JPRS ID: 9526 USSR REPORT SPACE

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JPRS L/9526
5 February 1981
USSR Report
SPACE
(FOUO 1 /81)
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JPRS L/9526
5 February 1981
= . USSR REPORT
SPACE
(FOUO 1/81)
CONTENTS
LIFE SCIENCES
The 175-Day Space Flight: Some Results of the Medical Research...... 1
SPACE ENGINEERING
' Spacecraft Ma.in Engines 12
Angular Stabilization Systems for Spacecraft 14
Problems of Mechanics in Space Technology--Controllable Vibrational
Processes Under Weightlessness Conditions 17
- SPACE APPLICATIONS
Space Oceanography: Problems and Prospects 19
,
On the Influence of the ACmosphere and the Observation Wir.dow of a
Spacecraft on the Contrasts of Natural Formations Visible From
. Space 40
Laws Governing the Choice of the Design Parameters of a Space
Survey System for Studying the Earth 50
SPACE POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION .
Space and International Organizations: Intemational Legal Problems. 58
- a- [TII - USSR - 21L S&T FOUOI
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L;CFE SCIENCES
UDC 613.693
THE 175-DAY SPACE FLIGHT: SOME RESULTS OF THE MEDICAE. RESEARCH
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 9, Sep 80 pp 49-58
/Article by Academician O.G. Gazenko and A.D. Yegorov, doctor of inedical sciences/
/Text/ As is well known, the flight of the third main expedition in the "Salyut-b"-
r'Soyuz" orbital complex, which was carried out in the USSR in 1979, was of unprece-
dented length: cosmonauts V.A. Lyakhov (commander) and V.V. Ryumin (flight engi-
neer) remained in'space for 175 days. The basic stages of thia flight were joint
work with three cargo transport ships, redocking of the "Soyuz-34" transport ship
from one of the station's docking units to the other, a space walk on the 172d day
of the flight, and the separation of the space radiotelescope's antenna from the
station. During the flight a number of the most variegated assignments were carried
out. As far as the medical objectives were concerned, they consisted as during
the flights of the preceding main expeditions (96 and 140 days) of maintaining
the crew in a gaod state of health with sufficient capability to work during the
flight, performing medical research, administering a complex of prophylactic meas-
ures to prevent an unfavorable effect of flight factors on the human body, and pre-
paring the cosmonauts for their return to terrestzial gravity. '
In this article we present same of the medical and physiological research data that
were obtained durzng the flight by a large cQllective, of staff inembers from the USSR
Ministry of Health's Institute of Medicobiological Problema, the Cosmonaut Training
Center imeni Yu.A. Gagarin, and othe:r organizationsl.
Before presenting these data, we should give a brief description of the conditions
under which the cosmonauts worked.
The gas medium in the orbital complex's crew quarters was close to that of the
Earth's atmosphere; its basic indicators fluctuated within Che following limits:
total pressure 750-832 mm Hg; partial pressure of oxygen 154-195 mm Hg, carbon
dioxide 1.34-6.8 uun Hg, water vapor 5.3-17.1 mm Hg; air temperature 14.6-
24.30C. ,
The total radiation exposure during the flight was 3.2-5.7 Rem. The cosmonauts ate
~ from a 6-day menu on which there were 70 products. The daily food ration, the cal-
orie content of which was 3,100 available kilocalories (on the "Salyut-4" etation it
- lA detailed account i.s supposed to be given in a separate publication.

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was 2,800 kcal), contained the following basic nutrient and mineral ingredients:
proteins 135 g, fats 1I0 g, carbohydrates 380 g, cslcium 800 mg, potas-
sium 3.0 g, phosphorus 1.7 g, sodium 4.5-5.0 g, magnesium 0.4 g, iran
50 mg. An "Aerovid" vitamin pill supplemented the food on a dail; Z)asis.
During the Elight, cargo ships delivered fresh products accarding to the crew's
wishes. On the whole, the food ration not only matched the probable energy expendi-
ture levels, but also contained the basic components required for stress situations.
The crew's water consumption averaged 1.4-1.8 1 per day per man (not counting the
water in the food ration and metabolic water), and was provided by water preserved
with silver ions, as well as hot water from the regeneration system.
The estsblished work and rest regime allocated 9 h per day for sleep (from 2300 to
0800 h, Moscow time), 2.5 h for physical training, 2.5 h for eating (4 times per
day), about 8 h for experiments and other work, and 2 h of so-called "free time" (of
which 1 h, as a rule, was spent on resting after meals). Saturday and Sunday were
the crew's days off.
Beginning with the fourth day of the flight, every day the crew had physical train-
ing, in the morning and evening, on a veloergometer and an integrated trainer (KTF)
with a moving track that was equipped with a"traction" system that created a load
of about 50 kg along the body's longitudinal axis. In addition, strength exerciaes
with shock absorbers and rubber ligatures were performed every day. The training
exercises were based on the cyclic principle of load proportioning 0 days of train-
ing exercises, with active rest on the fourth day) with based on the experience
of previous flights special attention being given to the development of strength
and coordination skills using a specially developed system of exercises far individ-
ual muscle groups (research performed by I.B. Ko2lovskaya, V.I. Stepantsov and V.A.
Tishler). For 8-day cycles, the average amount of time apent exercising was geared
to the individual and, on a daily basis, was as follows for the commander and the
flight engineer, respectively: cn the integrated trainer 37-60 and 34-56 min, on
the veloergometer 33-35 and 37-50 min, strength exercises 8-16 and 18-35 min,
for a total of 85-117 and 92-136 min. On the integrated trainer the cosmonauts in-
creased the load by walking and running, primarily with the trainer's motor disen-
gaged while the amount of traction on the track was increased gradually, as well as
by running without supporting themselves with their hands. According to the data
that were recorded telemetrically, the daily load ori the cosmonauts while exercieing
on the veloergometer averaged 38,000-40,000 kgf.m, while the total distance covered
on the trainer (walking and running) was 3.9-4.3 km. The cosmonauts almost always
(except for sleep periods) wore "Penguin" suits thak created a load on the motor-
support system.
Training exercises for the crew members with the application of negative pressure to
the lawer part of the body with the help of a"Chibis" vacuum complex were begun 3
weeks before the end of the flight. The effect of the negative pressure was to
cause a redistribution of the blood in the intertissue liquid toward the lower half
of the body, which simulated the hydrostatic blood pressure under conditions of
weightlessness and facilitated the maintenance of vascular tone in order to prevent
- a significant reduction in orthostatic stability after the flight. Preliminary
training exercises of this type were performed, beginning with the 154th day, once
every 4 days (on the day of active rest from physical training), 20 min at a time,
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with the amount of pressure being changed: on the 154th day -la, -15, -25, -35
mm Hg (5 min each); 158th day -15, -20, -35, -45 m Hg; 162d and 167th days
-25, -35, -40, -45 cma Hg. On the last 2 days of the flight (the 173d and 174th
days) the final training was carried out, with alternating pressures: -25, -30, -35
and -40 mm Hg for 5 min each, and -25, -35 and -40 Bnn Hg for 10 min each. In order
to increase their circulating blood volume, 20 min before the beginning of the
training the cosmonauts had to drink 300 mi of water. Neither cosmonaut experienced
any unpleasant sensations during this training, and the maximum systole rate during
the rarefaction usually did not exceed 85-95 beata per minute.
On the day of the landing, saline-water additives 0 g of table salt in 300-400 mg
of water, 3 tines a day) were used to maintain the liquid in the body and increase
the circulating blood volume, which contributes to an increase in orthostatic sta-
bility.
The postflight prophylactic suit was donned before the descent and was intended to
create excessive pressure on the lower part of the body, thereby preventing the de-
position of blood in this area imr.ediately after landing, in order to improve the
venous return of ehe blood and maintain orthostatic stability when the body was in a
vertical position.
As a preventive treatment against metabolic changes in the heart muscle, the cosmo-
nauts took inosin-F and panangin /translation unknawn7 preparations (two tablets two
times a day on the 90th-99th days and two tablets three times a day on the 147th-
161st days), and in the last 2 weeks they took alimentary corrective additives that
included a vitamin complex consisting of decamevit, methionine and glutamic acid,
which cause an intensification of the metabolism, the synthesis of catecholamines
and normalizing intestinal microflora, and lipin exchange.
An extensive program of ineasures aimed ar organizing the cosmonauts' apare time,
making up for the deficit in social contacts, and maintaining purposefulness in the
area of new types of activity was provided. Here we have in mind the informational
actions that served as a unique form of psychological support for the crew and were
provided by an Earth-ship-Earth telPvision link (meetings with families, scientists,
artists, actors and athletes, relay broadcasts of parts of movies, concerts and va-
riety programs, and so forth), daily broadcasts of news and printed materials, and
the organization of an extensive network of scientific consultations.
THE FLIGHT PERIOD
On the whole, the cosmonauts' overall state during the flight was good. However, in
connection with the transition to weightlessness, sensations of blood rushing to the
head developed, some edema of the face tiasues was observed, and the sound of the
voices changed (a nasal shading was heard). These phenomena leveled out during the
first week of the flight and disappeared completely after about 3 weel:s. The degree
to which they were expressed varied with the individual. On completion of the peri-
od of adaplive reaction, no changes in the crew members' states of health were ob-
served. Their natural functions were noC disrupted throughout the entire flight.
Appetite was maintained. kt least 7-8 h per day were spent sleeping.
During the flight the cosmonauts evaluated their own state of health, by investigat-
ing the !:ffect of the orbital complex's rotation at 0.5 r/min for more than 4 h:
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~
83 HE -tll
1
ai ~ -
7ei 2
77
L 61-m
88 2
84 ~
e2 C~
20 ao eo eo ioo 120 140 isDA fo
Figure 1. Dynamics of body mass of
crew membe:s during the flight of the
third main expedition: KE-III = com-
mander; BI-III = flight engineer; 1.
average body mass before flight; 2.
body mass during flight.
CM3
230(1
neither near the center of rotation or at
the maximum distance from it were any un-
pleasant sensations or differences in the
state of health detected when at rest or
when performing given movements of the
head.
Anthropometric investigations showed that
V.V. Ryumin's body mass, as determined with
a massmeter, :--ractically did not change or
increased somewrat during and after the
flight (Figure 1), while V.A. Lyakhov's
body mass decreased gradually: on the 163d
day of the flight the deficit in body mass
was 4.4 kg, and sfter the f-light it was 5.5
kg. For the commander, the loss in shin
volume during the first 100 days of the
flight was 13-15 percent, and later was 16-
19 percent; for the flight engineer it was
11-19 percent after the first 12 days and
then 20-24 percent (Figure 1). The
strength of the coimnan6er' c hands aid not
change during the flight, while that of ttie
flight engineer's hands increased.
