JPRS ID: 9269 TRANSLATIONS LABORATORY ON THE SEA BOTTOM BY PAVEL ANDREYEVICH BOROKIV

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JPRS L/9269
25 August 1980
Translation
LABORATOF~Y ON THE SEA BOTTOM
~ BY
Pavel Andreyevich Borovikov
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JPRS L/9269
25 August 1980
LABORATORY ON THE SEA BOTTOM
Leningrad LABORATORIYA I3A MORSKOM DNE in Russian 1977 signed to
press 22 Apr 77 pp 1-135
[Book by Pavel Andreyevich Borovikov, Gidrometeoizdat, 50,000
copies]
CONTENTS
Annotation 1
Prologue 2
Chapter 1. HOW IT WAS 7
First Steps 7
Above Us Is the Black Sea 9
The "Helgoland" Program 16
U.S. Undersea Habitat 23
- Chapter 2. OCEANOGRAPHERS UNDER WATER 36
Advantages and Specific Features 36
The Living Sea 38
Experimental Geology 62
The Seabed A Laboratory for Physicists 68
In Situ Hydrochemistry 74
Chapter 3. AQUANAUTS AND SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF LABOR 82
Planning Experiments $2
Choosing an Objective 83
Aquanaut-Oceanographers 92
Our Home Is an Undersea Habitat 95
Arsenal of the Aquanaut-Oceanographer 108
Epilogue 119
Appendix 121
- a - [I - USSR - E FOUO]
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PUBLICATION DATA
English title : LABORATORY ON THE SEA BOTTOM -
Russian title ; LABORATORIYA NA MORSK~M DNE
Au~hor (s) : Pavel Andreyevich Borovikov
Ed:ttor (s) ; L. A. Ze1.'manova _
Publishing House ; Gidrometeoizdat
- Place of Publication : Leningrad
Date of Publication . 1977
Signed to press , 22 April 1977 `
~
Copies , 50,000
COPYRIGHT , L., Gidrometeoizdat, 19 77.
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ANNOTATION
[Text] The author of this book, one of the designers of the Chernomor
Undersea Laboratory, has for many years directly participated in oYganiza-
~~~r. a:.u ~:,:.uu~t of undersea research. Ignoring the "sensational" side
of man's life under water, he tells of those unique opportunities gresented
to oceanographers by a research laboratory sited on the ocean floor. In
this book the .~tr~or endeavors to analyze and synthesize worldwide ex-
perience in utilization of manned habitats and research equipment
and to relate the working meth4ds of the underwater scientist.
This book is intended for persons professionally involved with the sea as
well as for the general reader.
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PROLOGUE
Gathering of information with the aid of specialized oceanographic vessels
is the principal means of studying the ocean today. Traveling to the in-
vestigation area, a vessel lowers into the water various instruments and
devices to measure the characteristics of the undersea environment and to
collect samples of water, soil, as well as specimens of living organisms.
This method, due to its organizational sim~plicity and comparatively low ~
cost, is fully justified when working in new areas, in investigations
aimed at ohtaining information on space-time parameters of the most general
nature. As such information is gathered, scientists pinpoint in the target
area smaller areas with certain anomalies which merit special attention.
More detailed investigations begin in these smaller areas, involving not
only oceanographic vessels but also a great many other platforms carrying
equipment and investigators aircraft, satellites, and submersibles.
In the last 10-15 years means of oceanic investigation have been developed
which carry men beneath the sea, directly to the target of scientific in-
vestigation.
When diving beneath the sea, man enters a different world, an environment
in which he cannot exist. In order to protect himself against the effect
of water and in order to live and work under the sea, man was compelled to
develop special equipment.
There exist two categories of such equipment. One encompasses systems
which provide man with conditions close to those to which he is accustomed
on land atmospheric pressure, air as a breathing mixture, a comfortable
temperature and humidity. These devices are called manned submersibles.
The second category encompasses diving systems, in utilizatiQn of which
man is subjected to elevated pressure which is equal or close to the
pressure of the ambient water environment. Living conditions for man in
sur_h syatems differ sharply from those to which we ara accustomed on land:
pressure of the gaseous medium in which the diver finds himself reaches
dozens of atmospheres, the breathing mixture contains helium in place of
nitrogen, and even food tastes different from normal in thia environment.
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Considerable attention is devoted both in this country and abroad to
designing, building and operating manned submersibles. A great many books,
magazine articles and surveys have been written on this sub~ect. There
also exist a number of publications dealing with the results of expeditions
on which oceanographic research has been conducted with the aid of manned
submersibles.
Oceanic research employing diving systems has enjoyed considerably less
success. Excspt for a few fragmentary .reports and a small r,umber of
articles on particular topics in scientific ~oumals, there ore no
materials on this topic which are available to the general ocEanographic
scientist a.nd engineer community. It would.therefore apparently be useful,
before proceeding with the main subject of this book, to review presently-
existing methods of underwater diving operations.
~ The simplest and oldest techni.:~ue is diver descent from the surface. The
diver goes under water from the deck of a ship, works on the bottom for a
certain period of time, and then ascends to the surface. His rate of
ascent depends both on the depth of dive and on total time spent on the
bottom. A diver's ascent-to-surface time decompression time often
greatly exceeds working time on the bottom, and therefore this method of
conduct of diver activities is effectiv~ only at shallow depths.
