JPRS ID: 9524 USSR REPORT METEORLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

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JPRS L/9524
4 February 1981
USSR Report
METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
No. 9; September 1980
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JPRS L/9524
4 February 1981
USSR REPORT
METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
No. 9, September 1980
Translation of the Russian-language monthly journal METEOROLOGIYA I
GIDROLOGIYA published in Moscow by Gidrometeoizdat.
CONTENTS
Global Aerosol -Radia t ion Experiment 1
i Calcul ation of the Global Distribution of Three-Level Macroscale Cloud Cover.... 10
~
' Accuracy in Determining Integ-ral Parameters From the,Results of Measurement of
j the Microstructure of Clouds.................................................. 23
Zones of Considerable Precipitation in the Cloud Cover Field Detected by
Artif icial Meteorological Earth Satellites 32
Probab3l istic Model of Air Temperature Time Series 40
Contamination of the Near-Surface Atmospheric Layer by Cs137 50
On the Dynamic Boundary Layer of a Well-Developed Hurricane 58
Reaction of the Upper Layer of the Ocean to a Moving Typhoon 68
Computation of the Ocean Level 79
i Numerical Modeling of Ice Drift in the Coastal Zone of the Sea 90
Method for Computing the Layer of Spring Runoff of Small Watercourses........... 96
Hydrolo gical Conditions for the 'Blooming' of Water in the Reservoirs of the
Dnepr Cascade 103
Experience in Using a Kinetic Equation for Describing the Process of Formation
of Frazil Ice and Slush 110
Ozone and Solar Flares 119
- a- IIII - USSR - 33 S&T FOUO]
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Change in the Total Content of Atmospheric Ozone During the Passage of
TYPhoons 123
Dependence of Concentration of Tropospheric Carbon Dioxide on Surface Pressure. 127
Determination of the Water Vapor Content on Near-Surface Paths From the
Spectral Brightness of Objects 132
Fiftieth Anniversary of the Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute and the Moscow
Hydrometeorological Technical School 139 -
Review of Mouograph by S. L. Vendrov: 'Problems in Transformation of River
= Systems in the USSR' (PROBLEMY PREOBRAZOVANIYA-RFsGHNKH-SISTEM SSSR),
. Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1979, 207 Pages 143
Sixtieth Birthday of Semen Samuilovich Kazachkov.........a 145
Seventieth Birthday of Valentin Ihnitriyevich Romarov 147
Sixtieth Birthday of Gennadiy Petrovich Gushchin 150
Conferences, Meetings and Seminars 152
At the Exhibition 'Analytical Instruments-80' (ANALITICHESRIYE PRIBORY-80)..... 156
Notes From Abroad 159
Obituar3 of Vladimir Nikolayevich T.larshin (1919-1980) 161 k
- b -
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UDC 551.50(212.7)(575)
GLOBAL AEROSOL-RADIATION EXPERIMT
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 5-11
[Article by K. Ya. Kondrat'yev, Corresponding Member USSR Academy of Sciences,
Candidates of Physical and Mathematical Sciences V. I. Binenko, L. R. Dmitriyeva-
Arrago and N. Ye. Ter-Markaryants, Candidate of Geographical Sciences V. F. Zhvalev,
V. A. Ivanov and M. A. Prokof'yev, Main Geophysical Observatory, manuscript sub-
mitted 5 Feb 80]
[Text] Abstract: On the basis of the results of
the CAENEX, GATE and BOMEX experiments
' the authors formulate a multisided pro-
gram for the Global Aerosol-Radiation Ex-
- pzriment (GAAREX) and its scientific ob-
jectives. The article presents the first
results of expeditians carried out under
' the GAAREX program in 1977-1979 and pre-
sents the plan for implementation of
GAAREX in three principal directions:
"Desert," "V01C1II0" and "CZOIlCl."
~Introduction. An analysis of the present-day status of the theory of climate shows
that an adequate theory can be formulated only on the basis of correct modeling
~ of general circulation of the atmosphere (GCA) with allowance for different forms
of heat and moisture exchange in the.atmosphere [1-3, 10].
At the center of the problem of present-day changes in global climate is the ques-
tion of the influence exerted on climate by variations in atmospheric composition.
The physical content of the problem is rEduced to the task of ascertaining the in-
fluence of variations of composition on the radiant heat influx, in which the main
role is played by aspects of the problem re.lated to the study of cloud cover, aero-
sol and optically active gas componeats of the atmosphere.
The present-day status of the theory of radiatioa transfer in the atmosphere is
characterized by an abundance of diverse methods, from very approximate to vir-
tually precise, allowing "standard" computations of the fluxes and influxes of
; radiant energy. However, the complexity of the real atmosphere, determined by the
~ irregularity of spatial structure and variability of the properties of aerosol and
j cloud cover, makes it very difficult to take into account radiation factors on the
~
.
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basis of "pLire" theory and makes it necessary to deve'lop methods for a semi-
empirical parameterization. A solution of this problem is possible on the basis of
regularization of computation methods by tYieir comparison with experimental data
and development of inethods for the parameterization of radiation ef�ects.
This problem is becoming particularly timely in connection with the development of
the physical theory of clima*_e transpiring within the framework of the World Cli-
matic Research Program Gnd the necessity for ascertaining the facters determining
recent climatic changes, including anttiropogenic influenees.
In the further development of the physical theory of climate the use of experiment-
ally validated data on the radiation properties of clouds, atmospheric aerosol and
their interrelationships is of fundamentally great importance. Such a well-known
fact that the atmosphere is a colloid and not a purely gas medium has not yet found
adequate reflection in investigations of the thermal regime and dynamics of the at-
mosphere.
The results of investigations of recent years indicate a strong variability of the
fie13 of concentration of aerosol in the free atmosphere and great variations in the
optical characteristics of aerosol. At the same time, a fact which has become very
clear is that aerosol, like cloud cover, is one of the principal factors determin-
ing radiation transfer in the atmosphere, especially shcrt-wave radiation.
The noteri variability of the concentration field and the optical properties of
aerosol at a global scale complicates the development of the theory of formation
of global aerosol and the possibility of adequate parameterization of its climatic
effects. The development of this type of parameterization methods is possible only
on the basis of obtaining considerably more complete intormation on the concentra-
tion field and the properties of global aerosol.
Specialists in the USSR and in the United States have now carried out a series of
experiments partially satisfying the goals of aerosol-radiation research [7, 11, 14-
16]. The first truly multisided investigation of this type was the Complex Energy
Exper.iment (CAENEX), carried out in 1970-1975 by a number of scientific institutes
of the State Committee on Hydrometeorology, USSR Academy of Sciences and USSR Min-
istry of Higher Education under the direction of and with the participation of the
Main Geophysical Observatory imeni A. I. Voyeykov. The pioneering character of these
investigations was widely recognized abroad and the CAENEX experiment now serves as
a basis in the planning and organization of multisided experiments for the study of
atmospheric energetics. However, the results obtained in the mentioned exPeriments
can be regarded only as a first: approximation in solving the formulated problem as
a result of their incompleteness and the diff iculties sometimes arising in compar-
ing the results. In particular, the experience in carrying out GATE inc:icated how
important mathodological problems (ensuring completeness and comparability of the
results) are in complex experiments of this type.
Principal Results of Aerosol-Radiation Research Under the CAFNEX, GATE and BOMEY
Programs
The distinguishing characteristxc of the mentioned national and international ex-
periments of recent years was their multisided character, which made it possible to
obtain simultaneous data on both the aerosol a*d radiation characteristics of the
atmosphere.
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Laboratory experiments and chemical analysis of samples of atmospheric aerosol made
it possible to determine the optical constants of matter in the disperse phase of
an aerosol and the limits of variability of these constants in dependence on the
chemical composition of the aerosol and relative humidity [4-6, 11].
The investigations which have been made yielded much material on the spatial-tem-
poral structure, chemical composition and microstructure of aerosul [7, 8, 12].
Estimates have been made of the intensity of different sources of atmospheric aero-
sol [15, 16]. Unfortunately, it must be noted once again that the indicated mater-
ials are rather contradictory due to their selective character and the lack of
unified methods.
Radiation measurements have confirmed the presence of selective aerosol absorption
- of short-wave radiation. Under definite conditions its value is comparable to the
absorption of radiation by optically active gas components or even exceeds it. Data
have been obtained on the transformation of the vertical profiles of radiation heat
influxes in the atmosphere in the presence of an absorbing aerosol, continuous and
partial cloud cover. These results were obtained for a number of tppical underly-
ing surfaces and some climatic zones.
The problem of ascertaining the influence of aerosol on climate requires the coZ-
lection of data on all the principal types of atmospheric ar�rosol, including its
aiacro- and microphysical characteristics over typical underlying surfaces during
different seasons. The mentioned data must meet the requirements of completeness
and closure from the point of view of the problem of atmospheric energetics in gen-
eral and radiation transfer in an atmosphere containing aerosol, in particular.
Types of aerosol having a global or extensive regional propagation and exerting an
appreciable influence on the atmospheric radiation field are of particular interest
in this respect: arid aerosol, volcanic aerosol, anthropogenic aerosol, stratiform
cloud cover.
Since at the present time many available data do not have adequate completeness and
closure, the statistical support of the results is low, and no observations have
been made at all under some typical conditions. For example, there is a total lack
of data on the spatial structure and properties of atmospheric aerosol during win-
ter. There is extremely limited information on the radiation properties of arctic
stratiform cloud cover, on the interaction between cloud cover and aerosol, on the
possible mechanisms of modulation of cloud cover as a result of the spatial varia-
biiity of radiation heat influxes in the free atmosphere.
Program of Global AtmosFheric Aerosol-Radiation Experiment (GAAREX)
Taking into account what has been said above, in the coming years it seems desir-
able, within the framework of the World Climatic Research Program, to develop
a broad complex program of aerosol-radiation investigations whose scientific goals
can be formulated in the following way:
1. Investiga*_ions of the radiation characteristics of the "underlping surface-
atmosphere" system (especially the albedo of the system, the distribution of ab-
sorbed radiation between the atmosphere and the underlying surface, radiant heat
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exchange, etc. ) and their variability in different climatic zones, bearing in mind
the objective of creating an empirical basis for the parameterization of radiation
processes.
2. Investigations of the field of concentration of atmospheric aerosol, microstruc-
ture, chemical composition, complex refractive index and variability of these char-
acteristics in different climatic zones; estimation of the contribution of differ-
ent factors to the formation of the principal components of global aerosol; con-
struction of a model of global aerosol.
3. Investigations of atmospheric composition (optically active small gas compon-
ents and aerosol), its influence on radiation transfer and possible climatic ef-
fects (a 3oint allowance for the influence of aerosol and associates of water mol-
eca.iles is of great importance).
4. Laboratory and theoretical investigations of the formation of the spectrum of
aerosol particles, their optical characteristics.
5. Laboratory and theoretical investigations of the processes of formation of the
gas and aerosol composition of the stratosphere.
6. Development and, use of ground, aircraft and satellite methods for the remote
sensing of aerasol with the intention of the most complete determination of its
properties.
7. Development and use of direct and indirect methcds for investigating the micro-
physical and optical parameters of clouds (particular attention must be devoted
to the problem of cirrus clouds).
8. Comparison of the results of field and laboratory investigations of different
aerosol systems.
9. Development of approximate methods for computing the radiation characteristics
of ttie real atmosphere, intended for the parameterization of radiation processes in
the numerical modeling of general circulation of the atmosphere and the theory of
climate.
In this connection there must be:
a) development of models of the vertical distrihution of the optical praperties of
aerosol systems characteristic for regions with different properCies of the under-
lying surface;
b) determination of the integral transmission functions for.the serosol component
of the atmosphere on the basis of ineasurements under real and laboratory condi-
tions;
c) development of inethods for computing radiation of heat .'nfluxes attributable to
the influence of aerosol suitable for inclusion in a model of general circulation
of the atmosphere and climate;
d) implementation of numerical experiments with models of general circulation of
the atmosphere and climate for study of their response to variations of aerosol
properties of the atmosphere.
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10. Theoretical investi.gations of radiation transfer in Che real atmsphere on
the basis of use of "precise" methods and comparison of the results of compi�ta-
tions with experimental data.
11. Numerical mc,deling of general circulation of the atmosphere and climate for
Che purpose of evaluating response to radiation factors and devel.opmenC of opti-
mum schemes for their parameterization.
5imilar proposals weze formulated earlier in the review [9], in which the proposEd
program was called the Global Aerosol-Radiation Experiment (GAAREX).
It is understandable that solution of the scientific tasks of GAAREX is not within
_ the capab ilities of any single ir.sritute, hut possibly unly on the basis of a broad
and effective cooperation among a whole series of institu*_es of the Stata Committee
on Hydrometeorology, USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Miuistry of Higher Edu-
cation. Considerable experience in such cooperation has been accumulated by the
Main Geophysical Observatory during the time of carrying out of CAENEX, when field
investigations were carried out at agreed-upon times by groups of specialists from
different scientific institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences in conformity to
a, unified program directed to ensuring maximum complexity of the collected set of
data. In the mentioned investigations the Main Geophysical Observatory played the
role of a methodological and coordinating center for directing the experiment,
' on its part carrying out a considerable part of the special, particularly aircraft
~ observations.
- Taking into account the experience of joint investigations in the CAENEX and GATE
expeditions, as well as the scientific specialization of the corresponding insti-
' tuCes and establishments, it is desirable that in GAAREX a role be played by the
j Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute, Leningrad State University,
Institute of Experimental Meteorology, Institute of Atmospheric Physics USSR Acad-
emy of Sciences, Institute of Atmospheric Optics Siberian Department USSR Academy
of Sciences, Institute of Atmospheric Physics Kazakh Academy of Sciences and re-
gional scientific research institutes of the State Committee on Hydrometeorology.
The Main Geophysical Observatory (Radiation Research Section) can assume the role
of the coordinating and directing institute in the organization and implementation
of multisided field investigations under the GAAREX program.
The GAAREX program was part of the national efforts of the USSR with:Ln the frame-
work of the program of special observations in the global meteorological experi-
ment.
In order to ensure actual global coverage it is necessary that in the future
GAAREX assume the character of an international program. Such a need is dictated
both by the properties of the object of the proposed investigations itself (in par-
ticular, the need for carrying out observations under conditions not encountered
in the USSR), but also by the fact that international cooperation will make pos-
sible the most complete satisfaction of the requirements of complexity of the
measurements carried out.
Such cooperation with specialists in the United States is being carried out by
the Soviet-American Working Group VIII on the "In�luence of the Environment on
Climate." It should be noted that the need for international cooperation in the
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field of investigations c:f atmospheric aerosol and its influence on climate has
also been noted by key foreign specialists in the mentioned field [13], and was
also expressed during the creation of two uro rking groups of the committe organiz-
ing research on global atmosPheric processes: "Aerosol and Climate" and "Radia-
tion and Extensive Cloud Cover."
Radiation processes occupy an important place in the program of still another work-
ing group of the committee organizing research on global atmospheric processes:
"Processes on the Land and Their Parameterization in Models of General Circulation
of the Atmosphere."
The specific implementation of the GAAREX program has already been initiated and
is being carried out in the following way:
1) The first experiment under the GAAREX program was carried out in the Karakum
region in 1977. Extensive, multisided data were obtained on the aerosol composi-
tion, radiation and optical characteristics of the atmosphere. The object of the
investigations was dust storms as a factor forming the regional climate of arid
zones.
2) Two complex expeditions under the GAAREX program were successfully carried
out during 1979 when implementing the first and second special observation per-
iods of GARP. The GAAREX-79-I expedition was carried out in February-March in the
Karakum region and GAAREX-7/9-II in May-June in the Arctic, jointly with the SP-22
drifting station, and in the region of Kamchatkan volcanoes.
The principal objective of the GAAREX-79-I expedition was investigatinns of the in-
fluence of the aerosol of deserts on the radiation regime of the atmosphere. The
results of this expedition confirmed the conclusions which we drew on the basis of
data from esrlier experiments carried out in the desert. The desert region is char-
acterized by a stability of the form of size distribution of aerosol particles.
With a stability of the form of this distribution there are considerable varia-
tions in the concentration of particles. The stability of microstructure facil-
itates formulation of a model of aerosol for the deserts.
The complex use of the results of aerosol measurements at a ground point and on
an IL-18 aircraft laboratory of the Main Geophysical Observatory made it possible
to study the peculiarities of the vertical profiles of aerosol concentration under
different atmospheric conditions (in clear weather and in the absence of strong
winds, in the case of an adequately turbid atmosphere and during dust storms), and
also to find the relationship between these distributions and profiles of the
components of the radiation heat influx. Analysis of data on the change in the
disperse composition of aerosols with altitude indicated a constancy of the bimodal
structure of the distribution. A second minimum is common for all the distribu-
tions and falls in the size range 8-10 M.
On the expedition specialists carried out measurements of the chemical composition
of aerosol in different ranges of particle sizes with the use of a multicascade im-
pactor which are very important for further theoretical computations.
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An tnvestiga[ion of the dependence of the aerosol concentration on wind velocity
was also made. The experimental data will be used in carrying out theoretical
computations of the transfer of short-wave radiation in the dust-filled atmosphere
for the purpoae of formulating forms of parameterization of the radiation effects
of aerosol, and also for computing the possible diurnal variations of the radia-
tion heat influxes characteristic for the atmosphere in the desert region.
The results of the expedition are of great importance for a sufficiently relisble
allowance for the atmosphere as a colloid in models of general circulation of the
atmosphere and the theory of climate.
The principal purpose of the second expedition, GAAREX-79-II, was a study of the
processes of formation of extensive stratiform cloud cover in the Arctic (over
- SP-22) in summer and the radiation properties of the products of volcanic erup-
- tions. On Kamchatka experimental investigations of the dynamics of fog and low
cloud cover were supplemented by nwnerical modeling on the basis of the collected
data. Inves tigations of the ice-water radiation contrasts were made in this ex-
periment. On Kamchatka, in the neighborhood of Aldair and Cheringotan Islands,
the radiatio n regime of the atmosphere was investigated on Chepurachek volcano
during a per iod of f umarole activity of volcanoes during clear weather and in the
, presence of a continuous cloud cover.
3) By way of making preparations for the GAAREX-79-II expedition, in December 1978
aircraft measurements were made over the cities of Zaporozh'ye and Donetsk from IL-
18 and IL-1 4 flying laboratories for the purpose of study of the influence of an-
thropogenic aerosol on the radiation properties of clouds below an inversion.
The following questions were raised in this experiment:
H,ow does the aerosol in a cloud exert an influence on th e radiation regime of
the atmosphere over a city?
What is the role of nucleus formation and what aerosols are most important and
- active in this process?
Iinw are the micro physical properties of a cloud trausformed as a result of
cloud-aerosol interaction?
How great are the radiation effects of soluble and hydrophobic aerosol in com-
parison with molecular absorption in a cloud?
What pro pPrties of aerosol are most important to take into account in model.s
of the climate of a city?
The results of this experiment, together with data from investigations of the role
of anthropo genic and volcanic aerosol on Kamchatka made it possible to draw im-
portant conclusions on the influence of aerosol of anthropogenic origin on the
radiation properties of clouds.
4) In Augus t 1979, a t Ryl'sk, specialists carried out comparisons of balloon-borne
aerosol ins trumentation and investigations of the chemical composition of aerosol
(especially stratospheric).