After the flight there was some decrease in
the perimeters of the shins for both cosmo-
nauts (2.$-3.0 cm). The reduction in body
mass and shin volume can probably be relat-
ed to liquid redistribution and losses dur-
ing the initial period of weightlessness,
as well as to some loas of muscle mass as
the reault of underloading of the motor-
support system.
noo A study of the tissues' oxygen regime dur-
ieoo ing the flight, which was made under the
so �o so eo ioo 120 iNO 1e0 1e0 leadership of Ye.A. Kova?enko, showed a re-
AA's duction in the partial pressure of oxygen
Figure 2. Dynamics of shin volume of (p02) and the rate of its consumption in
crew members during the flight of the the skin of the forearm on the part of both
third main expedition: KE-III = com- cosmonauts, which phenomenon progressed as
mander; BI-III = flight engineer; 1. the flight continued. For instance, before
average volume before flight; 2. vol- the flight the commander's p02 was 36.5 mm
ume during flight. Hg and the flight engineer's was 37.9; af-
ter a month of flight the p02 values
dropped to 26.8 and 33.4 mm Hg, respectively, and by the end of the fifth month they
had decreased to 14.4 and 22.8 mm Hg, respectively. It is interesting that an anal-
ogous course also characterized the rate of 02 consumption: before the flight
12.6 and 13.7 mm Hg/min; after a month 8.2 and 9.5; after 5 months 8.1 and
10.1. About a week after the end of the flight the oxygen regime indicators were
approximately the same as the preflight onea. These data enable ua to think that
4
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, changes in the oxygen regime of peripheral tissues can indicate the development of
venous congestion phenomena an3 changes in microcirculation within the broad circle
of blood circulation that are the result of an increase in the pressure of the tis-
sue liquid ~n the upper part of the body (sane flabbiness in the tissues above the
level of the heart), which in turn is caused by redistribution of the blood in
weightlessness. In connection with this, it is possible that bypass (that is,
extracapillary) blood circulation increases because of a decrease in capillary cir-
culation, which has be2n confirmed indirectly by the resul.ts of research performed
by O.G. Gazenko and A.M. Chernukh in model experiments with antiorthostatic hypo-
kinesis during the study of microcirculation in conjunctiva.
bEA
MI
15/
a H~ -III
00
BO ~ 3
so - - -
------T--- - -
40 3 2 1
B I -III
e0 3
eo -1-
40 ----3 -2 - ~
zo '
As studies of the cardiovascular system
have shown, the frequency of both cosmo-
nauts' systole rate was practically the
same as during the preflight period (Figure
3), except for the period of the space walk
and work outside the ship on the 172d day
of the flight: for the commander and the
flight engineer this indicator was 80-105
and 74-130 beats per minute, respectively,
before the hatch was opened; while workicig
outside the station it was 66-112 and 108-
146; during entry into the transfer com-
partment and lock cycling, it was 70-107
and 58-94 beats per minute.
zo ao eo eo ioo iza ieo iso iao
5ome arteriat pressure indicators had a
DAyS
tendency to drop during certain sta$es of
Figure 3. Dynamics of frequency of
the flight. According to data gathered by
systole beats during flight:
rheography, the beating volume of the heart
KE-III = cotranander; BI-III - flight
and the instantaneous blood circulation
engineer; 1. average during ttie pre-
volune for the commander were lower during
flight period; 2. actual average L're-
the first 3 months of the flight than the
quency at different periods of Che
preflight levels, but after that did not
flight; 3. limits of fluctuations in
differ from them, for all practical purpos-
preflight period.
es. At the same time, the flight engi-
neer's hemocirculation indicators in
particular, the instantaneous blood circ
ulation volume up until the 114th day ex-
hibited a tendency to increase (which ag
rees with the corresponding data from the
96- and 140-day flights) and then to dec
rease.
For almcst 3 months of the flight, the flight engineer's indicators for pulsed
blood-filling of the brain's blood vessels (Figure 4) exceeded the average preflight
levels , while there was a simultaneous decrease in the indicators for pulsed blood-
filling of the shin's blood vessels on the part of both cosmonauts (Figure 5), as
well as an increase in the filling of the forearm's vessels with blood. The venous
pressure in the jugu"lar vein (as determined by an indirect method) was increased
throughout the entire flight, while in the shin vessels it dropped in connection
witb a simultaneous decrease in vein tone and an increase in vein elasticity.
Electrocardiograph studies (12 leads) revealed no substantial changes in the heart
muscle's bioelectric activity during the flight. The only thinga noted were an
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(1)
O7N
OA�
13
tl
8
7
5
5-
3-
3
7I
B
2 "
6 -----------3--
m 20 ao so eo 1 oe3~o iac~~~ono~ne
flener
Figure 4. Dynamics of pulsed blood-
filling of brain blood vessels during
the flight: KE-III = commander;
BI-III = flight engineer; 1. actual
filling during different periods of
the orbital flight; 2. average during
preflight period; 3. limits of fluc-
tuations during preflight period.
Key to Figures 4 and 5:
1. Relative units
2. Days
tl)
OTN*
en. FiE -III
12 3
Z - -
10 --3------ -
8
1
6
4
4 ~ , j
91
-II
I ~
2
3

p

-
2--
e

3

e
2
JyteM 20 40 BO 80 100 120 140 IBO
(2) noneT (3) (4) -
nonera-
Figure 5. Dynamics of pulsed blood-
filling of ahin blood vessels during
the flight: KE-III = cocmnander
BI-III = flight engineer; 1. actual
filling during different periods of
the flight; 2. average during preflight
period; 3. limits of fluctuations dur-
ing preflight period.
3. Flight
4. Postflight
intensification of sinus arrhythmia in the commander after being under a physical
laad, and some positional changes and a reduction in the T spikes' amplitude for the
flight engineer when he wae at rest, while after the flight there was a reduction of
the T spike for all 12 leads. The change in the repolarization was probably related
to changes in the metabolic proceases and possibly to vegetative disbala,nce.
Endurance was tested on the veloergometer, under a physical load, and one of the
other studies was the nature of rhe reactions to a functional test with the applica-
tion of negative pressure to the lower part of the body.
For both cosmonauts, endurance under a physical load (the veloergometer's pedals
were turned for 5 min under a load of 750 kgf�m/min) was evaluated as good for the
e.ntire duration of the 175-day flight. In connection with this, the reaction of the
heartbeat rate and arterial pressure correaponded to the preflight levels. On the
part of the cocamander, singular reactions to the test under a phyaical load were
manifested by a aharper (than before the flight) increase in the spscific gravity of
the heartbeat rate, an increase in the instantaneous blood circulation volume, a re-
duction of the blood vessels' peripheral resistance, and in increase (in some stud-
ies) of the degree of markednesa of the myocardium's hyperdynamics.
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Thus, according to the data on the test under a physical load that was conducted
throughout the flight, the cosmo4iauta exhibited no signs of deconditioning. At the
same time, on the 140-day and (to a greater degree) 96-day flights, and mainly after
the flights of all 3 crews on the main expeditions, the cardiovascular system's re-
actions to tests with a measured physical load were more pronounced than before the
flights.
The functional test with the application of negative pressure to the lower part of
_ the body (-25 mm Hg for 2 min, -35 mm Hg-for 3 min) caused a circulation reaction
that was generally similar to the preflight one as far as heartbeat rate and arteri-
al pressure were concerned. However, an the part of both cosmonauta we noticed a
more pronounced deve lopmen t of functional hypodynamism of the myocardium and an in-
crease in the pulse wave's rate of propagation along the aorta, while for the flight
engineer, in addition, the re was a more pronounced reduction in the heart's pulsat-
ing volume and the instantaneous blood circulation volume in comparison with the
preflight levels. Such types of reactiona during the flight apparently reflects a
decrease in the flow of b lood into the heart in connection with the effect of the
negative pressure on the lower part of the body during the flight, because of the
deposition of blood in the decompression zone againat a background of a supposed re-
duction in the circulating blood volume.
Generalization of the resu lts of the investigation of thP cardiovascular system dur-
ing the extended manned flights in the "Salyut"-"Soyuz" program makes it possible to
propose a hypothetical plan for the mechanism of the changes in this system under
weightlessness. "it is assumed that the basic factor determining the qualitative
uniqueness and specifica of the physiological changes in the body under space flight
conditions is weigh tleasness, while the main link in its effecCuating mechanism is
a reduction in the functional load on a number of systems in connection with the ab-
sence of weight and the me chanical s[reases on body structures that are related to
it.
In weightlessness there is a redistribution of the body's liquid mediums in the di-
rection of the upper part of the body that is maiztained pereistently throughout,a
flight. This is indicated by the shifting of the body's center of mass, which was
discovered during research done as part of the "Skylab" program, as well as a ten-
dency toward an increase in cardiac discharge, venous pressure and the pulsed blood-
filling of the brain, as registered during flights in the "Salyut" program. This
redistribution of liquid is probably the cause of the engagement of a number of
mechanisms that cause changes in physiological functions.
The general outline of the mechanisms of the change in physiological functions that
are caused by the displacement of liquid in the cranial direction is repreaented in
the following form:
an increase in transmural absorption of the tissue liqvid;
a reduction in tissue pres sure in the area of the lower extremities (a reduction in
the volume of the lower extremities);
an increase in transmural pressure and filtration in the capillaries in the upper
part of the body (edema of tissues above the level of the heart);
an increase in venous return, elongation of the central veins and auricles of the
heart, and an inerease in cardiac discharge;
an increase in the pulsed blood-fi.lling of the brain and the jugular veins;
an increase in venous pressure in the jugular veins and a decrease in the shin
veins, which leads to equa lization of *_he pressure in different areas, up to the
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level of the central venous or right arterial pressure;
a decrease in the pressure gradi2nt in the venous system;
an enlargement of the role of active diastole (relaxing of the heart) in hemo-
- dynamics;
the development of a phase syndrome of loading by volume; that is, an increase itz
the influx of blood;
an increase in pressure in the heart and lung area and inhibition of the vasomotor
cenCers;
an improvement in the tone of the vagus nerves and the engagement of relieving re-
flexes (V.V. Parin, 1965) from the lung blood vessels' receptors, which limit the
influx of blood into the heart and lawer the tone of the vessels of the large b lood
circulation circle (a tendency toward a reductian in arterial pressure and periph-
eral resistance);
elimination of part of the liquid by the (Genry-Gauer) mechanism (loss of weight and
- some electrolytes) and an enlargement of the blood deposition points as the result
of stimulation of the receptors of the auricles and lung blood vessles, which com-
pensates partially for the degree of markedness of the ch anges (a reduction in the.
facial edema and the sensation of rushing blood, among others);
stabilization of the new functional Ievel of blood circulation, because of the en-
gagement of compensatory mechanisms from the reflexogenic zones of the carotid ar-
tery (carotid sinus).