The appearance of s~ecialized diving tenders, carrying decompression
- chambers and diving bells, eliminated the necessity for a diver to undergo
the long decompression pr~cess in the Water. Having completed 'nis work
on the bottom, a diver enters a bell lcwered from the ship, closes and
seals the bottom hatch, and forces wa~er ~ut of the bel~. with compresaed
- air. Then the diving bell, with the diver inside, rapidly asce~~s ~o the
surface, is hoisted on board the diving tender, and is hermetic�1?y linked
up to the shipboard decompression chamber. A pressure equal to pressure
in the diving bell at the working depth is established in advance in the
decompression chamber. After the bell is linked up to the shipboard de-
compression chamber, the diver enters the chamber, removes his gear and
rests there until pressure in the chamber is gradually brought down to
atmospheric. This diving method eases conditions of ~liver decon-
pression, but it does not substantially reduce decompression time.
Botti these methods, although the second method is ~learly more in conformi-
ty with the modern level of technology then the first method, are basical-
ly an anachronism. Both are based on utilization of ven~ilated diving
gear, which has remained practicaZly unchanged since ~the end of the 19th ~
century; the rubber has improved, the diving helmet faceplate has become
more transparent, and a greater number of different valves have been
added, but on the whole the degree of sophistication of this diving gear
is the same as many years ago.
Discovery of the "saturation effect" in the 1960's a method enabling
ma~a to remain under pressure for an extended time served as ara impetus
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for a genu.Lne revolution in diving technology. After the possibility of
man remaining an extended period under pressure was proven theoretically ,
~ and practically, several fundamentally n~w versions of conduct of diving
activities were developed.
One such technique involves.diver descents based on utilization of those
same shipboard diving systems, consisting of a stationary decompresaion
chamber and connecting diving bell. This method differs from the previous
one, however, in that divers remain for an extended time in the shipboard
decompression chamber at a pressure equal or cZoEe to water pressure at
the working depth. Z~aice every 24 hours they enter the diving bell, which
is herm.ttically connected to the decompression chamber and which contains
an interior pressure equal to pressure in the compartments of the decom- -
pression chamber, and close the hatches between bell and chamber. Then
th~ bell is diaconnected fram the decompression chamber and lowered to
the working depth, where the divers open the hatch and enter the water.
Upon completion of the work period, the divera reente�r the bell and close -
the hatch; the bell is raised to the surface, linked up to the deco~prea-
sion chamber, and the divers tr~nsfer into th~: latter to rest. This goE,s
on far days and weeks imtil work on the bottom is completed, after ~
_ whir_h the divers finally undergo a single decompression process.
Employment of such a method involving personnel remaining for an extended
period of time under pressure has sharply increased the efficiency of deep-
water diving operati~ns in certain cases 10-fold and more, and today
. this technique is being increasingly more extenaively employed.
Another method of handling diving operations consists in employm~ent of
; fixed undei-water base-laboratories.. Such a base-laboratory is an under-
wa~ter home for divers. If~ contains everything necessary for normal lif`
' routinp and activities sleeping compartments, wardroom with television _
set, library, radio receiver, galley stocked with provisions and an electric
_ , s*_ove, shower and toilet, diving gear lockers, and laboratories. All com-
- partments are filled with an artificial breathing mixture at a pressure
- equal to water press~re on the laboratory's exterior, s~ that the diver
or, as the inhabitants of such an undersea habitat are called, the aquanaut
merely dives through a hatch and is at his work station on a seafloor
ob3ect of investigation, f~r example. Such habitats are designed for man
to remain under water for many days at a time.
And finally, there exists another method oP diver operations. It is based
on utilization of self-contained self-propelled submarine units containing
two high structural-strength compartments. Normal atmospheric pressure
is maintained in the control compartm.ent, which contains the steering con-
trols and ~ob supervisor. The other compartment is for the divers. The
device dives, approaches the work site, and settles onto the sea floor.
The divers equalize pressure in their compartment with the outside pressure,
open the hatch and enter the water, while th~ 3ob su~pervisor monitors their
actions from the control compartment. When the ;ob is finished, the divers
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return to their compartment, close the hatch, and the craft ascends to
, the surface. This is essentially nothing other than a self-contained,
self-propelled diving bell, but the device's self-sufficiency and self- `
propulsion capability so extend the diver's underwater work capabilities
that this method can be considered a separate method.
To recapitulate, there are five methods of working under water. Which of
these have taken their place in the arsenal of oceanograghic resear~hers?
Let us turn to worldwide statistics on undersea research.
The absolute majority of observations conducted under water by oceanog-
raphers have involved diving from the surface, that is, organizationally
the simplest method. Prior to practical a3option of the aqualung or scuba
gear in underwater activities, which t4ok place in the 1950's, very few in-
dividuals undertook dives for the conduct of scientific investigations.
Simple, rel:table and safe scuba gear enabled thousands of oceanographers
_ to observe the undersea world and tY:P ob~ect of investigation with their
own eyes. Very often what they saw differed significantly from their
hypothetical assumptions, which were based on the results of analysis of
samples collected from the surf ace. This especially applies to biological,
geologicai, and geomorphological observations.
The above-described new diving method, were adopted into diving practice
in many countries in the 1960's. This was caused by various factors. In
the United States, for example, loss of the nuclear submarine "Thresher"
- served as the impetus for undersea technology in general and diving
equipment and techniques in particular, while in France it was development
of offshore oil drilling, which was particularly important for France,
since it possesses pra~tically no oil of its own.
