, and finally the skeleton itaelf is not loaded.
All of this, if preventive measures are not taken, can lead to some muscular
atrophy and to defined difficulties an readapting to the earth's gravity on
_ return of the crew to the ground after a prolonged flight. This was observed,
for example, by the American astronauta F. Borman and J. Lovell af ter their
return to earth after a 14-day flight on the "Gemini-7" spacecrzft i~ ~965, -
inasmuch as during that flight they were in practice unable to move actively.
It was also noted by A. G. Nikolayev and V. I. Sevast'yanov ~fter their
return from an 18-day flight on the "Soyuz-9" spacecraft i.n 1.970.
At the present time the most suitable means of controlling the effece ~f
weightlessnesa is the use of special devices on board the orbital station
- Crainera designed to provide noticeable additional load on the heart and
basic muscle group$ when per~orming phyaical exerciaes. These mean:~ include
the veloergometer,l treadmill, and a pneumovacuum suit. The treadmill,.as
is clear from its name, is an endless belt on rollers driven by an electric
motor. The speed of the belt can be regulated, at the same time ~e~ulating
the speed of walking that must be maintained by the cosmoi~ut exercising on
~ the treadmill.
Naturally, the speed of the belt is regulated by the coamonaut htmself. In
order thaC he not "fly" off the treadmill while walking, it has a system of
elastic atraps (with ad~uetable tension on the order of several tens of
kilograms), one end of which is fastened to the belt of the cosmonriut, and
the other, to the stationary part of the treadanill. The tension of these
straps in some degree simulates the loads during walking and r.unning on the
feet, the leg musclea, the bone tissue, and so on.
The pneumovacuum suit is a sealed container worn by the cosmonaut on Che
legs and the lower part of the body and sealed at the waist. The vacuum
pump creates rarefaction inside the cavity on the order of 30 to 50 mm Hg,
1The veloergometer is a type of bicycle whl.ch runa an electric generator.
It is true that the electric power generated by this generator (alas!) is
useless: it heats up the air, lost in the ballast resistances, However,
by ad~uating these resistances it is possible ta regulate th~.e load which
the cosmonaut must overcome when pedalling the veloergometer.
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lt makes it possible to create some additional hydrostatic lo~d on the
heart.
The veloergometer ia located on the "ceiling" of the station. The tread- ~
mill and the pneumovacuum suit are located on the "floor," in the vicinity
of the conical adapter. In accordance with the on-board instructions
- (which are law on board the station) the crew must exercise 2 to 2-1/2 hours `
a day on these trainers. Flight practice has demonstrated that such means
are quite eff ective for the tested flight times.
- In the rear aection of the atation there ia a coilet cabinet with cesapool
which provides for the collecL-ion of was*_e from the vital activity of the
crew and for purification of the station atmosphere. The urine and solid
waete are collected in special sealed containers which are then e~ected as
they are filled into outer space through locks. A shower stall is unfolded -
when needed in the vicinity of atation No 4. After taking a shower the
etall is folded back up.
The bunka for the crew are located on the side panels and on the "ceiling"
where the sleeping bags can be attached. The cosmonauts eat breakfast,
dinner and supper at the table located in the vicinity of the station No 1.
The food heaters, the eating facilities, means of fastening a water tank and
food tank are located here. ~
Iri ~ddition to the sealed compartments, the atation includes two unsealed
- compartments: the scientif ic equipment bay and the service module. The
hull of the scientific equipment bay (see Fig 3), as was stated previously,
ie part of the sealed shell of the working compartment. It is a truncated
cone, the inaide volume of which is open to outer space. The acientific
equipment which cannot "operate" through windows is installed in the hull
(on the "Salyut-6" atation thia includes the BST-1M submillimeter telescope;
on the "Salyut-4" atation, the OST-1 solar telescope, the "Filin" and the
RT-4 x-ray telescopes, the ITSK infrared telescope, and the spectrometer).
In the orbital aections where the acientific inatruments are not uaed, the
compartment ia closed againet outer apace by an unaealed cover with vacuum
ahielded thermal insulation designed to protect the scientif ic instruments
from sun beama and insure thermal conditions for the compartment (so that
the compartment will not cool off as a result of radiation in outer space).
_ With respect to appearance the service module is a cylinder 4.15 metere in
diameter and 2.2 meters long with two end frames~ one of which is fastened
to the lower end frame of the working compartment and by the other the
service module is connected to the supporting frame of the booster rocket.
In the service module are the tanks, the pneumohydraulic automation, fittings,
service propulsion and control engines of the combined power plants. In
addition, the antennas, targets and light indexes of the rendezvoua sys-
tem and also the antennas of the other radio syatems are installed in this
module.
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"Salyut-6" Station Flight Systems
Orientation and Motion Concrol Syetem of the Station (SOUD). J'ointly with
the servoelementa (the control and service propulaion engines o` the -
combined power planta) the following problema are aolved by this system:
1) au*_omatic orientation of the etation (~n the orbital or inertial coardinate
systF~ms) for thE performance of scientific observations or experiments;
2) generation of the directional correction pulses for raising or correcting
the atation orbit (when preparing the orbit for rendezvous ~vith the trans-
porc vehicles); 3) orient~tion of the station in the rendezvoua pr.oceae on
_ tf~e approaching traneport ahip, participation in radio exchange of signals
with the transport ahip requir.ed to determine the parametera cf relative
motion of the station and the spaceship; 4) orientation of the s~ation (in
the orbital or inertial coordinate system) with "manual" control by the crew.
The SOUD includes various aensitive elements: gyroscopes, angular velocity
_ gauges, longitudiaal acceleration integrators~ infrared plotters of the
local vertical, solar and ionic sensors and also the optical orientation
instrumenta: with reapect to the earth's horizon (for constructing the local
vertical with manual orientation in the orbital coordinate system), with
respect to the apparent direction of "travel" of the terrain (for conatruc-
tion of the orientation with respect to the flight direction), by the stars
(celestial orientatioa devices and a sextant). In addition, the SOUD
includes the radio rendezvous equipment which ~ointly with the radio equip-
ment of the transport ship provides for measuring the relative parameters
_ of motion and also the electronic, logical, calculating and commutation
devices.
~he achievement of one goal or another~ as a rule~ can be insured by the
SOUD in various modes and ueing various sete of instrumei~ta. Th.uo, for
example, ttie orientation of the orbital coordinate system can be insured as
a result of aperation of the infrared local vertical plotter jointly either
with the ion senaora (with corresponding calculation modules) oL with solar
aensors~ or with the "Kaskad" economical orientation system and, finally,
by manual contro"l.
This property of the SOUD provides deep functional redundancy in the given
system.
Combined Power Plant (ODU). Its goals are the following: 1) the output of
pulses t~ change epeed and direction of motion of the station to raise or
correct the orbit, 2) the creation of contr 1 thrusts as a result of ~
operation of the control engines for orientation of the station or to main-
tain the given attitude of the station in space. The pulse output can be
realized as a result of the operation of one or two liquid-�propellant
service propulsion ~et engines located at the end of the service module
with a thruat of 300 kg each. , -
Inasmuch as the required range ot the control pulses is quite broad (from -
minimal for maintaining economical orientation to highly signif icant during
rendezvoue with a tranaport vehicle, especially when one ship is already
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docked to the atation), then several ~et control engines must be installed
on each of the control channels, and they can be included both individually
and in groups. With reenect to the pitch and heading channele (that is~ for
the creation of momente around tha axes perpend~.cular to the longitudinal
axie of the station)~ from one to eix control engiaes can be ~witched on,
and for the Lank channel (tr..at is, around the longitudinal axis), two or four
engines can be switched on. The thrust of each control engine (a total of
32 of them) is about 14 kg-fArce.
" In addition to the aervice propulsion and control engines, the ODU includes ~
six tanks (wh~:re fuel is stored) , tYce purging tanks with gas (for forcing
the fuel out of the tanks into the main lines from which it goes to the
- engines), compresaora, hydropneumatic automation (presaure reducera, the
pneumohydraulic valve, the pressure.gauges and temperature gauges), the
commutation and logical devices, and the hydropneumatic lines.