1fie experience in carrying out this sort of comparisons indicates the i.mportance
of developing metrolo gical principles for aerosol measurements, the creation of
generators of a polydisperse aerosol with known physicochemical properties, the
need for carrying ou-, laboratory and field comparisons of aerosol instrumeni:a-
tion. In the future plans call for carrying out the GAAREX program with the
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implementation of complex experimental investigations in three principal directions:
1) September-October 1980-1981 "Desert" experiment. The planned experiment wi11
_ make possible a more complete understanding of the factors exerting an influence
on Clie formation of climate in arid zones, as well as a comparison of SovYet gnd
American aerosol instrumentation.
2) 1981-1983 "Cloud" experiment. Investigations under this subprogram will make
it possible ._o carry out a thorough comparison of the radiation fields for an at-
mosphere with pure clouds and clouds subjected to an anthropogenic influence; these
will make it possible to formulate a unified approach to the use of experimental
and theoretical data in the parameterization of the interaction between clouds
and radiation.
3) 1981-1985 "Volcano" experiment. The implementation of investigations under
this subprogram will make possible:
a) a fuller understanding of the influence of aerosol of volcanic origin on the
radiation field in the atmosphere and an evaluation, in particular, of the relia-
b itity of the hypothesis of volcanically induced changea in paleoclimate;
b) on the basis of systematic satell ite tracking of the state of the stratosphere
conclusions can be drawn on the possible reaction of the atmosphere to artificial
contamination of the stratosphere by aerosol particles.
The practical implementation of the research programs will be accomplished on the
basis of Soviet-American cooperation within the framework of the agresment on
preservation of the environment. (Working Group VIII. Project 0.2.08-12 "Influence
of Atmospheric Contamination on Climate.")
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Blinova, Ye. N., "Hydrodynamic Long-Range Weather Forecasting," METEOROLOGIYA
I GIDROLOGIYA. (Meteorology and Hydrology), No 11, 1974.
2. GIDRODINAMICHESKAYA MODEL' OBSHCHEY TSIRRULYATSII ATMOSFERY I OKEANA (Hydrody-
namic Model of Circulation of the Atmosphere and Ocean), edited by G. I. Mar-
chuk, Novosibirsk, Computation Center Sib erian Department USSR Academy of Sci-
ences, 1975.
3. Zuyev, V. Ye., LAZER-METEOROLOG (Laser Meteorologist), 1974.
4. K,ondrat'yev, K. Ya., "Aerosol and Climate," TRUDY GGO (Transactions of the
Main Geophysical Observatory), No 381, 1976.
5. Kondrat'yev, K. Ya., "Modern Changes in Climate and the Factors Determining
Them," ITOGI AIAUKI I TEKHNIKI. METEOROLOGIYA I KLIMATOLOGII (Results of Sci-
ence and Technology. Meteorology and Climatology), Vol 4, VINITI, MASCOw,
1977.
6. Kondrat'yey, K. Ya., SPUTNIKOVYY MONITORING KLIMATA: OBZOR VNIIGMI-MTsD (Satel-
lite Monitoring of Climate: Review of the All-Union Scientific Research Inst-
itute of Hydrometeorological In format ion-World Data Center), Obninsk, 1978.
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7. Kondrat'yev, K. Ya., et al., KOMPLEKSNYY ENERGETICHESKIY EKSPERIMENT (KENEKS):
OBZOR VNIIGMI-MTsD (Complex Energy Experiment (CAENEX) : Review of the All-Union
Scientific Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information-World Data
Center), Obninsk, 1975.
8. Kondrat'yev, K. Ya., et al., VLIYANIYE AERQZOLYA NA PERENOS IZLUCHENIYA: VOZ-
MOZHNYYE KLIMATICHESKIYE POSLEDSTV'IYA (Inf'luence of Aerosol on Radiation Trans-
fer: Possible Climatic Consequences), Leningrad, Izd-vo LGU, 1973.
9. Kondrat'yev, K. Ya., Vasil'yev, 0. B., Ivlev, L. S., GLOBAL'NYY AEROZOL'NO-
RADIATSIONNYY EKSPERIMENT(GAAREX): OBZOR VNIIGMI-MTsD (Global Aerosol-Radiation
Experiment (GAAREX): Review of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Hydrometeorological Information-World Data Center), Obninsk, 1976.
10. Marchuk, G. I., Musayelyan, Sh. A., "Methods for Computing Variations of the
Total Flux of Radiant Energy for Long-Range Forecasting of Large-Scale Meteor-
ological Fields," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology),
No 8, 1974.
- 11. POLNYY RADIATSIOLNNYY EKSPERIMENT (Full Radiation Experiment), edited by K. Ya.
Kondrat'yev and Ye. N. Ter-Markaryants, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1976.
12. CIAP MONOGRAPHS, CIAP Office, Washington, D. C., Vols 1, 4, 1975.
13. CLIMATE DYNAMICS BOARD. WORKING GROUP ON AEROSOLS AND CLIMATE, Report of the
Meeting 7-11 August 1978, NCAR, Boulder, Colorado.
� 14. Cox, S. K., Kraus, M., THE GATE RADIATION SUBPROGRAM, Field Phase Report, Dept.
of Atm. Sci., CSU, Fort Coll ins, Colorado, January 1975.
15. GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOL RADIATION STIIDY, Research Plan. NCAR, Univ. Arizona,
Univ. Wisconsin, Univ. Washington, NOAA, 1973.
16. Kuhn, P. M., Stearns, L., "Radiative Transfer Observations During BOMEX,"
NOAA TECHN. REPT. ERL 203-AP CL 19, Boulder, Colorado, 1971.
9
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UDC 551.576(100)
CALCULATION OF THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF THREE-LEVEL MACROSCALE CLOUD COVER
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 12-23
[Article by Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences V. P. Meleshko, Main
Geophysical Observatory, submitted for publication 2 Ap r 801
[Text] Abstract: In this arCicle an attempt is made
to calculate three-1eve1 cloud cove'r for the
entire earth. A method is proposed for calcul-
ating cloud cover at three levels in the atmo-
sphere based on solution of the inverse prob-
lem for the transport of long-wave radiation.
On the basis of use of climatic data on total
cloud cover, temperature, humidity and outgo-
ing radiation at the boundary of the atmosphere
it was possible to calculate the distributions
of the quantity of clouds at three levels in
the atmosphere for the conditions prevailing
' in July. The determined distribution of cloud
cover agrees well with both the actual zonal
data and with the principal macroscale cloud
forma.tions in some regions of the earth, in
particular, in the region of the Indian mon-
soon, ICZ and zone of baroclinic instabilityo
Introduction. In the modeling of general circulation of the atmosphere and climate
by means of hydrodynamic models of the atmosphere it is necessary to have info rma-
tion on the three-dimensional distribution of cloud cover, which in turn is needed
fo r calculating radiation heat influxes. At the present time cloud cover in the
mo dels is calculated using relatively simple empirical expressions in which the
- tenths of cloud cover at a priori stipulated levels is usually related to relative
himmidity. ihe corresponding coefficients in these expressions are selected in such
a way that the computed mean seasonal distribution of the quantity of clouds will
agree with the similar actua.l distribution. In a number of investigations such a
matching was accomplished with the zonal data published by London [9]0
The question as to what degree the quantity of clouds computed in the model agrees
with the real quantity at different levels in the atmpsphere and in different geo-
graphical regions of the earth rematns open because at the present time there are
- no climatic data on the three-dimensional distribution of cloud cover. However, a
knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the actual cloud cover is extreme-
ly important for improving schemes of its parametric description and for refining
methods for calculating heat influxes in atmospheric u}odels.
10
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Information on cloud cover obtained using data from the ground network of sta-
tions and using meteorological satellites has been generalized and published in
a whole series of investigations [2, 6, 13, 14]. The television images of cloud
cover collected during recent yeavs made it possible to supplement and refine
available materials from sur�ace observaCions over the waters of the oceans and
in inaccessible regions of the earth. In most cases these data are the mean
monthly values of total cloud cover, estimated in tenths or fractions of sky
coverage. Source [13] also contains information on the frequency of recurrence
of cloud cover of different quantitative gradations, expressed in relative bright-
nesses.
With respect to data on the quantity of clouds at different levels, they are ex-
tremely scarce, and if they exist, are available only f.or individual, adequately
_ well-studied regions of the northern hemisphPre. For example, maps of the season-
al distribution of the ratio of lower cloud cover to total cloud cover over the
territory of the USSR are given in [1]. An extensive set of parameters describ-
ing the spa tial- temporal structure of cloud caver for individual poi'n.ts in the
territory of the USSR is given in [3]. Some ideas concerning the vertical extent
of large-scale formations can be obtainecl from [6, 12], which give infcrmation on
the geographical distribution of the predominant types of clouds. Using information
on the frequency of recurrence of clouds of different types, London [9] construct-
ed the zonal distribution of their quantity for the four seasons. At the present
time this is, indeed, the only source of climatic data which includes information
on both the quantity of clouds and on their vertical extent.
The development of satellite systems for making such observations served as a stim-
ulus for the development and improvement of inethods for determining not only total
cloud cover, but also the altitude of its upper boundary, as well as other charac-
teristics,on the basis of data from measurements of outgoing long-wave radiation
in the transparency window and cloud brightness in the visible spectral region.
The methods for determining the temperature of the upper claud boundary are based
on the idea of registry of the thermal contrasts in the field of outgoing radia-
tion'between the boundary of the clouds and the underlying surface. The visible
spectral range is usually used in evaluating the total quantity, thickness and
phase state of the clouds on the basis of an analysis of the brightness contrasts.
A thorough review of investigations in this direction is given in the t-wo mono-
graphs of K. Ya. Knndrat'yev and Yu. M. Timofeyev [4, 51. It must be noted that
existing satellite methods for the time being are in the testing stage and there-
fore no other generalized data have yet been published for the earth (or even
for the northern hemisphere) other than for total cloud cover.
In this study an attempt has been made to compute the vertical distribution of
large-scale cloud cover, using for this purpose climatic data on total cloud cov-
er, outgoing radiation at the upper boundary of the atmosphere, temperature and
humidity.
The quantity of clouds is computed.for three altitudes, which on the average cor-
respond to the upper boundary of clouds of the upper, middle and lower levels.
The computation method is based on the identification of the Chermal contrasts
in the field of outgoing radiation between the clouds, situated at stipulated
11
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levels in the troposphere, and the underlying surface.
In this study we made computations of the global distribution of three-level cloud
cover for July.
Method for Computing the Quantity of Clouds
We w ill examine a column of the atmosphere of a unit area and extent from the ground
surface �to the upper boundary of the atmosphere. We will assume that in a column
at different altitudes from the ground surface there are K layers with incomplete
cloud cover, so that the total quantity of clouds (in fractions of a unit area) N,
visible from the upper boundary of the atmosphere, is.equal to
K ^
1: A'k = N.
k= I
Here Nk is the fraction of a unit area covered bq clouds of the k-th layer which
the observer could see if he was at the upper boundary of the atmosphere. With Nk
= 1 the considered area is completely covered by clouds.
~
The total flux of outgoing radiation at the boundary of the atmosphere R consists
of fluxes emanating from the cloud sectors, visible below, situated at different
levels, the part of the underlying surface not covered by clouds and the radiation
of the atmospheric layers falling between the radiating surfacea and the uppar
boundary of the atmosphere, -h:- - -"1: NxRk -R' (2)
k = C.
Here NO = 1- N is the fraction of the unit area free of clouds, Rk is the flux of
radiation reaching the upper boundary in the presence of total cloud cover at the
level k. The expression for the integral flux Rk can be written in the form
mk
R~ = B(rk) D(mk) T.I B(T) dD(rnk- m), (3)
0
where B(T) is the radiation function at the temperature T, D(mk) is the integral
transmission function with an effective mass mk.
The first term on the right-hand side describes the part of the radiation from the
cloud surface or from the underlying surface reaching the boundaries of the atmo-
sphere. The second characterizes the radiation of the atmospheric layer situated
~ between the radiating surface and the boundary of the atmosphere.
Now we will determine the properties of large-scale cloud formations which in a
general case can include several of the considered unit areas.
1. Here and in the text which follows it will be assumed that clouds exist at
only three levels in the atmosphere. This cnrresponds to their generally accepted
division into clouds of the upper, middle and lower levels.
2. The altitud,.: of the upper cloud boundary is known. For the cloud cover of the
middle and lower levels it is situated at the levels 700 and 925 mb respectively.
_ The boundary of the upper-level clouds is a function of latitude. In both hemi-
spheres from the pole to latitude 48� it is sifiuated at the level 500 mb; then
12
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gradually increases and from a latitude of 28� to the equator is situated at the
300-mb level.
3. The horizontal distribution of cloud cover at each level in an elementary area
is random, so that the probability of their mutual overlapping is equal to the
product of their quantities at the corresponding levels. Thus, the fraction of
cloud cover visible from above is related to their quanCity by means of the ex-
pressions
N I
_ Ns = (1-n, ) n2, (4)
.\'s = (1-n1) (1-n2) 113.
Here and in the text which follows nk (k = 1, 2, 3) is the quantity of clouds at
the k-th level (in fractions of unity).
4. Clouds of the upper, middle and lower levels radiate as ideally black bodies
with the temperature at their upper limits.
5. Clouds of the middle and lower levels are quite dense and do not transmit long-
wave radiation from the lower-lying layers of the atmosphere. The upper-level
clouds are assumed to be partially transparent.
6. The contribution of the nonlinear errors arising as a result of use of atuo-
spheric characteristics averaged in time and space for computing the mean radia-
tion fluxes is negligible.
The algebraic equations (1) and (2) contain three unknown functions Nk(k = 1, 2,
3). Still another equation is required for closing the system. As such an equa-
tion it is possible to use an expression similar to (2) but describing the trans-
fer of fluxes of reflected short-wave radiation. This requires the inclusion of a
number of additional assumptions relative to the reflecting and transmitting prop-
- erties of clouds following from the theory of transfer of short-wave radiation
; in the cloudy atmosphere.
In this study we examine a simpler approach whose basis is the use of an empirical
relationship between the quantity of ciouds and relative humidity at the two low- -
est levels is the-atmosphere. In other words, we will assume that the ratio of
the quantity of clouds of the middle and lower levels is proportional to the
ratio of the relative he*nidities at the corresponding levels (layers) in the at-
mosphere:
n.. , h.,
"3 (5)
-
where h2, h3 are the relative humidities in the layers of clouds of the middle
and lower levels, p is an empirical proportionality factor (0
~
b0
0
cd
A b

9
d
~
O
N
~
~
~
0
G
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owo
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v! O
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y r-i
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(U
w
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,a 0
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+1
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o
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cr1
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'
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cti
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*
19
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attributable to the circumstance that the contribution of the lower-lying clouds
to the total rad iation is less than the contribution of upper-level clouds as a
result of the eff ect of random superpositioning and screening of radiation by
upper clouds. With one and the same absolute error in radiation the errors in
determining cloud cover increase from the low to the high latitudes. 'I'he reason
for this is the latitudinal decrease in the mean vertical temperature gradient
in the troposphere, which leads to a decrease in the thermal contrasts in the fluxes
of outgoing radiation arriving at the boundary of the atmosphere from different lay-
ers. For example, the errors in determining the quantity of upper-level clouds are
0.1 in the low latitudes, and gradually increasing, attain 0.2 in the high lati-
tudes. The corresponding errors for middle- and lowei-level cloud cover are approx-
imately half as great.
Table 2 gives the mean zonal changes in computed cloud cover as a function of the
errors in determining the total quantity of clouds, equal to �0.1. The absolute
value of the error is the mean northern hemisphere deviation between the distrib-
utions of total cloud cover cited in [2, 14]. Comparison with Table 1 shows that
in this case the determination of lower cloud cover is more sensitive to errors
in determining total cloud cover than upper cloud cover. The magnitude of the
change in the quantity of lower clouds is almost twice as great as the error in
total cloud cover. With respect to the zonal peculiarities of the change in the
quantity of clouds at different levels, they are similar to those shown in Table
1.
The ma.ss of climatic data described in section 3 was used in computing three-level
cloud cover for the entire earth.
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the computed quantity of clouds of the upper,
middle and lower levels. 1'he figures indicate that the principal large-scale char-
acteristics of the vertical distribution of cloud cover agree well with the known
characteristics of general circulation of the atmosphere and available data on the
frequency of recurrence of stratus and cumulus forms in individual regions of the
earth. We will enumerate some of them.
1. A considerable quantity of upper-level clouds is observed in the middle lati-
tudes of both hemispheres. The formation of cloud cover was associated with the
development of baroclinic instability.
2. An extensive maximum of tha quantity of upper-level clouds was clearly express-
ed over Southeast Asia, including India. This maximum agrees with the observed
region of formation of thick convective cloud cover caused by the development
of southwesterly and southeasterly monsoons during this season of the year.
3. Regions of an increased quantity of clouds of the upper and middle levels are
traced along the equator. Their formation is associated with the position of the
ICZ.
4. Extensive regions of considerable lower cloud cover are situated in the north-
ern and northeastern parts of the Pacific Ocean and along the western shores of
South America. Observational data show that in these regions there is a predomin-
ance of clouds of stratus forms [121, forming over the relatively cold water sur-
face of the oceans.
20
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At the same time, some specific peculiarities are also noted in the field of
three-level cloud cover. For example, in regions with a considerable upper cloud
cover (region of Southeast Asia, equatorial and southern part of the Pacific
Ocean) there is a relative decrease in the quantity of lower-level clouds. This
was evidently caused by both the errors in the initial data and the use of some
of the assumptions adopted in the computation scheme. For example, one of these
assumptions is that the cloud cover distribution at each level is random. It can
be assumed that such an asswnption is satisfied quite rigorously in regions of
_ formation of stratiform clouds. However, it may not be satisfied in those regions
where the cloud cover has a considerable vertical extent and is associated with
the development of powerful convection. The assimmption of a random vertical dis-
tribution of clouds should lead to an underestimate of their quantity at the
lower levels, as was found in the computations. In addition, the underestimate
of lower cloud cover in the IC2 over the Pacific Ocean is in part attributable
to another factor. Figure 1 shows that in this region along the equator there is
no zone of an increased quantity of total cloud cover, although available satel-
lite observations indicate its existence. It was demonstrated earlier that this
sort of error in the quantity of total cloud cover should lead, in particular,
to an underestimate of the quantity of lower clouds.
Moreover, the distribution of outgoing radiation used in the computations was
stipulated at the points of intersection of a 10� x 10� grid. This means that
some fine peculiarities in the radiation field associated wir_h the existence of
a narrow cloud zone along the equator was evidently inadequately well expressed
in such a relatively thin grid.
In summarizing what has been said above, it can be assumed that except for some of
the mentioned shortcomings, relating for the most part to the determination of
lower cloud cover, in general the computed three-dimensional distribution of the
quantity of clouds agrees well with the principal large-scale peculiarities of
general circulation of the atmosphere and can be used in evaluations of the pos-
sibilities of schemes for the parameterization of cloud cover used in hydrody-
namic models of the atmosphere.
In conclusion the author expresses sincere appreciation to Doctor S. Manabe and R.
T. Wetherald (Geophysical Hydrodynamics Laboratory, Princeton, United States) for
numezous productive discussions and assistance in carrying out this study.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Berlyand, T. G., "Seasonal Change in the Relationship Between Lower and Total
Cloud Cover Over the Territory of the USSR," TRUDY GGO ('IYansactions of the
Main Geophysical Observatory), No 307, 1974.