The new equipment and new underwater working methods drew the attention of
oceanographers. Scientists participated in practically all the first ex-
periments with undersea habitats ("Precontinent," "Sealab," etc).
~cao scientists fram the Scripps Oceanographic Institute took part in dives
to a de~th of 183 meters conducted by the U.S. company Westinghouse
Electr.ic. A pressurized shipboard habitat unit and a diving bell were
= utiJ_ized in these experiments.
Oceanographers also participated in 1968 tests of the "Deep Diver" sub-
marine with diver compartment. The submarine proceeded above the seabed
at a depth af 130 meters, while its crew, gazing through viewing ports,
- selected a G~ork site. Spotting a seabed area which was especially rich
in marine life, the crew eased the craft onto the seafloor, diver-biolog~sts
exited into the water, examined the seabed around the submarine, and col-
lected samples of interest to them.
Subsequently, however, the "tastes" of oceanographers have become in-
creasingly more specific. Although investigations conducted at shallow
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depths with employment of scuba gear, which have now become traditional,
continue to be widely practiced, experiments with undersea laboratories
utilized as a base for conduct of undersea investigations are being
repeated year after year and are taking on an increasingly oceanographic
"bias."
As far as is known at the present time, only one comparatively large
program of undersea observations was conducted off the coast of Canada with
the aid of the "Deep Diver" submarine, which permits divers to exit while
submerged. And nothing is known of any utilization of shipboard diving
systems for the conduct of oceanographic observation (it is true that this
may be due to the fact that no such vessels are at the disposal of
oceanographers).
In 1972 scientists at the University of New Hampshire asked 160 American
oceanographers to grade with a 10-point system the principal diving methods
of ocean research. The result of the grading, converted into a table� in-
dicated that the most convenient method of performing such investigations
is employment of manned undersea laboratories in one form or another. World- _
wide practice confirms this view.
In this book we have endeavored to discuss in an ob~ective manner the
. principal aspects of the problem of utilization of undersea laboratories
and to define their place in the overall arsenal of technical devices for
oceanographic research. The book consists of individual scholarly publica-
tions, reports on experiments conducted with undersea laboratories, and
information obligingly furnished to the author by Sav~et and foreign scientists.
Main emphasis in this book is placed on description of oceanographic re-
search conducted by the crews of undersea laboratories and the results of
this research, although considerable attention is also focused on problems
of organization of th~ activities of undersea laboratories, preparation of
scientific programs, and selection of teams of investigators.
The author would like to express his thanks to staff ine~nbers of the USSR
Academy of Sciences Oceanographic Institut~ imeni P. V. Shirshov: Doctor of
Technical Sciences V. S. Yastrebov, Candidate of Technical Sciences V. P.
Nikolayev, Doctor of Chemical Sciences E. A. Ostroumov, Candidate of
Geographical Sciences N.. A. Aybulatov, and Candidate of Biological Sciences
L. I. Moskalev, as well as to A. V. Ignat'yev of the Leningrad Hydro-
meteorological Institute, who carefully perused the manuscript for this
book and made a number of valuable coumnents.
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Chapter 1. HOW IT WAS
First Steps
The f irst two experimezts dealing with an extended stay by man under water
we~e condu~cted in 1962 by teams led by Jacc~ues Ives Cousteau and Edwin Link.
This was followed by a series of experiments in the "Precontinent" (France)
and "Sealab" (United States) programs. In 1965 a crew on board the "Pre-
continent-3" undersea laboratory spent approximately four weeks at a depth
of 100 meters, an achievement which hae not yet been surpassed up the
present day.
The success of the first exp~riments evoked a"second wave" of experiments
with undersea laborztories. These experiments did not pursue any concrete
objectives their organizers wanted merely to "live for a while" under
water and, secondarily, to perform observations which did not require sub-
stantial preparation or costly equipment.
Sinc? I962 more than 50 experiments have been conducted involving personnel
remaining under water for several days or more. The Appendix contains data
on some of them.
Experiments were directed toward solving several standard problems: work on
performance of operations of an undersea-technical nature, both for the
benefit of industry and emergency rescue services; conduct of oceanographic
research; development of technical sports.
As a rule medical-physialogical investigations did not constitute an in-
dependent goal but accampanied the majority of experiments.
Technical-sports experiments were conducted by sports diving clubs. Their
aim was to encourage the development of technical initiative on the part
of club members and to popular~ize sport diving. The "habitat~" built by the
clubs were sited at shallow depths to 10-12 meters. As a rule an under-
water stay was limited to several days, and the habitat crew would be only
two or three persons. Examples of undersea "habitats" of this type include
"Glaucous" (England) , "Caribe" (Czechoslovakia-Cuba) , 'Malter" (GDR) , and
"Ikhtiandr" (USSR) .
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Experiments conducted by the U.S. Navy emergency rescue services pursued
the objective of reaching the maximum possible depth of dive, maximu~. dura-
tion spent by a crew under water, and work on operations of an underwater
technical nature. Navy experimental programs also sometimes incl~:ded
- ~ceanographic research, but only on a secondary basis. Considerable
resources and practically unlimited financing enabled the organizers of
military programs to conduct experiments on a large and not always
justified scale. For example, the cost of just 24 hours of operation
by the U.S. Navy's Sealab II habitat was 35,G00 dollars.
The first experiments involving an extended stay by personnel under water _
were financed by commercial companies (both private and government-owned)
interested in developing equipment and methods of performing work under
water. The most typical example of an exp.eriment of this kind is the
"P recontinent-3" program: construction and operation of this undersea
habitat were financed chiefly by French oil companies.