Later on during a stay in weightlessnesa, because of the constant physical under-
loading of the body (particularly when the physical training is inadequate) and, it
is conjectured, the reduction in the function of the muscles that control posture
(since there is no need to resist the force of gravity), the muscle system becomes
deconditioned to a greater or lesser degree. As a result, it is possible to see a
reduction in the activity of the intramnscular paripheral heart /sic/ (described by
N.A. Arinchin in 1974), which shifts the blood from tha arteries through Che cap il-
laries of the skeletal muscles and into the veins, thereby lightening the heart's
work and facilitating the return of venous blood to the heart. A reduction of the
skeletal muscles' intraorgan pumping function can also contribute to the development
of venous congestion phenomena and an increase in venous pressure.
This plan gives a satisfactory explanation of the most common regularities of the
changes in the cardiovascular system during soace flight. However, the use of a
complex of prophylactic measures and its significant expansion as was observe d
during the 175-day flight can smooth out some changes caused by a stay in wei ght-
lessness, which fact must be taken into consideration when intexpreting the data
that have been obtained.
THE READAPTATION PERIOD
After the landing, the cosmonauts felt tired at the landing site; it seemed to them
thaC the weight of their bodies and surrounding objects that they were manipulating
had increased (this sensation disappeared on the third day after the flight). When
Che cosmonauts were examined, the following features were observed: paleness of the
skin and increased perspiration, limited locomotor function, moderately pronounced
fatigue and asthenia, and a reduction in orthostatic stability when standing.
Examination by medical specialists at the cosmodrame on the day the f7.ight ended and
' the next few days revealed changes in the cosmonauts' gaits, an increase in tendon
8
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_ reflex?s (on the part of the flight engineer), dilation of the veins in the bottom
- of the eye, law2ritig of the sensitivity threshalds of the otolithic apparatus, with
vegetative rea:.tions whEn the body's poaition was changed (on the part of the com-
mander), accentuation of the lung artery's second tone (on the part of the command-
er), and deconditioning relative to physica2 and orthoetatic loads. The cosmonauts'
~ states of health then improved p rogressively and motor activity was expanded gradu-
ally, so that 5-7 days after the land.ing chey were taking about 10,000 steps during
the walking period.
According to data from a resting exocardiographic examination (performed by O.Yu.
~ Atkov and G.A. Fomina), after the flight both cosmonauts exhibited a traneient in-
crease in the volume of the left auricle and reductions in the volume of the left
ventricle's cavity and the puls ating volume in the absence of changes in the myo-
- cardium's contractility.
An investigation of the motor apparatus after the flight, conducted by I.B. Kozlov-
skaya and associates, revealed changes in the electromechanical act-ivity of muscle
contraction (a loss of tone and a reduction in the perimeters of the shin muscles,
an increase in the electromyographic "cost" of muscle exertion, and a reduction of
the shin and back muscles' power characteristics while those of the thigh muscles
were retained), an increase in the proprioceptive inputs' reactivity, disruption of
the interextremity and postural synergies, and disruption of movement coordination
- and the vertical posture regulation mechanism.
~
On the fifth day after the fligh t, G.P. Stupakov and associates investigated the
content of thQ mineral component (according to hydroxyapatite)
in the calcanus by direct photon absorptiomeery. They discovered reduc-
tion in the hydroxyapatite content that amounted to 8.3 percent for the comnander
and 3.2 percent for thP flight engineer, which figures are substantially lower than
those seen after extended bed rest.
A change in water-salt exchange (A.I. Grigor'yev) was manifested on the day the
flight ended by a reduction in the kidneys' excretion of liquids (this became nor-
malized in the next few days), an increase in the excretion of bivalent ions (calci-
_ um and magnesium), and an increase in the concentration of calcium in the blood.
For the commmander, in addition, there was a reduction in the potassium concentra-
tion. In the first few days after the flight, the extracellular liquid volume
dropped for the coIImmander and flight ersgineer by 11.0 and 4.1 percent, respectively.
A test with a water-potassium load, which was performed for the purpose of studying
the ki.dneys' ion-regulating function, made it possible to establish a mismatch in
the ion-regulating systPm that was expressed as an increase in the excretion of po-
tassium, calcium and magnesium and a simultaneous reduction in the excretion of liq-
uids and sodium by the kidneys. An analysis of the data as a whole left the impres-
sion that the shifts in the water-salt exchange were caused by changes in the regu-
latory system and the hormonal status in weightlessness and during readaptation to
Earth conditions, as well as a reduction in potassium retention while the kidneys'
functions were preserved.
Hematological studies conducted after the flight indicated a reduction in the number
of erythrocytes and hemoglobin (it progressed until the eighth day and recovered in
the period betweer. the 36th and 52d days of the readaptation period see the table
on the next page), as well as a reduction of 16-18 percent in the total hemoglobin
mass (studies performed by V.I. Legen'kov and associates).
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-2
Dynamics of Some Hematological Indicators After the Flight
, Number of erythrocytes, Hemoglobin content, H%
_ million/~1,cR
Days Commander Flight Commander Flight
, En ineer En ineer
Preflight
4.6 5.1 14.9 14.9
Postflight
0(day of landing)
4.4 4.4 13.9 15.0
lst day
3.8 4.1 14.0 14.4
3d day
3.8 4.2 14.2 13.2
8th day
3.7 3.4 12.5 13.0
36th day
4.0 4.2 14.1 14.4
52d day
4.5 5.9 15�$ 17�2
Transient leucocytosis was
also noted in the first few days af ter the landing. No
changes were seen when urine samples were an3lyzed.
Immunological, allergy and
microbiological studies were also made during the re-
adaption period.
The immunological and alle
rgy studies (I.V. Konstantinov) established that the com-
mander had a reduction in
thyurus-dependent lymphocytes and th at both cosmonauts ex-
hibited reduced reactivity
of these immunocompetent cells. After the flight, the
comnander displayed signs
of sensitization to streptococcal microflora, while the
_
flight engineer developed
a delayed hypersensitivity to staphylococcus and strepto-
Signa of sensitiz
coccus
ation to these micro-arganisms were also observed in the
.
flight engineer for up to
6 months before the flight, although they did not mani-
fest themselves in the 2-3 weeks before it.
Thus as was also noted on the preceding flights changes develop in immuno-
logical reactiyity under flight conditions, but they gradually normalize over dif-
c
ferenr spans of time in the readaptation period.
Postflight microbiological studies (according to data gathered by V.M. Shilov and
S.N. Zaloguyev) did not reveal any substantial changes in the staphylococcal flora
in the upper respiraCory passages or the microbe cenosis in the intestines. At the
same time, a reduction in the lactobacillus content in the intestinal microflora
was noten, as well as an increase in provisionally pathogenic enterobacteria that
are not very sensitive or even resistant to six antibacterial preparations. On the
whcle, changes in the automicroflora were leas pronounced than after the 96-day and
140-day flights.
In order to accelerake the nornia.lization of the functioi:31 changes that developed
~ under the influence of flight factors and the Earth's gravity after the protracted
stay in weightlessness, during the readapation period a complex of recuperative
measures was implemented. This complex was based on functional effect methoda that
included regulation of motor activity, the utilization and gradual expansion of
physical exercise, regenerative muscle massage, athletic games, water, air and solar
procerlures (including swimming, showers and saunas), and measures aimed at having a
psychoemotional effecC. The effectiveness of the measures was evaluated by subjec-
tive feelings, the dynamics of the heartbeat rate, and the arterial pressur.e level
10
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during the procedures, as well as by tl
tions. The recuperative measures were
sanatorium conditions on the Black Sea
and after the flight were based on the
individualization, and division of the
different equipment and methods).
OVERALL RESULTS
ie results of clinicophysiological examina-
implemented at the cosmodrame and then under
coast. The physical exercises both during
cyclic principle of loads (a 4-day cycle),
exercises (three or four timea a day, uaing
The medical research carried out during and after the flight showed that man can not
only adapt to a 6-month stay under space flight conditions, but can work actively
under them and perform complex scientific and technical experiments and function
outside the spacecraft.
Active medical control of the complex of prophylactic measures used during the
flight, based on medical examinations of the crew and in combination with rational
work and rest regiffies, full-value nutrition, sufficient water consumption, and ade-
quate sleep, insured the maintenance of the coemonauts in a good state of health,
with sufficient capacity to perform their work, during the 175-day flight. It also
contributed to a smoothing out of their reactions and facilitated the process of re-
adaptation during the postflight period. `
The changes that were observed in different body systems at rest and during func-
tional tests during all phases of the fligh t and after its completion were of an
adaptive nature, corresponded to the influencing factors, and on the whole were not
reflected in the cosmonauts' ability to do their work and carry out the flight pro-
_ gram .
During arid after the flight, no substantial changes that would prevent planned in-
creases in the duration of space flights were observed in the cosmonauts' health.
The data that the "Salyut-6"-"Soyuz" prc;;ram furnished on the human body's reaction
to the factors of space flight are enabling us to more clearly define the basic di-
rections for further medical research for future space flights.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1980
/16-117467
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SPACE F.NGINEERING
UDC 629.78:621.45
SPACECRAFT MAIN ENGINES
Moscow MARSHEVYYE DVIGATELI KOSMICHESKIKH APPARATOV in Russian 1980 aigned to
press 18 Jan 80 pp 2, 240
[Annotation and table of contents from book by Vladimir Fomich Safranovich and
Lev Moiaeyevich Emdin, Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 800 copies, 240 pages]
/Text/ ANNOTATION
This book is devoted to questions of selecting the type and parameters of main en-
ginea for the interorbital flight of space v ehicles during the solution of transport
problans. The authors discuss engine installations with liquid, nuclear and electro-
jet engines, ae well as methods for determining their areas of utilization and para-
metric series.
This book is intended for engineering and technical personnel who are concerned with
the development and creation of engines and spacecraft.