2. Berlyand, T. G., Strokina, L. A., "Cloud Cover Regime on the Earth. Physical
Climatology," TRUDY GGO, No 388, 1974.
3. Dubrovina, L. S., "Sta tistical Characteristics of the Spatial and Microphys-
ical Structure of Clouds," AVIATSIONNO-KLIMATICHESRIY ATLAS-SPRAVOCHNIK SSSR
(Aviation- Climatic Atlas-Reference Book of the USSR), Vol 1, No 3, 1975. 21
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- 4. Kondrat'yev, K. Ya., Timofeyev, Yu. M., TERMICHESKOYE ZONDIROVANIYE ATMOSFERY
SO SPUTNIKOV (Thermal Sounding of the Atmosphere from Satellites), Leningrad,
- Gidrometeoizdat, 1970.
5. IGondrat'yev, K. Ya., Timofeyev, Yu. M., TERMICHESKOYE ZONDIROVANIYE ATMOSFERY
IZ KOSMOSA (Thermal Sounding of the Atmosphere from Space), Leningrad, Gidro-
meteoizdat, 1978.
6. Lobanova, V. Ya., "Characteristics of the Geographical Distribution of Cloud
Cover Over the Northern Hemisphere," TRUDY NIIAK (Transactions of the Sci-
entific Research Institute of Aeroclimatology), No 44, 1967.
7. Crutcher, H. L., Meserve, J. M., SELECTED LEVEL HEIGHTS, TEMPERATURE AND DEW
POINT FOR THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE, NAVAIR 50 IC-52, US Nav. Weather Serv.,
Washington, D. C., 1970.
8. Jenne, R. L., Crutcher, H. L., van Loon, H., Taljaard, J. J., "A Selected Cli-
matology of the Southern Hemisphere: Computer Methods and Data Availability,"
NCAR TECHNICAL NOTE, NCAR-TN/STR-92, 1974.
9. London, J. A., "Study of the Atmospheric Heat Balance," College of Engineer-
ing, New York University. Final Report. Contract AF 19(122)-165, 1957.
10. Manabe, S., Strickler, R. F., "Thermal Equilibrium of the Atmosphere With a
Convective Adjustment," J. AMOS. SCI., Vol 21, 1964.

11. Manabe, S., Wetherald, R. T., Thermal Equilibrium of the Atmosphere With a
Given Distribution of Relative Humidity," J. ATMOS. SCI., Vol 24, 1967.
12. McDonald, W. F. (Editor), ATLAS OF CLIMATIC CHARTS OF THE OCEANS, WB No 1247,
US Govt Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1938.
13. Miller, B. D. (Editor), GLOBAL ATLAS OF RELATIVE CLOUD COVER 1967-1970, US
Department of Commerce and USAF, Washington, D. C., 1971.
14. Schuts, C., Gates, W. L., GLOBAL CLIMATIC DATA FOR SURFACE, 800 mb, 400 mb,
January, R-915-ARPA, Rand Co., 1972.
15. Van Loon, H., Taljaard, J. J., Sasamori, T., London, J., Hoyt, D. V., Lab-
itzke, K., Newton, C. W., "Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere," METEOROL.
MONOGR., Vol 13, No 35, 1972.
16. Vonder Haar, T. H., Ellis, J. S., ATLAS OF RADIATION BUDGET MEASUREMENTS FROM
SATELLITES (1962-1970), Atmos. Sci. Paper No 231, Colorado State University,
Fort Collins, Colorado, 1970.
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UDC 551.508.769
ACCURACY IN DETERMINING INTEGRAL PARAMETERS FROM THE RESULTS OF MEASUREME~NT OF TfiE
MICROSTRUCTURE OF CLOUDS
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian ryc 9, Sep 80 pp 24-31
[Article by Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences M. Yu. Orlov, Insti-
tute of Experimental Meteorology, manuscript submitted 24 Jan 801
[Text] Abstract: Formulas are derived for determin-
ing the random errors of the values of inte-
gral parameters of the spectrum of cloud
droplets measured, for example, using a pho-
toelectric instrument for mea3uring sizes. It
is shown that with the present-day character,-
istics of ineasuring instruments the principal
contribution to the errors in measuring the
concentration of dropl ets, liquid-water content
and radar reflectivity is from the error in
determining the computation volume (f20X).
For the remaining integral parameters the errors
are determined for the most part by errors in
measiiring the radii (widths of the analyzer
channels). The errors associated with the ran-
domness of spatial positioning of droplets in-
troduce a small contribution to the total error
of the results. It is shown that the errors in
measuring the mean radius are 7-8%; the errors
of the mean square radius are 10-20%.
Many studies have b een devoted to measurements of the microstructure of clouds [3,
8]. The usual methods which have been employed by different authors for determin-
ing the size distributions of cloud droplets are the methods associated with the
precipitation of droplets on a backing [2, 3, 8] or photoelectric methods (for ex-
ample, see [71).
At the present time virtually all studies of the microstructure of clouds are made
using photoelectric counters of cloud particles. Emphasis is on determination not
only of the spectrum of droplet sizes itself, but also its various integral char-
acteristics (for example, the mnments of size distribution of particles).
23
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When using photoelectric counters, especially counters with optical formation of
the computation volume, a particle with a given size can be registered either
in the analyzer channel corresponding to its radius or in the channel corres-
ponding to a lesser radius. As a result, corrections for the nonuniformity of
illumination of the computation wlume must be introduced into the instrument spec-
trum of sizes. During the time of ineasurements in a channel with the number i
there is registry of ni particles, which is expres$ed through Nj the numbers
of particles in the atmosphere with radii corresponding to a channel with the num-
ber j, in the following way [7]:
r o
A',
r=nt j,.tt
(1)
where 0(-ji is the probabil ity that a particle with a radius corresponding to a
channel with the number j will be registered in a channel with the number i(ri <
rj); M is the total number of analyzer channels in which the particles are regis-
tered.
Thus, it can be seen that the errors 6ni of the ni values with independent errors
of the values Ni - Q Ni are correlated. The Lni distribution will differ from the
Poisson distribution and evidently will be close to normal.
Estimates made for typical spectra measured using the cloud droplet counter de-
scribed in [7] indicated that Ani/ni > Pi (X)=p;(.ct.ELr),
Formula (1) represents p�(x) in the form of a mixture of several distributions.
This idea has long been known to climatologists, but judging from available pub-
lications, has not been put into practical use, evidently due to difficulties
in choosing the influencing factors and the complexity in breaking S2down into
suitable classes.
- In the probabilistic model which we propose the air temperature distribution is
approximated by a mixture of two normal distributions in the form
tx-!~.1= p E 2:i , 62-2
e (2)
p=(x) = j'~ _ ' - ~
0~9_1, E4 + (i'=1.
Thus, if and (2) are normal values with the parameters �l, CI"i and ~L,
, O'2 respectively and S is an event appearing with the probability 8= P[S} (the in-
verse event S occurs with the probability e' = 1- e), the distribution (2) is
generated by the mechanism
' , - 0~ (1 _
(3)
Here cJ is an indicatpr of th event S. Since c.~(1 -c~)� 0, the existence of a de-
pendence between Z(1) and ~~2) exerts no influence on the ~ distribution. This
, important circumstance makes it possible in (3) to limft ourselves to one normal
, YZ value with a zero mean value and a unique dispersiop, ass~mning
; 41
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==w(N~-r %1,1j ( 1-tu) (N~+ cs~11.
(3')
The five parameters of the mixed distribution should be selected in such a way
Chat iift some sense it corresponds best to the observed distribution. As indicated
above, one way to solve this problem is a study of the factors forming the prob-
ability diatributions and the breakdown of the set of f, observations into two
groups on the assumption that within each group they have a normal distribution.
The second approach set forth in this article is a choice of the parameters from
the condition that the lowerrorder moments of the approximating distribution coin-
cide with those actually observed, and in addition, that the functional character-
izing the difference between the approximating and actual distribution curves has
a minimum value. This approach, although it seems too formal, is not without inter-
est and not only because at the present time we are unable to make a reliable sel-
ection of the influencing factors and divide the set of their possible values into
suitable classes. It is most important that the algorithm described below uses the
totality cf observations, whereas with its breakdown into two groups one of them
in the case 6"0 (or 6.- 1) is extremely small and unsuitable for reliable determin-
ation of the parameters of the mixture component.
Assume that d~2, A� are the mean value, dispersion and asymmetry coefficient
for the parameter ~ with the distribution (2), and m, s2 and A are the stipulated
(for example, computed from the observations) values of these characteristics.
We will show that by careful choice of the densitq parameters (2) it is always
possible to ensure the equalities = m, 0'~ = sZ, A~ = A, whatever may be the
m, s2 and A values. In other words, the family of distributions (2) contains dis-
tributions with any prestipulated mean value, dispersion and asymmetry.
Using (2) we find
,
xp; (.r) d.r 4-
_ ~ (-r- P; (x) d,r = 3 - -4- a' -
J ~
p: (x) d,r
s
6, 3 s, ;A:
+ � '3 -
Without impairing universality, it can be assumed that � Za P1. We will assume that
,
c, n a: 0.
(4)
Then from the condition m we obtain
�;=m-A'as, �Q =;li-~ 6as. (5)
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The equation d2 = s2 is transformed to the form - yJt T d~ + sz 99' a2 = s=
and gives
J; - S= a~ - e~ C), S= a= L A c). (b)
' Since the dispersion must be a positive value, the parameters a and c must assume
; values in the intervals
Q` 80' aL' C C< l- aa' a~
aH' ~ 9 e (7)
I~ Taking into account that Q2 = s2, the equation AF ~ A is written in the form
: t: - :s dH'ac + a9' (A - H') U:: = A. (g)
We will show that with any A there are such values of the parameter e and the para-
; meters a and c from the intervals (7) with which the equality (8) is satisfied.
First we will examine the case A= 0. In this case we should have either e6' = 0
' with arbitrary a and c values from the intervals (0, oo ) and oo , cv ) respective-
ly or a= 0 with arbitrary e and c from the intervals (0, 1) and (-1/6 , 1/0

~ There are no other possibilities for reducing A; to zero which are compatible
~ with the limitations (7). We note that with a= 0 and Be' ~ 0 the approximating
density, having a zero asymmetry coefficient, will be anormal with an excess index
; E 3 ee' sec2.
~
Assume now that A=# 0. Since in this case neither a nor BB' are equal to zero,
equation (8) can be solved formally relative to c:
I _ .4-A9'(d-A') a'
C 3 Ht+' a (9)
' The equality A:g = A is thereby ensured. However, this solution makes sense only
with such a and 9 values with which the conditions (7) are satisfied. Since the
case 0 is considered, it is convenient to convert from a and c to the nor-
malized values z and w using the formtil.as
~ z w-8'
'
c z=). (10)
! Then in place of (5) and (6) we will have
m l. d sz, m-- 1!d. sr, (5,)
I
~
: m
= A s, s'. (b')
~ in this case z and w must assume values in the intervals
i
I
~ 0 rm.
Here um is the maximum wind velocity in the typhoon, r is the distance to the cen-
Cer of the typhoon, rID is the radius of the maximum winds, a m=-30� is the
angle of. inflow on the periphery of the typhoon.
The most complete daCa on the coefficient of exchange of momentum up to a wind velo-
city of SO m/sec are presented in [19], and hence we have
c L) _(1.2 +it/u, l0-'.
ul
- 40
m/ sec with
u< 25
m/ sec;
co = 11l11~ - t 0-3,
u2
= 14
m/sec with
u> 25
m/sec.
The information on the coeff icient of exchange of heat and moisture in the presence
of stormy winds for the most part has an evaluatory character. The last chapter
in [4] notes the possibility of a marked increase in this coefficient due to the
generation of spray up to a value cg = 0.008 with u= 40 m/sec. However, estimates
of the fluxes of apparent and latent heat from the balance expressions on the basis
of observations in a hurricane [21] and on the basis of the change in the heat con-
tent of the upper layer of the ocean, with allowance for the advection of heat by
currents [3], give basis for assuming that the exehange coefficient increases
somewhat more slowly, approximately as follows:
cE =1,2 � 1 0-3 with u< 12 m/ sec,
CE. =U/Il3� I0-3, u3 = 10 m/sec with u?12 m/sec.
It should be noted that use of the Deardorff inethod [16] for stormy conditions
gives values of the cE coefficient close to these [10, 21].
Uniformly Moving Typhoon
The temperature anomalies and thicknesses of the mixed layer 96 hours after onset
of operation of a typhoon having a maximum wind velocity um = 40 m/sec with rm =
- 100 km and a velocity of movement utonh= 5 m/sec are shown in Fig. 2. In the case
of uniform movement of a typhoon a ze of cooled water is formed at the ocean
_ surface. An upwelling develops behind the center of the typhoon and the thickness
of the mixed layer becomes less than the initial thickness, despite the mixing in
the rear region of typhoonal action. The inertial oscillations of thickness of the
mixed layer (Fig. 2b), whose presence was demonstrated by Geisler [17], exert vir-
tually no influence on its temperature, since after the passage of the region of
winds of hurricane force in the typhoon the mixing and cooling are greatly weaken-
ed. The as}nmmetry of wind stress, associated with movement of the typhoon, leads
to shifting of the region of maximum cooling and upwelling to the right of the
trajectory of the center of the typhoon. These results essentially agree with the
computations of Chang and Anthes [15] for a two-layer model with a somewhat differ-
ent wind distribution and without allowance for the heat flux.
Allowance for the heat flux and the final thickness of the jump layer makes pos-
sible a real evaluation of the role of di.fferent factors in cooling of the ocean
surface. For the section A-A (shown in Fig. 2), in Fig. 3 we give a comparison
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of the contribution of the heat flux on the lower boundary of the mixed layer (1),
heat transfer into the atmosphere (2) and horizontal advection (3) to change in
the temperature of the ocean surface (equation (7)). As already noted, the prin-
cipal mechsnism of its cooling is convective-wind turbulent mixing in the region
of Winds of hurricane force, which leads to entrainment of colder water from Che
thermocline into the mixed layer through the jump layer. These computations show
that heat loss into the atmosphere gives about one-third of the cooling of the
- mixed layer in the region of winds of hurricane force and about one-half on the
typhoon periphery, thus playing a significant role in cooling of the ocean surface.
The horizontal advection of heat exerts a significant effect in the region of high
horizontal temperature gradients forming under the influence of the typhoon and
leads to an increase in shiftiQg of the rpgion of the maximum cooling of the ocean
surface to the right of the typhoon trajectory.
'l kM
J00
0~-
-J00
-i00
A
J00 r
~ 6J
~ 20 4
J00 20
-soo soa 120a 1800 Fig. 2. Anomalies of temperature (a) and thickness (b) of upper homogeneous layer
96 hours after onset of operation of typhoon over ocean. The regions where the
thickness is less than initially are shaded. Temperature isolines are drawn each 1�
C; isolines of *_hickness are drawn each 20 m. The crosses represent the initial
and final positions of the center of the typhoon, whose trajectory is indicated
by a dashed line (movement from left to right).
�c
!

-600 00 ^ JCO y KM
Fig. 3. Distribution of components of
temperature anomaly of homogeneous layer
in section A-A (see Fig. 2). 1) cooling
as a result of entrainment, 2) cooling
as a result of heat transfer from ocean
surface, 3) change in temperature as a
result of horizontal advection.
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14
4 1.6 146
1
44 1.46 ~
~
~i/ 23
C py 1
20
~ (401
1~ /
24
( 23
t
26
24
- 15
Zo
~
25
16
4
2
~v 1 16
2 ~ 2S 27
T
22
Z Z�'
Tz
~
~(3B)
u
44 } 0 148 5
1
44 '40 14d 13
0
F3g. 4. Temperature of ocean surface in track of typhoon, computed from model for
conditions close to conditions of passage of Tess (a) and on basis of observations
[5] (b). The dashed l;ine represents the trajectory of the center of the typhoon,
the dots represent the position of its center after 24 hours. The maximum wind
_ velocity (m/sec) is given in parentheses.
Mndeling of Track of Typhoon Tess
The results of computations of the distribution of temperature at the ocean surface
after the passage of a typhoon whose intensity and velocity of movement are stipul-
ated in accordance with data on Tess [1] are given in Fig. 4a. A comparison of the
- computations with observational data taken from [5] (Fig. 4b) leads to the conclu-
sion that the spotty structure of the Tess track on the ocean surface is associated
with nonuniformity of typhoon movement.
In actuality, on the average the typhoon moved at a rate of 5 m/sec. The closed
isotherm 25�C is associated with a slowing of the rate of movement of the typhoon
to 3.5 m/sec and an increase in intensity (um = 43 m/sec) in this region. Then
the typhoon increased its velocity of movement, but we do not know how it changed
its velocity on the days which followed. In the computations in this sector the
velocity of movement was stipulated constant (utyph= 5 m/sec) and therefore there
are no closed isotherms here (Fig. 4a), whereas in accordance with observational
data, in Fig. 4b there is a closed isotherm. Then the typhoon reduc ed its velocity
of movement by half and changed direction. The ocean surface was cooled to 23�C,
which agrees with observations. It is therefore possible to express the hypothesis
that 'the formation of the closed isotherm 24�C (Fig. 4b) was assoc iated with a
slowing of movement of the typhoon or a brief increase in its intensity over this
i�egion. In addition, the appearance of the isotherm 26�C in the region of passage
of the maximum winds could be associated with a preliminary local increase in the
velocity of typhoon movement.
These computations were made for an extremely idealized typhoon. To the left of the
trajectory of the center the cooling, according to computations, was considerably
more intense than according to observational data. Further improvement of the
model requires more detailed observations, both in the ocean and in the atmosphere.
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We note in conclusion that on the basis of the model of the upper layer of the
ocean described above we carried out numerical experiments taking into account the
inverse influence of the track in the ocean on the dynamics of a tropical cyclone
[10]. With a velocity of movement of 5 m/sec the inclusion of interaction between
the ocean and the atmosphere leads to a substantial decrease in the intensity of a
tropical cyclone.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ivanov, V. N., Pudov, V. D., "Structure of the Thermal Track of Typhoon Tess
in the Ocean and Evalua tion of Some Parameters of Energy Exchange Under
Stormy Conditions," TAYFiJN-75 (Typhoon-75), Vol 1, Leningrad, Gidrometeoiz-
dat, 1977.
2. MODELIROVANIYE I PROGNOZ VERKHNIKH SLOYEV OKEANA (Modeling and Prediction of
the Upper Layers in the Ocean), edited bq Ye. B. Kraus, translated from English,
Leningrad, Gidrometeo izdat, 1979.
3. Ostrovskiy, A. G., Sutyrin, G. G., "Heat Balance of the Upper Layer of the
Ocean During the Passage of a Hurricane," OKEANOLOGIYA (Oceanology), Vol 20,
No 5, 1980.
4. PROTSESSY PERENOSA VBL ISI POVERKHNOSTI RAZDELA OKEAN-ATMOSFERA (Trans�er Pro-
cess es Near the Ocean-Atmosphere Discontinuity), edited by A. S. Dubov, Lenin-
grad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1974.
5. Pudov, V. D., Varfolomeyev, A. A., Fedorov, R. N., "Vertical Structur6 of a
Typhoon Track in the Upper Layer of the Ocean," OKEANOLOGIYA, Vol 18, No 2,
1978.