In the tanks the fuel is separated from the purging gas by using metal
bellows aeparators. If there were no such separators, the gas and fuel
would be mixed under weightlessness conditions, and the engines would receive
gas, fuel and a gas-liquid emulsion alterna.tely~ which could lead to failure
of the engines or to other inadmissible deviations. Usually flexible sep- _
aratora made of organic films have been used in the power plants of space
vehicles as the fuel and purging gas separatora. In the ODU of the "Salyut-6"
= etation it was necessary to convert to metal separators in order to provide
for multiple f illing of the tanks and prolonged storage of the fuel. ;
i
The compressora are used for preparing the ODU for filling, during which the
gae ie pumped out of the gae cavity of the fuel tanks into the purging tanka
(both the service propulsion and the control engines are aupplied from the
same tank). Nitrogen tetroxide is uaed as the oxidizing agent, and '
asymmetric dimethyl hydraaine ie used as the combustible component of the -
f uel . _
All of the units and the pneumohydraulic automation of the ODU are placed
in the aervice module. Inside the module and on ite p:.rface (where the
engines are located) poaitive temperatures aie maintained as a result of
pumping the liquid heat transfer agent through the lines welded to the
sh~athing of the module. The temperature of the hea.t-transfer agent is
regulated by the heat regulating syatem of the atation. The engine instru-
ments are inatalled in the working compartment. ~
Electric Power Supply System (SEP). The purpoae of this system, as follows
from its name, is the supply of DC and AC power to the on-board systems
and scientific equipment. The SEP includes solar cells, storage batteries,
DC-AC invert~rs, and control automation.
The photoreceivers of the solar cells are installed on three panels, each
of which has an area of about 20 m2 and a multiply folded frame structure.
The latter ariaes from the fact that in the phase of insertion of the
1$
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station into orbit, the solar cells must be packed in a tight apace
betweer~ the nose cone and the cylindrica~ hull of the wozking compartme:zt.
After insertion of the station into orbit, each of the panels is unfolded.
The base of the panel ia faetened to a apecial drive wt~ich turns the solar
cell around the aicis perpendicular to the longitudinal aacis ot the ata� ~o~z.
At its base there ia a ehield which, after unfolding the panel, prevents
- radiation exchange between the solar cells and the radiator of thc~ neat
regulating system located on the same cylindrical surface. Two solar ce.lls
are arranged in the "lateral" directions ("right"-"left") and one, "at th~
top." The fourth panel, which could occupy the "bottom" ie ~tbaent; j.z
other worda it would interfere with the field of view of the optical sensor~,
epectrometera and the visual orientation instruments inatalled ln tl~is part ~
of the station.
The ~oint operation of the solar cells, storage batteries and current us~rs
- is provided for by using the SEP automation which protects the storage
batteries from overcharging (by using voltage pickups on the primary f eer;
buaes and pressure gauges in the individual storage batteries), The same
automation protects the system from overcharging by using the minimum
voltage sensors and excluding part of the on-bosrd users if the voltage
falls below the admissible amount. -
The dyna.mic state of the buffered atorage batteries is controlled by us:tn~
ampere-hour meters (the consumption and intake of pawer in the system are
monitored) and voltage gauges on the feed buses. The monitoring is provided
both telemetrically (at the flight control center) and on the control
panel (on board the station)
Solar Cell Orientation Syetem (SOSB). This syatem includes a se~ oi ae~gi-
tive elements which "look at" all of outer epace; the ele~.tronic modules
which generate the signals from the sensitive elements; the co~unutatior.
devices and the drives for the solar cells. The system operates autonomously
and in practice continuously for the entire flight time of the station.
By the signals from the sensitive elements, the logical device determines
in what direction the sun is ~ocated with respect to the station and hoVr
each panel of the solar cells should be rotated around its axis so that it
will receive maximum amount of solar power. The sensitive elements are
arranged in groups on the forward end of the working compartment and ozz the
af ter end of the aervice module.
The atructural line of the drives for the solar cells provides not only for
rotatian of the solar cells, but also the transmission of electric power,
commande and high-frequency information through the rotating connection
(the radio system antennas are installed on the ends of the sol~r cells),
Heat Regulating System (STR). The goals of the STR include the following:
1) maintenance of the air temper~ture inside the sealed compartments of
the stgtion and the crew quartera of the docked spacecraft acceptable for
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the crew of the orbital complex; 2) tnaintenance of the required temperature
conditions in the instrument area of the working compartment; 3) insurance
of the thermal conditions of the unsealed compartments and all the elements,
inatruments and units located on the outsid.e surfacea of the atation;
4) maintenance of the theYmal conditione of the spaceahipa docked to the
atation.
The STR is made up of several hydraulic circuits and passive media. The
hydraulic circuits include the following: 1) the loop for removing the
heat from the atmoaphere of the working compartment (the inside cooling loop);
2) the loop for thermostating the hull of the station; 3) the loop for heat I
outpuC to the outside radiator (the outer cooling loop). Each circuit
includes lines filled with liquid heat-transfer agent, pumps, condensers
~ (to compensate for the variation in volume of the heat-transfer agent when
the temperature chaagea), liquid-liquid and gas-liquid heat exchangera,
the regulating cocks, temperature gauges and various valves. -
~
The circuits for removal of heat from the air and the circuits for thermo-
stating the hull are filled with nontoxic and fireproof coolant (the anti- _
freeze type)~ and the outer radiator of the circuit is f illed with organo-
eilicon coolant which retains its operating cha.racteristics ~at temperatures
_ no lower than -70�C. The greater part o� the units of all of the circuits
(pumps, compensators~ valves, and so on) are put together on special plates
outsid~ the sealed compartmenta. The temperature of the liquid in the
iruter cooling circuit is automatically regulated with an accuracy of +2�C
atiCh respect to one of the selected ratings: 5, 7 and 9�C.
The heat is removed from the air either by using a cooler-drier (where the
atmoapheric moisture is condensed aimultaneously with subsequent exhauat
of the condensate to the moisture pickups) or ueing gas-liquid heat -
exchangere (of the automobile radiator type). The cooler-driers and the
gas-liquid heat exchangera include a fan to provide for the air flow
between the tubea of the heat exchanger and the air flow rate regu?ator
(a ehutter with drive) which regulates the heat flux from the air to the
cooling aurface.
The sensitive element, by the readings of which the air flow rate is reg-
ulated in the automatic mode is the air temperature gauge. In the living
areas of the station a temperature is maintained of 18-25�C, the moisture
is kept within the limits of 20 to 80%. In addition to the cooler-driers
and the gas-liquid heat exchangers, the air circulation in the station is
maintained by a system of fans, part of which are located in the instrument
area and part in the crew area. In the crew area the blowing epeed is
within the limita of 0.1 to 0.8 m/sec.
The heat and gas exchange between the stations in the docked spacecraft is
realized through a~r ducts (with fans) and an intermediate hydraulic cir-
cuit (part of it is located on board the space craft, and part on the
etation) for heating the transport vehicle. This circuit is closed when
the space ship is docked with station. The necessity for such measures
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(with respect to heating the apace ehips) is connected with the fact that
after docking of the apace ship, the greater part of its equipment is
- ewitched off, and the crew in practice works at all times in the orbital
module and, consequently, the heat release inaide the space ~h~p _i,a decre~i~ed
aharply .
_ The paesive heat regulating meane include the packeta of vacuum shielded
heat inaulation covering all the surfaces of the station not Calcen up with
radiaCore, engines or seneitive elements and separating the radiators �rom
the hull. All of the elements of the heat regulating system r~re r.edund~nt.
Lif e Support Syatem (SOZh). The problems solved by the life support sys~em
are highly varied and require the use of a variety of equipment. The life
s~apport mEans include the following: a system for maintaining the gas
- composition, water supply equipment, feeding devices, cesspool and sanita-
tion unit, locks, shower, routine sanitation equipment, clothing, ptiarm~:cy,
means of inedical monitoring the condition of the crew organism and also the
weightlessness prophylactic means.
The system for maintaining the gas composition must insur2 the atmospherl.c
parametera inside the station necessary for sustaining normal life condi-
tion of the coamonauts: with respect to overall pressure (within the li~nits
of 700 to 960 msn Hg), with respect to partial pressure of oxygen (within
the limite of 160 to 240 mm H~), with respect to the partial pxeasure of
carbon dioxide (within the limite of 0-9 mm Hg) , with respect to l~armful gas
impurity content (within the ad~issible limits). The system inc~~udes
regeneratore, harmful impurity f ilters, compressed air tank~, gaa analyzero, _
and meane oF monitoring the atmoepheric presaure.
The regenerators are cartridges f illed with chemicals. On pumpin~ air -
thxough them (by meana of a fan) they absorb the carbon dioxide and
moisture snd release oxygen. The regenerators are disposable each of
them, af ter being switched on~ gradually is saturated and then ceases to
operate, after which the next must be switched on, and so on. The store of
regenerators initially installed (on the earth) provides for the crew's
' 1lving for the first 3 months. For continued work in t he inanned mode beyond
~ this period it is necessary to deliver and install "fresh" generators on the -
station regularly and remove the spent ones in order to prevent them from
taking up inside space.
The harmful impurity filter absorbs the gas impurities which get into the
atation atmosphere as a result of the vital activity of the crew and the
release of any type of materials used in the structural design, in the
instruments and cables of the station. The filter ia f illed with activated -
charcoal, chemical absorbent and naterials that catalyze the process. The
air is pumped through the filter by a fan.