TABLF OF CONTENTS
Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1. General Characteristics of the Problem of Selecting the Type and Pa-
rameters of Engine Installations for Interorbital Flights. 6
1.1. General Characteristics of the Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � 6
1.2. Parameters Characterizing Maneuvers Performed While Realizing Flight Object-
ives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3. Criteria for EvaZuatingtheEffectivenessof the Realization of Flight Ob-
jectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4. Methods for Solving the Problemof IntegratedOptimization of the Parameters
of an Engine Installation in a Spacecraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5. Dividing the Problem of the Integrated Optimization of an Engine Installa-
tion's Parameters Into Independent Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Chapter 2. Integrated Optimization of the Parameters of Engines as Part of a
Spacecraft on the Basis of the Use of the Method of "Penalty" Func-
tions and a System of Autonomaus Procedures in a Computer's Input Lan-
guage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1. Features of ths.Mathematical Model of�an Object of Optimization. 33
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Page
2.2. A System of Autan anous Procedures in a Computer's Input Language for the
Formulation of Mathematical Models of the Parameter Optimization Problem 42
Chapter 3. Dynamic Part of the Parameter Optimization Problem 50
. 3.1. Determining the Pulse Camponents of Velocity f or Int2rorbital Flights the
Ballistic Part of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2. Solution of the Ballistic and Dynamic Parts of the Problem of Optimizing the
Parameters of Chemical- and Nuclear-Fueled Engine Installations by the Meth-
od of "Penalty" Functions and by the Amount of Orbital Energy. 58
3.3. Analytical Solution of the Dynamic Part of the Problem When Using Chemical-
and Nuclear-Fueled Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
� 3.4. Determining Characteristic Velocity Consumption for a Spacecraft [3ith
Electrojet Engines by the Method of Integrating Differential Equations of
Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5. Using the Method of Averaging the Parameters of Motion o� a Spacecraft With
Electrojet Engines to Solve the Dynamic Part of the Optimization Problem 95
- Chapter 4. Optimizatian of the Parameters of Engine Installations With Liquid-
Fuel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1. Generalized Structural Formula for Initial Mass When Liquid- and Nuclear-
Fuel and Electrojet Engines Are Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2. Components of the Initial Mass When Liquid-Fuel Rockets Are Used 112
4.3. Selecting Optimizable Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.4. Analytical Determination of Optimum Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5. Determining Optimum Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Chapter 5. Optimization of the Parameters of Engine Installations With Nuclear-
Fuel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1. Structural Farmula for Initial Maes and Characteristics of Nuclear-Fuel En-
gines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.2. Components of the Initial Mass; Determining Optimum Parameters 158
Chapter 6. Optimization of the Parameters of Engine Installations With Electrojet
Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.1. General Characteristics of Electrojet Engines and Structural Formula for
Initial Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.2. Power Characteristics of Electrojet Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.3. Components af the Initial Mass; Determining Optimum Parameters 203
Chapter 7. Selecting Engine Installations During the Solution of One and a Set of
Space Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.1. Areas of Rational Utilization of Different Types of Engine Installations 210
7.2. Selecting a Parametric Series of Standardized Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
COPYRIGHT: 7zdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye ",1980
/11-11746/
- 11746
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UDC 629.78.05.001
- ANGULAR STABILIZATION SYSTEMS FOR SPACECRAFT
Moscow SISTEMY UGLOVOY STABILIZATSII KOSMICHESKIKA APPARATOV in Russian 1980 signed
to press 10 Dec 79 pp 2, 171-172
[?.nnotation and table of contents from book by Leonid Ivanovich Kargu, 2d edition,
Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1,200 copies, 176 pagea]
- -
/T ex t / ANNOTAT ION
In this updated and revised edition of a book that was first published in 1973, the
author discusses different principles f or the construction of angular stabilization
systems f or spacecraft. He describes passive stabilization systems, stabilization
- system that utilize motors, flywheels and gyroscopic actuating mechanisms, active
stabilization systems that use jet nozzles, and stabilization and orientation systems
f ar spin-stabilized spacecraft.
This book is intendad f or engineering and technical personnel who are concerned with
systems for the angular stabilization of spacecraft.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
F oreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1. General Information on Angular Motion and the Stabilization of Space-
craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1. Coordinate Systems and Parameters of Angular Motion; Equations of Motion. . 5
1.2. Disturbances Affecting a Spa:.ecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3. Possible Methods for Creating Control Moonents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4. Problems Solvable by Angular Stabilizstion Systems and Demands Made on
These Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5. Principles of the Construction of Angular Stabilization Systems 15
1.6. Sensitive Elements of an Angular Stabilization System . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 2. Passive Angular Stabilization Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1. Principle of Gravitational Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2. Some Questions on the Dynamics of a Satellite With a Gravitational Stabili-
zation System . � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 28
2.3. Methods and Devices for Damping the Vibrations of Satellites With Gravita-
tional Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
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Pagf:,
2.4. Some Gravitational Stabilization Systems That Have Been Tested in Space, . 38
2.5. Magnetic Stabilization Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.6. Spin Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 3. Spacecraft Stabilization With the Help of Motor Flywheels. 47
3.1. Principles of the Construction of Angular Stabilization Systems Using Mo-
tor Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2. An Angular Stabilization System With a Linear Control Law. 50
3.3. Nonlinear Systems With Motor Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4. Systems for Removing Loads Fran Flywhe'els . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3,5. Using Rotating Grayitational Roas for the Stabilization of Spacecraft. 67
3.6. Flywheels With a Variable Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chapter 4. Angular Stabilization Systems With Gyroscopic Actuating Mechanisms . 75
4.1. A Brief kiistorical Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2. Operating Principle of a Gyroscopic Stabilization System in Diff erent Op-
erating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3. Equations of Motion. � 83
~ 4.4. Analysis of the Motion of a SemipassiveGyroscopic System. 88
4.5. On the Effect of Dry Friction on the Operation of Gyroscopic Actuating
Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
i 4.6. Active Gyroscopic Stabilization Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4 4.7. Comparison of Gyroscopic Actuating Mechanisms and Motor Flywheels With Re-
spect to Energy Consumption and Saturation Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
I 4.8. Some Structural Diagrams of Gyroscopic Actuating Mechanisms. 102
~ 4.9. Effect of Elastic Pliability on the Operation of Gyroscopic Actuating
Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.10. C anbined Angular Stabilization Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
; Chapter 5. Active Angular Stabilization Systems With Jet Nozzles.
118
~ 5.1.
Principle of the Construction of Angular Stabilization Systems With Jet
Nozz 1 es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 118
5.2.
Basic Operating rtodes of Relay Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 120
I 5.3.
Relationship Between Energy Consumption and Accuracy in Stabilization. .
. 128
~ 5.4.
Using Jet Nozzies to Control Spin-Stabilized Spacecraft.
132
; Chapter 6. Orientation Systems for Spi.n-Stabilized Spacecraft . . . . . . . . .
138
~ 6.1.
Orientation Systems With Linear Control Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
' 6.2.
Orientation Systems With Nor.iinear C onCrol. Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
6.3.
Preliminary Damping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
144
, 6.4.
Damping the Vibrations of Spin-Stabilized Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . .
147
6.5.
hteasuring Devices for Spin-Stabilized Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . .
151
Chapter 7. Systems for Stabilizing the Angular Velocity of Natural Rotation 154
, 7.1. General Information on Systems for Stabilizing the Angular Velocity of
Natural Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ].54
%.2. Using Flywheels to Reguiate the Angular Velocity of Spin-Stabilized Space-
craf t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3. Magnetic Systems for Stabilizing the Angular Velocity of Natural Rotation. 160
7.4. Using Solar Batteries to Drive Angular Velocity Stabilization Systems. 162
15
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7.5. A Composite System for Stabilizing the Angular Velocity of Natural Rota-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Bibl iography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "rtashinostroyeniy e 1980 ~
/10-11746/
11746
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UDC 629.735.001.2
PROBLEMS OF MECHANICS IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY GONTROLLABLE VIBRATIONAL PROCESSES
UNDER WEIGHTLESSNESS CONDITIONS
Moscow PROBLEMY MEKHAIVIKI V KOSMICHESKOY TEKHNOLOGII in Russian 1978 signed to
press 11 Sep 78 pp 2, 118-119
(Annotation and tab le of contents from book by R. F. Ganiyev, V. F. Lapchinskiy,
Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 970 copies, 119 pages]
[Text) A study is made of the problems of the mechanics of liquid media, includ-
ing liquid media with solid and gaseous inclusions. The scientific statements
of the problems with respect to controllable technological processes in space
and mathematical models and methods of investigating them are substantiated. The
problems of new vibrational resonance effects under weightlessness conditions and
the expediency of their use in the performance of certain technological processes
are brought- up for discussion. The monograph is designed for scientific and
engineering-technical workers dealing with the problems of space technology.
Contents
Page
Foreword 3
Preface by the Authors 4
Introduction 6
Chapter I. Behavior of Liquid, Gas and Solid Particles Under Weightless-
ness Conditions. Space Technology 19
1.1. Gases and Vapor in Liquid Metals 19
1.2. Solid Particles in Liquid Metals 25
1.3. Peculiarities of the Behavior of Heterogeneous
Metallic Systerns in Small Gravitational Fields 28
Chapter II. Construction of Mathematical Models of Controlled
Technological Processes and Methods of Investigation.
Wave Effects Under Conditions Close to Weightlessness. 40
- 2.1. Weightlessness Condition. Behavior of Solid
Particles and Liquid Media 46
2.2. Dynamics oE Multiphase Media Under Periodic EfEects.
- Wave Phenomena Under Conditions of Microgravity 43
2.3. Dynamics of Gas Bubbles and Oscillating Fluid 57
2.4. Vibrational Stability of Large Gas Cavities in a
Liquid Under Period Effects bg
2.5. Vibrational Movement of a Liquid in a Gravitation
Force Field 76
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Chapter III. Controlled Vibrational Processes of Space Technology.
Vibra
tional Effects Under Weightlessness Conditions
79
3.1.
Use of Periodic Control Inputs by Technologists
79
3.2.
Statement of the Problem of Experimental Investigation
of Vibrational Precesses under Weightlessness Conditions.
Description of an Experimental Complex and Experimental
Procedures
82
3.3.
Vibrational Resonance Effects of Mixing and Formation
of Periodic Structures in Strong and Weak Gravitational
Fields
85
3.4.
Dynamics of Large and Small Gas Bubbles in a Liquid
Under Weightlessness Conditions Under Vibrational
Effects. Degassing of a Liquid
95
3.5.
Dynamic Behavior of a Drop of Liquid Metal Under
Weightlessness Conditions Under Vibrational Effects
100
3.6.
Vibrational Effect of Unidirectional Movement of a
Liquid Under Small Gravitational Conditions [20]
103
3.7.
Surface Dynamics of a Liquid-Gas Interface and the
Formation of Geometric Forms Under Conditions of
Weightlessness in the Presence of Periodic Effects
104
3.8.
Use of Vibrational Effects in Space Metallurgy
109
Bibliograghy
118
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1978
[31-10845]
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SPACE APPLICATIONS
SPACE OCEANOGRAPHY: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
~ Leningrad PROBLEMY ISSLEDOVANIYA I OSVOYENIYA MIRQVOGO OKF,ANA in Russian 1979 signed
; to press 30 Oct 79 pp 111-133
[Article by B. A. Nelepo]
[Text] The world ocean is being studied with ever-increasing intensity. The measur-
ing devices by means of which factual data are obtained are continuously being im-
proved. However, the method for their use remains essentia lly unchanged. Observa-
tions are made either from automatic buay stations set out in different regions of
the ocean or at stationary platforms and on-shore oceanographic stations. The crea-
tion of a network of permanently operating oceanographic s tations involves serious
technical difficulties, including operational. Accordingly, the development and
use of specialized oceanological satellite systems must be considered timely and
promising as a direction in modern oceanology.