6. Pudov, V. D., Petrichenko, S. A., "Thermodynamic Structure of the Track of Ty-
phoo n 7807 (Virginia) in the Ocean," TEZISY DflKLADOV XIV TIKHOOKEANSKOGO
NAUCHNOGO KONGRESSA (Summaries of Reports at the 14th Pacific Ocean 'Scientific
Congress), Khabarovsk, Ser FI, 1979.
7. Sutyrin, G. G., "Reaction of the Upper Layer of the Ocean to a Moving Typhoon,"
TEZISY DOKLADOV XIV TIKHOOKEANSKOGO NAUCHNOGO KONGRESSA, Khabarovsk, Ser FI,
1979.
8. Sutyrin, G. G., "Energy Resources of the Stratif ied Ocean Under an Unmoving
Tropical Cyclone," IZV. AN SSSR, FIZIIr.A ATMOSFERY I OKEANA (News of the USSR
Acad emy of Sciences, Physics of the Atmosphere and Ocean), Vol 15, 1979.
9. Sutyr in, G. G., Khain, A. P., Agrenich, Ye. A., "Interaction Between the Boun-
, dary Layers of the Ocean and Atmospher e in a Tro pical Cyclone," METEOROLOGIYA
I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology), No 2, 1979.
10. Sutyrin, G. G., Khain, A. P., "Interaction Between the Ocean and the Atmosphere
, in the Region of a Moving Tropical Cyclone," DOKLADY AN SSSR (Reports of the
- USSR Academy of Sciences), Vol 249, No 2, 1979.
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11. Tunegolovets, V. P., "Transformation of the Temperature Field in the Ocean
Af ter the Passage of a 1`ropical Cyclone (in the Example of Typhoon Tess
~ (1975)," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA, No 12, 1976. `
12. Fedorov, K. N., "Behavior of the Upper Active Layer of the Ocean Under the In-
fluence of 7Yopical Hurricanes and Typhoons," OKEANOLOGIYA, Vol 12, No 3, 1972.
13. Fedorov, K. N., "Slow Relaxation of the Thermal Track of a Hurricane in the .
Ocean," DOKLADY AN SSSR, Vol 245, No 4, 1979.
14. Khar'kov, B. V., "Structure of the Upper Layer of the Ocean," OKEANOLOGI'::A,
Vol 17, No 1, 1977.
15. Chang, S. W., Anthes, R. A., "Numerical Simulat{on of the Ocean's Nonlinear,
Baroclinic Response to Translating Hurricanes," J. PHYS. OCEANOGR., Vol 8, No
3, 1978.
16. Deardorff, J. W., "Parameterization of the Planetary Boundary Layer for Use in
General CiY--ulation Models," MON. WEATHER REV., Vol 100, No 2, 1972.
17. Geisler, J. F., "Linear Theory of the Response of aTao-Layer Ocean to a Mov-
ing Hurricane," GEOPHYS. FLUID DYN., Vol 1, 1970.
18. Gray, W. M., Shea, D. J., "The Hurricane's Inner Core Region. 2. Thermal Stab-
il ity and Dynamic Characteristics," J. ATMOS. SCI., Vol 30, No 8, 1973.
19. ICondo, J., "Air-Sea Bulk Transfer Coefficients in Diabatic Conditions," BOUND.
LAYER METEOROL., Vol 9, No 1, 1975.
20. Lei_pper, D. L., "Observed Ocean Conditions and Hurricane Hilda, 1964," J.
ATHOS. SCI., Vol 24, No 2, 1967.
21. Moss, M. S., Rosenthal, S. L., "On the Estimation of Planetary Boundary Layer
Variable in Mature Hurricanes," MON. WEATHER REV., Vol 103, No 11, 1975.
_ 78
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UDC 551.461.(261)
COMPUTATION OF THE OCEAN LEVEL
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 71-80
[Article by Professor A. S. Sarkisyan, Yu. L. Demin and A. M. Gurina, Institute of
Oceanology USSR Academy of Sciences, submitted for publication 29 Jan 80]
[Text] Abstract: On the basis of the most com-
pZete and detailed observational data (in
. comparison with those used previously) the
authors made a series of nimmerical experi-
ments for the northern part of the Atlantic
- Ocean based on schemes with different orde rs
of approximationo An evaluation of the influ-
ence of refinements of the mAdel and the
numerical method on the accuracy of computing
- the level and currents in the ocean is presented.
As is well known, level is one of the important hydrodynamic characteristics of
the ocean. Beina of independent oceanographic interest as a characteristic of sur-
face gradient currents, the level field, in addition, is the principal integral
function in many mode?s of oceanic circulation [9]. Accordingly, the accuracy in
~ computing level to a great extent governs the accuracy in conputing the field of
, ctirrents. The accuracy and correctness in computing level are of particularly
great importance in pragaostic problems. To be sure, at the present time such
- problems are based an the "total flows" function. Howevers in some cases models
based on the level function are prefQrable (for example, in an investigatio:i of
equatorial circulation [10] and in global computations of currents in multiply
connected regions j6]).
In our research, on the basis of the most complete and detailed observational data
- (in comparison with those used earlier) we carried out a series of numerical ex-
periments for the North Atlantic based on schemes wir_h different orders of ap-
proximation. We will formulate both an oceanographic problem,-- obtaining more
precise and detailed information on the ocean leve"L and comparison with earlier
- results, and a methodological problem an evaluat ion of the influence of re-
finements oj' the model and the numerical method on the accuracy of computations
of the level and currents.
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The computations made here are hased on the quasi-geostrophic model given in
[9]. In this model the pressure gradient is balanced by the Coriolis force and
vertical turbulent viscosity. It is well known that a quasi-geostrophic approx-
imation is completely justified when r_omputing macroscale currents of the extra-
equatorial zones of the ocean [9). The basis for this model is the following
boundary-value problem for the level:
Level equation
1 dH d; 1 dH d;
( -Ni~yl d~ sind d:. dH
2ls ~ sia 3 d 8 , (1~
cta ~ - SIR f1 dd a ~ 'l z�,,I ,o (t: -
'd a J
\
1 ~dH f' ds o~ N a? dz -
'~�s~n+ I=iH y -A dz- uy '
j G .
u
~ r(j :
- t'JS E! ~~H - zl d, dz.
b
Bounciary conditions for meridional sectors of the contour
H dp a 2oWcosb +
dN - ~o'H ~ (N - z) aH d` ~ 'rt,gfi " -r gH V;. (2)
\ u
Cp I dp 1 d:
1
- + 1~~,H 1`dei ~ Sintl d~. d` i 'l sHsind d
U
for the zonal sectors of the contour
(H _ Zd., dZ + asinr3
t } d, 1 N
1 2 z y 1 0;. ;oN 6 v ' A PugH
~ _ (3)
I- sin 9 b;
_ 2 a W sin 6 cos W. 1 f� ~ d'r - sin 8 v r j dz
g/i ``H d, dd ~ 27H aH'
0
Notations: H is ocean depth; P is the density anomaly,
w
D. :3 a) cn o
:3 0 m o
~
o o:c N..[ x
o 0 10 N.0 x
o
x.xubN w
m ma oo ~
aa.xuvNm
m o o ~
~n
�
>
�
a ~ ao
~
d
i ao
a
c~
m
~
+ v 0
.
{
~
~H
~
H
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zone of edging-out of the backwaters of rivers flowing into a reservoir and in
the upper reservoirs of the cascade, whereas the finer particles move into the
d epths of the reservoir proper and into the lower-lying reservoirs. With the cre-
ation of the cascade of reservoirs there was an increase in the intensity of the
deposition of the fine fractions on the bottom and the accumulation of silts. The
thickness of the layer of silts in the Zaporozhskoye Reservoir is about 30 cm.
The silting of the reservoirs in the cascade occurs at a rate of 0.5-0.9 cm/year.
The bottom deposits are the site of wintering of blue-green algae. The silts cre-
ate favQrable conditions for the maintenance of vital functions of the blue-green
algae during the prolonged presence of these water organisms there, in actuality
without light, at a temperature of about 4�C.
Blue-green algae are characterized by a diurnal migration: during the daytime _
from the depths to the surface of the water, at nighttime from the surface into the
deptEs. With the construction of the reservoirs there has been an intensif ication
of the role of hydrological factors intensifying these migration processes.
An increase in depths and the asGociated decrease in the penetration of solar radi-
ation into the bottom layers of water led, especially in deep-water sectors with
little turbulent mixing, to an increase in the water temperature differeace at
- the surface and in the depths. During anticyclonic weather in the summer months
in the upper water layer there is a diurnal change in stratification: during the
daytime and in the evening direct, at nighttime and in the early morning
the reverSe. Such a change in stratifications causes convective movements of the
water particles and exerts a positive influence on migration processes.
A considerable increase in the surface areas of the rese�rvoirs created favorable
conditions for an increase in wind velocities and wave fetch, as well a� an inten-
sification of wind waves. The height of the waves increased from 0.3-0.6 to 0.7-
1.9 m. The wave disturbances in the deep-water parts of the reservoir began to be
propagated to a depth as great as 12 m and exerted an influence on the specif ics
of turbulent mixirig of water. In this mixing there was an intensification of the
role of water particles moving in a plane close to vertical. An intensification
of the role of convective and wave phenomena in the turbulent mixing of water
exerted an intensifying influence on the processes of migration of blue-green al-
gae and on their developrent.
A decrease in the amplitude of the variation of water level results in a contrac-
tion of the coastal zones of drying-out (when the level drops), and this exerts
a fa.vorable eff ect on the development of hydrological processes [4]. An increase
in channel capacity with the creation of the cascade of reservoirs by 40.6 km3
(see table) made it possible to carry out regulation of runoff and a reduction
in the amplitude of water level variation from 6-10 m to the height of the regul-
ating prisms of the reservoirs.
With the creation of the cascade of reservoirs there was a change in the conditions
for the formation of the quality of water in the reservoirs, which also intensified
the processes of "blooming" of water. The Dnepr flows through a densely populated
region with a well-developed industry and agriculture in which different chemicals
are used extensively. The region is characterized by extremely great volumes of
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induscrial and domestic effluent rich in biogenous substances. With an increase
in the use of chemicals in agriculture there has been an increase in their con-
- tent in the runoff, especially in surface runoff. It has been computed that in
the course of a year from 1 hectare of water-collec*_ion area about 0.2 kg of
phoaphorus, about 2 kg of nitrogen, etc. enter l.nto t'he system of reservoirs. -
Scaled to per cagita of population, this gives from 0.75 to r', g of phosphorus and
8 g of nitrogen which are discharged daily with waste water [9].
Prior to creation of the cascade of reservoirs some of the runuff of solid and
chemical substances was held by the abundant vegetation on the floodplain (grass,
scrub and forests) . After filling of the reservoirs most of the floodplain was
inundated and the natural filter disappeared or its role was considerably de-
creased. There was also a decrease in the quantity of forest in the coastal zone
and an increase in the area of the worked agricultural fields. For these reasons
the entry of chemical substances into reservoirs, including biogenous substances,
increased and this exerted a negative influence on formation of the quality of
water and intensified hydrobiological processes.
With the filling of the reservoirs of the cascade about 6,000 km2 of lands with
fertile soils and vegetation were inundated. A total of 134,000 tons of organic
material, 42,000 tons of nitrogen, 2,000 tons of phosphorus, etc., entered the
reservoirs [8]. The inundated fertile lands and the biogenous substances entering
the reservoirs fxom them exPrted the most serious influence on the processes of
development of different types of water organisms, including algae.
The creation of the cascade of reservoirs caused the formation of great areas of
shallow waters which occupy the following percentages of the total areas of the
reservoirs: Kiyevskoye 40%, Kanevskoye 24%, Kremenchugskoye 18%, Dnepro-
dzerzhinskoye 317! Zaporozhskoye 36%, Kakhovskoye S% [3]. The shallow
waters are characterized by poorer conditions for turbulent mixing and water ex-
change, a greater occurrence of phytocoenoses and better heating of the water
masses. Investigations show that the water temperature in them is 0.5-1.5�C high-
er, and in some phytocoenoses 3-4� higher, than in the deep-water sectors of
the reservoir. An increase in water temperature over great areas of shallow waters
accelerated all the exchange processes and the rate of reproduction of popula-
tions [4] and exerted an influence on the quality of the water and on the course
of hydrobiological processes in reservoirs.
In discussing the "blooming" of water it must be noted that this phenomenon is not
observed over the entire surface area of the reservoirs of the cascade, but in indi-
vidual spots [l] . These "blooming spots" are situated for the most part in the
lower sectors of the reservoirs. For example, in the Kremenchugskoye Reservoir
in July 1961 the biomass of blue-green algae in the sector near the dam attained
7,166 mg/m3, in the middle sector - 2,177 mg/m3 a:id in the upper part 150 mg/m3.
= Approximately the same picture was observed in Julq 1962 and 1963 [7]. _
Accordingly, "blooming spots" in reservoirs were assaciated with places of occurr-
ence of great depths, small current velocities, increased transparency, maximum
thickness of the layer of silts, and also slowed water exchange and flowthrough,
that is, those places where the hydrological regime experienced the greatest
changes.
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The intensity of development of blue-green algae in individual years is extreme-
ly different and is governed for the most part by hydrometeorological factors.
During the first years after filling of the reservoir there is an increase in
the intensity of "blooming." During subsequent years the intensity of this pro-
cess in general decreases somewhat. For example, in the Kakhovskoye Resen=oir,
filled in 1956, the total biomass of blue-green algae in August was: in 1956
7,100 mg/m3, in 1957 9,429, in 1958 2,969, in 1963 2,319 mg/m3 [7]�
An increase in the intensity of development of blue-green algae usually coin-
cides with the years of positive water temperature anomalies, weakened wind
activity and turbulent mixing of the water and increased water transparency, thaC
is, with years of development of anticyclonic weather conditions. `
Summary
The creation of the cascade of reservoirs on the Dnepr caused a change in its hydro-
logical characteris tics and related conditions of formation of the hydrological re-
gime. There have been considerable increases in channel capacity, surface area and
mean depths. In this connection there have been substantial changes in current vel-
ocity and water transparency, flowthrough, water exchange and conditions for the
formation of bottom deposits, penetration of solar radiation into the water and
its propagation there and formation of the thermal regime. Extensive areas of
lands from which a great quantity of organic material and biogenous substances
entered the reservoirs wPre flooded. The conditions for the formation of water
quality changed with the disappearance or considerable contraction of the areas
of the floodplains and also c.*ith the formation af extensive zones of shallow
waters.
0
All these changes under conditions of a warm climate and the highly developed
national economy of the region led to a disruption of the ecological equilibrium,
manifested in an intensification of the development of different sp ecies of algae,
and in particular, blue-green algae, as is observed in the form of "blooming" of
water.
BIBLIOGRAPIiY
1. Braginskiy, L. P., Bereza, V. D., et al., "'Blooming Spots,' Wind-Driven Mass-
es, Surges of Blue-Green Algae and the Biological Processes Transpiring in
Them," "TSVETENIYE" VODY (Water "Blooming"), Kiev, Naukova Dumlca, 1968.
2, GIDROMETEOROT.OGICHESKIY REZHIM OZER I VODOKHRANILISHCH SSSR. KASKAD DNEPROPET-
~ ROVSKIKH VODOKRRANILISHCH (Hydrological Regime of Lakes and Reservoirs in the
USSR. Cascade of Dnepropetrovsk Reservoirs), Leningrad, uidrometeoizdat, 1976.
3. Zerov, K. K., Knrelyakova, I. L., "Physiographic Description of the Dnepr and
its Valley," GIDROBIOLOGICHESKIY REZHIM DNEPRA V USLOVIYAKH ZAREGULIROVANNOGO
. STOKA (Hydrobiological Regime of the Dnepr Under Condi.tions of RegulaCed Run-
off.), Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1967.
4. Konstantinov, A. S., OBSHCHAYA GIDROBIOLOGIYA (General Hydrobiology), Moscow,
1979.
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5. Makarov, A. I., Liguk, 0. S., "Validation of rhe Economic Effectiveness of
Measures for Regulating the 'Blooming' of Water in Dnepr Reservoirs,"
VOPROSY KOMPLEKSNOGO ISPOL'ZOVANIYA VODOKEIRANILISHCH: TEZISY DOKLADOV VSE-
SOYUZNOGO SOVESHCHANIYA (Problems in the Multisided Use of Reservoirs: Summar-
ies of Reports at the All-Union Conference), Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1971.
6. Pikush, N. V., Sukhoyvan, P. G., "On Evaluation of Fish Productivity in Dnepr -
Reservoirs," GIDROBIOLOGICHESKIY ZHURPIAL (Hydrobiological Journal), No 4, -
1978.
7. Priymachenko, A. D., Litvinova, M. A., "Distribution and Dynamics of Blue-
Green Algae in Dnepr Reservoirs," "TSVETENTYE" VODY, Kiev, Naukova Dumlca, 1968.
8. Sirenko, L. A.,"Extraction of Seston in a Period of Water 'Blooming'," VESTNIK
AN UkrSSR (Herald of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences), No 5, 1976.
9. Topachevskiy, A. V., Sirenk,o, L. A., Priymachenko-Shevchenko, A. D., "'Bloom-
ing' of Water in Reservoirs and Ways to Regulate It," VOPROSY KQMPLEKSNOGO
ISPOL'ZOVANIYA VODOKHItANILISHCH: TEZISY DOKLADOV VSESOYUZNOGO SOVESHCHANIYA,
Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1971.
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UDC 551.326.83
EXPERIENCE IN USING A KINETIC EQUATION FOR DESCRIBING TEIE PROCESS OF FORMATION OF
FRAZIL ICE AND SLUSH
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 97-104
[Article by N. M. Abramenkov, Central Asiatic Regional Scientific Research. Inst-
itute, submitted for publication 28 Jan 801
[Text] Abstract: The author demonstrates the pos-
sibility and some peculiarities of use of
the kinetic coagulation equation for de-
scribing the formation of small accumula-
tions of frazil ice and slush. Numerical
solutions of the kinetic equation are given
applicable to the conditions for ice forma-
tion in water flows.
The freezing of many rivers begins with the formation of frazil ice, which then
with adequate flow turbulence is transformed into slush accumulations. The pro-
cess of formation of the latter is similar in many respects to the process of co-
agulation in disperse systems, as was pointed out by S. Ya. Vartazarov in [1].
However, until now the study of the regime of surface slush and frazil ice has
been based, as a rule, on the seeking of dependences between the values of ele-
ments of the ice regime (density of slush formation, slush discharge) and the
In some
heat exchange between the water and slush surfaces with the atmosphere.
studies the authors have taken into account the hydraulic conditions for the for-
~ mation of slush but have not numerically described the mechanism for the forma-
tion of frazil ice.
In this article we examine some problems relating to the formation of frazil ice,
= being an important element in the winter regime of many rivers, and on the basis
of concepts relating to the coagulation of particles numerically describe this
process.
The principal ohjective of this study was an explanation of the possibility and
peculiarities of use of a kinetic equation for describing Che process of forma-
tion of frazil ice.