_ For each exit of the crew from Che station into ou:.~~r space a volume of air -
ia lost to the outside from the transfer compar*_:~ent (about 6 m~), zn
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addition, for each e~ection of a container with waste through the locks,
gas is lost. Not only oxygen~ but a1s4 nitrogen is lost. In order to
compensate for these Iosses, compreased air is deiivered as needed by the
freight epacecraft, and it ie releasad into the etation atmosphere.
The gas analyzera monitor the compoeition of the aCm~sphere with respect to
oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture. Air samples are taken as needed and
delivered to the earth where the station atmosphere is monitored for harmful
_ gas impurities and microbea. _
I
The preasure is monitored by a system o� gaugea and preasure signals (to
aignal the crew in case there is a leak in the station), the readings of -
which are transmitted to the cEntral panel and to the earth (through the
radiotelemetric system) and also by a precision pressure gauge. This system
includes valves and elements to control them which with the hatches closed,
provide for equalization of the pressure between compartments, between the
station and the docked spacecraft (which is necessary to allow for opening
the hatches) and release of the pressure from the transfer compartment
before the crew exits to outer space.
~he water supply mean.g include the syatem for regeneration of water from
condensate, various tanks for the delivery and storage of water and al.so
devices for receiving water. The syetem for regeneration of water from the
condeneate was tested on the "Salyut-4" station. It uses moisture collected ~
ftoln the atmoaphere of the station by the STR cooler-driers. The moisture
entere the cabin atmosphere as a result of breathing of the cosmonauts and
release of moisture by evaporation through the skin. There is approximately _
the same amount of carbon dioxide and water vapor in the gas exhaled by a -
human. Each crew member releases about 1 kg of water per day into the
station atmosphere. ~
The container with the condensate is connected to the water regeneration
system. The condensate is pumped through ion-exchange columns, it is
sterilized, heated and goes to the water batching unit. Inasmuch as the
system for regenerat~%,n of water from condensate does not fully meet the
crew's demand for water, water that is delivered gradually in various con-
tainers is also used.. Before putting the water into these tanks, it is
converted by introducing ionic silver into it (this method of conserving
water has been known since ancient times). The cosmonauts are fed several
times a day on the station. Their menu includes canned meat, pates, soups
_ in tubes, ~uices, tea, coffee, cheese, bread, and confectioneries. Part of
the fo~d is used cold, and part the main couraes and any type of puree
in Cubes~ coffee is heated before consumption. In addition, produce
deliveries (with apples, onions, garlic and so on) are made on board the
station as selected by the crew in practice on each "occasion" (that i+s,
with the manned and cargo apacecraft).
The cesapool and sanitation unit is designed to remove liquid and solid -
producta of the vital activity of the organism of man. The liquid excre~nents
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are carried away hy a flow of aiz' into a spec~.al collector. The liquid
remains in the collector, and the sir passed through a filter is r.eturne.d
to the etation atmosphere. A�ter they are full~ the collec~org ~re e~ected
through locks. The solid waste ia collected in individual sn?all contai:zers
atored in sealed containera which are e~ected af ter they are filled. T;~e
tanka for the liquid waste and the containers f or the sol.id waste oE v:ttzl
activity are delivered on the cargo spacecraft as needed. Each of the
two locks inatalled on the station for e~ection of waste is made up of a
, etationary houaing connected to the aheathing of the working compartment
and ia a part of its sealed hull and a moving inside hull. Both hu11s have
- a spherical ahape. When loading the lock with the container, thE~ in~ide hu11
- is turned with its hole inside the station, and it is clamped by its rcar
(opposite to the hole) part through a sealing ring to the e:~it opening of
the atationary housing separating the aealed volume of the station from
outer space.
After loading, the hatch cover is closed, the air is discharged from the
chamber, and the inside housing is removed from the seal and turned ~vith the
- hole out to discharge the container. The discharge is realized using a
spring mechanism and a system for releasing it. As a result ~f brakir.g in
th~ atmosphere, the dischargedcontainers gradually lose altitude, arid after
several months they f all into the dense layers of the earth's a.tmosphere and
burn up.
The shower of the "Salyut-6" station operates on the water sCored on the '
station (the water in the shower is heated before use). The cosmonaut
takes a shower in a cabin made of organic f ilm. The heate~ water. is
supplied under pressure to the apray head of the cabin and ia removed from
= the cabin by the flow of a ir pumped through the moiature collector f rom the
cabin. The moiature and the detergents are collected in the co:.lec~or in
this case, and the air pasaed through the f ilter goea to the atmosph.ere of
the cabin. _
The ;:outine sanitatiot~ equipment also includes the things needed for hygienic _
use; electric razors, toothbrushes, toothpaste, wash cloths, to~rels, combs,
and so on.
The medical monitoring of the condition of the organism of each crew memb~r
is realized approximately once every 10 days. During the time of the
- monitoring~ the crew wears special belt with a system of sensors anrl is
connected to a control unit which makes it possible to take an e~ectro-
cardiogram~ an electroencephalogram, a.nd so on. The recordings of the med-
ical parameters are made both with the cosmonauts in the quiet state and
aga~.nat a background of load or when performing special testa.
~ In order t~ estimate the condition of health, in addition to these measure-
ments, the observations by the crew themselves were used (reported daily to
the earth) along with objective data on fitness and appetite, observations
during televiaion reports and radio sessions, regular monitor~.ng of body
weight of the cosmona.uts using a mass meter. -
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The spacewalk eupport means include spacesuits, on-board equ:tpment pro-
viding �or teating and ~unctioning o~ the epacesuits be~ore going outside [
and also a control panel �or the epacewalk. The spacesnits are the aemi-
rigid type; they can be donned in calculated minutea. The autonomaus work
time of a man in a epacesuit' ie about 5 houre. The epacesuit, eyetems pro- ~
vide for communications with the partner on the apacewalk and (through the }
on-board station) with the earth, the oxygen supply for the man. the removal
of water vapor and carbon dioxide from the ineide cavity of the apaceeuit,
the thermal conditione, seal and protection of the eyes from direct sunlight. `
The design of the spacesuit �offers the posaibility of moving freely, apply- i~
ing force and working with the fingera of the handa.
Station Radio Equipment. The radio complex provides for two-way radio tele-.
telephone communications with the earth from on board the station and when
a crew member:is on a spacewalk, reception and output of telegraph communi-
cations to the crew in the form of printed material (texts and tablea), ~
telephone communicationa between the atation compartments and with approach-
ing tranaport vehiclea, transmission of television images to the earth, re-
ception of t~levision informatioa from the earth on board the apacecraft,
- telemetric measurements, radio monitoring of the orbit, transmission of the
control commands from the ground to the station, "settinga" and digital data
for the on-board computer, and coordination of on-board time by ground time.
The telephone communicationa with the ground and between spacecraft are ~
realized by redundant radio channels in the ultrashortwave, decimeter and
ehortwave band and telegraph communications in the shortwave band. The
communications equipment includes receivera, tranamitters, the corresponding
automation~ commutator~s, control elements, antennas, acoustical equipment
(telephones, loudepeakere~ microphonea, and so on).
The televieion set makea it poseible to tranemit both black and white and
color imagea to the ground. During the third basic expedition, a televiaion
_ receiver was delivered to the "Salyut-6"-"Soyuz" orbital complex, and it
was connected to the on-board antennas which made it possible to receive
black and white im,ages from the ground.
The tranamisaion of telemetric information to the ground is provided for by
ueing two multichannel radio telemetric systems with redundant memories.
' The telemetric information containa the results of scientific measurements,
the data from medical monitoring of the crew, the parametere of the
atmosphere.and the thermal conditions of the structure, the internal and
external elements of the station, data on the operation of the mechaniams,
unita and inatrumenta. These data are tranamitted over the radio channela
- to the ground stations located in the USSR and on marine shipe uaed in the
radio communications ayatem with the station. The information received at
the ground stations ie tranamitted to the flight control center, it is
_ pruce8aed as it arrives on thP ground computers and there it is output to
the duty peraonnel of the control center an displays. The information ia
recorded at the eame time in the form of grapha and tables.
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- Ftadio monitoring of the orb~.t is realized by using two transponders and
ground measuring devicea. Th~ pxocessi,ng o~ this in�ormat~.an ~.n the Fround
computer centers makes�it poseible to cal.culate the oxbit o~ the st~ztion and
output the lnformat~.on required to correct the orbit~ determine the 1~unch
times of tha spacecraft~ the performance of long-range rendezvous o� the
spaceeraft and atation~ the organization of comm4nication ae~sions, coardin.a-
tion of the results of the studies with the poaition of the station rela-
tive to the earth's surface on board the spacecraft, to the flight cor~trol
center and to the network of ground measuring comm,and atations.