Space oceanography is based on remote methods for measuring oceanological para-
meters whir.h have been recently developed. It has been found that there can be re-
mote measurement of such ocean parameters as the global to pography of its surface,
state of the water surface, sea currents, the spectrum and direction of wave propa-
gation, wind in the near-water layer, radiation balance at the ocean surface and
temperature at the ocean surface. As carriers of remote measurement instruments
it is possible to use both ships and aircraft, but the mos t promising is the use
of artificial earth satellites (AES), h3ving a whole series of advantages: long
duration of operation, rapid scanning of a considerable area of the earth, etc.
The first results of use of artificial earth satellites, obtained both in the
Soviet Union and in the United States, indicate the possib ility of a satisfactory
accuracy in the measurement of oceanological parameters.
However, today the role of remote methods for investigating the ocean with the use
of artificial earth satellites is not so great as one woul d like. This is attrib-
utable, in particular, to the inadequate development of ine thods for making remote
measurements, limited by the possibilities of the measuring instruments, the ab-
sence of thoroughly deve"loped theories and metliods for the processing and inter-
pretation of the collected informationa It should also be noted that remote methods
make it possible to make measurements only of surface hydrophysical fields, being
only a reflection of the processes transpiring in the dep ths of the ocean and in
the foreseeable future these methods will scarcely make po ssible the direct "glanc-
ing" into the depths of the ocean, for example, below the layer of the seasonal
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t}larmocline. Accordingly, traditional research methods with the use of scientific
research ships and buoy stations of different kinds will, as before, be developed
and improved.
At the same time, the appearance of space oceanoAraphy methods will exert (and is
already exerting) a considerable influence on the entire character of investiga-
tion of the ocean. This is forcing oceanologists to make a significant re-examina-
tion of established research methods and proceed to the implementation of major
controllable oceanographic programs.
At their very basis the methods of space oceanography are methods of large-scale
investigations making it possible to carry out a routine scanning of extensive
areas of the oceans giving a general idea concerning the dynamics of the processes
transpiring in the surface layer of the ocean and also to obtain quantitative eval-
uations oE hydrophysical parameters in high-gradient zones.
The photograph cited here (Fig. 1; photography taken in September 1973 from the
"Soyuz-12" spaceship by the flier-cosmonauts V. G. Lazarev and 0. N. Makarov)
gives some idea concerning the nature of the information obtained from the orbits
of artificial earth satellites. This photograph, in particular, can be used in
studying water masses and shallow seas.
On the basis of the first experiments it is difficult to give a reliable forecast
of the further development of this direction in oceanography. However, it can be
said with assurance that further scientific investigations, associated with the de-
velopment of the theory, methods and means for remote sounding of the ocean from
aboard space vehicles, will put into the hands of oceanologists a powerful tool.
On the basis of such data it is possible to plan expeditions of scientific re-
search ships for detailed investigations using shipboard and buoy apparatus in
characteristic regions in which the variability of transpiring processes deter-
mines the dynamics over considerable areas of the ocean.
Oceanologists still must create in the ocean a control network of ineasurement
points to which will be "tied" the results of remote measurements, much as in
meteorology the data obtained from meteorological satellites are "tied" to the
ground network of ineteorological stations. A system of automatic buoy stations,
laid out in a definite way, will make it possible to obtain the vertical structure
(beginning from the surface) not oniy of the active, but also the deep layers of
the ocean. This will make it possible, on the one hand, to carry out regular cal-
ibration of the remote sounding sensors, and on the other hand, to solve the prob-
lem of transformation of the surface fields to a depth at least within the limits
of the active layer.
By supplementing the mentioned measurement complex with a system of drifting buoys
(with surface and neutral buoyancy) oceanologists will be able to trace surface
and deep currents, eddies and rings, and also estimate their velocity. A geosta-
tionary satellite, whose field of view will take in the investigated ocean area,
and a complex of ineasuring apparatus, including research ships, a system of an-
chored and drifting buoys and oceanographic measurement artificial earth satel-
lites may become important elements determining the nature of exploitation of the
entire system of buoy stations. In addition to other tasks, such satellites will
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Fig. 1. Caspian Sea region (photograph taken from aboard "Soyuz-12" spaceship).
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be able to collect information from a system of buoys (especially from "diving"
neutral buoyancy buoys) and relay it to reception points.
1. Problems in�Space Oceanography
During the last decade the intensive development of remote sounding me thode has
opened a new path to study of phenomena transpiring in the ocean, in pa rticular,
to investigation of its mesoscale or synoptic variability. The development of new
instrumentation, the formulation of new methods for remote sounding and metho ds
for the interpretation of information, as well as the employment of theoretical
models which describe the processes transpiring in the ocean, these are the prob-
lems which must be solved before proceeding to solution of a number of fundamental
problems in oceanology, and accordingly, creation of a closed hydrodynamic model
of the ocean, and also subsequent prediction of its parameters.
One of such problems is a determination of the large-scale variability of th e
ocean. The synoptic, or mesoscale variability of macroscale ocean currents, and
in particular, the variability of the most intensive of these, is manifested in
changes in the position of the axis of currents, fluctuations of their intensity
and meandering. These factors, in turn, lead to changes in such import ant charac-
teristics as heat transport to the north by currents of the Gulf Stream Cype, the
quantity of which determines the climate over a considerable territory of Europe
and arctic regions.
The meandering of strong currents and the so-called barotropic instability asso-
ciated with these processes lead to the appearance of isolated eddy fo rmations of
the cold and warm rings type. Having considerable reserves of kinetic energy,
macroscale ocean currents and their variability play an important role in the gen-
eral dynamic balance of the ocean, in the processes of interaction between the
ocean and the atmosphere, and to a great extent determine the dynamics of the at-
mospheric processes themselves.
Synoptic eddies make a considerable contribution to the processes of redistribu-
tion of momentum, angular momentum, heat transport in the oceano Acco rding to the
calculations of specialists, allowance for the transport of heat by s ynoptic eddies
can change by 30-40% the total balance of the meridional heat flow to the nortti.
In order to estimate the contribution of synoptic eddies to the total balance of
transport of heat, momentum and angular momentum in the ocean it is necessary to
know the regions of generation of eddies, the periodicity of their formation and
directicn of predominant propagation. Available experience indicates that remote
methods for the detection of eddy forniations and tracking them from o rbital sci-
entific stations are opening the way to routine prediction of "weathe r" in the
oczan.
One of the most important factors determining macroscale variability of hydrophys-
ical fields in the ocean is thermal anomalies and frontal zones. Acco rding to
modern concepts, quite powerful and long-lived temperature anomalies and frontal
zones to a great extent determine the nature of heat exchange process es between
the atmosphere and ocean and exert an influence on the stability of global atmo-
spheric processes, which, in the last analysis, is reflected in the formation of
weather and climate over considerable areas of the earth's surface. I t is entirely
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= obvious that the problem of around-the-clock, and then longer-range forecasting,
cannot be solved without taking the mentioned factors into account, routine col-
lection of information on which is possible only by remote methods.
- The active layer of the ocean is Che connecting link in the chain of processes de-
termining interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. It constitutes the
upper surface layer in which the physical parameters experience considerable sea-
sonal fluctuations. Within it there is a quasi-isothermic layer characterized by
a small vertical temperature gradient, the jump layer, in which the parameters of
the medium experience jumplike changes, and the seasonal thermocline, character-
ized by a considerable vertical temperature gradient.
The variability of the active layer leads to the formation of temperature anomal-
ies which as a result of the great thermal inertia of the ocean exert a consider-
able influence on the nature of atmospheric processes. In addition, the active
layer of the ocean, being an intermediate link in the redistribution of heat flows,
to a great extent also determines the nature of circulation of deep waters.
Quantitative estimates of macroscale interaction between the o cean and the atmo-
sphere, including the exchange of energy, momentum, heat and moisture, can also
be obtained by remote measurements of the radiation budget of the ocean surface,
sediments and evaporation, the statistical characteristics of the surface waves
and the wind regime in the near-water layer of the atmosphere.
The development of the enumerated fundamental problems in physics'of the ocean,
theo ry and methods for computing physical fields, and also a changeover to experi-
mental investigations of the ocean from space is making it possible to proceed to
solution of a number of applied and practical problems in the national economy.
The most important of these are:
routine short- and long-range weather forecasting;
ensuring the safety of navigation, choice of the optimum routes for ships;
establishing monitoring of ecology of the sea, in particular, in determining
the degree of contamination of the sea surface by petroleum p roducts;
determination of the dynamics of formations of the ice cover;
determination of regions of increased biological activity and prediction of
fish schools, etc.
The discussed problems can be solved in stages. The first stage is the mapping of
the diagnostic fields of physical parameters (temperature, waves, etc.), obtained
by remote methods. The further development of the theory and methods of observa-
tional data will make it possible to identify physical formations and proceed to
the compilation of maps of these formations, to wit:
currents, reflecting the intensity, axial position, meandering and related pro-
cesses of hydrodynamic instability, leading to the foYmation of rings and eddies,
as well as the interaction of eddy formations with currents;
frontal zones with an indication of their position, intensity, places of maximum
gradients;
zones of upwellings with an indication of the intens ity of transport of biogen-
ous elements;
thermal anomalies of the active layer of the ocean with an indication of their
position, size and intensity;
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contaminations of the sea surface by petroleum products with an indication of
the position, extent and quantity of petroleum product;
color of the water with an indication of biologicaZly productive regions;
ice fields with an indication of the positions and boundaries of fields, leads
and p.,lynias.
In this stage it is necessary to develop criteria and methods making it possible to
discriminate and classify physical phenomena in the oceano
The second, more complex stage is the development of prognostic models of physical
formations in the ocean, based on material obtained during a quite prolonged period
of abservations.
Initially such a prediction will be made at the scales of synoptic variability, and
thereafter at the scales of seasonal variability. In the future it is possible to
expect solution of the problem of long-range forecasting, for example, for a year
in advance. In this stage it is necessary to carry out a complex of organizational-
technical measures.
On the other hand, it is necessary to create a powerful computer base on the basis
of third-generation computers; a bank for the storage of data; mathematical support
for the processing oz information.