We will examine some volume of a mixture of water and ice crystals. Assume in an
element of the phase volume d r= dxdydzdr, where x is the size of the particles,
the number of particles is characterized by the product of the density of the dis-
tribution f(x, y, z, r, t) in a d r element. The kinetic coagulation equation [2]
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can lie written in the following form:
df div (f U) r dj; f dr = I+ - 1_ FP. (1)
dt P dr dr
Expression (1) is the continuity equation, where the internal sources and losses
are integrals of the collisions I+ and I_, describing coagulation proper,and al-
so the Fp value, representing the rate of entry of newly forming crystals into a
unit of phase volume. The Up value in expression (1) denotes the velocity of mo-
tion of particles of the size r. The last tcao terms on the left-hand side of equa-
tion (1) take into account the change in size of already existing ice crystals `
as a result of freezing and thawing.
- We introduce the following assumptions:
1. We will examine a one-dimensional case, taking into account only the coordin-
ate of depth of the flow z.
2. We will assume that the changes in the size of the crystals of frazil ice them-
selves do not occur, but the newly forming crystals, whose appearance ie de-
scribed by the term Fp, have the size rp.
The latter assumption is entirely admissible if the results of the investigations
[1, 5, 6] are taken into account. V. V. Pio trovich [6] indicates that it is impos-
sible even to make an intercomparison of the process of growth of crystals in
place (near a body) and the process of combination in the increase of ice ac-
cumulations, it being impossible to ascertain the extent to which the combination
process predominates over the growth process.
With the mentioned assumptions equation (1) is simplified:
al a(f UFZ1= t- -.1- (2)
d d~
' where UpZ is the velocity of movement of particles, I+ is the number of particles
i which as a result of collisions (changes in size) enter into a given unit phase
, volume in a unit time, I_ is the number of par.ticles which as a result of col-
lisions (changes in. size) emerge from a given unit phase volume in a unit time.
The collision integrals are adopted here in the form
'
(r, + rz)= Uf (ri) f(r,l dr,, (3a)
0 rma,
~~f (r) ~ (r = r,)2 Vf (rl) dr,,
(3b)
0
where r2 =(r3 - ri)1/3, r is particle radius, ~ is the capture coefficient,
V= I L'(r,)-U(r2)1,
U is the velocity of motion of particles, rmaX is the radius of the largest par-
ticles participating in coagulation.
Since in thermal investigations of ice the kinetic coagulation equation has not
been employed, here it is fitting to cite at least a brief phenomenological vali-
dation of the collision integrals (3a), (3b).
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~
Assume that a particle of the radius rl moves in a flow with the velocity Up(rl2� _
The number of its collisions duri g a unit Cime with parti~l~ e~hei~~bthe er ofdthe r
+ Lr2, moving with the velocity ~P (r2),is assumed equal
latCer situated in the phase volume df- = Sef~ I Up (rl) - Up (r2)1 Qr2, where S~5f
is the effective area ofinrtheiindicatedtvolumer Q(r ierequalfto= ~`rl + r2
The number of particles r 2 in
�
I ,V = - ; - r, f (''s) I (r, ) - Up (rz) I I r1�
From Che conservation of masses of collidi.ng particles and articles forming as a
result of collision we have the obvious relationship ri + r~ = r3. Then
~ J

All further reasonings will be carried out for a unit interval of sizes of the
forming particles 6r= 1�
- L';, (i�~1 ;
N- (r,)
, _ - r= ~ r ` - .1--� ~ . ~
the range of sizes dr1 with par-
'I'he number of collisions of all particles rli~o
ticles r2 in the range of sizes Q r2 is equal
d,V1 r" (r' - r~~ )--2%' (r, r:)' f (ri) f (r:) I Uv ~rl~ - Up dr,.
-
The number of collisions of particles rl and r2, leading to the formation of a new
particle of the size r, equals dN/SP dNl, Where ga�is the capture coefficient,
determin ing the percentage of collisions leading to the formation of a new par-
- ticle of the size r. Then the total ntmmber of particles forming in a unit time as
a resul t of all possible collisions is determined by the following expression:
r' (r' _ r3, )-213 (r, -'t- r_,)= f (3a)
u
X I U. (r,) - Up (r,) I dr,.
Thus, equation (3a) was derived. Integration in this equation is carried out for
sizes from 0 to the size of a particle having a volume equal to half in the c~ derm ot
of a particle r(the radiu combination of sizes ofucollidingJp icles twice.
to take into account the same
Equation (3b) is derived in a similar way.
T.n order to exclude from consideration the variations of the instantaneous values
f and U, caused by flow turbulence, instead of (2) we will examine the time-
smooChegequation -
af d ( fU,-,) = l~ - -
dc .L d: . - fp.
The right-hand side of expression (2) will be considered a random value, so thaC
,7f d
T v~oZ) = 1~ 4 Fp. (4)
o dz ~f
In accordance with the Schmidt and Keller semi-empirical theory [3]
1 =I Uv=-''T a: ~ (5)
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where -VT is the turbulent viscosity coefficient.
Noxti uriderstanding by f and UpZ their averaged values, and substituting (5) into
(4), we obtain
1- tT _ I__~ Fo� 6
4f ~ 1 , f U7= t af (
nt ~ oz )
! Since all further computations are made in a coordinate system moving with the
mean flow velocity, by UPZ we will understand the hydraulic granularity of the
considered particles. The computation of UpZ is based on solution of the equa-
tion of motion for a particle situated in a fluid medium. The solution of the
equation is similar to the solution proposed by Yu. M. Denisov. In contrast to
- it, in our scheme we have taken Archimedes force into account and have neglected
change in the density of the medium with depth. It can be demonstrated that for
not excessively large particles (r < 1-5 cm) the following expression is correc.*
R. 4 h;~g
where
(i r.u k;
r, Pv
,I 0.12'? r, k~ p
I pP
w is the particle volume, p is water density, Pice is ice density, P p is the
density of a particle, in our case the density of accumulations of fraz3l ice,
� is the coefficient of water viscosity, kd is a coefficient characterizing the
shape of the particles, for a sphere
kj = (3/47T)1/3,_ 0.62.
The value of the coefficient of turbulent viscosity is computed using the formula
[3J
,7=yZ(1- H1, c>>
where 0.4, H is the depth of flow, I is water surface slope.
The rate of entry of newly forming ice crystals into a unit phase volume (Fp) was
determined from an expression based on computations of crystallization of super-
cooled water carried out by V. A. Rymsha [7]
p_ ~-H rSnCh y~rm -$,Ch j~l, ~8~
['tit = surf; r = ground ] I,, m sh ^ L ~ ' ,
)'r, m
where P is the intensity of release of the heat of crystallization in a unit vol-
ume, V~ is the coefficient of turbulent thermal conductivity, m is a factor for
the proportionality between water temperature and P, H is the total depth of the
; flow, z is the depth from the bottom to the point where P is computed, Ssurf
i is the intensity of heat transfer from a unit water surface, Sgr is the intensity
~
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of the heat flux from the ground (assumed equal to zero).
A. G. Knlesnikov [5], V. V.
According to the investigations of A. N�h i sizes [ of , the crstals of frazil ice
Pio trovich [6] and R. V. Donchenk,o [41, t y
are 2-3 mm, rarely exceeding 4 mm. Accordingly, in our case the following assump-
tion was made: the sizes (radii) of the newly forming particles have a fixed lim-
iting value rp, which in our case was assumed equal to 2 mm. The total mass of
ice crystals forming in a unit time in a unit volume is equal to
P , .
.t
where wp=(r0 /ka )3 is the crystal volume, N is the number of ~ ystals forming in
a imit �ime in a unit volume, 'Y is the latent heat of fusion, is the density
of the crystals (for convenience in computations assumed to be e~ual to the den-
sity of slush forroations).
Hence
. pk3
.V ~ r.
i?p r0
For computing F it is necessary to assume that all the newly forming crystals
have a size from 0 to rp. Accordingly,
( N Pk.3
when rc r,)
i _ /n pr u (9)
FP = 0 when r > rQ.
Substituting (7) into (6), we obtain a fin.al differential equation for the dis-
tribution function
I
ai T ~ Uv= ` I gH! ~l - H', x)% gHl T l 1- H~ oz- -(10)
J
Fv. which is fundamental for all numerical computations. I+, I_ and Fp are computed
using formulas (3a), (3b) and (9).
For numerical solution of equation (10) we selected a semi-implicit predictor-
corrector scheme; the explicit part of the scheme the corrector is conserv-
ative.
The velocity V in equa;.ions (3a), (3b) is the relaCive velocity of approach of in-
teracting particles to one another; it is equal to the difference in the averaged
velocities of the particles and the difference in their "pulsating" additions:
>
V-ilv; -V.)-(Vi- l-':);.
In the first approximation we will examine only the averaged velocities of the
particles, which in our case represent the rate of floating up, that is, the hy-
draulic granularity of the particles. It is therefore clear that in this case
oniy that part of the grdvitational coagulation [2] is considered which is caused
by the difference in the hydraulic granularity of the particles.
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Results of computations. In this article we describe the results of two numerical
experiments far computing the coagulation of frazil ice. The radius of the larg-
est particles participating in coagulation was assumed to be 2 cm and the interval
of radii is 2 mm. The total depth of the flow was 8 m, the depth interval was 1 m,
the time interval was 4 sec. The coefficient of turbulent viscosity was computed
using formula (7) for a slope I= 0.0002. The entry o� newly crystallizing ice par-
ticles corresponded to the heat losses from an open water surface and was about
290 J/ (m2 � s ec) .
The first and second variants of the computations differ only with respect to the
capture coefficients 9 in formulas (3a), (3b), that is, the effectiveness of col-
lisions of ice particles. For the first variant SP = 1.0, for the second 9~= 0.1, ~
that is, in the firsC case each collision leads to coagulation, whereas in the
second only one of ten collisions leads to coagulation.
for ~
~ i,.1.r Q! a
4' X k J

c,z- tC' �2�10
~ 67 b
41 � f0' 1t�7d
4''10 qfq --77-7-------1 -
E

---J
411,1
~
Qoor 41�1 D 2
o zo so so eo loo ito riio lic 1e0 200 tzO T M(IN min
Fig. l. Chronological variation of distribution function at different depths z
with different capture coefficients So. a) r= 2 mm, b) r= 10 mm, c) r= 20 mm;
1) z= 8 m, 2) z~ 4 m; I) So = 0.1, II) 5P= 1.0.
Figure 1 shows the chronological variation of the distribution function (or the
concentration of particles) at different depths for particles of different sizes.
The variations of the distribution function with time evidently are attributable
to the peculiarities of the adopted difference scheme. The variations are atten- _
uating and after some time the solution enters into a stationary regime, despite
the constant influx of the finest particles. The existence of such a stationary
state is mathematically attributable to the limited range of sizes of the consid-
ered particles. Such a limitatioa is physically valid because the coagulating
particles of suff iciently large size float to the surface, forming surface
slush, that is, a qualitatively different process begins, which in the described
scheme is not taken into account. In our numerical experiments the largest radius .
of the coagulating ice formations rmaX is equal to 2 cm. Accordingly, it is as-
sumed that particles whose size, as a result of coagulation, becomes greater
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than rmaX emerge from the limits of the considered spectrum and do not partic-
ipate in further coagulation. The quantity and total mass of such particles in-
crease with an increase in the number of large formations, a-nd, finally, an
equilibrium sets in between the mass of the crystallizing particles and the masa
of particles emerging from the limits of the considered spectrum.
The time required for reaching a stationary regime and the period of variations
are essentially dependent on the size of the particles and the capture coef-
ficisnt and virtually do not change with the depth at which the coagulation is
considered. The time required for the appearance of an appreciable quantity of
large particles is 10-15 min from the time of appearance of the first crystals
for ? = 1(time of onset of the first maximum tor the largest particles) and 30-
50 min for ~P= 0.1 (Fig. 1). According to the observations of A. N. Chizhov on
the Naryn River [8J, slush is collected into individual concentrations already
30-40 mir, after the time of appearance of the first crystals of frazil ice in the
flow.
In order to compare the computed time of appearance of a sufficiently large number
of coarse particles with the results of observations we carried out additional
computations for hydraulic and meteorological conditions close to those observed
[8]. The total depth of the flow was assumed to be 0.48 m, the slope of the water
surface was I= 0.037, the depth interval was 0.06 m, and the time interval was
0.2 sec; rmaX = 1 cm. The computations indicated that with a capture coeff icient
(P = 0.1 the time of appearance of a sufficiently large number of Che coarsest
particles is 5-6 minutes, for ~P= 0.01 17-20 min, and for 50= 0.001 it increases
Co 60-70 min.

.
~ ~ ~ - - -
`i
Fig. 2. Solution of coagulation equation after its entry into a stationary regime.
1) T = 0.1; 2) T = 1.0.
Accordingly, it can be expectoZd that the value of the T parameter in our scheme for
the selected computation conditions falls between 0.001 and 0.01, closer to the
lower boundary.
In our computations the concentration of the finest crystals of ice near the flow
surface was in the range 106-108 m 3, which in order of magnitude is close to the
observed data [9].
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A decrease in the total quantity of both large and small particles with an in-
crease in the capture coefficient If can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. A decrease
in the concentration of small particles is easily attributed to a more intensive
coagulation (with a high value of the capture coefficient). After some time this
leads to a decrease in the number of large formations because small particles
are the initial material for their formation. However, an increase in the concen-
tration of the largest particles, which, it seemed, should be observed under condi-
tions of more intensive coagulation, does not occur d ue to an increase in the rate
of transition of the particles beyond the limits of the considered spectrum. Such,
evidently, is the mechanism of the general decrease in the concentration of par-
ticles of all sizes with an increase in the capture coefficient.
Figure 2 is a graphic representation of
ical experiments. The logarithm of the
ticle size and distance from the botto
the stationary Solutions of the two numer-
distribution function in dependence on par-
m z has been plotted along the y-axis.
The computed relationship between large (r = 2 cm), already forming, and the small-
est (r = 2 mm) "primary" particles varies in a very wide range. For a capture co-
effic ient 5P= 1.0 the concentration of the largest particles is less than the con-
centration of small particles by a factor of 220 at the surface and by a factor of
0.48�106 at the bottom. With ~P= 0.1 the relationships of large and small particles
are 240 and 0.20�106. At the same time, the total we ight of the large formations
at the surface of the flow (for 9= 1) is 4.5 times greater, whereas at the bottom
480 times less than the weight of the small particles. For ~P= 0.1 these rela-
tionships are equal to 4.2 and 200 respec tively. The computed value of the concer_-
tration of particles of all sizes is maximum at the surface of the flow. Whereas
the number of the "primary" crystals (for ~P= 1) at the surface is only 17 times
greater than at the bottom, for the largest formations this relationship is already
0.37�105. The similar relationships of concentrations for ~P= 0.1 are 44 and 0.38�
105 respectively.
It must be remembered that the results of the numer ical experiments cited here
are determined entirely by those conditions under wh ich equation (10) was solved.
Additional computations indicated zhat such a parameter as the size of the largest
particles taken into account in the scheme (rmaX) exerts a particularly strong in-
fluence on solution of the equation.
Our study indicated the possibility of use of the kinetic coagulation equation for
numerical computation of small concentrations of fra zil ice or slush.
It was stated above that the adopted scheme makes it possible to compute only grav-
itational coagulation. In order to take into accoun tother aspects of this process,
such as "direct turbulent eoagulation" [1], the rate of convergence of particles,
determined in the collision intervals (3), must be computed by a different method.
A substantial refinement of the scheme can also be obtained by a more detailed de-
scription of the capture coefficient (P in (3). In our scheme we assumed (P= const.
Evidently, the capture coefficient must b e dependen t both on the degree of super-
cooling of the water, turbulent mixing or the rate of relative approach of the
particles and on their sizes. However, there have be en few studies for clarif ica-
tion of such dependences even in regions where the kinetic coagulation equation
is used quite extensively. A further improvement of the scheme will possibly re-
quire allowance for the processes of des truction of particles.
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In the described scheme the "primary" crystals are represented in the form of
spheres of the radius rp, whereas under natural conditions it is possible to
observe the most diverse forms of crystals of frazil ice from acicular to
spherieal. It is very common to observe particles in the form of small thin ice
disks [7, 81. The use of the characteristics of form of the particles better cor-
r esponding to natural conditions should also lead to a refinement of the numer-
ical scheme.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Vartazaxov, S. Ya., Movement of Frazil Ice in a Flow," IZVESTIYA AN ARMYANSKOY
SSR, FIZIKO-MAT~2�1ATICHLSKIYE, YESiE5TVENNYYE I TEt:HNICIiESKIICH NAUK (News of the
Armenian Academy of Sciences, Physical-Mathematical, Natural and Technical Sci-
ences), Vol 2, No 2, 1949.
2. Voloshchuk, V. M., Sedunov, Yu. S., PROTSESSY KOAGULlDIGidrou~eteoizdat,
TEMAKH (Coagulation Processes in Disperse Systems), LeninSrad
1975. -
3. Grinval'd, D. I., TURBULENTNOST' RUSLOVYKH POTOKOV (Turbulence in Channel Flows),
Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1974.
4. Donichenko, R. V., "Physical Properties of Frazil Ice," TRUDY GGI (Transactions
of the State Hydralogical Ynstitute), No 55(109), 1956.
5. Kolesnikova, A. G., Belyayev, V. I., Bukina, L. A., "Rate of Formation of Frazil
Ice," TRUDY 3-go VSESOYUZNOGO GIDROLOGICHESKOGO S"YEZDA (Transactions of the
Third All-Union Hydrological Congress), Vol 3, 1959.
6. Piotrovich, V. V., "Cause of the Selective Formation of Frazil (Bottom) Ice,"
METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Rydrology), No 4, 1949.
7. Ryshma, V. A., "Distribution of the Heat of Crystallization of Supercooled
Water With Depth in Flows and Water Bodies, it TRUDY GGI, No 93, 1962.
8, Chizhov, A. N., "Formation of Frazil Ice and Forma.tion of Slush Flow in Mountain
Rivers," TRUDY GGI, No 93, 1962.
9. Osterkamp, T. E., Frazil Ice Nucleation by Mass Exchange Processes at the Air-
Water Interface," J. GLACIOLOGY, Vol 19, No 81, 1977.
118
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UDC 551.(5100534+590.21)
OZONE AND SOLAR FLARES
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 105-107
[Article by Professor A. Kh. Khrgian and N. A. Petrenko, Moscow State University,
- submitted for publication 6 Apr 801
[Text] Abstract: The change in the total quantity
of atmospheric ozone X in the earth's cir-
cumpolar and tropical regions was examined '
during the time of 80 solar f lares during
1972-1977. In the circumpolar region there
- is a decrease in X on the average by X=-8
d.u., which substantially exceeds the probable
error in determining X. In the tropical region
the decrease in X is insignificant.
The problem of the influence of change in solar activity on the atmosphere is of
great interest. Its influence on the uppermost atmosphere the thermosphere
above 100 km has been well studied and has a clear physical interpretation:
there is a considerable heating of the upper atmosphere f:.rom its d3ytime side
during periods of great activity, which leads to its expansion, a relative in-
crease in pressure (at a stipulated level in comparison with the nighttime side)
and the development of characteristic air circulation.
The situation is more complex with the lower layers of the atmosphere the meso-
sphere and upper stratosphere in which these manifestations of activity are not
so considerahle and are more difficult to explain. Here it is possible to expect
an appreciable influence of activity on comgosition and accordingly on absorption
of solar energy and as a result, also on circulation. For the time being the in-
vestigation of these processes has only begun.