The reception of command and digital data on board ia prov:ided for u~ing _
receiving, decoding and switching devices.
Docking Assembly. The docking assea?bly ia made up of two types of specia'1
unita (docking units): passive and active. The two passive docking units
(canee) are installed on the statione; the active docking units (the "pin"
_ type) are installed on the manned and the cargo transport spacecraft. The
docking asaembly provides for the following: 1) the selection of the
- admisaible deviations during docking and mechanical lock-on when the space-
ahips and the stat:Lon make contac~; 2) extinguishing of relative a.ngular
vibrations (of the spaceship and the station) occurring as a result of the
fact that the direction of the relative velocity of the s~~acecraft does not
inters~ct the center of mass of the station; 3) equalization of Lhe ax~s of
the spacecraft and the station; 4) contraction of the latter bef~re contact
_ of tlie end planes of the docking unite; 5) sealing of the pin; 6) passa~e
of the crew from the spacecraft to the atation and back. All these funetions
are realized during ~oint operation of the mechanisms and automlt~.oi~ of
the docking assembly.
The active docking unit is made up of the docking mechanism (the "p:i.n" type)
and the atructural ring with the sealing mechaniema, the elltptical and
hydraulic plug. Analogously~ the pasaive docking unit is m~de up of the
receiving cone with a receas for lock-on of the head of the p:in of ~he active
docking mechanism and the structural ring with the mechanism. When docking
tkte spaceship with a atation, the electrical plugs of the hydxat~lic lines
are connected simultaneoualy.
After contr~ction of the structural rings the locks on the head of the pin
are retracted and the rod part of the pin ia pulled i.n. With th.is the back-
ing proceas ends, and the process of checking the seal of the ~oint begi.na
~ which is performed either by the crew of the docking m3nned spacecraf*_ or
from the ground (when docking a cargo spacecraft oJith the station). The
seal is checked in two steps by the pressure stability: in the smal7. cavity
between two annular rubber seals (this cavity is fi.rst connect_ed for a
ahort period of time with the inside of the apacecraft and is tP,us purged),
and then in the large cavity of the docking units (in the space be4weezi the
- rubber ring seals, the inaide space of the cone and the sur.face of the pin).
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In each of the unite (paea~,ve and act~.ve) thexe ie a hatch (with a syatem
for locking and aealing i.t) �or the cxew to paea ~rom the apacecr~ft ~nto the
station and back. The hatch includee a cover, the drive for opening and
cloeing the cover and tha seal drive (e p~n ie also installed in the cover of
the active unit).
For undocking, the preasure is released from the large cavity, the drivea
of the peripheral locka disengage the latches and four spring pushers separate
the epacecraft and the station. Undocking can be performed both by iastruc-
tion from Che apacecraf t and by inetruction from the atation. In addition,
there ie a pyrotechnical undocking aystem.
Syatem for Controlling the On-Board Complex (SUBK). This system makes it .
poaeible to control the atation, ita eystems, instruments, units, scientif ic
and experisnental equipment both from the ground and by the crew. Simul-
taneoualy, Che SUBK must provide for initial logical analysis with respect
to the performance of certain operations of the inclusion of individual
eyateme and instruments in the given developed situation (so-called analyais
for the simplest requirements of noacontradictoriness). For example, the
service propulsion engine cannot be ewitched on if the orientation system
is not ready to operate, or it is impossible to actuate the gyroscopes if
there is no report that the gyroscopes are wound.
The SUBK ie made up of logical devices, commutators, program-timing units, ~
control and diaplay panels, and the inatrumenta for connecting the electric i
~ power supply. The control instructiona (to awitch the individual systems, ~
inetrumente, and so on on and off, to introduce conditions under which cer-
tain i.netruments or proceeees can be ewitched on) can be aet from the ground
(over thn command radio link), from the etation panele (by tha crew)~ ~rom
the program-timing devicea or from the operating eyetems (the eo-called
mutual control instructions~.
The logical circuits of the SUBK r:.;.:.~::. ~::c~;. i.-.structions, they check for
noncontradictorinesa with the processes going on at the station and they
aend out =urther execution commanda. The program-timing devices permit
automatic control of the station systems in the frequently recurring standard
processea (co~unication sessions, preparation of orientation, the per-
formance of corrections, and so on), insuring successive output of commands
at given points in time. Here aeveral parallel-operating programs included
either from the panels or by the command radio link from the ground can be
processed.
In order that the group be able to control the station and scientific equip-
ment, there are control and display panels located at seven control stations.
The control elements are coBnnand-signal devices (at station No 1), keyboards
and control handles (orientation handles). The display and signalling of ~
the execution of the commands and the paramete~s characterizing the opera-
tion of the syatems and the atation as a whole are insured on the electro- -
luminscent display panels, the mnemonic circuita (for example, the program
diap].ay on the main panel or the charging circuit on the control panel of
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the combined power plants) and the audio signal unit. All the contrul sta~-
tiona have the posaibility o� comtqunica~iona with the gro~xnd and over ~h~~ "
internal intercom eyatera w~.th the crew membere working at the ozhe:- ;~tt~ i.J.on~.
Scientific Equipment. The composition and the miesion of thr sr.ient_if~_c:
equipment vary from one etation to the next depending on tl~ie adupted ~t~o~rt~m
for the performance of the reaearch and the development of operation:~ ~uring
the courae of the flight of the given etation. The ma,jority of acien~tific
in~trumente have an output to the radio telemetric syatem For trmi~~inaE~R:tun
of the meaeured parameters and the data characterizing thei.c ~per.~tl.on t~~
the earth. Aa a rule~ the instruments are equipped with contrc~~. elemcnt~,
and meana, means of monitoring their operation on the paxt of the cr~w�
Much of the scientific equipment is delivered to the station in stages citzr..-
ing the courae of its f?ight.
Part of the scientific equipment is inatalled outside the sealed spac~ o~
Che station, and the rest, inside the sealed compartments. 'Che therr~al
conditions of the instruments inatalled on the outside surtsces are in~~~red
by heat exchange of them with the thermostated hull of the statioiz, vac~,;aru
shielded insulation and, in some cases, apecial covers that ene].ose *he
instrument from outer epace when the given instrument is not in operatiano
The electric power supply for the scientific equipment, as a rule, comes
_ fram the eingle power aupply system of the station. On the statloxz ptn-�
viaion is made for unuaed electric pluga ("roaettes"1 for conne~:ting newl~
delivered equipment to the electric power. Part of the sc~.entific ec~uipment
(as a rule, portable or with low electric power intake) has its own powe:r
aupply in the form of batteries built into the instrtxments.
"Soyuz" Manned xraneporC Shipe
At Che present time the transport spacecraft has become th~ b~.sic version
of the "Soyuz" spacecraft, and it is almost not used at a11 on. autor~omous
flights. As the transport spacecraft it must provide for insertion of the
crew into orbit, rendezvous and docking with the orbital station, transrer
of the crew on board, flight of the apacecraft as part of the orbital com-
plex for a sufficiently prolonged period of time, separation from the sta-
tion, descent of the.crew to the ground with an acceptable level of G-loa.ds
for the cosmonauts when returning into the atmosphere, ?_and~.ng of. the ].and-
ing vehicle with acceptable level of G-loada acting oi~ the cosm~naut~ c?tir:tng
landing and aleo rescue of the crew in case of an emergency with the boo~ter
rocket during the phase of inaertion of the spacecraft into orbit.
These problems are solved by ~oint operation on the on-board systems o~ ~he
spacecraft and its structural peculiarities. In the atructural design of
the "Soyuz" apacecraft it is possible to isolate three basic parts: ~he _
landing vehicle, the instrument-service and the orbita7. modulea. The land-
ing vehicle ie placed between the instrument-service and the orbital modulea
(see the outaide back cover). With respect to its shape, the landing
- vehicle resemblea an automobile light (aee Fig 6). Thts shape was not
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[Outside back cover]
28
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selected accidentally. It prov3,des ~or an aerodynam:ic 11~t (in addit:Lon
to the foxce of frontal reaistance) when the vehicle moves i.n tile eArth's
atmosphere, which reduces the ec$ttering of the landing poin~s with respect
tA the given one and also decreases the G~load level when desc~ndir.~.ti> i.zi
the atmosphere.