A subordinate role was assigned to oceanographic research in the first ~
experimerts dealing with man liJing under water, and when programs were cut
back, oceanographic research was the first to go. It is obvious, however, -
that research can produce results only when specially conducted, when the
design of an undersea habitat, crew makeup and Qualifications, program o�
activities, in short, everything is tailored specifically to oceanographic
resParch.
We must state that to some extent a certain degree of conservatism by
oceanographers, proceeding from their devotion to traditional meana. was a
factor here. The development of underwater laboratories took them un-
awares to a certain degree, and although oceanographers did participate in
the first experiments with under.sea habitats, as we have already stated,
there was as yet no system in these investigations. In addition, t.he first
_ experiments in human habitation under water were in many ways of a publici-
ty nature, and the publicity raised by the press around these experiments
led to appearance in the press of information which was not always ob-
jective or competent. All this could not help but have an effect on the
attitude of oceanographers toward this new means of investi~ating the
ocean. Only a few scientists were able to see behind the noisy publicity
the very promising substance of the initiated experimental activities.
A second important act of omission by the first experiments consisted in the
fact that, in increasing the depth of undersea laboratories, the program
organizers somehow immediately byp assed medium depths 20-40 meters, go-
ing into the twilight zone of 100 meters and more. Surface-ad~acent waters,
which are the most interesting for oceanography mixed by wave action,
penetrated by the sun's rays and saturated with life were passed over.
C
As there developed increasing experimentation with underwater habitats,
there formed the opinion almost simultaneously in a number of countries
_ that there was a need for organization of specific-purpose oceanogr3phic -
programs of inedium-depth undersea research, Long-term programs of study of
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the processes taking place in the ocean at a depth of several tens ~f ineters
were initiated with the aid of underwater laboratories, at first in this
country and subsequently in the Unj.ted States and the FRG.
The specific features of working at shallow depths subjected to the effect
of surface wave action made it necessary to revise practically the entire
organization of experiments, from the composition of the breathing mixture
and crew decompression procedures to habitat design and structure of support
services.
At shallow depths one can utilize for crew breathing a mixture of oxygen
_ with hydrogen, not with heliwn, as was the case in deep submergences. How-
ever, before tliis new breathing mixture, which differs from atmospheric air
only in pressure and ratio of components, was accepted for use in under-
water activities, an entire series of experiments with people under shore
conditions was undertaken.
These laboratory investigations of nitrogen-oxygen breathing mixtures have
not yet been completed. Each experiment, as is usually the case, producing
_ an answer to one question, states several new problems. Nevertheless the
"backlog" achieved in the 1960's in the area of physiology of man living in
an elevated-pressure nitrogen-oxygen breathing environment made it possibl.e
to proceed with direct experiments in the sea, and oceanographers did not
let this opportunity slip by.
Above Us Is the Black Sea
In this country research involving extended stays by man under water began
at the ~nd of the 1960's. Three undersea research programs involving em-
ployment of undersea habitats "Ikhtiandr," "Sadko," and "Chernomor"
originated and began to be elaborated almost simultaneously.
The "Ikhtiandr" program was organized by a group of sports diving en-
thusiasts in the city of Donetsk. They made their first extended dive in
1966, during which two persons spent approximately four days at a depth of
10 meters off Point Tarkhankut, on the Crimean Black Sea coast. The ex-
periment was interrupted by a storm, but even in this brief period of time
they were able to amass a certain amount of experience in working under
water. On the basis of this experiment the group's engineers designed and
built an undersea laboratory assembled of individual modules. Each module
had its specific function working spaces, living quarters, diving com-
partments, etc. By combining different modules in a specific order and
sequence, it was possible to assemble underwater habitats containing from
two to four work-space and living-quarters compartments.
The "Ikhtiandr" program successfully evolved over the course of three years. _
In 1969 the "Ikhtiandr" team changed over to designing equipment for under-
water work activities and scuba gear.
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At the same time as the program was initiated at Point Tarkhankut, the
"Sadko" habitat was lowered into the water near Sukhumi. This was the
first dive in a"Sadko" undersea res~arch program organized by personnel ~
at the Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute. The "Sadko" program
specified a series of dives by three underaea habitats to sequenCially -
greater depths. In 1966 the "Sadko" habitat operated at a depth of 12.5
meters, in 1967 the "Sadko-2" habitat was placed at a depth of 25 meters,
and in 1969 "Sadko-3" habitaC aquanauts also worked at a depth of 25
meters, but for a longer period of time than their predecessors. The prin-
cipal objective of the "Sadko" program was hydrophysical and bioacoustic
research.
_ The "Chernomor" program was organized in 1967 by the USSR Academy of Sci-
ences Institute of Oceanography imeni P. P. Shirshov. The decision to
embar.k up~n this program was made following a thorough evaluation of Soviet
and foreign experience in man living and working under water and the
prospects opened up to oceanographers by the new method of man working
under the sea.
It was decided to divide the "Chernomor" undersea research program into
two stages. At the first stage the underwater habitat was to be evaluated -
as a means o:E studying the ocean, and those areas were to be determined
development of which would be most effective with the aid of an underwater
habitat. At the second stage oceanographic research proper was to be con-
ducted in selected areas.