A special, but the clearest manifestat3on of activity :is so-called solar flares,
relatively brief (with a duration of about 1 hour), but yielding a considerable
flux of electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation, including relatively fast pro-
tons. A single more detailed observation of change in composition a cYiange in
ozone contenC in the upper stratosphere was made during the large flare of 4
August 1972. At that time a marked decrease in total content was discovered from
a satellite in the latitude zone 70-80�N in the layer above 38 km. A reduced con-
centration then persisted there, almost unchanged, fo r a period of more than 20
days.
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At the present time the idea prevails [1] that such significant flares produce an
"explosivelike" formation of considerable quantities of nitrogen oxides NOX in the
mesosphere. Since prorons are focused in the high magnetic latitudes under the in-
fluence of the earth's magnetic field, the initial effect of the flare should be
concentrated specifically there in the annular region of the auroral maximum or
somewhat outside it, in the so-called region of "hydrogen auroras." Here N0, it is
postulated, enters into a catalyCic interaction with ozone and initiates the pro-
cess of its prolonged destruction.
In order to check this hypothesis we examined the changes in the total quantity of
ozone X during a more prolonged period during flares occurring in 1972-1977. A
study was made of a total of 80 flares of the class 1B and 2B. For these we com-
puted the X values on the day before the flare, on the day of its occurrence and
ob-
1-3 days a�ter. In the circumpolar zone, close to the auroral zone, X
servations at Edmonton, Churchill, Goose Bay and Resolute (Canada), at LeninSrad,
Murmansk and lakutsk, anri also at Lerwick (Great Britain). Thus, eight observator-
ies were used. The observations were sufficiently regular in order to ensure a
uniformity of the data for the mentioned five days in each case. Data on 32 flares
were used for 1972, data on 15 for 1973, 17 1974, 3-- 1975, 4-- 1976, 9--
1977. Thus, this period took in both the time of relatively high activity (1972)
and a year of very low activity (1976) when over the course of individual weeks
there were no spots on the sun at all.
- Table 1
Change in Total Quantity of Ozone X in Dobaon Units During Solar Flares of Classes
1B and 2B
I I Circumpolar region I Tropical and equatiorial
Year
0 1 1 1 3
~ ~
~
12 ! 382 ;iS^ ~72 370 i."Stl 271 i 264 I`'i? 272 I 27-k
19
I97:1 i I"1 - ;;8b 38~~ .s73 I u31 !;82 265 270 I 269 _6'.1 I 270
�
19i~ 1" 3~0 375 3;t~ I:ii,~ ;il '2;3 27.) 1'1.%(i 27" r.,
~ 1975 ;i ' 32? 32�: 31s J13 i 3lS 279 2SO I2'9
197f) 4 403 41 11 406 ~4' iS 410 278 378 278 2 7 9 1 2J4
1977 9 ~ 351 ~ 35�3 ~ 34, 3~41 I 267 ~ 366 I265 268 I267
Mean for ai' f'_ares
~ SO ~ 373 ; 376 1 -374 13i0i j 374 271 ~269 1 212 ' 272 ~ 213
Note. n-- number of observations. Days: -1 day before; 0-- day of flare, 1, 2,
3 days after flare.
The mean data for all 80 flares for the six-year period are given in Table 1. This
table shows that in the circumpolar region at the time of a flare there is evident-
ly a small gradual decrease in X in agreement with the above-mentioned photochem-
ir_al hypo thesis. The decrease in X from the "eve" of the flare to the second day
120
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on the average was AX =-8 d.u. (Dobson units)o However, it varied from -12 in
1972 (the year of greatest activity) to +4 in 1976 (a year of very low activity).
It is possible that the flare effect is dependent both on the flarea themselves
_ and on the general activity levela
Tab1e 2
- Standard Deviation (:r of Mean Daily Data in llobson Units
1972 I 1973 I 1974 I 1975 I 1916 ~ 197; i Tiean ~
I
Leningrad
I
I
f
+
~
April
94.5
51,1
I 47,2
33.1
39,0
32,3
~ 37,9
August
1 7,2
16,7
23,3
22,0
23,7
19,9
Edmonton
April
5 5.2
36.0
I 37,8
31.0
20.6
52,7
35.2
August
26,3
25,1
20,3
40.1
22,4
20,0
26,5
However, on individual days with flares the 0 X values can deviate substantially
f rom these means in both directions. For example, in 1972-1974 we discovered a
number of cases when A X-< -20. Thus, on 13 January and 7 March 1972 d X attained
-31; in 1973 and 1975-1977 there were no cases with 6 X4 -20. To be sure, it
must be remembered that in a nimmber of our observations there are also values LX>
O and that therefore the correlation of flares and X can be ambiguous or burden=
ed by random deviationso
In order to evaluate the reliability of our data on the mean AX we compared them
with v-- the value of the probable error in the daily X values, In this case,
obviously, the mean error of data from n observatories for N cases of observa-
tions is
t= 0,67 . n.\'- 1 ,
where d is the standard deviation of the daily data for one observatory.
We computed the d values for two characteristic observatories Leningrad and Ed-
monton, relatively close to the region of "hydrogen" auroras. The computations
were made for April and August the months with the maximum and minimum ozone
- variability respectively (see Table 2).
On the other hand, the mean value L1X for 1976, determined from obcervations of
all four flares, has the probable e�rror
t, = u. 6; � 30, 1"a � 5-: 3, dobson units,
and the AX=+4 value therefore in no case can be considered reliable or indica-
tive for the AX variationa
It is obvious that rapid photochemical changes over the course of several, days can
occur only in that upper part of the ozone layer where the me3n time for the sett- _
ing-in of photochemical equilibrium is C= 1 day. For the usual system of ozone
121
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reactions this will be above 36 lan in the atmospheric layer which was examined, '
in particular, for the above-mentioned observation of the flare of 1972. In the
layer above 36 km (in the high latitudes) there is on the average about 27 d.u.
of ozone. Thus, if the ozone changes which we discovered in these latitudes are
actually associated with flares, the eff ect of the latter is a decrease. in X by
approximately 30%.
However, it is also necessary to examine the change in relaxation time 'e of ozone
with the poatulated (see above) explosivelike formatian of NOX in the mesosphereo
It can be somewhat different than with a mean state of the atuosphere and the level
with T, = 1 day can be different o Similarly we studied the changes in X in the tropical and in the equatorial re-
gions. For this purpose we used observational data for Varansi, Mount Eba, Mauna
Loa, Kodaykanal and Huancayo (between 23�N and 16�S)o There were no progressive
changes in X during the flare and f or three days thereaf ter. In individual years
the mean Q X was from +2 to -3, averaging +1. True, in this zone the variability
of ozone was small, dz 8 and accordingly for the five observatories v= 0.3 d.u.
However, in this case it is very difficult to ascribe a physical sense and value
to Q X=+1 (see Table 1). It can be surmised that the disturbance of the ozone
layer arising during the period of a flare in the circumpolar latitudes during
such a short time as three days can be propagated into the low latitudes. In ad-
dition, the absence of changes in X in the latter suggests that the electromag-
netic radiation of a flare evidently produces a lesser inf luence on the ozone
layer than corpuscular radiation. If the influence of direct irradiation by X-
or UV-radiation was substantial and decisive the ozone changes would be far more
appreciable in the low latitudes than in the high latitudes.
In the f uture, evidently, it would be of interest to analyze the influence of
flares directly on the basis of observations of the vertical distribution of
ozone. For the time being there are few such data.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dutsch, H. U., OZON IN ATMOSPHARE. GEFAHRDET DIE STRATOSPHARENVERSCHMUTZUNG DIE
OZONSCHICHT? Hsg von Naturf orschenden Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1980.
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~
_ UDC 551.510.534
CHANGE IN THE TOTAL CONTENT OF ATMOSi'HERIC OZOHE DURING THE PASSAGE OF TYPHOOIYS
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 107-109
[Article by G. K. Gushchin, Karadagskaya Actinometric Observatory, submitted for
; publication 25 Feb 80] ' [Text] AbsCract: On the basis of ineasurements from
scientific research ships in the northwest-
, ern tropical zone of the Pacific Ocean i*_ was
possible to obtain the mean characteristic
curve for change in the total ozone content
in dependence on distance to the center of a
typhoon. In the regions of a typhoon adjacent
to the center and on its most distant periphery
the quantity of ozone is 6-12Y greater than in
the undisturbed atmosphere. An ozone deficit
~ (4-6%) is noted at distances 1,100-1,500 lan
, from the center of the typhoon. These peculiar-
~ ities in the distribution of the total ozone
; content can be explained qualitatively on the
basis of vertical air movements noted during
I observations.
Circulation in a typhoon takes in the entire troposphere and even the lower strat-
osphere [7]. Intensive ascending and descending air movements, developing in a ty-
phoon and leading, in particular, to fluctuations in the altitude of the tropo-
pause, should also exert a definite influence on the atmospheric distribution of
o2one.
The fluctuations of the total contient of atmospheric ozone in the tropics are re-
lated for the most part to a change in the position of the subtropical anticy-
clones and have a small amplitude [3]. As an example, the table gives the mean
daily values of the total ozone content (S~) in the region of work of tha exped-
itions "Tayfun-75" and "Tayfun-78," which were obtained on the southern periphery
of the North Pacific Ocean subtropical anticyclone and characterize the undisturb-
ed ozonosphere. The mean S2 value here was 0.255 cm and the deviations from the
mean did not exceed t4%.
The disturbed tropical atmosphere is characterized by completely different ampli-
tudes of fluctuations of the a values. Intensive flows of stratospheric air fram
the temperate latitudes are accompanied hy marked increases in the total content of
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ozone by 30-50% [4]. On the other hand, ascending air movements in Che ICZ can
lead Co a decrease in the a values by 60% [1, 21.
Table 1
Meari Daily Values of Total Ozone Content (SZ, 10-3 cm) on S and SW Peripheries
of Subtropical Anticyclone Characterizing Undisturbed Ozonosphere in Region of
"Typhoon" Expeditions (Data for 16th, 18th and 23d Voyages of Research Ships
"Akademik Korolev" and 24th Voyage of Scientific Research Weather Ship "Priliv"
Date
Lati-
I
Longi-�I L, i
I
Date
Lati-I Longi-- I
I
tude,�~ tude
tude,~
tude,
,
1975 r
31 \'I11 i
0 c. j
I2
113,7 n.
252 11
14 1\ I
]S.5 c.
145.0 B.
I 2 5
1 I I a ;
.
-2 1.0
I
I48, i
? "1 I~
15
t 8.~ N
145.0 E
2.;: ,
12 '
I
I8.8
I4"1,8 ,
:5i, I'
11 X
173
114,1
248
l;s ~
18.5 I
I45.0 I
?i,~i j
~
12 (
12,8
113,6
1)56
r.
1976
4 1' 111
^ I
8 c. ~
129,7 B. 1
253
1
15 VI 1 I
20,0 c.
170,2 s.
258
I
I
IO
.
^O
O
I55.4 1

17
20.ON
16$.0 W
2JI
11
.
20
0
i 60.4
2-53
20
22.1
161.1
I 264
12 ~
.
0
20
16-53 ~
252 ,
21
23,0
163,0
'
.
~~0.Q
170.2
2-,4 ~
12
~~6,7
1G0.y
1 2.55
1} I
20.0
175.2 i
2-51
r.
1978
23 1\
15.; c.
14kA 9.
256
5 VJ11
l
23.3 c.
146.2 B. ~
362
3~J
ll
(1
135,0 l
15
~ 7
23,3
145.3 ~
26
I\
.
1 1.0
145.0 ~
2~"~
1 1
23.3
i a~,3 I
)
2-1�
2
i1
0
135.0 ~
~"~:3
;5
I
I
�3,5
1-15,5

10
.
234 �
131,8
238
16
23,2
145.5 ~
257
11 ;
27
9
132.4
261
~ 17
23.4
144.7 ~
2zi
24 \'J
.
25
0
149,0
2,53
~ 18
23.2
144,5 1
2-19
25
.
25.0 i
145.0
252
I ^4
23,3
131,5 i
237
26
22
0
143,5
253
19 1\
13,3
147,6 ~
253
30
,
15.5 '
148,0
250
22
13,3
147.6 ~
234
I I\'! I
11.1
149.5
24S
25
3,3
147.6
257
. \'li(
23.0
14;.t~
2:;2
~
I
Mean
5

With the passage of typhoons there were appreciable increases in the ozone concen-
trations in the upper troposphere and lawer stratosphere [9] and a considerable de-
crease in the total ozone content in the region of ascending air movements [S].
Measurements of the total ozone content made on scientific research ships make it
possible to trace the 61 distribution at different distances r from the center of
typhoons (see Fig. 1). Use was made of observational data for several voyages of
the scientific research ship "Akademi.k. Korolev" and the scientific research weather
ships "Okean" and "Priliv" in the northweatern tropical zone of the Pacific Ocean.
The greatest volume of data was obtained on the 16th voyage of the scientific re-
search ship "Akademik Korolev" during the "Tayfun-75" expedition.
Out of safety considerations the ships did not enter the typhoons and all the ob-
servations were made at great distances from the centers of the typhoons. However,
a study of the processes even on the distant periphery of typhoons is of undoubted
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interest because the influence of a typhoon extends far beyond its limits. For
example, observations from a satellite show that the area of spiraling convective
cloud cover entrained into a typhoon exceeds the area of the cloud vortex of the
typhoon itself by a factor of 20 [6].
S:r
28
~ . ' ~ _ ~ �
- if~ - ~
; p-r _
, 1 .
Fig. 1. Dependence of inean daily values of total content of atmospheric ozone Sl on
distance r to center of typhoon. 1) typhoons; 2) Typhoon Tess; 3) tropical storm;
4) tropical depression; 5) mean SZ value in undisturbed atmosphere.
' Typhoon Tess was tracked for t-he longest time and ozonometric observations made it
possible to determine the trend in the change of.n with r> 1000 km (see Fig, 1).
' In order to clarify the dependence of Q on r at distances less than 1000 km observ-
ations were made in tropical depressions and on the peripheries of tropical storms.
The legitimacy of combining observations relating to different stages of tropical
cyclones follows from computations made using data from the "Tayfun-75" expedi-
tion and showing that the values characterizing the dynamic and energy state of
~ the atmosphere in this case were completely similar both on the periphery of ty-
; phoons and in tropical depressions [8].
In Fig. 1 the curve drawn on the basis of 24,a values shows the change in the to-
tal ozone content with advance toward the center of the typhoon. The deviations of
individual 9 values from the curve for the most part does not exceed 2%. The quan-
tity of ozone is minimum at an average distance of 1300 km from the center of the
typhoon and increases both with an increase and with a decrease in distance r. At
distances of 1000-1500 km f rom the center of the typhoon the ozone deficit relative
to the mean J7 value in the undisturbed atmosphere (0.255 cm) is 5-6%. With 360 <
r< 500 km and 2500 < r< 3000 km the total ozone content exceeds the value 0.255 cm
by 5-8 and 5-12% respectively.
Since typhoons have a relatively small extent and move tropical air masses rather
homogeneous with respect to their ozone content, the advective changes in the
values can scarcely be significant. Probably all the peculiarities in the distrib- -
ution of the total ozone content represented in the figure are related only to the
vertical movements of air in typhoon systems. In such a case in the region of ozone
; deficit (r = 800-1800 km) there should be a predominance of ascending air flows near
the tropopause. In actuality, computations of vertical wind velocities made for dis-
i tances of 800-1000 lm from the center of typhoon Tess indicate that there, in a gen-
eral case, it is possible to observe ascending movements up as far as the tropo-
pause [a].
' Observations and computations show that with r>300 km descending movements usually
develop.[8] which should lead to an increase in the total ozone content. In our
: case with rp,0400 km there was an increase in the SZ values by 8% relative to the
! mean value (0.255 cm).
i
; 125
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On the most distant periphery of the typhoon (r>2000 km) the total ozone content
also increased and accordingly descending air movements predominate there.
Thus, the nature of changes in the S2 values (see Fig. 1) agrees qualitatively with
the dynamics of typhoons. More numerous and specially organized observations make
it possible to ascertain the quantitative relationships between the total ozone
content and individual parameters of typhoons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gushchin, G. K., "Latitudinal Variation and Seasonal Fluctuations of Total Con-
tent of Atmospheric Ozone in the Indian Ocean," TRUDY GGO (Transactions of the
Main Geophysical Observatory), No 279, 19720
2. Gushchin, G. Ko, Correlation Between the Total Content of Ozone and the QuaYt-
tity of Water Vapor in the Atmosphere Over the Oceans," TRUDY GGO, No 324,
1974.
3. Gushchin, G. K., "Principa]. Peculiarities in the Distribution of the Total
Content of Atmospheric Ozone Over Ocean Areas," TRUDY GGO, No 357, 1976.
4. Kuznetsov, G. I., "Atmospheric Ozone Over the Tropical Zone of the Atlantic
Ocean," DOKLADY AN SSSR (Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences), Vol 171,
No 3, 1966.
5. Nguen Tkhi Kiyen, Khrgian, A. Kh., "Some Characteristics of Atmospheric Ozone
in the Tropics," VF'cTT7Tx M(;T1. FIZIKA, ASTRON(1MIYA (Herald of Moscow State
University, Physics, Astronomy), Vol 16, No 4, 1975,
6. Pavlov, N. I., Bel'skaya, N. N., Veselov, Yeo Po, Bakushin, A. I,,, "Tropical
Cyclones in the Cloud Cover Field According to Data f rom Meteorological Sat-
ellites and Radar Observations," TAYFUN-75 (Typhoon 75), Vol I, Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1977.
7. Palmen, E., Newton, Ch., TSIRKUI.YATSIONNYYE SISTEMY ATMOSFERY (Circulation
Systems of the Atmosphere), Leningrad, Gidr6meteoizdat, 19730
8. Petrova, L. I., Nesterova, A. V., "Dynamic and Energy Characteristics of the
Troposphere on the Periphery of Typhoons and in Zones of Their Maximum Fre-
quency of Recurrence," TAYFUN-75, Vol I, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 19770
9. Penn, S., "Ozone and Temperature Structure in a Hurricane," J. APPLo METEOR-
OL., Vol 4, No 4, No 2, 19650
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UDC 551.510.4
DEPENDENCE OF CONCENTRATION OF TROPOSPAIItIC CARBON DIORIDE ON SURFACE PRESSURE
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 110-112
[Article by Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences V. F. Belov, Doctor of
Geographical Sciences V. D. Reshetov, Doctor of Chemical Sciences B. A. Rudenko
and N. P. Shoromov, Central Aerological Observatory, submitted for publication 25
Feb 80 ]
[Text] Abstract: This paper presents the results of
aircraft measurements of the volumetric con-
centration of tropospheric C02 obtained in
November 1978. The results, averaged for a11
altitudes, are represented in the form of a
graphic dependence on atm4spheric presaure of
the air mass in which the measurements were
made. The least squares method is used in
finding the linear dependence of the C02 con-
centration on pressure. With an increase in
pressure the C02 concentration in the tropo-
sphere decreases.