~ ~
a
~ ue,
0
nacc CA l(dnpoB~eHUe ~4 ~
-nonema
~ -Zuno no6uerxo conponru -
~1) (2) neHUR �
Jzon (5)
amarru
4
AGG~
c`~~ ~
Figure 6. Shape of the landing module of the "5oyuz97 spacecratt
Key:
1. Lift
2. Force of frontal resistance
3. Center of mass of the landing vehicle
4. Flight direction
5. Angle of attack
6. Axis of symmetry
On the "Vostok" spacecraft on which the landing vehicle was spherical in
shape and naturally only had the force of frontal resistance, the scatter-
ing of the landing points reached 250�to 300 km. If an aerodynamic 1i{t
operates on the landing vehiclE, then by controlling its vertical companent,
it is possible to control the tra~ectory of motion of the vehicle in the
earth's atmosphere and, consequently, the range of this movement (regul.ating
the "steeper"-"more gentle" trajectory). Even for small values of the aero -
- dynamic qualityl of the landing vehicle of the "Soyuz" spacecraft (0.2--0~3) ~
the latter makes it possible to reduce the dispersion of the landing points
to several tens of kilometers (and theoretically, to several kilometers),
If the li�t is not used when the vehicle descen~da, this type ot desce~lt is
called ballistic. The maxitnum G-loads during a ballistic descent depend
1The aerodynamic quality in aviation and cosmonautics refers to the ratio of
~ the serodynamic lift to the aerodynamic force o� the drag.
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on the steepness o.� the descent trajectory, but even foz the most gentle
_ tra~ectories the G-loade xeach (.as waa the case with the landing vehicles
- of the "Voatok" and the "Voskhod" apacecraft) such values that the force -
acting at this time on the cosmonaut was 8 to 10 times more than his weight.
Of course, this is an extremely undesirable phenomenon, especially when the
crew is returning to the earth after a prolonged flight under conditions of
weightlessness when even the ordinary earth's gravity is perceived by the
cosmonaut's organism as a very heavy and unpleasant load.
The low aerodynamic quality of the landing vehicles of the "Soyuz" space-
craft lowers the maximum G-load when the vehicle moves in the atmosphere to i
vul?ice t{~aC correapond to the force under the effect on the coemonaute
exceeding their wetght by only 3 to 4 times. This vehicle, which is an
axisymmetric body, moves during its descent in the atmosphere with its blunt
part forward. If the center of mass of the vehicle were located on the axis
of symmetry, then no lift would occur. Therefore, the structural elements
and the location of the equipment are selected so that the center of masses
will be shifted relative to the axis of symmetry of the landing vehicle.
In order to control the range of movement, it is necessary to change the
vertical component of the lift. This can be done either by varying the
ang~.e of attack as is done on aircraft (in our case it would be necessary to
change the position of the center of masses, which appears to be quite
difficult) or by changing the magnitude of the projection of the lift on the
vertical plane as a result of controlling the bank of the vehicle. This :
procedure is also used on the "Soyuz" spacecraft.
The hull of the landing vehicle is protected on the outside by a heat pro-
tective coating which protects its structural elements, equipment and crew
from the f low of incandescent gases aurrounding the vehicle during ita
descent. Let ua .remember ttiat the gas temperature in front of the heat
shield reaches 10000�. On the lateral surface of the vehicle there are
three windowa. On one of them (in the middle) which during orbital orienta~
tion (when the longitudinal axis of the spacecraft is in the horizontal
plane) "looks" downward to the earth, a viewer and orientation device is
inatalled which is used by the crew for visual orientation with respect to
the ground during manual control and for orientation during rendezvous.l
Inside the lander there are chairs for the crew, parachute systems, off-
landing engines, a system for controlling the jet engines used to orient -
the vehicle during descent, the equipment and fittings for the spaces, life
support systems, control systems, orientation systems, radio communications,
direction finding, landing automation, and cargo return from the station
1During viaual orientation with respect to the earth, the crew sees the
- horizon and the "travel" of the terrain under them by means of this instr- -
ment. It makes it possible to construct triaxial orientation. During
rendezvous the given instrument operates like the periscope of a submarine~
- permitting the crew in the landing vehicle to see along the direction of
the longitudinal axis of the spacecraft.
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to the ground. In the upper constricted part o~ the landing vehicle there
is a hatch through which the czew can trans~er to the orbit~al compartment
docked to the upper end �rame of the landing vehicle.
In the orbital compartment is the equipment of the life support systems,
part of the regular equipment, the docking automation, and the renciezvous
equipment. The cargo delivered simultaneously with the cre~v to the orbital
station is basically located here (part of the cargo is placed in ~he lander).
In the upper part of the compartment (opposite the part of docking with the -
lander) i.e the active docking untt. Part of the rendezvous eystem antennas
- are inetalled on the outeide aurface of the com.partment. The overall volume
of the orbital module and the lander is about 10 m3.
The instrument-service module includes the transfer frame, the instrument
and service sections. In the transfer frame joining the instrument section
to the lander part of the docking and orientation engines, fuel tanks,
purging tanka, fittings, the small outside radiator of the STR system and
the command radio link antenna are installed. In the instrument section is
_ the basic instrumEnt equipment providing for operation in the orbital pliase
of flight, but not required in the descent phase: before descent, the
modules of the spacecraft are separated. The orbital and the instrument-
service modules burn up in the atmosphere moving along the descent trajectory.
The rendezvous-correction power plant of the spacecraft (with two engines),
the docking and orientation engines, the large outside radiator of the STR
system, part of the current sources of the electric power supply system uf
the spacecraft are insta]:led in the service section. On the outer s~irfaces
of the section are the sensors of the orientation and antenna system.
Before installing the spacecraft on the booster rocket it is covered by tt~~e
nose cone. The engine of the emergency rescue system (SAS) is installed on
the top of the nose cone. The nose cone carries out two missions: it pro-
tects the apacecraft f~om ttis eff ect of the flow of gas when the rocket is
moving in the dense layers of the atmosphere and it separates the lander
with the crew (by the operation of the SAS engine) in case of an emergency
with the booster rocket in the dense layers of the atmosphere. During the
. normal course of insertion into orbit, after the rocket leaves the dense
- layers of the atmosphere, the SAS engine and the nose cone ar.e jettisoned.
After insertion into orbit when the engine of the last stage is switched off,
the spacecraft is separated from the ~.ast stage.
All of the procesaes of orientation and control of the engines, the radio
- equipment, the operation of the life support system, the heat regulating
system, the electric power supply, the descent and other systeme are auto-
mated. This is done so that the spacecraft can fly without the participa-
tion of the crew in control. However, means of manual control are installed
on the spacecraft which permit the crew if necessary to take control of the
processes of all orientation, correction, rendezvous, and so on.
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'ftie orientation and motion control syste~ (SOUD) o� the "Soyuz" provides for
orientation o� the spacecraft in the automatic and manual modes, output of
correcting pulses and the control o~� the rendezvous and docking processes.
Ita compoaition includes Che sensiCive elements (the infrared plotter of the
local vertical, the ion aensors for orientation with reapect to the velocity
vector, the gyrosopic angle gauges and angular~velocity gaugea), the
rendezvous radio syatem which provides for measuring t'ne parameterg of rel-
ative motion during rendezvous, the visual orienta~ion instrumenta (optical
and television), the calculating and commutation instruments, the manual
control and dispkay elements. The SOUD solvea ite problems, operating ,
~ointly with the systems of jet control engines for docking and orientation '
and with the rendezvous-correction power plant.
The most complicated operating made of the SOUD is the rendezvous process.
Before inaertion of the "Soyuz" transport spacecraft, the station is located~
as a rule, in the operating orbit with an altitude of about 350 1~. The
transport apacecraft is inserted into orbit when the plane of the atation
orbit passes through the launch eite, and the station has ~ust passed over
the launch regions. The spacecraft is inserted into an intermediate orbit
with minimum altitude on the order of 190 to 200 km and maximum altitude on
the order of 250-270 1~. The direction of flight of the booster rocket of
the transport spacecraft (that is, the plane of its tra~ectory) is selected
so that the spacecraft will fly in the same plane as the station after
insertion. The launch time is selected so that after insertion of the
- spacecraft it will be approximately 10,000 km behind the station. ~
Inasmuch as the altitude of the spacecraft orbit is less than the altitude
of Che station orbit, the period of ita rotation around the earth is less
than the period of rotation of the atation, that is, the "Soyuz" moves -
faster relative to the earth and, consequently, gradually overtakes the sta-
tion along the orbit. In order to equalize the altitudes of the spacecraft
and atation and for them to rendezvoua at a previously selected time, sev-
eral corrections (up to four) are made in the orbit of the tranaport space-
craft. When the spacing between the spacecraft and the station becomes leas
than 25 km, the rendezvous radio equipment is switched on by the command
given by the automation on the spacecraft and on the station. Then the
exchange of radio signals begins, the direction is determined in which the
desired ob~ect is located, and mutual orientation of the spacecraft and the
station begins so that the docking unit of the station planned for docking
"sees" the apacecraft, and the docking unit of the spacecraft sees the
etation. ,
Then the rendezvous radio equipment transmits electrical signals to the
calculator proportional to the angles of the direction of the station (the
line of sight) in the coordinates system of the spacecraft, the angular
velocity of the line of sight, the range to the station and its rate of _
variation. By the parameters of relative motion obtained~ the computer
determines in what directions (for acceleration, braking or in the lateral
direction) it is necessary to output the thrust of the service propulsion
engine on the spacecraft for rendezvous; then the instructions are given
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_ and the direct orientation and turning o~ the spacecraf.t realized, the engine
ia switched on and o~f. All of thi,s is done so that the speeds o~ relative
motion perpendicular to the line of sight will be "extinguished," and the
radial velocity will insure gradual rendezvous of the spacecraft with t}ie
station.