Blue Bay on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus near Novorossiysk was
selected for the first phase of the program. Adjacent to the bay were the
grounds of ttie institute's Black-Sea Experimental-Scientific Research
Station (now called the Southern Departinent of the Academy of Sciences In-
stitute of Oceanography).
The "Chernomor" underwater laboratory was the world's first habitat in-
tended specifically for the conduct of oceanographic investigations.
Evaluating the experience sometimes sad, but more frequently suc-
cessful of their predecessors, the designers of "Chernomor" endeavored
to incorporate a number of requirements into its design.
The design of the habitat should offer conditions for normal living
and working under water for scientific personnel that is, persons of
average physical development and diving experience. This meant that the
habitat should be sufficiently spacious, comfortable, and should provide
a minimum influence of specific conditions of life under water on the
physical and emotional well-being of the crew.
Since the laboratory was intert~ed for extended scientific investigatinns
in various areas of the sea, the procedure of placing it on the seafloor
and floating it to the surface should be as simple and uncomplicated as
possible. Eliminated in advance was employment of any surface tender hoist
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equipment, since this would make operation of the habitat more complicated
and expensive.
The habitat should possess a strong hull, so that crew decompression _
could be conducted directly in the habitat aftex bringing it to the sur-
face.
The pressure hull and basic systems should be designed for opera-
tion down to depths of 30-40 meters, that is, within the proposed range of
utilization of nitrogen-oxygen breathing mixtures.
The habitat should possess not less than a 24-hour self-sufficiency
in all parameters for greater operational safety.
In the 1968 season the undersea habitat's first season it was dec3.aed
to restrict operations to a working depth of 12 meters, which would make it
possible to employ compressed air for breathing. It was also decided that
investigations conducted from the undersea laboratory should be primarily
- of a methods character.
The "Chernomor" undersea habitat was launched in the suu~er of 1968. After
. all its systems were tested at depths of 5 and 12 meters, the aquanauts
proceeded with performance of scientific investigations.
~ During a period of several months in 1968, five scientific teams, the mem-
bers of which spent a total of approximately 100 days under waters, lived
and worked in the "Chernomor" undersea habitat at depths of 10-14 meters.
The aquanauts performed investigations in hydrooptics, hydrology biology,
and geology. During the course of research activities the habitat was
moved on several occasions from one seafloor site to another, depending on
the research objectives.
Analysis of the results of the first year of operation of the habitat in-
dicated that the volume of worked performed exceeded the framework of pure-
ly methodological investigations; in a number of instances the aquanauts
obtained data of independent scientific interest. At the same time the
people at the institute concluded that although possibilities of con-
ducting research from an undersea habitat base are quite extensive, the
work area the northern part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus im-
poses a number of limitations on research subject matter. This area is
characterized by a gently-sloping sandy seafloor with few rock outcrops,
and with a paucity of flora and fauna. Therefore conduct of biological
and hydrochemical investigations in this area was acknowledged to be in-
advisable. The oceanographer organizers of the research program decided
to concentrate their attention on hydrooptical measurements and study of
the specific features of the lithodynamics of sandy seafloor at medium
depths to 30 meters. It was also proposed that these investigations be -
accompanied by measurements of the hydrodynamic background: the state of
the sea surface and distribution of current velocities and directions.
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Precisely these two areas of investigation became traditional for the
entire "Chernomor" program. The purpose of the hydrooptical investigations
- was to construct a statistical model a unique atlas of distributim of
the natural light field under water at depths to 30-35 m. The lithodynamic
program aimed at determining the boundaries and degree of activity of
lithodynamic processes on sandy seafloor at these same depths.
On-site work was performed chiefly in the su~er and fall months, while
the habitat would overwinter on shore. Each season's working experience
suggested to institute engineers the need for various modifications and
improvement in the habitat's design and construction. In 1970 "Chernomor"
assumed a final form, and from that time henceforth the laboratory's
appearance remained practically unchanged. This modified habitat was
designated "Chernomor-2m."
Design and construction of "Chernomor-2m" has Ueen described in many books
and magazine articles, and therefore there is no need to go into detail
here.
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A special vessel served as support ship for the "Chernomor" the ap-
proximately 400-ton refitted medium fishing trawler "Akademik L. Orbeli."
The tender carried on board a PDK-3 standard decompression chamber, high-
pressure compressors, 400��liter compressed air and nitrogen tanks, and a
power generator. When the undersea habitat was on the seafloor, the tender
would maintain position over it with four mooring buoys placed in advance
at the dive site.
_ ~aelve scientific teams worked on board the "Chernomor" from the day the
undersea habitat went into operation in 1968 up to program completion in
1974; personnel included more than 40 oceanographers, who spent a total of
more 760 days at depths from 10 to 31 meters.
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Habitat.
In the 1968-1972 seasons the habitat was placed on the seafloor in the
Blue Bay area near Novorossiysk, at a distance of 1.5 kilometers from the
shore. The seafloor in this ar~a slopes gently, with a gradient of ap-
proximately 0.027. The bottom is sand-covered to a depth of 25 meters,
beyond which the sand begins to be replaced by a solid cover of broken
and whole shells; The first signs of silting on the seafloor appear at
depths of about 30 meters, while a clearly-marked silt boundary occurs at a
depth of 40 meters. Occasional rock outcrops are covered by heavy growth
of rockweed of the genus Cystoseira to a depth of 25 meters.
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Prevailing winds in the Blue Bay area are northerlies, southerlies,
southwesterlies,,and westerlies. Maximum swell comes from the west and
_ southwest, and can reach a height of 4 meters and more.