On the other hand, it is necessary to organize purposeful voyages of scientific-re-
search ships for study of the physical phenomena transpiring in the ocean, to cre-
:te control-calibration polygons making it possible to test methods for remote
sounding and identification of physical formations in the ocean; set out a complex
of "long-lived" buoys and neutral buoyancy buoys (drifters) for investigation, at
least, of the upper 200-m layer of the ocean; develop a permanently operating net-
work of self-contained buoy stations in the form of "clusters" consisting of one
or two base buoys operating in a regime of ineasurement and storage of information
- and se veral minibuoys oFerating in a regime of ineasurement and relaying of informa-
tion to base buoys.
All th is is making it possible to solve problems in the hydrodynamics of the ocean,
first w ithin the limits of the active layer and then in the deeper layers of the
ocean.
2. Info rmative Hydrophysical Parameters and Requirements on Their Determination
The experience accumulated at the present time in the interpretation of the images
= obtained from space in different ranges of electromagnetic waves is evidence of the
good prospects for use of satellite information for studying the world ocean [4,
151. After synthesizing this information with the measurement data obtained by
traditional (contact) methods from aboard scientific research ships or automatic
buoy s tation$, it is possible to proceed to study of the entire diversity of
thermodynamic and other processes transpiring in the ocean.
The level of development of technical equipment and observation methods reached at
the present time for work from spa ce in most cases is making it possible to ascer-
tain the qualitative characteristics of the parameters of state of the ocean of in-
terest to us. However, even iz the immediaie future the accura,~y of ineasurements
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will be substantially increased, which will make it possible to obtain their quan-
titative evaluations with the necessary information content level [?t].
' Now we will endeavor to formulate those minimum requirements which are imposed on
the accuracy of ineasurement of hydrophysical parameters car.ried out by remote
mephods. The accuracy in determining these parameters is dependent on the spe-
cifics of solution of definite oceanographic problems. Thus, first it is necessary
to formulate the problem and then on its basis formulate requirements on the ap-
paratus and measurement accuracy.
Requirements must be imposed on measurement accuracy, spatial resolution and breadth
of coverage of the investigated region of the ocean, time averaging and reading fre-
quency.
One of the most informative parameters of the sea medium is the temperature of the
ocean surface, which at the present time can be determined from the characteristic
radiation of the ocean in the IR and SHF ranges.
This parameter is decisive in solving such problems in oceanography as study of the
mesosc:ale variability of the ocean; discrimination of frontal zones and zones of
intensive currents; prediction of the structure of the active layer in the ocean
and interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere.
Taking these tasks into account, we wj.ll determine the requirements on measurement
of temperature and other informative parameters.
Mesoscale variability of the ocean. The temperature field of the ocean surface to
a considerable degree conforms to the nature of eddy movement in the main ocean
thermocline. The principal characteristics in the distribution of this parameter
are governed primarily by eddy advective currents disturbing the zonal distribu-
tion of temperature [13].
In contrast to the circulatory nature of eddy movement, in the main ocean thernno-
cline the mo del of distribution of temperature of the ocean surface is character-
ized by the intrusive character of displacement of the isotherms.
The characteristic scales of formations in the upper layer of the ocean are 40-400
km. The mean velocity of spatial movement is 5-8 km/day. The temperature differen-
tials at the mentioned distances are 0.2-2.0�C in the zones of influence of deep
mesoscale eddies anti up to 2-3�C in zones where there are intensive formations of
the Gulf Stream rings type.
The discrimination (identification) of synoptic eddy formations on the basis of
their appearance in the temperature field of the ocean surface makes it possible
to evaluate both the kinematic characteristics of eddy formations and the nature
~ of interaction between the upper boundary layer of the ocean and the layer of the
~ main oce3n thermocline. Recently there has been a sharp increase in interest in
investigations of variability of the ocean at scales of 15-50 km, which is asso-
ciated with the high energy characteristics of movements in these sectors. The
- temperature differentials are usually 0.2-1.0�C. Therefore, the accuracy in meas-
uring these differentials is 0.1-0.2�C with an instrument resolution at the sur-
face of 3-5 1m.
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Temperature anomalies are traced against the mean climatic Uackground as forma-
tions with characteristic spatial scales from hundreds to thousands of kilometers,
a characteristic lifetime from several to tens of months and a thickness (in
depth) of tens of ineters [20]. The extremal deviations of such formations from the
_ climatic norm are not more than 2-3�C, but as a result of the great thermal inertia
of the ocean in comparison with the atmosphere they exert a considerable influence
on the weather of the planet at global scales. Accordingly, remote sounding appar-
atus must have an adequate breadth of coverage of regions of the ocean and the
measurement frequency. It is best to obtain maps of surface temperature once or
twice a week. In this case the spatial resolution must be 30-50 km; the accuracy
in determining temperature is not less than 0.5�C.
Frontal zones and zones of intensive currents. At the present time the position of
the principal frontal zones of the world ocean and zones of intensive currents have
been determined quite well. Accordingly, the principal objective is study of the
variability of the axis of currents and fronts, meandering, etc. [19]. The prin-
cipal criterion for the recognition of "images" of ocean fronts and the boundaries
of intensive currents is the temperature differential at their boundaries, which
can attain 2-10�C. This makes possible its detection using apparatus operating in
the IR range. With such great temperature drops the acceptable accuracy in its de-
termination is 0.5-1.0�C. The spatial resolution must be 1-2 km.
We can add that information on the position of the boundaries of the frontal zones
carries data on water color, the nature of the cloud cover over the ocean, the
velocity and direction of currents, etc.
A determination of the velocity of currents is fundamentally possible using highly
precise altimeters (radioaltimeters), making it -dossible to obtain evaluations of
the large-scale level slopes of the ocean surface. However, the use of the dynamic
method for determining the velocity of currents, as a result of the exceptional
complexities of a methodological and technical character,remains problematical. For
example, with a current velocity of 10 cm/sec the level drop across the current
axis at a scale of 10 km is 10 cm. With an error to 20% the accuracy in determining
the difference in heights is t2 cm.
In this direction there are great possibilities for the use of drif.ting buoys
(drifters), whose position can be determined by means of satellite navigational
systems several rimes a day with an accuracy of about 1 km. This, in turn, will
,make it possible to estimate velocity with an accuracy to about 10% even for the
most intensive currents, which fully satisfies the requirements of oceanography.
Prediction of structure of the active layer of the ocean. This is a highly important
problem in oceanography because it is the principal intermediate link in processes
of interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. This prediction includes a
determination of temperature of the ocean surface, position of the lower boundary
of the homogeneous layer (layers), position (depth) of the density jump. The tem-
perature and depth of the homogeneous layer determine the intensity of the tempera-
ture anomalies (heat content) and lifetime and the position of the jump layer de-
termines the lower boundary of the zone of active photosyuthesis of the upper layer
of the ocean.
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At the present time there is a rather great number of theoretical models making it
possible to compute the mentioned parameters of the vertical structure of the ac-
tive layer of the ocean. The "input" parameters of such models are air temperature,
radiant energy flux, wind velocity, htunidity, pressure and cloud cover, which can
be measured by remote methods from artificial earth satellites> Computations on
ttie basis of these models make it possible to use the temperature of the ocean
surface, measured with an accuracy to 0.1�C, depth of the mixed layer and position
of the jump layer with an accuracy to 1�-2 m. Such an accuracy has not yet been
attained when making measurements by remote methods.
_ Wtien the necessary accuracy in measuring temperature of the ocean surface and other
informative hydrophysical parameters has been attained, their use in theoretical
models will make it possible to proceed to computation of the heat flows at the
- boundary of the jump layer and thus ascertain the receipts of heat in the main
ocean thermocline.
Un the basis o� what has bezn said above, the following accuracies in measuring
the temperature of the ocean surface, resolution at the surface and periodicity of
revision of information, making it possible to carry out a quite correct subse-
quent interpretation of the collected data, appear reasonablea
Air temperature, like the temperature of the ocean surface, is a highly important
informative parameter, making it possible to ascertain the rate of heat entry
into the ocean as a resule of contact heat exchange with the atmosphere. The com-
- puted value in the theoretical models is not the absolute temperature, but its
anomaly relative to some value. Accordingly, with an "air-water" temperature dif-
ference of about 10�C a 10% accurar_y in computing the contact heat exchange com-
- ponent can be attained with an accuracy in determining air temperature of N 1�C.
_ With a temperature difference of about 2-3�C the necessary accuracy is already 0.2�
C. tlowever, with such values of the "air-water" temperature difference the con-
tribution of contact heat exchange to the general heat balance (budget) at the
ocean surface becomes less than 10%. Accordingly, the accuracy in measuring air
temperature of N 1�C is entirely acceptable from the point of view of assimilating
this parameter in models of the active laver of the ocean.
In computations of the local structure of the active layer of the ocean the informa-
tive hydrophysical parameters are tlie wind velocity modulus, entering into the for-
mulas describing the heat balance (budget) at the ocean surface, the rate of re-
ceipt (generation) of the mechanical energy of mixing in the homogeneous layer and
the dissipation of inechanical energy in this layer. With a 10% accuracy in the com-
putation of these parameters an entirely acceptable accuracy in measuring the wind
velocity modulus in the velocity r.ange from 1 to 15 m/sec is N 1 m/sec (wA note
that the mean minimum wind velocity over the ocean is 4-5 m/sec). In the case of
wind velocities exceeding 15 m/sec the necessary accuracy can be reduced to 3-4 m/
sec because the ambiguity in the choice of the empirical coefficients becomes im-
portant.
_ The scatterometry methods developed during recent years, based on determination of
the backscattering diagrams for radio waves in the SHF range, make it possible to
, determine this parameter from the orbits of artificial earth satellites with an
acceptable accuracy.
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Pr.essure in the surface (near-water) layer is not of great importance in the for-
mulas for computing the heat balance (Uudget) conponents. For exampl.e, in rhe
ranges of pressure change 820-1080 mbar an error in determining pressure of
�1 mbar introduces an approximately 1% error in determining the corresponding
heat balance. At the same time, a 10% accuracy in determining relative humiriity
is completely acceptable for computing the heat balance components for the ocean
surface. Atmospheric pressure in the near-water layer can be estimated using the
wind field.
The extent of cloud cover at the upper and lower levels, expressed in the number of
octants of the sky covered with clouds, also serves as a computation value. At the
present ttme cloud cover is estimated visually and the accuracy in determining this
parameter is �0.1 with a range of changes in this value 1-10. The information ob-
tained by remote sounding apparatus in the visible, IR and SHF ranges makes it pos-
= sible to obtain data on both cloud cover and air humidity.
The air humidity value for the near-water layer of the ocean enters into the com-
putation formulas for the expenditures of heat on evaporation and the quantity of
outgoing long-wave radiation. Taking into account that in the temperature range
0-30�C the pressure of saturated vapor varies in the range 2-50 mbar and adhering
to a 10% accuracy in computing relative humidity, we find that wi.-ti a mean rela-
tive humidity level of SO% the necessary accuracy in its determination is fl mbar.