On approaching the station the speed of the spacecraft decreases. This pro-
cesa automatic rendezvous continues to a dietance of 200-~00 meters
between the spacecraft and the station at which the conversion to the dock-
- !ng mocie is made. In thia mode the apacecraft is already pErmanently
directed with its docking unit in the direction of the station, and the
control of the motion of its center of masses is caused by the opPration of
the coordinate ~et engines. They provide for output of the required pulses
both along the longitudinal axis of the ship (for acceleration and braking)
and in two other perpendicular directions (provisionally "up"-"down" and
"right"-"left"). The latter process can continue in the ~luto~natic mode
until docking.
Theoretically the crew can take control of the doclcing in its hands (con-
trolling the attitude of the spacecraft and switching on the coordinate
engines) and complete docking under manual control. In order to provide the
possibility of manual control of docking and in order to monitor the process
taking place automatically, the spacecraft and station crews are given in-
formation about the rendezvous parameters, the operation of. tite engine and
fuel consumption. Simultaneously, with the help of televiszon cameras (on
the etation and on the spacecraft) and an optical orientation viewer, the
crew obaerves the atation (or the spacecraft respective_ly), its motion and
orient~ttion.
The SUUD makes it possible to control the "Soyuz" s~acecr~ft to mechanical
contact of the docking units, inauring the parametexs uf. r~elative motion
required for response of the docking unit.
The rendezvous-correction power plant (SKDU) puts out thrust pulses required
for rendezvous, correction of the orbit or for transfer of the spaceship
from orbit to descent trajectory on command from the SOUD aufioniation or
from the control panel. The composition of the power plant includes two
engines with a thrust of more than 400 kg each, the pneumohydraulic auto-
mation, fuel tanks and purging tanks (to provide for forcing the fuel out
of the tanks and feeding it to the engines). In order that tlie purging gas
not mix with the fuel under weightlessness conditions, there are elastic
gas and liquid separators inside the tanks (so-called bags) made of organic
f ilm.
The system of or.ientation servoelements (SIO) provides for r.he creati~n of
controlling pulses for orientation of the spacecraft,for s~:ab:ilization of
it during operation of the rendezvous-correction power plant, for turning
during the rendezvous process and fox coord3nate displacements during
rendezvous. The SIO system includes 14 docking and orientation engines
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with a thrust of about 10 kg-~orce each, 8 orientation engines with a
thrust of approximately 1 kg--force each, fuel tanks, purging tanks, and the -
pneumohydraulic automation,
The launch control system (SUS) correspondingly controls the movement of the
lander of the "Soyuz" spacecraft when it descends from orbit to the earth.
The SUS includes the hydraulic angle and angular velocity gauges, the G-load
gauges, and the computers. The SUS provides for stabilization of the lander
and as a result of controlling the attitude with respect to bank, regulates
the vertical component of the lift which permits regulation of the descent
range. i
The syatem of descent servoelements operates on the instructions of the SUS, ~
providing for the creation of control movements required for turning and
stabilizing the lander. The system elements are basically located outside
the sealed volume of the lander, but under the heat shield. The system
includes 6 control engines with a thrust of up to 15 kg-force each, the fuel
- tanks, the purging tank and automation.
The landing system of the lander operates in the final phase of the descent
of the spacecraft. On entry of the spacecraft into the atmosphere, it has
a velocity of about 7.8 lan/sec. As a result of braking in the earth's
atmosphere, its velocity gradually diminishes (to subsonic) and at an alti-
tude on the order of 12 km it is on the order of 240 m/sec. As a result of
the operation of this system, the velocity of the lander is extinguished to
an amount insuring saf e landing of it. ,
The given problem is solved by the ~oint operation of parachute systems, the
soft landing engines, the automation and the shock absorbers of the chairs
in which the crew is seated during landing. The automation provides for the
giving of instructions at the given altitude to introduce the basic para-
chute system and also the reserve parachute system if the basic one doea
not respond), for the preparatory operations before landing, for switching
on the soft landing engines d~rectly before the ground surface.
The parachute systems are installed in two individual sealed containers
covered with covers.
The electric power supply system (SEP) is made up of the automation and
- chemical atorage batteries. The electric power supply of the on-board sys-
tems of the "Soyuz" spacecraft after docking with the station is realized
from the station electric power supply system. The storage batteries are
aimultaneously recharged from the SEP of the station. The connection of the
electric power supply system of the spacecraft to the station is rea]:ized
through the electric power plugs installed in both docking units and
connected on contraction of the structural rings.
The heat regulating system of the spacecraft (STR) maintains the temperature
and air humidity required fur the crew in the lander and in the orbital -
module and also the thermal conditions of the instruments in the instrument ~
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compartment; it realizes thermostaCing o� the unsealed aervice module, the
fuel linea o~ the system o~ servoelements. The STR of the "Soyuz" inc.ludes
the correaponding automation, the cooler-driers, the gas,liquid heat
exchangers, two liquid circuits (the circuit nf the crew compartments and
the circuit of the outeide radiator) with pumpa that circulate the liquid,
regulator cocka and the compensators. Both circuita are connected through
the liquid-liquid heat exchanger.
_ The heat released in the compartmenta is transferred by means of the heat
exchangers to the liquid circulating in the compartment circuit. This liquid
is then pumped through the tubes welded to the hull of the service module,
providing for thermostating of it. The heat from the liquid is transferred
(through the liquid-liquid heat exchanger) to the liquid cooling agent of the
circuit of the outer radiator; by means of this circuit it is removed to the
radiator from which it is radiated inCo outer space. The automation and the
regulators permit regulation of the liquid t~mperature in the campartm~nt
- circuit and, consequently, the wall temperature of the radiator of the cooler-
drier (and ehe moisture level respectively) and the air temperaCure in the _
compartments�
- In addition to the two basic loops of the STR there is an auxiliary loop
which after docking with the station provides for the transfer of heat from
the etation to the loop of the crew compartments. All of the surfaces of
the spacecraft not occupied by antennas, engines and sensitive elements and
alao the surface of the hull under the STR radiators are covered w3.th
packets of vacuum shielded insula~ion.
The life support systems (SOZh) of the crew on the spacecraft theoretically
perform the same functions as the analogous means on the station. The
difference consists primarily in the fact that the reserves placed in the
apacecraft are designed only for a few days. In addition, the composition
of the spacecraft SOZh life support means includes epacesuits with the on-
board gas supply system and automation, the heat shielded suits and also
means which can be used in case of an emergency landing in an unpoptilated
area.
After docking of the spacecraft with the station its SOZh, providing for
re~eneration of the air in the crew compartments are switched off. An air
duct is run from the station through the open hatch through which air is fed
into the crew compartments from the station. This insures the requir.ed
composition of the spacecraft atmosphere, the degree of humidity and elimina-
tion of harmful gas impurities from the compartments of the spacecraft. -
Before undocking the spacecraft from the station the air duct is r?tracted,
the hatches in both o� the docking units are closed, the regenerators,
absorbers and cooler-driers are switched on in the spacecraft.
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The radio equipment o� the "Soyuz" spacecraf t provides for radio telephone
communications between the crew and the earth in the ultrashortwave and
shortwave bands, the transmission of television images to the earth from
the inner and outer televiaion cameras, telemetric information, orbital moni-
toring, the reception of control commands on board. The telephone communi-
cations with the flight control center, the tranemisaion of commands and
digital data on board the apacecraft and reception of information from on
board tlie spacecraf t are realized using land and floating (on maritime
ehips) measuring and control stations when the spacecraf t is in aigh t of
them. The communications with the spacecraf t are maintained in prac tice
on all of its orbita: during each orbit of the spacecraft around the earth, '
as a rule~ it is possible to maintain communications with the spacecraft
from several minutes to tens of minutes.
If continuous telemetric monitoring is needed (for example, when realizing
maneuvers), the on-board telemetric memories are switched on. They store
the information which is transmitted later over the ground stations.
The on-board complex control system (SUBK) of the spacecraft is used for
control of the~operation of the on-board system and coord~ination of their
operation both in the automatic control mode (from the program-timing .