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"Helgoland" habitat emergency shelter.
Before initiating work activities, the entire seafloor surface around the
habitat and on the research site is usually marked so that an aquanaut,
wherever he may happen to be in the work area, always knows precisely where
the habitat is, where which research site area is, and where a shelter is
located. As a rule guide t.ips forming a system of squares, marking of
which shows the aquanaut his location, are placed on the seafloor for this
purpose. For night orientation, aquanauts usually employ "light lanes"
lines of light beacons set up on the path from the habitat to the research
area or shelter.
The aquanaut-investigator's work in water in the immediate vicinity of the
target object greatly expands his investigation capabilities. But the
degree to which an aquanaut is able to implement this potential is deter-
- mined by the effectiveness of the instruments and equipment with which he
works directly in the water, that is, instruments and tools designed to
facilitate the collection of primary information on various parameters of
the water environment and seafloor, collection of samples and specimens,
mapping the seabed, etc. The aquanaut works at a depth of tens and
hundreds of ineters, under conditions of limited visibility, subjected to
the effects of low temperature, currents and other adverse external factors, -
and therefore the instruments which he utilizes should be simple, durable
and absolutely reliable.
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_ On the whole the entire category of individual means of primary collection
and accumulation of information can be divided into several groups:
means of surveying the tar.get object. This group includes instru-
ments for seabed mapping;
means of collecting information for subsequent processing on board
the habitat or on shore for example, photographic or television equip-
ment, devices for collecting soil and ;aater samples, for trapping ex-
perimental subjects, etc;
instriunents for obtaining characteristics of an object directly on
. the spot, without collecting specimens. Examples of such instruments in-
clude devices for measuring the mechanical properties of soils in situ,
devices determining the optical characteristics of water, such as Secchi
disks, color test charts, etc.
Some instruments used by aquanauts were designed for divers working from
the surface, and some specially for aquanauts, but both groups of in-
struments have found their place in the arsenal of investigative means in
equal measure.
During any submergence, regardless of the objective collection of
samples, search for a research site, or simply acquaintance with the work
area the aquanaut must determine the site depth, direction, time, dis-
tances, angles (for example, seabed gradient angles), and record observa-
tion results. Usually the aquanaut utilizes for this purpose a depth gauge,
compass, watch, ruler, spirit level, note pad and he attaches all these
things to his gear with cords, rubber bands, collars, etc. If to this we
also add special gear such as samplers, cameras, specimen containers,
etc the aquanaut, dangling equipment from all sides, becomes incapable
of work.
- The Sealab II aquanauts utilized a standardized plotting board, which -
carried a number of small items essential to the diver in his investiga-
tions. It was essentially a clipboard with measuring rules along the edges. ~
It held a depth gauge, compass, goniometer, extensible carrier with spfrit
level, a pocket for a pencil, straps for securing the plotting board to the
diver's belt, and a bracket for attaching additional items. Spirit levels
were carried on both edges of the board.
ihe above-described plotting board, in combination with a compass card and
tape measure placed on the seafloor, make it possible to obtain a plan map
of the seabed. The compass card, a white plastic disk 0.61 m in diameter
and bearing 1� graduations, mounted on a heavy, rigid base, is first
aligned with the plotting board's magnetic compass in a north-south direc-
tion. In order to determine the bearing to any object on the seafloor,
the aquanaut stretches the measuring tape from the center of the compass card
to the object and measures the azimuth angle off the compass card and dis-
tance off the measuring tape. ~ao compass cards and two measuring tapes
make it possible to map the seafloor by the trilateration method.
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I
The described methods are effective in obtaining a map of a comparatively
flat seabed. If seabed topography is complicated, however, and if it is
necessary to know the relative depth of a given point on the seafloor, a
differential depth gauge is normally employed to map tne seabed. Tr.is
device consists of a rubber hose with an elastic rubber container at one
end and a pressure gauge at the other. The entire system is filled with
- oil. 'When operating the instrument, the storage container is secured to a
deeper-sited object, and the pressure gauge 3s raised to a second object.
Based on the position of the neeclle on the pressure gauge scale, the -
aquanaut can determine the difference in depths between the two points.
The accuracy of such a system is approximately i-10 cm.
When working in fairly clear water, aquanauts triangulation-survey with
the aid of an alidade and plane table. The plane table consists of a
tripod support with attached metal triangle. A shaft runs through the
center of the triangular platform. Turning on this shaft is a horizontal
plotting board with three adjusting screws and two spirit levels. With
the adjusting screws one can position the plotting board in a horizontal _
plane from the readings of the levels. Aai alidade with an open sight is
mounted on the plotting board. This instrument is operated by two divers.
One stands a surveyor's rod by an object, while the other sights the
object's top and bottom points, determining its height, the angle between
the rod sighting lines, and thus distance to the ob3ect.
In working in large areas hydroacoustic means of finding objects are the
most expedient hydroacoustic beacons and direction finders or sonars.
Sonar equipment is utilized fairly extensively in diving activities. We
must state, however, that although the accuracy of modern sonar equipment
under water is tl m at a distance of 100 meters, such equipment is very
expensive at the present time.