During recent years scientific interest in the carbon dioxide problem is increas-
ing [3]. This interest is attributable to the fact that the mean C02 content in
the atmosphere, beginning with the beginning of the century, is continuously in-
creasing. For example, whereas at the end of the last century the relative vol-
umetric concentration of C02 in the atmosphere averaged 290 parts per million
parts of air (mill-1), by the end of the 1970's it had attained 330 mill-lo Thus,
during this period the increase in the mean C02 content was 13.8%. The rate of
increase of C02 during the last 20 years has also been increasing and by the end
of the 1970's had attained 1.5 mill-1/year [5].
This increase in atmospheric C02, according to the calculations of climatologists,
can cause a warming of climate, which in turn can have such consequences as a
thawing of the polar ice, inundation of the coasts of seas and oceans and unpre-
dictable changes in the atmosphere [4]. In order to predict the further change in
the atmospheric C02 content it is necessary to know the factors exerting an influ-
ence on the C02 content there.
The first regular observations of the atmospheric content of C02 were begun in Swe-
den and Finland in 1954 [8]. These observations were considerably activated during
the period of the International Geophysical Year (1957~1958). The results of ob-
servations made in the free atmosphere by Bolen and Biichof for the northern
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hemisphere, by Pearroan and Garratt for the
Soviet Union such observations of the C02
from an aircraft were initiated in 1973 by
southern hemisphere [6, 7, 9]. In the
content in the free atmosphere made
the Central Aerological Observatory [1].
Observations during the first years were made with a coulometric gas analyzer. The
instrument was installed aboard a flying laboratory an IL-18 flying laboratory.
The measurement errors were 3-5% of the measured parameter. A preliminary analysis
of the results of the measurements indicated that the C02 content in the tropo-
sphere was subjected to quite great variations attaining lOX or more of its tnean
content [1].
Table 1
Results of Aircraft Measurements of C02 Concentration in Troposphere in Different
Air Masses at Different Altitudes Over Territory of Soviet Union in November 1978
Y.C10
i3WcuTa, k.:~ 2 -
, -I--
4 6 ' i 8 ~ j I
I
PaiioH 3
1I3SiepzHNN
,7.ae.ieHiie.4
.tt0
2 I
326 j
31'~
I.~3
; I
I
I
4apa~:oy 5
1000
15 I
1
1
) i
327
'J'30
.aH,aepNa
970
l,
'
31 i
~ Siti
3J3 I
310
I
NlacasaN ~
1020
IS.
.33'
i
~
3_4
KaNwaTr.a
990
19
I
I 3;i I
3:)d
Cixa.~~+H 9
1000
21
'5
.
;;_11 ~ :j ;n
,;211 I
321
Caxa.iiw g
981)
2~
'
~..t..} ;
;_>:i '
:3!9
1
3~U
6paTCh 10
11
970
2-3
312
~ f~ ~
2ote un
1020
24
I
i 3;;
I:1126
L
i Moche3 12
980
KEY :
1)
Number
7)
Magadan
2)
Altitude, km
8)
KamchaCka
3)
Measurement region
9)
Sakhalin
4)
Pressure, mb
10)
Bratsk
5)
Chardzhou
11)
Donetsk
6)
Amderma
12)
Moscow
In the analqsis of the results it was possible to determine the factors which can
be responsible for variability of carbon dioxide in the troposphere. In particular,
it was discovered that the mean C02 content in the troposphere in clear anticyclon-
ic weather is less than in cyclones [1]. Such facts have been noted earlier by other
authors. For example, in determining the C02 content in the near-surface and near-
water layers of the atmosphere from ships and automobiles it was possible to note a
dependence of the C02 content in the air mass on its origin [2]. However, no correl-
ation was noted between the C02 content in the air mass and cyclonic or anticyclonic
circulation� Therefore the objective of this study was a clarification of the depen-
dence between the C02 content in the air mass on atmospheric pressure.
For this purpose we analyzed the results of the observations made by the Central
Aerological Observatory in November 1978 in the troposphere over the territory of
the USSR. The measurements were made employing an improved method aboard an
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aircraft employing a new sirborne gas chromatographic gas analyzer developed by
the Institute of Organic Chemistry imeni Zelinakiy USSR Academy of Sciences in
collaboration with the Central Aerological Observatory on the basis of a standard-
produced LKhM-8iM gas chromatographo
MBM'l lAil.l-l.
JJo
.i 2:i
J1?
i SL' S80 : OC: 1070 M6 1IIb
Fig. 1. Dependence of inean volunetric concentrstion of C02 in troposphere on atmo-
spheric pressure at the earth. The graph showa the mean square measurement errors.
The operating principle of the gas analyzer is as follows. The air sample to be an-
alyzed is transported by a helium flow through a chromatographic columa filled with
an adsorbent of the "polysorb" tqpeo The components of the sample to be analyzed,
with their passage through the colimmn, are separated f rom one anather and after
emergence from the column are registered by means of a detector on the basis of
the change in the thermal conductivity of the passing gases. The signals f rom the
detector are fed to an automatic KSP-4 potentiometer, -wi,ere they are regiatered in
~ the form of peaks. The gas concentration in the sarsple is determined f rom the val-
I ue of the peak, for example, f rom its height. ImprovemenC of the aircraft method
~ for measuring the C02 concentration involved the carrying out of regular calibra-
~ tion of the gas analyzer by means of a standard gas mixture with a known C02 con-
~ tent, determined with a high accuracy. The time required for the analysis of one
sample was 3-5 minutes. The error in an individual measurement was 1-1.5%o The
sampling of air for analysis was accomplished from the aircraft air line feeding
air into the cabin.
The results of the observations of C02 content in the troposphere at different alti-
tudes from 0.5 to 9.0 km, carried out in November 1978, are presented in Table 1 in
the form of volumetric relative concentrations. The last coltmmn of the table gives
the atmospheric pressure at the earth at the center of the air mass in which the
observations were made. In order to clarify the dependence of the tropospheric
C02 content on pressure at the ground level the observational data were averaged
for all altitudes and plotted on a graph (Fig. 1). Here along the x-axis we have
plotted the pressures at the ground level (see Table 1), and along the y-axis
the mean C02 concentration in the troposphere.
~ The figure shows that with an increase in pressure at the ground level the C02 con-
centration in the air mass decreases. This fact agrees with the phenomenon, noted
~ earlier in [1], of a lower COZ content in the troposphere under anticycloaic condi-
~ tions. If it is postulated that the dependence of the C02 concentration on pres-
~ sure at the ground level is linear, that is, that the C02 concentration is related
~ to pressure P by the formula
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c = aN b, (1)
then, using the least squares method, it is posaible to determine the constants a
and b in formula (1) using the experimental values Ci and Pi (see Table 1 and Fig-
ure 1).
After computing the coefficients a and b we obtain the following dependence of
the volumetric concentration of C02 in the air mass on stmospheric pressure in
the form .
C - 0,235 P 551�
(2)
This dependence has a preliminary character since it is based on limited statis-
tical data. Nevertheless, it can be of some interest in constructing mathemat-
ical models describing the C02 content in the troposphere in dependence on atmo-
spheric pressure at the ground level. One of the reasons for the decrease in the
C02 content with an increase in pressure at the ground level (that is, under anti-
cyclonic conditions) can be a predominance of descending currents under such con-
ditions, bringing from the upper layers air having a lesser COZ content, and vice
versa, an increased C02 content in cyclones can be caused by ascending flows in
a cyclone bringing C02 from surface sources.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Belov, V. F., Reshetov, V. D., Khamrakulov, T. K., Shlyakhov, V. I., "Prelim-
inary Results of Investigations of C02 in the Troposphere," METEOROLOGIYA I
GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology), No 10, 1975.
2. Bruyevich, S. V., Lyutsarev, S. V., "C02 Content in the Atmosphere Over the
Pacific and Indian Oceans in the Black Sea Region," PROBLEMY KHIMII MORYA
(Problems in Marine Chemiatry), Moscow, Nauka, 1978.
3. Budyko, M. I., PROBLEMA UGLEKISLOGO GAZA (The Carbon Dioxide Problem), Lenin-
grad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1978.
4. Budyko, M. I., ATMOSFERNAYA UGLEKISLOTA I KLIMAT (Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
and Climate), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1973.
5. KHIMIYA NIZHNEY ATMOSFERY: SBORNIK STATEY (Chemistry of the Lower Atmosphere:
Collection of Articles), Translated from English, Moscow, Mir, 1977.
6. Bischof, W., "Carbon Dioxide Measurements from Aircraft," TELLUS, Vol 22, No
5, 1970.
7. Bolen, B., Bischof, W., nVariation in the C02 Concentration for the Northern
Hemisphere," TELLUS, Vol 18, No 1, 1970.
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8. Fonselius, S., Koroleff, F., Microdetermination of C02 in the Air, With Cur-
rent Data for Scandinavia," TELLUS, Vol 7, No 2, 1955.
9. Garratt, J. R., Pearman, G. I., "Large-Scale C02 Fluxes in the Southern Hami"
sphere Troposphere," NATURE PHYS. SCI., Vol 242, No 117, 1973.
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UDC 551.508.7
DETERMINATION OF THE WATER VAPOR CONTENT ON NEAR-SURFACE PA1'HS FROM THE SPECTRAL
BRIGHTNESS OF OBJECTS
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 113-116
~ [Article by V. N. Marichev, Institute of Atmospheric Optics, Siberian Department
USSR Academy of Sciences, submitted for publicat3on 23 Nov 791
[Text] Abstract: The author has developed a simple
and effective method for determining the in-
tegral moisture content of the air layer to
an observed object, based on measuremenC of
the intensity of the solar radiation reflect-
ed by the object in and outside the water vapor
' absorption band. The measurement method is de-
scribed. The paper gives the results of deter-
. mination of the precipitable layer of water
vapor on paths with a length of 0.7-3 km, ob-
tained on the basis of experimental data.
In order to solve a number of problems related to investigation of the physical
properties of the atmosphere and also for practical needs it is necessary to
have routine information on the integral characteristics of humidity on near-sur-
face paths. In such cases it is of unquestionable interest to develap new, simple
and effective methods for the remote detexmination of moisture content of air
layers, as will be considered belowo
The essence of the method is as follows. The earth's surface is illuminated by the
sun, whose wide-band radiation spectrum takes in the vibrational-ro tat ional ab-
sorption spectrum of atmospheric gases. In order to determine the gas content in
the air Iayer to the observed object its spectral brightness is measured. In the
measurements use is made of sectors corresponding to the absorption band of gas
molecules (a 2) and the nearest window of atmospheric transparency (Al)o From a
comparison of the signals received in the absorption and transmission sectors it
is possible to determine the quantity of gas along the measurement path.
The expression for the sensed brightness of the observed object B(L), in accord-
ance with [2], is written as follows:
B (L) - BoT (L) + b 11 -T (L)J. (1)
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where T(L) = e yL is the transmission function, y is the extinction coefficient,
6 is the brightness of an infinitely extended air Iayer (that is, sky brightness
at the horizon), Bp is the true brightness of the object.
With increaeing distance fr om the observed object the sensed brightness differs
from the true brightness fo r two reasons [2]: first, because there is attenuation
of radiation along the path from the object to the observer due to scattering and
possible absorption; second, due to the fact that due to the fogging effect of at-
mospheric haze there is an increase in the brightness of the object proportional
to thz length of its layer. The first effect in (1) is taken into account by the
function T(L) and the second by the second term, following from the Koshmider
"light-air" equation. The corresponding spectral brightnesses for the two spectral
sectors of interest are written in the form
; Bai lL) _ B,;i TP (L) +
tt = abs
(2)
8~., (L) - Bo Tp ; (L 1 Trt ( L ) =
-0..+_) L
T 5~..0 c '
_ where TP T 1, TP a 2 is the transmission function for a layer of the atmosphere with
; the extent L in the spectral sectors al and ~2, determined by radiation scatter-
ing; Tabs ;k 2 is the transmission function in the absorption band, determined by
the absorption of radiation; i1,ig 2 are the coefficients of atmospheric scatter-
ing; OL is the coefficient of molecular absorption.
The true spectral brightnesses of the object Bp al, B0~k 2 are determined as
xa (9)
BOI.i - 8A1 Z A EOk, TpA~I�O)r
xA (H) (3)
Bo a: = ga� 2 _
Fo~j Tvx_ Tn
Here g a 1, g a 2 are the spectral albedos of the obj ect; xal, )c7k2 are the scattex-
ing indicatrices for the radiation of objects in the direction of the observer;
, e is the angle between the line of sight and the direction to the sun; Epal,
' EO T 2 are the spectral illuminations of the object without allowance for the at-
tenuation of radiation; Tp ;k1( oo Tp~ 2( oo Tabs A2( oo ) are the �unctions of
transmission of radiation by the thickness of the atmosphere in the transparency
window and the absorption band.
The brightnesses of an infinitely extended atmospheric layer bal and ~j,'%2, in ac-
cordance with [2], are represented as
i l;. (A1
Fo~.~ Tp;~
abs] (4)
~I
~ 6 =
~2 4
~
~ ri Eoa_ T pTna:
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~
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where f a 1( (9 f T Z( 6) are the indicatrices of scattering of radiation by air in
the c'-frection of the ohserver.
On the bssis of [4-6], for the spectral sectors of the visible and IR ranges, spac-
ed several hundredths of a micron, it can be assimled with a high accuracy that
_ . - C� Bti~ - B%.~ -
xxt = xAY = x� (5)
Tp k' = Tp (6) - la.tdl -I (e)
We introduce the coefficients fK and f0 , determined as
eu 6;.~ � (6)
~
- Ih = B ' , ~
O Al 'l
In accordance with the expressions (4), they will be equal to
['fr= abs] JK= E^' Tn (cc), (7)
A,
I~= ~+7. A.
The final expression for the transmission function Tabs i12(L), Which carries in-
formation on the gas content along the measurement path, is written as follows:
~
Tn (L)= f X
s,, (c) 6,.2 , fQ L1
-(1-~' J
BA (L) - 6). 0 - o'a c)
I 1
For determining Tabs ~k 2(L) it is necessary to find seven parameters, specifically
B~X 1, B T2, 6A11 6~21 fK' f_~ ,9 � .
Measurement method. The expression for the registered signal in this case has the
form
C,' (L) u�-SB,~ lL It.,
(9)
vhere � is a coefficient including the response and transmission of the receiving
system;a, S is the solid angle of the field of view and the area of the receiv-
ing antenna; 41 is the transmission band of the apectral i.nstrimment.
Since the useful information ultimately arrives in the forn of electric signals,
the expression for Tabs ;k2(L) is written more conveniently through the valuea of
these signals:
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1 C'; ( L)-~~_ ~ L 1
(10)
Here the signals U5k (L) , , (L) are related to BA (L) and 6a (L) by expression (9). -
Tabs a 2( L) is determined by satisfaction of the following operations:
1) The spectral signals U~k 1( L), UT 2(L) from the observed object are measured.
2) The signals corresponding to sky brightness at the horizon are determined. Then
with L =00 U~k1(ao) _ 1 (00U~ (C.0) _ ~T2(co), and f~i = 4PA2(00)/4DR1(00)�
3) Signals frcm a near-lying screen JL = 0) are registered, this excluding the con-
tribution of haze to the total signal. From these signals we find the coefficient
s r. = c.l,, (0) � u;., (0)- .
4) Using the meteorological range of visibility SI,1 we find the scattering coef-
- ficient 3; . For evalua.ting f it is possible to use tables of its dependence on
wavelength for dif ferent GM (3].
~ In cases when the object is situated at a short distance or atmospheric transpar- ency is high, the influence of haze can be neglected.
. � 1
r-
~
� ~ :4 ~ \
y 1
. i .
- i \ ;
~ . .
a r
y� f
4 L
~.~I
N M.YN v1 u'1 ~p
Fig. 1. Signals obtained in observation of some objects at different distances
in two parts of spectrum: in band (2, a= 942 nm) and near band (1, a= 928 nm) ~
KEY. (water vapor absorption band)
- �1) Relative units 3) Soil 5) Forest
2) Screen 4) Grass 6) Sky
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Mean Humidity Values p= W/L on Different Paths, 1977

Fig. 2. Results of determination of precipitable layer of water vapor on the basis
of ineasurement of the spectral brightness of objects.,
Table 1
1 I 2 I 3
= c, Qara i Bpe+iq
C J
C =I I
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Nr
r.4 "
,p ~ '
i
I/
y ~
t
I /;.Mi
4;'lR V ! 1 64C-1650 125 -30'0,lu~ 5.0 -.4, ;.I 5.3 , 5,21 4,7 5,0 5,2
~~:,_:'~u,)0 a.0, 5.15 7.05,` ~ 5.4; 4.8 4.9
'?h ' I70C'-1711
2 Isl ~ li10-]i20 2-2',U.12 5.5' 6.5' 7,96.6 ~ 6.6` 6.4 6.4 6,3
io_ " 3,4 3.~
h 1 ~'I ~ 16 16 0- .,50,13.21 :3,6 4,03.45 3,8 i b
I 2 I 16'5-16'~' ~-3U u,1til 7,g: 8.2 i1.5 8,0 ; I 7 , 1320 I lc) 0,4 i 8.11 8,4 9.37,5 I -
KEY:
1) Notation in Fig. 2
2) Date
3) Time
4)
g/m3
7)
Glade
S)
Extent to end of path, l:cm
8)
Screen
6)
Shore
9)
Forest
The considered method was checked in the example of sounding of water vapor. We
used spectral sectors near T1 = 929 nm (transparency window) and A2 = 942 (ab-
sorption band) with a width pa = 6 nma This gave basis for using the empirical
dependeace between the precipitated layer of moisture Ta and the optical'thickness
'Cabs(W) [1], which we derived earlier, which is more conveniently written in tha
form
~
['R= abs ]
136
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~ 11pOTAN+etincxrn Av nvnua ~ Y~..~~~ �
4 4 6, 8 ,
u i x I a nec
~ - Y 9
v ~
V ~ -
~ I C
t ti C
(11)
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where -Cabs is determined through the transmission function 'Labs A2(W)' 1 abs
� 1 [Tabs2~2(w) 1-1�
Measurement results. An experiment for deteimining the integral humidity was carried
out in May-June 1977 with solar zenith anglea 35-60% The length of the realized
paths was in the range 0.7-3 km. One of the series of ineasurements is represented
in Figo lo Here the signals denoted by the figures 1 and 2 relate to measurements
T 1 and 7\2 and the figures 3 and 4 represent signals obtained with allowance for
the correction for the influence of haze. In this situation SM 25 km (f, N 0.1
km'1), It can be seen that the signals in the transparency window are considerably
stronger than in the absorption band. Their ratio U T 1(L)/U ;k2(L) increases with
increasing distance of the observed ob,ject from 4.8 (L = 0.7 km, river shore) to
7.3 (L = 3 lan, forest). The minimum and maximimm ratios of the signals, 205 and
16.9, were obtained for a nearby screen (L = 0) and with measurement of sky bright-
ness at the horizon (L = 00
The results of determination of the precipitable layer are given in Figo 2, which
gives the dependence of W on the length of the path on different days and different
hours. The W values relating to the same series of ineasurements are connected by
lines and annotated with figures corresponding to the numbers in the tableo It can
be seen that in general the increase in W is proportional to the length L of the
path (with the axception L= 0.7 1m, which will be mentioned below). The measure-
ment error (7'W/W is 13-18% with SM = 20-30 km ar,c: 21-27% with SM = 10 lan, The pre-
cipitated layers of moisture 4 and 5, determined on the basis of observational data
from observations made with a 20 min interval, are in good agreemento The value for
the precipitated layers was used in determining the mean humidities on the paths
/P = W/L, which are cited in the table. As a comparison, here we have also given
the humidities measured with a psychrometer at the reception point (P rec) and an
optical hygrometer [1] on a path with L= 0.98 km (ohy). In all cases it was as-
certained that the humidity along the path reception point - shore (see Figo 1) ex-
ceeds the control humidities Prec and )0hy, Which surpasses the measurement error,
- The figure shows that this path then passes closer than the others to the water sur-
- face and therefore high mean htanidity values should be expected here, as was dis-
covered in the experiment. The humidities measured along one and the same path re-
ception point - screen by the two different methods (also described trom the radia-
tion of a thermal source) agree well with one another (the difference does not ex-
ceed 10%). On paths rising higher above the river the P values are close toPrec�
A comparison of the data obtained by different methods gives basis for drawing the
conclusion that the proposed method can be recommended for determining the integral
content of water vapor on paths of different lengtho An analysis of the accuracy _
characteristics of the method, not presented here Co save space, shows that the ac-
curacy in determining W, considered above, can be improved to 8-15%. Among the mer-
its of the method is its simplicity, ease of use and routineness in mak3ng measure-
ments in the surface layer in any azimuthal directions and the possibility of
sounding other atmospheric gaseso -
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Borovikov, V. G., Marichev, V. N., "Instrimment for Optical Measurement of Atmo-
spheric Humidity," TEZISY DOKLADOV PYATOGO SWOZIUMA PO LAZERNOMU T AKUSTICHESK-
OMU ZONDIROVANIYU ATMOSFERY (Stymmaries of Reports at the Fifth Symposium on
, Laser and Acoustic Sounding of the Atmosphere), Tomsk, 1978,
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2. Gavrilov, V. A., VIDIMOST' V ATMOSFERE (Atmospheric Visibility), Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1966.