T~wo types of radiant energy flux participate in computations of the heat balance
(budget) at the ocean surface: flux of incident short-wave radiation (direct plus
the diffuse component) and the flux of reflected long-wave radiation.
[dithout going into the details involved in the specific choice of the empirical
coefficients entering into the cited formulas, we will discuss the accuracy of the
parameters necessary for computing these radiation fluxes. In determining the in-
cident Ph:,rt-wave radiation absurbed by the upper layer extensive use is :nade of
a method making it possible to tabulate the values of the radiant energy fluxes.
- In ttiis method the principal parameter is the flux of radiant energy at the upper
boundary of the earth's atmosphere Qp. The Qo values tabulated for each of the saa-
sons, latitude and longitude of the place of observations are available in the cor-
responding climatic atlases.
The direct measuremer.t of the flux of radiant energy Qo from an artificial earth
satellite makes it possible to proceed to its use as one af the informative para-
meters of existing theoretical models and those which can be developed. Assuming
~ the range of changes of the Qo value to be
{100-1000) cal/(cm2�day)
and assuming a 10% accuracy in measurements of the flux, it can be assumed that the
error in determining Qp, equal to t50 cal/(cm2�day) in the lower latitudes, is en-
tirely acceptable.
3. Influence of the "Skin Layer" on the Development of Methods for Remote Sounding
of the Ocean
The central link in the system for interaction between the atmosphere and ocean is
the surface homogeneous layer of the ocean. The temperature field in this layer is
formed under the influence of different dynamic and thermal factors: wind over the
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occan, short- and long-wave radiation, precipitation, waVes, etc. In addition,
as demonstrated in investigations of the synoptic vari-ahility of *he ocean, the
temperature field of Che homogeneous layer to a considerahle degree is subject to
ttie influence of deep synoptic eddies forming mesoscale structures with horizontal
scales from tens to hundreds of kilometers.
At tlie present time the problem of dPCermining the temperature of the ocean sur-
face can be solved most effective?y by means of IR radiometric measurements made
wieh artificial earth satellites. However, in general, the temperature measured
In such dway cannot be Idp*?rified with the temperature of the homogeneous layer,
Thi5 is atLributable to the fact that at the ocean surface there is almost always _
aso-called cold skin layer with a thickness of several millimeters, within which
the thermodynamic properties of the medium change sharply.
Laboratory and field experiments for investigating the thermal structure of this
layer have shown that a temperature drop of 0.4-2.0�C can be concentrated in tiii!
limits of 1 mm and a cold film is preserved when there is a wind up to 10 m%sec,
that is, even under conditions of well-developed waves. With the collapse of
waves small-scale turbulence is generated and the cold "skin layer" disappears.
In addition, turbulent eddies can penetrate into it from the homogeneoss layex�
and even out the temperature profile, which also leads to destruction of the "skin
layer."
Despite the many factors responsible for the destruction of the "skir,. layer," its
restoration occurs rather rapidly. According to the authors of [7], the restora-
tion time is approximately 12 sec.
tt can therefore be assumed that the existeuce of a cold film is a universal pheno-
menon and on the average is stable with time.
IR radiometers measure the radiation temperatc:re of an extremely thin water film, -
but the temperature of the underlying homogeneous layer is of practical interest
for researchers. Accordingly, the problem of the legitimacy of identification of
teiaperatures of the quasihomogeneous layer and the surface film or the methods for
correcting the measured brightness temperature is of great importance. As long as
we have not established the true temperature distribution in tY:e "skin layer," and
also the patterns of horizontal distribution of its characteristics, inaccuracy ir.
~ determining the homogeneous layer will considerably reduce the informa*.ion yield
of the collected data. This decrease in the iTiformation yield involves the follow-
ing. First, since the characteristic time for carrying out an IR survey from a
satellite is comparable to the characteristic lifetime of the "skin layer," uncer-
tainCy in determining the temperature of the homogeneous layer can atr_ain the
level of the temperature drop in the "skin layer." 5econd, the temperature in the
"skin layer" exerts an important influence on the energy characteristics of pro-
cesses of interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. As a result of the
small thickness its direct role in the energy budget of the upper layer of the ocean is insignificant. For example, the "skin layer" in a certain sense is op-
tically transparent for the incident solar radiation. Other components of the heat
balance, such as the heat expenditures on evaporation, contact heat exchange, out-
going long-wave radiation and the "skin layer" can change by 10-15%. Therefore, it
is necessary to investigate the simultaneous influence of processes transpiring in
rhe aL-mosphere and in the homogeneous layer on the dynatnics of the cold surface
film. '
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The purpose of these investigations is determination of the mechanisms of local
formation and destruction of the "skin layer"; determination of the characteris-
tic horizontal scales and the "lifetime" of this layer, as well as the limits of
the meteorological parameters within which it exists; influence of tlie cliaracter
and degree -~f fluctuation of individual meteorological parameters and the charac-
, teristics of the homogeneous layer on the structure of the "skin layer."
lhe solution of the enumerated problems will make it possible to relate the tem-
~ perature of the ocean surface to the temperature of the homogeneous layer and
proceed to formulation of a hydrodynamic model of the upper homogeneous layer of
the ocean with inclusion of the cold "skin layer" in the picture with use of such
, a mode'.. Due to satellite IR photographs it will be possible to make a thorough
study of the processes transpiring in the homogeneous layer, and this, in turn,
will make it possible to form some idea concerning the processes transpiring in
the deep layers of the ocean.
4. Atmospheric Transfer Function and Allowance for its Influence
~ An investigation of the characteristics of the ocean surface by passive methods
in the visible, IR and SHF ranges involves measurements of reflectEd solar radia-
tion and the characteristic radiation of tho ocean. Since the solar radiation and
characteristic radiation are transformed during passage through the atmosphere, in
solutions of the problems of remote sounding of the ocean it is necessary to take
the atmospheric transfer function into account.
The atmospheric transfer function is determined as the ratlo of the intensity of
radiation 1y with the frequency y at the upper boundary of the atmosphere to
the intensity of radiation at this same frequency I v at the level of the underly-
ing surface [7].
This function, introduced in [6] for determining the temperature of the underlying
surface from measurements of radiation from satellites, is determined by the ver-
tical temperature and humidity profiles, on which is dependent the intensity of
radiation in the particular frequency band, as well as the nature of 3erosol at-
tenuation of radiation in the atmosphere.
In order to determine the temperature of the underlying surface the measurements
are made in the IR range in the transparency window 10-12f1,m and in the centimeter
range at wavelengths 3 and 8 cm.
In the IR range, when measuring ocean radiation Spv N 1, the surface emissivity in
the frequency range QU and the transfer function P(Av) are highly dependent on the
profiles of temperature, humidity and aerosol attenuation.
In the radio range Ppy is virtually not dependent on the profiles of atmospheric
temperature and humidity, whereas the SaN value has a strong dependence on the
height of waves on the sea surface. One of the principal merits of the microwave
range is that the noise created by the atmosphere in remote sounding of the ocean
is relatively small, even in the presence of a cloud cover. This circumstance is
attracting much attention to the development and use of all-weather methods for
microwave remote sounding.
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Tlie physical principles for the propagation of radiothermal radiation in the atmo-
sphere have been well studied. Their detailed exposition and corresponding cita-
eions can be found, for example, in [1, 10, 12, 16, 22, 231.
lJater vapor and oxygen are the principal absorbing components in the cloudless at-
im,sphere. Oxygen has a system of absorption lines near a wavelength of 0o5 cm and
ail isolated line r.ear 0.25 cm; water vapor has absorption lines at 1.348 and 0.164
cm. Variations of radiobrightness temperature of the atmosphere-ocean system, as-
sociated with these factors, can be caused by changes in humidity, temperature and
atmospheric pressure. In the region of wavelengths greater than 3-4 cm they are
negligiUle. Wavelengths shorter than 0.6-0.8 cm are unsuitable for passive micro-
wave sounding of the ocean. Variations in the radiobrightness temperature, caused
by tYie cloud cover, are most significant at wavelengths less than 1 cm, but even at
greater wavelengths they are significant and must be taken into account when en-
deavoring to obtain reliable information on the ocean surface at wavelengths 8-10
cm.
'laking into account the considerations presented above, wavelengths of the SHF radio-
inetric apparatus are selected w}iich together with the IR apparatus makes it pos-
sible to determine the atmospheric temperature and humidity profile, as well as
t}ie parameters of the underlying surface.
The dependence of the radiothermal radiation of the ocean on the principal para-
meters of its surface state and temperature is manifested in virtually the
entire microwave range. In the region of short wavelengths the influence of such
effects as foaminess is comparable in magnitude with the influence of the cloud
cover. It must also be remembered that the temperature of the sea surface is the
least important of the enumerated factors, but it is necessary to have high accuracy
oE its determination. It is clear from this that the problem of interpretation
of the results of passive micrawave sounding must be solved jointly with simultan-
eous allowance for all the determining parameters, including atmospheric parameters.
But in a complete formulation of the problem of remote sounding of the atmosphere-
ocea.n system the number of atmospheric parameters is too great. If the problem in-
volves only the ocean surface, it is sufficient only to take into account the ef-
fect of variability of the parameters, without iinding the precise values of the
parameters themselves.
The variability of the three principal parameters of the cloud layer altitude,
thickness and liquid-water content leads to variations in the radiobrightness
temperature indistinguishable in the spectrum. Accordingly, in order to take cloud
cover into account in remote sounding of the ocean it is sufficient to have one
general parameter.
Similarly, in order to take into account changes in atmospheric humidity it is also
adequate to have a single parameter the total quantity of precipitable water
(provided a special set of close wavelengths in the neighborhood of resonance 1.35
cm is not used). Moreover, if it is proposed t:1at the basic information o.. `he
ocean be obtained in channels with sufficiently great wavelengths (more than 2-3
cm), for a formal allowance for variations of the radiobrightness temperature at
these wavelengths, caused by any changes in the state of the atmosphere, it is
sufficient to use one generalized parameter and auxiliary measurements at the one
wavelength of about 0.8-1.0 cm. It also follows from the results of the studies
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that these variations can be taken into account by additive corrections linearly
dependent on the mentioned formal parameter. With a more detailed allowance for
the influence of the atmosphere such corrections can be used for a separate ex-
pressian of the dependence of radiobrightness temperature on cloud cover and
water vapor.
Such an approach is a linear approximation of the functionals expressing the de-
pendence of the measured parameters on the distributed parameters of the medium
through some formal coefficients obtained by numerical computations. For example,
Che dependence of the radiobrightness temperature on ocean parameters changes
somewhat in the short-wave part with variations of atmospheric parameters, but
these changes are small and can be corrected after a preliminary evaluation of
the state of the atmosphere.