The French company Thomson CSF recently began the manufacture of portable
buoy-beacons and manual direction finders. A buoy can be placed at depths
of down to 200 meters, either directly on an object or directly on the
seafloor (in this case an anchor and float are attached to the buoy, which
hold it a certain distance from the bottom). The buoy weighs 1.2 kg in
air and 0.5 kg in water; self-contained operating time under water is
approximately 1 month. The Thomson manual direction finder is in shape
and size reminiscent of a traffic officer's baton; it is 39 cm in length
and 6.3 cm in diameter. In air it weighs 0.95 kg, and has neutral
buoyancy in water. One end of the device contains a hydrophone, and the
other a compass and two lights. When searching for the target, the
aquanaut holds the direction finder in front of himself. If the ultrasound
source is to the right of the device, the right light ignites, and if it is
on the left the left light. If the direction finder is pointed straight
at the buoy, the lights come on alternately, and at this moment the
aquanaut can take a bearing from the compass card. Maximum detection
range of the beacon buoy is 750 meters.
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If there is no beacon on the object, the aquanaut utilizes active search
- gear: an ultrasonic signal transmitter and a receiver-direction finder,
mounted in a single unit. Probing with a narrow ultrasonic beam and
picking up the echo with the direction finder, the aquanaut can determine
- not only bearing to an object but also distance to it anci its size.
Modern sonars are unwieldy and inconvenient at the pr~sent time. The
AN/PQS-IB sonar made by Dalmo-Victor (utilized by the Sealab II aquanauts) -
is operated by two divers. It weighs approximately 10 kg in air, and in _
water it has a positive buoyancy of 225 grams. The operator determines
bearing to the object by volume of sound in the headphones. Ma~cimum signal
level corresponds to the precise bearing of the reflector axis to the `
object. Range is determined by pitch of the tone in the headphones. If
the object is at a range of 18 meters, for example, a tone with a pitch of
25 Hz is audible in the headphone, while if the range is 90 cm, the tone
will have a frequency of 250 Hz. According to published information, this
instrument is capable of detecting such an object as a bucket, for example,
at a distance of up to 110 meters, and a tin can up to 18 meters.
Hydroacoustic means of finding objects are particularly extensively em-
ployed in studies of migrations of little-mobile bottom-dwelling or-
ganisms, such as iobsters. Tektite program aquanauts secured to the backs
of lobsters miniature sonar beacons, and then followed their movements dur-
ing the course of several days with the aid of sonar units.
The direct search for an object and recording of its position in space is
only part of the overall task of investigation. Upon finding an ob~ect,
the aquanaut should be able to process it in such a manner that he can ob-
tain the desired result either i~ediately, on the spot, or later, in the
habitat. The diversity of forms of processing of an object, determined by
the extraordinary diversity of research objects and research investigations
proper, makes it impossible to give a full description of all inforn?ation
collection tools used by aquanauts. They can, however, be subdivided into
two large groups.
The first group includes means of collecting visual information on Y.he
general forni or behavior of an object. These include various still and
motion picture cameras, and videotaping equipment. The second group in-
cludes devices for collecting samples of water, soil, and catching living
organisms, including fish.
Let us examine in greater detail the most typical individual information
collecting devices used by aquanauts.
There exists today a coimtless variety of sti11 and motion picture cameras
intended for underwater use. As far as is known, however, two cameras
specially designed and built for underwater photography have been the most
successful. The first is the famed Calypso-Photo camera, designed by the
Cousteau team. In contrast to the majority'of underwater cameras, which
are nothing more than a conventional camera for land photography encased
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in a watertight box, the Calypso-Photo camera was designed from the outset
for underwater photography.
This camera is c~esigned for use with a standard 24 x 36 mm frame on a 36-
frame 36 mm roll. The camer: is very small in size approximately
130 x 90 x 35 mm. It has slight positive buoyancy in water.
Apparently the best of currently-e~cisting wide-format cameras is the RS-770,
~ built by the U.S. company Hydro Products, in conjunction with the U.S. Navy -
Electronics Laboratory. This camera was extensively utilized at deptts_of
up to 90 meters in the Sealab II experiment. The camera also comes with
an electronic flash attachment.
Advances in electronics have made it possible to design and build small
undeYwater TV transmitting cameras. The high sensitivity of modern
electron-beam tubes makes it possible to build underwater TV cameras with
greater sensitivity than the human eye.
Instruments for direct measurements of the characteristics of a target ob-
ject have been most extensively utilized in geological studies, since
remote measurements,ofseabed parameters of interest to geologists are made
difficult by the static character of an object: as a rule a smali number of
measurements is required at each given point, after which the aquanaut
moves to a new work site.
The "Chernomor" aquanauts utilized a profilograph to determine seafloor
ripple profile. This instrument consists of a frame resting on two sup-
ports. Aluminum rods are positioned vertically on the frame at 2 cm
spacings. A spring-loaded catch impedes free vertical movement of the rod.
When the instrument is being set up, the rods are raised to the uppermost
position and secured in that position. Then the aquanaut places the in-
strument in the required position on the seafloor and releases the catch.
The freed rods gently drop to contact with the seafloor surface, after
which their position is again secured. The envelope curve formed by the
lower ends of the rods reproduces the profile of the seabed topography form �
being studied.
Sealab program aquanauts utilized to measure the shearing strength of sea-
bed marine sediments a hand instrument consisting of a head formed by two
- plates intersecting at a right angle. They are secured at one end of a
bar, with a spring-loaded turning handle on the other end. The aquanaut
g e ntly introduces the plates into the soil, and then turns the in-
strument by the spring-loaded handle. As the handle turns, the spring com-
presses and transmits increasing force to the bar and to the instrument
head which has been inserted into the soil. When the force exerted on the
head exceeds the load-bearing capacity of the soil, the head begins to
turn. The position of the handle relative to the indicator at this moment
indicates the soil's shearing strength.