3. Zuyev, V. V., et alo, "Atmospheric Propagation of Laser Radiations," ZARUBEZH-
NAYA RADIOELEKTRONIKA (Foreign Radioelectronics), No 7, 1977.
4. Zuyev, V. Yeo, RASPROSTRANENIYE VIDIMYKH I INFRAKRASNYKH VOLN V ATMOSFERE
(Propagation of Visible and IR Waves in the Atmosphere), Moscow, Sovetskoye
Radio, 1970.
5. Zuyev, V. Ye., Kabanov, M. V., PERENOS OPTICHESKIKH SIGNALOV V ZErINOY ATMOSFERE
(Transfer of Optical Signals in the Earth's Atmosphere), Moscow, Sovetskoye
Radio, 1977.
6. Shifrin, K. S., Zel'manovich, I. L., TABLITSY PO SVETORASSEYANIYU. T. III,
KOEFFITSIYENTY OSLABLENIYA, RASSEYANIYA I LUCHEVOGO DAVLENIYA (Tables of
Light Scattering. Vol IIIo Coefficients of Attenuation, Scattering and Ray Pres-
sure), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1968.
138
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UDC 551.5:556:46:378.96
FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE MOSCOW HYDROMETEOROLOGIGAL INSTITUTE AND THE MOSCOW
IiYDROMETEOROLOGICAL TECEIIdICAL SCHOOL
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 117-119
~I [Article by K. A. Khzmalyan, USSR State Committee on Hydrometeorology and Environ-
mental Monitoring, submitted for publication 7 Feb 80]
jTextJ The Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute (MEIMI) and the Moscow Hydrometeor-
ological Technical School (MHMTS) were organized in 1930 in the system of the Hy-
drometeorological Committee of the Council of People's Conmissars in the USSR.
These were the first specialized hydrometeorological instructional institutions
not only in our country, but in the entire world.
The MiMI was organized on the basis of the Department of Geophysics of the Physics
Faculty at Moscow State Uiiiversity and the MfIIYiTS was organized on the basis of a
' nine-year school near Moscow (Saltykovka village) where students in the eighth and
ninth years were specially trained for work as observers at meteorological sta-
tions.
The organization of the MfIIrlI and the MEIM'PS was directly associated with the broad
development of hydrometeorological investigations and studies necessary for ensur-
ing the grandiose problems of industrialization of the country, uplifting of agri-
culture and maximum use of the natural resources of the country outlined by the
Comunist Party in the years of the First Five-Year Plan.
During the first year of existence of the MEIMI a total of about 100 students stud-
ied in its two faculties (meteorological and hydrological). However, already in
1931 their number had increased to 500 and by 1940 they numbered 1000.
The rapidly growing needs of the hydrometeorological service, scientific, planning-
engineering and otheM organizations for highly qualified meteorologists, hydrol-
ogists, oceanographers and agrometeorologists made it necessary not only to ex-
pand the PgiMI, but also to create the Khar'kov Hydrometeorological Institute, and
also to organize the training of specialists with hydrometeorological knowledge at
a number of other colleges. Such specialists are now being trained at 14 institutes
of higher education in our country. About 8,000 students are in these fields of
specialization.
The development of hydrometeorological investigations and the network of hydro-
meteorological stations also required expansion of the training of professional
hydrometeorologists with intermediate qualif ications meteorological technicians,
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aerologists, hydrologists, oceanographers and agrometeorologists. Now technicians
with hydrometeorological fields of specialization are being ~raduated from 11 in-
termediate specialized academic institutions with a total number of students over
7000.
A great service of the organizers, first directors, professorial and instructional
staff of the MIiMI and P4IIMTS has been that from the very beginning Che instruction
of hydrometeorological specialists has rested on a fundamental formulation of phys-
ical-mathematical and special disciplines. It has been carried out with allowance
for the prospects of development of hydrometeorological science and practical work.
At the same time, much attention has been devoted to both the theoretical and prac-
tical aspects of training of students, the creation of an instructional-laboratory
base, production of fundamental textbooks and study aids, development of scientific
and scientific teaching staffs, improvement in the living conditions for students,
their ideological-political education and military-sports training.
A highly important role in all this was played by the attraction of leading scien-
tists to instructional work at the young and relatively small Mnscow Hydrometeoro-
logical Institute. These included B. P. Apollov, S. L. Bastamov, Ye. V. Bliznyak,
V. F. Bonchkovskiy, M. A.*Velikanov, N. N. Zubov, P. Ya. Kechina, Ye. S. Kuznetsov,
A. I. Kaygorodov, S. S. Kovner, N. A. Lavrent'yev, B. P. Mul'tanovskiy, S. I. Ne-
bol'sin, B. P. Orlov, B. V. Polyalcov, N. N. Slavyanov, B. I. Semikhatov, S. P.
Khromov, V. V. Shuleykin, V. M. Shul'gin and many other outstanding specialists.
It is impossible to overlook the great work which has been carried out by the
military department of the MHIKI under the direction of A. N. Samoylo.
A major contribution to the organization and development of the MmiTS was made by
its first directors and instructors M. M. Gol'tsov, S. P. Zouloshnov, V. A. Uspen-
skiy, N. M. Bochkov, Ye. A. Sokolov, V. D. Bykov, A. P. Loidis, Ye. V. Mal'chenko,
A. A. Lucheva and other workers at Che technical school.
The first director of the Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute, Professor Vasiliy
Alekseyevich Belinskiy, who still continues his scientif ic and teaching activity,
_ devoted many efforts to the organization and realization of Che MHMI and the MirTPS.
In all stages of development of hydrometeorelogical education great attention was
devoted to it by the directors of the Hydrometeorological Service.
Many of the first instructors and students of the MHIMI and MHRTS are no longer
alive. Some of them gave up Cheir lives in the struggle with fascism in the years
of the Great Fatherland War. The bright memory of these people has been preserved
among their friends and comrades; it lives in the modern acnievements in hydro-
meteorology in our country which came about with their parCicipation.
The successful development of the system of hydrometeorological education played
a decisive role in providing the hydrometeorological service and other interested
organizations with highly qualified scientific, engineering-technical and supervis-
ory personnel.
During the threaCening years of the Great Fatherland War the acct.anulated experience
made possible the training and retraining, within a relatively short period of
time, of hydrometeorological specialists for the Soviet Army and Navy, the
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transforniation of the MHMI into the Higher Military Hydrometeorological Insti-
tute (HMHKI). After the end of the war the HH4IIy1I was reorganized into a civilian
hydrometeorological institute and moved to Leningrad (LHMI Leningrad Hydrometeor-
ological Institute).
- During the years of its existence the MfaiI and its successors (HIMHMI and LHMI)
trained more than 13,000 highly qualified specialists in hydrometeorological
fields and the MEIMTS graduated 11,500 hydrometeorological technicians. Graduates
of these academic institutions can be encountered in many republics, krays and
oblasts of our Motherland, in the Arctic and Antarctica and on far expeditions. A
considerable number of them became outstanding scientists and organizers. They are
successfully carrying out scientific and pedagogic activity and are heading up major
scientific and operational-production groups in the system of the State Committee on ~Hydrometeorology and other departments; they are working in responsible posts in
the central administration and local agencies of the State Comnittee on Hydro-
meteorology.
Naturally, with the passing years, in accordance with the new, higher requirements
on specialists, there has been a further improvement in the entire system of hydro- _
meteorological education, an intensification of academic and instructional work, an
improvement in academic documentation. During recent years the hydrometeorological
schools have begun the training of specialists (by means of specialization in the
' higher courses) in such modern directions as numerical weather forecasting methods,
artificial modification of atmospheric processes, long-range weather forecasting,
- hydrameteorological measurements and instruments. At the Khar'kov Institute of
Radioelectronics there is now training of radio engineers with specialization in
the field of radar systems used in hydrometeorology and at hydrometeorological
technical schools there is training in the field of specialization "hydrometeoro- -
- logical radar apparatus." A special course entitled "Preservation of the Environ-
_ ment" has been introduced at all colleges and technical schools training hydro-
. meteorological specialists and programs in special disciplines have been supple-
mented. This has required a considerable strengthening of the academic-material
base for academic institutions and a re-examination of curricula and programs, the
preparation of new and supplementing of earlier published textbooks.
During the last 10 years alone the Hydrometeorological Publishing House has pub-
_ lished more than 100 textbooks and study aids for students at colleges and tech-
nical schools teaching hydrometeorological fields of specialization. Many of these
are original study aids on new disciplines or they are substantially revised and
supplemented textbooks on traditional subjects.
In adopting measures for improving hydrometeorological education, Soviet scientists
and specialists make extensive use of international communication. They partici-
pate in the activity of the WMO, UNESCO and other specialized agencies of the UN
for the dissemination of the achievements of the Soviet Union in this field and in
study of leading foreign experienceo Comparing the status of training of hydro-
meteorologists in the USSR with the training of similar specialists in the well-
devF;loped capitalist countries, it is possible to note with satisfaction the
superiority of Soviet hydrometeorological education not only with respect to the
nimber of speciaZists in training, but what is most important, the high quality
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of this training. This is leading to an increase in the interest of foreign sci-
entists in the experience of training hydrometeorological personnel in our
country and a constant increase in the number of foreigners coming to the USSR
for training and gaining experience in the field of hydrometeorology. During re-
cent year.s.the ntunber of foreign students studying in the colleges and technical
schools in the Soviet Union with hydrometeorological fields of speciali2ation
has reached 326. They represent 59 countries. They include about 60 scholarship
holders of the WMO from 16 countries. In addition, Soviet hydrometeorological ex-
perts are doi.ng much work in the training of national personnel in a number of
- f oreign countries.
The development of hydrometeorological investigations and studies increasing the
requirements on the hydrometeorological service in connection with the transfor-
nation of the Hydrometeorological Service into the USSR State Cotnnittee on Hydro-
meteorology and Environmental Monitoring is making necessary a further improve-
ment in hydrometeorological education, taking into account:
the need for satisfying the increasing requirements of agriculture and water
management, electric power, transportatiou, construction and other branches of
the national economy for completeness and quality of regime, prognostic and
computed hydrometeorological materials;
practical introduction of automatic and remote instruments and apparatus, auto-
mated systems for the collection and processing of hydrometeorological data, elec-
tronic computers, space meteorological systems and other new technical equipment;
organization of a system for monitoring the state of the environment, the level
and sources of its contamination, as well as the development of investigations in
this field;
development of investigations and practical work in the field of artificial mod-
ification of atmospheric processes;
strengthening of international cooperation in the field of hydrometeorological
investigations and preservation of the environmento
In accordance with the resolutions of the 25th Congress CPSU and subsequent reso-
lutions of the Party and government, particular attention must be devoted not only
to a further increase in the quality of the professional training of specialists,
but also a resolute intensification of ideological-educational work at colleges
and technical schools.
The formation and development of the system of higher and intermediate special hy-
drometeorological education played its decisive role and continues to remain one
of the most important factors in the successful solution of the problems facing
hydrometeorological science and practice.
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REVIEW OF MONOGRAPH BY S. L. VENDROV: 'PROBLEMS IN TRANSFORMATION OF RIVER SYSTEMS
IN THE USSR' (PROBLEMY PREOBRAZOVANIYA RECIIINYKH SISTEM SSSR), Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1979, 207 pages
Pioscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 p 120
[Review by A. A. Sokolov and V. V. Kupriyanov]
[TextJ The second edition of a monograph by S. L. Vendrov, entitled PROBLEMY PRE-
OBRAZOVANIYA RECHNYKH SISTEM SSSR (Problems in the Transformation of River Systems
in the USSR), appeared in 1979. It has attracted the attention of scientists and
specialists due to the novelty of formulation of the problem. In this monograph
the author has set forth his points of view concerning highly complex modern prob- _
lems related to the use and conservation of water resources of the country. -
In his reasonings and conclusions the author relies not only on a deep understand-
ing of hydrological phenomt~na and processes occurring during the regulation and
; redistribution of river runoff with time and in space, but also on the basis of
-i his rich personal experience in participation in expert evaluation of many water
management processes carried out in the USSR.
; The author has an original and extremely successful method of exposition of mater-
i ial, presented in the form of reflections sometimes of a polemic character9 and
i not f rom the point of view of a disinterested observer, but as a profoundly con- _
cerned specialist highly reacting to the by no means always successful interven-
tion of man in natural processes, counseling careful treatment of the environment,
- every possible protection of nature against exhaustion and contamina tion.
The book, abounding in factual information, examines a wide range of questions as-
sociated with the problems of present-day and long-range reconstruction of the hy-
drographic network, analysis of changes in the hydrometeorological regime as a
result of anthropogenic activity, the need for the redistribution of runoff over
, the territory of the USSR.
In analyzing the negative phenomena associated with different transfo rmations of
water bodies, S. L. Vendrov does not descend to the extremeYy widespread unfound-
ed condemnations of a number of pro3ects which have been carried out, but examines
all aspects of the problem, in his way weighing the resulting socioeconomic effect
and expenditures on restoration of the damage inflicted on the environment. The
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author uses as a point of departure the correct materialistic idea of the inevit-
ability and necessity of an active transformation of water systems and individ-
ual objects. His understanding of the Sevan problem is characteristic in this re-
sp2ct. S. L. Vendrov agrees that the depletion of part of the century-long ac-
cunulations of lake water would worsen the entire complex of natural conditions
of this unique water body, but the waters of the Razdanskiy cascade were the only
initial material base for the economic development of the Armenian SSR during the
period of the pre-war five-year planso Now that the tasks of economic development
of the Armenian SSR have to a large extent already been realized, the preserva-
tion of Sevan is of primary national importance.
S. L. Vendrov objectively evaluates the rapid "moral aging" of water management
principles and schemes for the use of water resources as the economic and social
development of the country progresses.
7n examining the national ecanomic role of the regulation of runoff of our lowland
rivers, S. L. Vendrov also notes the problem of the need, already existing today,
for a universal reduction of the areas of reservoirs for the purpose of f reeing
arable lands for their economic exploitation.
With respect to the problems of redistribution of runoff, S. L. Vendrov uses as a
point of departure the historical inevitability and socioeconomic necessity of
their solution in our country. Hnwever, the means and methods for implementing
this, as correctly notzd by the author, must be well studied and validated. It
is also important to take into account and carefully weigh all the possible ecol-
ogical changes in the regions f rom whence water is taken and to which it is re-
distributedo And indeed, an equally important, and possibly the main circumstance
is that it is necessary to make full, economically rational use of water re-
sources without allowing their unnecessary loss.
One can disagree with individual conclusions presented by the author and his eval-
uations of different projects, but it must be admitted that the general concepts
developed in the monograph are characterized by depth and penetration into the
essence of the problems involved in the preservation of the environment and its
transforination in the interests of a socialist society.
The book will unquestionably find a broad response among specialists working in
the field of effective use of water resources, the transformation of river sys-
tems and preservation of the environment.
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SIXTIETH BIRTHIDAY OF SErEIJ SAMUILOVICH KAZACHKOV
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 p 121
[Article by members of the Board of the USSR State Committee on Hydrameteorology
and Environmental Monitoring]
[Text] Semen Samuilovich Kazachkov, chief of the Omsk Territorial Administration
of Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, marked his 60th birthday on 28
August.
From the time of his graduation from the Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute
in 1945 all his activity has been associated with the hydrometeorological serviceo
Being deputy chief of the Administration of the Hydrometeorological Service of the
Kirgiz SSR, to which S. S. Kazachkov was sent in 1946, he did considerable work on
the construction and reconstruction of hydrometeorological structures and develop-
ment of the hydrometeorological network in the mountainous regions of the Kirgiz
SSR.
S. S. Kazachkov became chief of the Omsk Territorial Administration, one of the
largest administrations in our country, in 1955. During this time the administra-
_ tion did considerable work on development of the network, which more than doubled,
_ and a service for safeguarding the environment was recXeated.
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The exploitation of the virgin lands in the southern part of the administration,
the petrolem and gas deposits in its northern part, the consCruction of new
cities and settlements, railroads and highways required a radical restructuring
of the hydrometeoro logical servicing of all branches of the national economy, a
task with which the personnel headed by S. S. Kazachkov has successfulZy contended.
And servicing continues to improve.
The productive activity of Semen Samuilovich has been repeatedly recognized by de-
partmental awards and valuable presents.
In 1976 Semen Samuilovich was awarded the order of the Red Banner of Labor for im-
plementation of the targets of the Ninth Five-Year Plan and for the successes at-
tained in the hydrometeorological servicing of the national economy.
S. S. Kazachkov has been awember of the CPSU since 1945. His organizational abil-
ities and his high qualifications fruitfully contribute to the development of the
meteorological service in our country.
We sincerely wish Semen Samuilovich good health and further successes in worko
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SEVENTIETH BIRTHDAY OF VALENTIN DMITRIYEVICH KOMAROV
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 121-122
s
[Article by specialists of the USSR Hydrometeorological Scientific Research Center]
' [Text] Professor Valentin Dmitriyevich Romarov, Doctor of Geographical Sciences,
Meritorious Worker in Science and Technology RSFSR, marked his 70th birthday on
5 July. ~
i
The scientific and teaching activity of the outstanding Soviet professional hydrol-
ogis t V. D. Komarov, who has made a major contribution to the development of hydro-
logical forecasts, has received broad recognition in our country and abroad.
The creative work of Valentin Dmitriyevich began in 1934 at the Central Weather Bur-
eau immediately after his graduation from the Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute.
Already in his first scientific studies he laid out the principles of a fundamental-
ly new approach to investigations af the spring runoff of rivers, to study of the
physical laws of formation of runoff on the basis of the water balance equationo
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