~ devices and by the instructions transmitted over the radio linkup from the
earth) and in the lateral control mode (by the crew). The SUBK of the
"Soyuz" includes the logical devices, commutators, the electrical automation
(for connecting the electric power supply of the instruments and systems), ;
the control panel and the command signal devices.
Combination control ia realized in practice during the entire flight of the
c~pacecraft. The control procedure varies as a function of the required
flexibility of the operations of the given time, the available time, and
so on. Therefore, part of the control commands come directly from the
earth (with the command radio link), part from the program-timing devices
and part are issued by the crew through the command-signal devices or from
the panel (on request from the earth).
The crew usually works for about 24 hours on the spacecraft. After inser-
tion into orbit and checkout of the seal on the crew compartments the
cosmonauts enter the orUital module and remove their spacesuits. On the
first orbits of the spacecraft around the earth, the on-board equipment is
- checked out along with the basic dynamic operating conditions of the space-
craft (attitude, turning, testing of the rendezvous equipment, advancement
of the rod of the docking unit); the first two corrections are made to the
apacecraft orbit. The next day, one or two more orbital corrections,
rendezvous and docking of the spacecraft with the station are realized.
After docking and checking the seal of the connection of the structural
rings of the spacecraft and the sta~ion the crew opens up the transfer �
hatches of both the docki~tg units, moves into the station and begins work
_ there. The buffered batteries on the spacecraft are .r.~acharged, the electric
power aupply buses of the on-board sysCems of the spacecraft are dis-
connected from their own elecCric power supply and are connected to the
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etai:ion system. Periodically the condition of the spacecraft is checked
trom the ground by telemetry and by the crew ~'rom the contr.�ol panel. Tn
addition, the spacecraft is always kept ready to separate from ttae statloi~
and descend if necessary.
When executing a long-term expedition on the station during its flight, the
spacecraft of the basic expedition is replaced by the spacecraft of the
next expedition. Af ter completion of the work on the station several days
before descent the crew mothballs the station, transfers the equipment to
the lander which must be delivered to the earth. Several orbits before the
descent the cosmonauts move to the epacecraft, cloae the hatches, check out
the eeal, and the ahip is separated from the atation. Usually descent -le
made in central Kazakhstan. _
"Progress" Cargo Transport Ships
- The purpose of the cargo spaceships is to deliver dry cargo, water and fuel
to the orbital complex. The "Progress" is built on the basis of the struc-
tural design and on-board systeu~s of the "5oyuz" spacecraft (see the back
cover). Its principal differences from the "Soyuz" spacecr.aft are connected
with the fact that it muet operate in the automatic version and is not de-
signed to return to the earth. Theoretically it would be possible tc build
a multiple-use manned cargo spacecraft, but significantly mor.e powerful
boosCer rocket (which consequently would be ~::ore expensive) would be
required to insert iL into~.orbit.
_ This is easy to understand in the example of the "Soyuz" spacecraft. Out of
_ the entire spacecraf t assembly, only the lander weighing less than half the ~
weigi~t of th~ spacecraft is returned to the earth. When the ~pacecraft
flies with crew it can take with it only a f ew tens of kilograma o.f cargo.
In order to deliver 2 to 2.5 tons of cargo, it ie necessary to lncrease the
weight of the spacecraft by 2.5 to 3.0 tons (considering the structuxe).
I� we wished to make the spacecraft a multiuse vehicle, then we would have
to ~oin all ci its modules into a single unit and enclose it in thermal
shielding. Th~n the weight af the spacecraf t would be increased by 1.5 to
= 2 times and, consequently, for insertion of it a booster rocket would be
needed of almost the same power as the booster rocket of the station.
If we are talking about an economically effective earth-orbit-earth trans-
port system, then it appears expedient to build a fully multip~.e use com-
plex, not only the spaceship, but also the booster rocket. However, for the
solution of this problem significantly more time is requtred. Therefore,
when des:Igning the "Progress" spacecraft the decision was made to make it
single-use and to utilize the booster rocket of the "Soyuz" spac~craft to
insert it.
The cargo spacecraf t is made up of three modules: the instrument-service
module, the refu.:ling component module and the cargo bay. In the cargo bay
the'scienti�ic equipment, the equipment required to perform the preventive
repair work, the reserves for the life support means (regenerators,
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abeorbers, ~ood, water, clothing and eo on) are delivered. The hull of the
compartment is welded from two spherical halfshells and wi.th a cylindrical
- insert between them. The bay is installed with one side (the lower side) on
the aupporting frame (of the compartment) for the refueling components. In
the upper part of the compartment is an autonomaus docking unit (the pin
- type) with transfer hatch permitting the station crew to enter the cargo.bay
after docking the cargo spacecraft with the station and move the d~livered
_ equipment to the station (the tranaport cargo ship is docked on the service -
module side of the atation to the intermediate chamber).
ln conCrnet to eh~ docking unit of a manned spacacraft, two hydraulic plug~ _
are inetalled on the car~o unit which are mated with the corresponding plugs
in the docking unit of the intermediate chamber. The station is refueled
with oxidizing agent and combustible fuel component through the plugs. In-
side the cargo bay is ordinary air at nornaal atmospheric pressure. The size
of this bay is about 6.6 m3. Up to 1300-11?00 kg of equipment must be placed
in it. The awkward equipment (auch as regenerators, and so on) is attached
directly to the aupporting frame of the bay; the light equipment and small
instruments are placed in containers.
After transferring the delivered cargo on board the station before undocking
the spacecraft the crew transfers the spent equipment (such as the regenera-
tors, absorbers, and so on), the replaced failed instruments, containers
with waste appearing during this time (in order to not use the locks one time), ~
ueed linens and so on to the free space in the cargo bay. The size of the
st~tion is limited and~ if this is not constantly done, it would become
Jammed.
In ~I~e cc~m~~iirCm~~nt Cor ttie refueling eomPonenta there are two modules witli
Che combueCJ.ble component of the fuel (asymmetric dimethyl hydrazine), two
Canks with oxidizing agent (nitrogen tetroxide), tanks with compressecl air
(for purging the station) and nitrogen (for purging the tanks with fuel or
tranaf erring it to the combined power plant of the station), the pneumo-
hydraulic automation (pressure reducers, valves, gauges and so on).
Th~ components placed in th~ tanks are chemically aggressive and poisonous
- to man, and therefore any contact of their vapor (for example, in case ~f
loss of ser~l of the tanks, the lines, and so on) with the crew quarters is
inadmisaible, and consequently, any contact with the cargo bay is inadmissi-
ble. The compartment for the refueling components is unsealed; the lines
running to the fueling plu~s in the docking unit are also laid along the
outside surface. Analogously, the lines running from the fueling plugs of
the station to the tanks from the combined power plant are laid outside the
intermediate chamber in the unsealed service module. The hult of the com-
partments of the refueling components is thermostated as a result of pump-
in~ the liquid from the inside circuit of the STR through pipes welded to
the skin of the compartment.
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The inetrument-servi.ce module is similar with respect to structural design
and composition of the equipment placed in it to the analogous module and
the "Soyuz" spacec~ft. The inetrument part of the module, the size of
which is doubled as a result of introducing a cylindrial. insert, d:Lf.fers
noticeably. The equipment for contro111ng the refueling and tt~~t part of
the radio equipment which was placed in the orbital module snct the "Soyuz"
apacecraft are placed in the additional space.
On the outer surfaces of the spacecraft antennas are lnstalled for the radio
complex along with sensitive eleraents: two infrared local vertical p].ottera
inatead of one and the "Soyuz" spacecraft), ion direction plotters for thc~
velocity vector and also the control ~et engines. The installation of a
second infrared local vertical plotter is connected with the fact that on
the unmanned spacecraft it is necessary to increase the reliability of the
automatic orientation system. The sensor which provides far constructing
the local vertical operates in the infrared part of the spectrum. This
choice ia explained by the fact that in the case of using a sensor operating
in the visible part of the spectrum, it could not provide for orientation
of the spacecraft in the shadow of the earth. The sensor operating on the
reception of thermal radiation "distinguishes" the earth and che horizon
from ouCer s~,ace well both over the illuminated and over the shadow side of. -
the earth.