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Measurments in situ as a rule provide information only on certain physical-
~echanical soil properties and their microtopography. A more detailed
study of soils can be performed only in the course of laboratory analysis
- of aquanaut-collected samples.
Manual samplers utilized by aquanauts are of quite diversified function,
design and size.
Devices akin to water samplers, and containers with shutting tops would be
used to collect samples of water or "liquid soil."
On a number of undersea habitat missions aquanauts employed core samplers
to collect samples of loose soils. These are of varying design, but all
operate on a single principle. The aquanaut forces by hand into the soil
a hollow tube, which he then removes fram the seabed together with soil
which has entered the tube's interior cavity. Placing safety caps on both
ends of the core-containing tube, the aquanaut places it in a carrier.
The length of a core taken in this manner depends on the character of the
s eabed and the ski11 of the aquanaut collecting the sample, and ranges
f rom 20 to 30 cm. iJsually a tube-type core sampler is equipped with a
removable handle for greater ease of operation.
- Aquanauts have successfully employed a manual pneumatic percussion sampler
in collecting specimens of seabed loose soil and silt. The vibration
mechanism is powered by compressed air from breathing apparatus tanks.
This sampler can obtain cores 25 mm in diameter and several tens of
centimeters in length. ~
Tektite and FLARE program aquanauts used an electric hand drill to obtain
specimens of rock and coral. The drill set includes two diamond-bit drill
b ars. With an electric drill the aquanaut can collect a core 18 mm in
diameter and 35 cm in length.
On the whole the arsenal of individual aquanaut means of investigation is
quite diversified, and as a rule new instruments are designed and built
for performing new tasks. As experience indicates, however, most frequent-
ly underwater experiments are interrupted because instruments for in-
dividual collection of information prove ineffective in those conditions
in which they are utilized. It is therefore very important that in-
struments not only be designed by competent specialisCs but that they also
b e thoroughly tested under conditions maximally approaching actual use
conditions, and before an underwater experimental program actually begins.
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- EPILOGUE .
A unique anniversary will be celebrated in September 1977 the 15th an-
niversary of submergence of the world's first undersea oceanographic
habitat, the "DiogBne," of the "Precontinent" program. What have
aquanaut-oceanographers accomplished during these years?
- The first period, of enthusiasm with a new method of working and con-
ducting research under water a period when enthusiasts ~elieved that all
or at least the overwhelming majority of oceanographic tasks could be
performed solely by putting man under water is past. Today we have a
more realistic idea of what an oceanographer can actually accomplish under
water and what place this method of studying the ocean occupies in the
overall arsenal of research means. What can we expect in the immediate
and more distant future?
Prediction has always been a very delicate operation. It is difficult to
approach scientific and technological advance with today's measuring
sticks, although a correct forecast significantly facilitates the entire
process of further development.
- Evidently the majority of scientific programs based on utilization of under-
sea habitats will be focusing in the i~ediate future on study of depths of
several tens of ineter.s depths with the most intensively occurring
processes and with the steepest gradients.
Evidently further advances in undersea habitats of this medium-depth -
category will be aimed at imp roving undersea habitat systems which provide
habitability and capability to conduct scientific programs, as well as
the development of new sources of energy for undersea habitats. The latter
is especially important, since power supply remains the Achilles heel of
all habitat work programs.
The possibilities of employing undersea habitats in oceanography, however,
are not limited to medium depths. There already exist, and there will be
- more, certain particular tasks the accomplishment of which requires
oceanographers to work at greater depths as well, right down to maximum
depths beyond which man cannot dive. The most typical example of such
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tasks is installation, adjustment and servicing af scientific research
equipment.
The present level of technology permits design and construction of under-
sea habitats wibh a working depth of several hundred meters. The question
is at what depth will man be able to work in the sea, and what period of _
- time? _
Usually it is difficult to obtain an unequivoGal answer to such a question.
Acquisition of diver working depths takes place in several stages, and
characteristic of each stage is a depth and working time at that depth.
Man living and working at depths down to 180 meters has already become a _
reality, French and American scientists have perfo~ned successful ex- -
periments with personnel living and working for periods of many days at
depths of 250-300 meters, but these depths arQ not yet routine for diving
activities.
Deep-water "dives" have been made in land simulatara to even greater
pressures. "Dives" to a depth in excess of 300 meters have been made in
hydrocompression complexes pressure chambers some of the compartments
of which are filled with water and in which deep-sea diving conditions =
are simulated with a high degree of authenticity (water pressure, tem-
perature and salinity, clarity).
In pressure chambers, which are purely laboratory installations, people
have remained for several days under pressure of approximately 600 meters
of water column under a pressure of more than 60 atmospheres!
Evidently in the near future man will be able to work at these depths in -
the sea as well, and if this comes to pass, diver-oceanographers will be
performing their research at these depths. It is not yet clear what
technical devices will give them this capability. Depths of 1500 meters
constitute a qualitatively new stage in the evolution of diving, and it will
require qualitatively new technical solutions.
But all this is a matter of the distant future. In the meanwhile oceanog-
ra p her-aquanauts see as their i~?ediate task thorough study of the
phenomena and processes taking place at medium depths several tens of
meters, depths the mastery of which can make a significant contribution to
the nation's economy.
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APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000300020041-1