~'ttree color indexes and television cameras are installecl in the vicinity of
the docking unit. They permit viaual monitoring of the process of approach
of the cargo spacecraft to the station (including in the shadow of the eazth):
from the earth by the television image of the spacecraft (using the te].e-
vision cameras of the station) or from the station (via the television '
cameras of the apacecraft). In addition to the visual monitoringe the crew
(on the station panel) and the personnel of the flight control center moni-
tor (on the displays) the parameters of the relative motion (range, radio
= velocizy, angular velocity, line of sight), the operation of_ the engines
and automation. The data on the course of the rendezvous process are trans -
mitted to the earth using the radio telemetric system,
Before refueling, the compressors pump out the gas into the purging tanks
from the gas caviCies of the tanks for the combined pawer plant which must
be refilled. The automation of the refueling system provides for checkirig
the seal of the connected hydraulic plugs of the refueling lines. On
- inatruction from the crew from the refueling panel or from the earth, the
tanks are purged with the componenta in the cargo spacecraft, the valves '
connecting these tanks and the tanks of the combined powex plant to the
refueling lines are opened, and the fuel is transferred. Tne refuelin~ is
realized in turn in each separate tank. After completion of refueling,
the valves ~oining the tanks to the refueling lines are closed, and this
line is opened to outer space and purged. Thia operation is realized
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so that when undocking the remains of the components w311 not get on the
aurfacee o~ the docking unite.l
Role of Automation and Man on Board the Orbital Complex
- The basic control functions both on the spacecraft and on the orbital sta-
tions, just as in any complex complexes are coordination and monitoring of
the operation of the on-board equipment, switching of the on-board systems
- to various operating modes~ regulation of the adopted mode, analysis of the
condition in the operation of the on-board systems and the atructural ele- i
ments, and if necessary, the introduction of the redundant equipment.
Now means have been created for almost completely automating the control on
board and providing (in the presence of communications with the earth and
output of control instructions from the ground) the possibility of space-
craft and station flight in the automatic mode. The monitoring and the
analysis of the condit~on of the spacecraft or the station is in this case
realized by telemetry on the ground by a collective of specialists using the
automated meana of processing telemetric and tra~ectory data. If these means
had not been created, it would be impossible to operate automatic repeaters, -
meteorological aatellites, automatic interplanetary stations and probes.
But what does man then have to do on the station?
With time the answers to this queation will change. According to the con- . ,
cepts of today it is poasible to mention three groups of problems which the
crew must solve in flight. The first group is connected with providing for
operating reliability and saf ety of the crew itaelf. Inasmuch as the
direct monitoring of the process is taking place on the station it ie now
possible only in the zone of radio visibility of the ground comcnand-measur-
ing stations, and the station is in this zone of radio visibility no more
= Chan 20 to 30% of the total flight time, it is considered necessary that all
_ complex processes which take place at least partially outaide the zone of
radio visibility of the ground stations be conducted under the crew monitor-
ing, and the especially important processes, under simultaneous dual control
from the ground and by the crew.2
1For more detail on the technical characteristics of the "Progress" cargo
spacecraft, see K. P. Feoktistov,"'Salyut-6' Orbital Station,'~
SOVREI~IENNYYE DOSTIZHENIYA KOSMONAVTIKI [Modern Achievements of Cosmonautics],
- Moacow, Znaniye, 1978. .
2The monitoring on the part of the crew provides for examination of the
information on the functioning of the on-board systems which ~.s output to
the control panel, analysis of this inforn?ation, comparison with the
picture expected in the given process ancl estimaC3on of the correctness~of
'operation of the on-board equipment.
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The same group of problems includes the possib~lity (by the results of t:he
analyais or by recowmendation from the earth) o� taking on the control of
the operatione in case inadmisaible or alarming devia~ions are noted uuring -
the auComatic procesa. For example, on the ~'Soyuz" spacecr~ft the crew ran
take on the control of the attitude and stabilization, switch the correction
engine on and off, control the rendezvoua proceas "m~nu~a].ly," ewitch caqu:.i~--
ment on and off, and so on.
In the given case the man on board performs the functions of a redundant
logical computing and control unit which is simultaneously a"sensitive ele-
ment" (viaual orientation determination of position tn space), Man can
' perform many auch functiona even on the "Salyut" statlans. Acting as ~
redundant syetem, man improves the reliability of the orbital complex anc~
the ilight safeEy. According to modern concepts, the redundancy of vital.ly
important automatic systems is a mandatory funetion of ma.n on a spacecraft.
The second group of problems is connected with the preventive repair, adjust-
ment and other operations of servicing the station. These include repair.
or replacement of instruments and units which have failed or have clearly
exhausted their reserves, transfer of the delivered equipment from the cargo
spacecraft to the station, installation of it, correction on board and
checkout of the operation, adjustment and tuning, cleaning the station., and
e~ecting waste through the locks. This group of problems includes the opera-
tions in which it is difficult to replace man.
Lach of these operations is quite simple and elementary and is descr.ibecl
quite simply by natural language: "Tgke block H, place :Lt behind panel M
in position B, connect plugs A, B, C, on the block to plu~s A~, Ii1, C~-,
of the on-board cable network and by instruction K check out the correct-
- neas of the connection and then the oppration of the devic~." However, for
each inatrument there is characteriatic information whicli is ciiffere~lt every
time, and for each apecific instruction (for example, "take bl.ock H") an
entire series of problema come up.
Actually there are no standard, easily algorithmized operations. Sur_h opera-
tions can be realized without the participation of man only after building
robots which will be slightly inferior to man, but can have large memory,
powerful computers, outside information receivers and servoelements ("hands,"
means of displacement). From the point of view of the engineer, man is a
type of complex machine. Even for the realization of the s~mplest operat~.ons
such as seeing the objects and the environment, the human brain completes an
- enormaus number of operations permitting the construction of the vieo~ed
picture in his consciousness (and not on the retina of rhe eye!), ~
The fact is that the human eye, and head are constantly moving and rot-a.ting.
Therefore, the eye as an optical system provides for the construction of
a constantly moving picture on the retina, for as a result of movement of -
the eye and head, and so on different parts of the image reach each given
Element of the retina, changing constantly. At the same time we perceive -
the outer world as stable, easily diatinguishing moving objects from
etationary ones.
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Ttiis ie a consec~uence o~ the fact that a de�ined part o~ the human brain,
operuting ~s u ypecial compute~y uaes the informat~on from each point of the
- retinu, information about the position of the eye, the head~ and so on,
previously stored information about the preceding position of the ob~ects.
The signals received are "recalculated" to a stationary coordinate system
(with respect to any ref erence points in the field of view), where the image
is constructed. It is posaible that the process of recognition of the ob~ect
ie no leas complex. For the solution of such problems obviously it is _
necessary to build miniature processes with billions of elementary computing
elementa. I
The third group of problems includes the operaCions directly connected with
realizing scientif ic research and experiments. If we analyze each separate
reaearch and experiment problem, then almost every time we can find the
possibility for easy automation of the process. For example, let us con-
aider the astrophysical observatione performed using any telescope. In this
case it is possible to represent the sequence of operations as follows: _
Orient the station so that the axis of the telescope will see a given point
of the sky, and then maintain this attiCude;
Prepare Che telescope, its electronic modules and receivers for operation,
that is, perform a number of successive operations with respect to inclusion
af a defined aequence of modes, turn on the power supply, wind the gyroscopes I
nr compressors and cooling units, connect the astroguides, their drives and -
so on;
Prepare to switch on and switch off the system for recording the meseured
parameter~ and monitoring the operation of the supporting systema;
Switch on the telescope, take the measurements and record them;
Reorient the station on a new source and again make the recording, and so
on until the end of the series of obser:ations.
- It is obvious that all of these operations are usually algorithmized,l and
- the possibility of the automation of this process, including the performance
of the ad~ustment, target selection, exposure time, and so on is unques-
tioned. The same thing can be said of such operations as photography,
technological and biological experiments. It is true that here certain
complications arise: the simple processes of reloadinv the cassettes, re- ~
char~ing'the process heaters,~nd the thermostats are automated at the expen- -
aive price of signif icant cdmplications, for example, making a~udgment such as
1By algorithmization here we mean the description by words or equations or
the logical conditions of all the operations making up the functioning of _
the given machine or pr~cess and which must be performed to solve the prob-
1em of the given observationa or experiments.
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"Is it worthwhile to take photographs: are there too many clouds" ~~r~ the
automatic mode is extremely di~�icult.
It must be noted that other factors also come into play the f~.ct ox the
presence of a man on the station. I~ it is known in advance that there ~a.-i].l
be a man on the station, then why complicate the equipment many ti.m~, (for
example, solving the problem of multiple reloading of the camera) lzid l.ower
the reliability of the performance of the experiments at the same ta.~;~c~'?
Here man can easily ad~ust the equipment, install the capsule in the heating
element, select the required fuaion load from the panel, and so on. S~~me
of ~heae ope~ations ad~uatment, tuning, altering the mec~surem~~.nt pa-c~~;rnm
will be desirable to leave to man even in the future.
However,all of this leads to the fact that man on a station turns ou~. to b~
involved in too large and varied a circle of operations. On the onc? l~~~ad,
this leads to overload, and on the other hand, to reduction of the =~~C:~ciency
of the entire complex inasmuch as by comparison with machines, the ma