For a further increase in the reliability of multisided use of the microwave range
it is necessary to carry out investigations of the dependence cf the emissivities
of the real sea surface on the radiation wavelength, angle of observation, polar-
ization, etc. An important problem which is still far from solution is the devel-
opment of a method for the interpretation of microwave measurements for the pur-
pose of determining the parameters of the ocean surface in zones with allowance
for possible precipitation.
Thus, allowance for the influence of the atmosphere in remote sounding of the ocean
is assuming special importance, since it is a poorly reflecting surface and even
under conditions of atmospheric transparency outgoing reflected radiation is de-
termined for the most part by the atmosphere.
5. Investigatiotis in the Visible Spectral Range
One of the most informative remote sources of information concerning the world
ocean is measurements in the visible spectral range. This is attributable to the
fact that in this range the transparency of the cloudless atmosphere attains max-
imum values and the absorption of light by ocean water is minimum. The solar radi-
ation maximum is in this same range.
Among the shortcomings of ineasurements in the visible range it is possible to in-
clude a considerable dependence of the results of ineasurements on time of day and
atmospheric conditions. Observations are impossible when there is a continuous
cloud cover.
The most informative characteristic in the visible range is the spectral composi-
tion of the ascending light flux. In open parts of the ocean it carries informa-
tion on the hydrooptical characteristics of ocean wa.ters. This makes it possible
to discriminate different water masses, determine their limits, detect eddies,
zones of upweliing of water and other dynamic formations, and also biological pro-
ductivity. In the coastal regions, on the basis of water color, it is easy to dis-
tinguish waters of continental runoff, their distribution and interaction with the
waters of the open sea. Since an analysis of the spectral structure of the ascend-
ing flux makes it possiblQ to detect the most important characteristics of the
surface layers of the ocean, we will examine in greater detail the process of form-
ation of the spectrum of radiation ascending over the ocean. _
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The sun's rays, passing through the atmosphere, are attenuated due to the absorp-
tion and scattering of molecules of gases and vapors and particles of aerosols
constantly present in it.
The light reaching the ocean surface consists of a directed component direct
solar rays and a diffuse component solar radiation scattered by the atmo-
sphere. The light incident on the water surface is partially reflected from the
air-water discontinuity, but a large part of it penetrates into the water layer.
The intensity of the reflected light flux is dependent on the illumination con-
ditions, direction of observation and state of the sea surface. Direct solar rays,
mirror reflected from the water surface, form flashes whose brightness is exceed-
ingly great. Outside the flash zone the brightness of the surface is determined
by the reflection of skylight, that is, the light scattered by the atmosphere and
by cluuds, and also by the light scattered in sea water. The reflection of light
is virtually nonselective in its spectrum and is dependent only on the distribution
of sky brightness, primarily on the altitude and direction of observation. In observ-
ations close to the nadir it is approximately 2% of the sky brightness at the zen-
ith.
In the scattering of light on large particles of suspension the scattering index
can be assumed to be not dependent on wavelength. If the absorption of light by
particles is also neglected, as is done in actual practice if the particles are
of mineral origin, with an increase in the concentration of the terrigenous sus-
pension we obtain an increase in the general level of intensity of the light as-
cending from the water with a virtually constant nature of the spectral distribu-
tion.
The presence of absorbing impurities in the water gives a completely different
picture. The absorption spectrum of "yellow matter" increases exponentially with
a decrease in wavelengtho As a result, under the influence of "yellow matter"
the spectral energy of the light emanating from the water is considerably reduced
in the short-wave part, whereas in the long-wave part (with wavelengths greater
than 530 nm) there are virtually no changes. A similar picture is also observed
when the water contains absorbed particles, the most imporCant of which are cells
of phytoplankton, containing chlorophyll pigments, etc., the absorptian of which
increases in the regions 420-460 and 660-680 nm.
In tlie open parts of the ocean ttie hydrooptical characteristics are dependent for
tlie most part on biological productivity: the greater the content of biogens, the
greater is the attenuation of light in the short-wave part of the spectrum, that is,
the color of the sea is greener.
In observations from a satellite distortions are introduced into the spectrum by
atmospheric haze. Its influence is particularly great in the short-wave part of
Che spectrum, which requires the introduction of corrections.
Investigations of recent years have shown that the study of the cloud cover and its
spa.tial structure is useful in solving such oceanological problems as determination
of the rational regime of the ocean, recognition of the position of oceanological
fronts, discrimination of storm zones, etc. For such investigations it is neces-
sary to take into account different characteristics of the cloud cover: type of
clouds, their form, levels at which they occur and texture. These characteristics
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can be determined from the images of clouds in different parts of the spectrum.
For example, over relatively warm water masses with increased evaporation of mois-
ture there is formation of a loca continuous stratocumulus cloud cover, whereas over
the colder waters the cloud cover is thin or entirely absent. Over the lines of such
water masses the cloud cover has a sharp boundary which can serve as an indicator of
an oceanological rront. A cellular structure of the clouds is characteristic for re-
gions with ordered convection over the warm surface of the ocean. A spiral-l.ike
cloud cover is usually formed in zones of generation of storms, whose evolution can
be traced from the temporal changes in the spatial structure of the cloud cover and
its texture.
The methods for study of oceanological phenomena on the basis of cloud cover charac-
teristics have a numb er of limitations. The formation of the cloud cover occurs with
:i definite inertia and the local winds existing in the region of observations dis-
place the cloud formations in unpredictable directions. Active cyclonic activity
also masks the differences in water masses. However, with stable states of the
meteorological fields in regions where oceanological processes transpire conditions
are created for the formation of cloud structures which are caused by these process-
es and in the practice of oceanological investigations this makes it possible to use
the cloud indicators method.
The mapping and study of sea ice is possible in the entire visible spectral range.
The weak dependence of the radiation reflected by these features on wavelength
makes it possible to use in their investigation technical apparatus which has a
low spectral resol.ution, although allowance for the spectral differences of these
natural formations makes it possible to analyze their structure.
In satellite optical observations the radiation picked up by the instruments is dis-
torted to a considerable degree by the influence of the atmosphere, which is dif-
ficult to monitor. Accordingly, it is important to carry out, especially in the in-
itial stages of development of satellite oceanography, synchronous contact and re-
mote "subsatellite" measurements of different characteristics of ocean waters.
6. Use of Radar Systems in Oceanographic Investigations
The basis for the development of inethods of active space radiooceanography is the
advances in radiophysics in the field of study of the patterns of scattering of
radio waves in different ranges by the wave-covered sea surface.
The physical nature of the scattering of radio waves by the wave-covered sea surface
has now been established. A study has been made of its principal regularities and
this has made it possible to develop methods for determining the principal parameters
of sea waves and wind in the near.-water layer of the atmosphere using radar appar-
atus operating in different range3 of radio waves at both small (4f< 10�) and large
(y> 85-90�) glancing angles [2, 3, 9, 14, 18].
The specifics of operation of apparatus in space and the peculiarities of radio wave
propagation in the earth's atmosphere impose considerable restrictions on the pos-
sibilities of using different methods for radar determination of the parameters of
sea waves. For example, radar systems operating in the meter and decameter ranges
of radio waves, which have recomnended themselves well in "surface" radioocean-
ography, have proven to be unacceptable [14].
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Therefore, in space radiooceanography for the most part use is made of radar sys-
tems operating in the centimeter range (1-10 GHz), radar altimeters,..scattero-
meters (devices for measuring the strength of the scattered signal) and side-scan
radar.systems. �
Radar altimeters make it possible to make highly accurate measurements of the
distance between space vehicles and the level of the calm ocean surface and also
to estimate the degree of roughness of the scattering surface (height of sea
waves).
An optimum design of a radioaltimeter and the optimum processing of the radar sig-
nal make it possible to bring the potential accuracy of ineasuring flight altitude
to 8 alt;Z~10-15 cm.
The solution of a wide range of problems in study of the topography and dynamics
of the ocean surface is becoming possible. However, it is not possible to realize
fully the high potentialities of altimetry methods due to the complexity in taking
into account the nutations of the spacecraf t orbit and the related errors in de-
termining absolute altitudes and detemiuation of the reading level in the re-
flected signal in the case of a wave-excited ocean surface.
Accordingly, at the present time only in the coastal regions can there be a quan-
, titative solution of the problem of determining the dynamics of the ocean surface
~ by means of a"tie-in" of the results of ineasurements to shoreline features or
by means of a precise determination of the orbital elements of the space vehicle;
in the open regions of the ocean it is possible to give oniy a qualitative evalu-
ation of this phenomenon.
Satellite-borne instrumentation for measuring scattering (scatterometers) measures
the scatterin g diagrams in the range of angles of incidence determined by the el-
ectric potential of the system. This makes it possible to obtain evaluations of
characteristics of the wind field in the near-water layer of the atmosphere.
The physical basis for operation of scatterometer systems is the dependence of the
parameters of the scattered signal on the characteristics of the scattering sur-
face.
As is well known, the scattering of radio waves at small incidence angles (0-5�)
conforms to the laws of physical optics and the decisive role in shaping of the
scattered signal is played by the dispersion and correlation function of the
angles of slope of the sea surface, sensitive to wind velocity W.
Scattering at angles of incidence greater than 5-10� is selective; the intensity of
the scattered signai is determined by the spectral density of the corresponding
wavelengths. In the SHF range the scatterers are ripple waves.
As a rule, satellite scatterometers must have a high resolution in angular coordin-
ates (, 0, S> 0 and b> 0.
Before moving on to the dFSign of an eff.icient spaceborne system, we shall
find the answer to the following question: how can one replace a particular
spaceborne equipment comple.x wi(h r- Rand t- 'I' by two complexes, which
perf orm the same mission volume and have a minimum overall cost? 'Phis is
shown graphically in Figure l, wtiere the complex F is replaced by a pair of
camplexes G and H. The solution of the problem reduces to a determination
- of the parameters r= p and t= T, and car, be formulated in the form of the
following problem of finding the conditional extremum:
~ p-T.r-a=-A,
hN-" i-p+bp-�`T-P=min.
By employing the method of Lagrange factors, we obtain the following condition
f or the optimal breakdown of the spaceborne equipment complex into a pair of
internal ones:
(3) i~ ^f PP�T�=8ui�Ra. (
. Tt is obvious that the substitution af the pair G and H for F should be made only
when this leads to a reduction in exyenditures.If the spacebourne equipment
complex F is positioned close to the envelope 1, then such a substitution is
- not advantageous, since it will cause almost a doubling of the expenditures.
In step with the increasing distance of F fram 1, the amcunt the expenditures
for the internal pair of equipment complexes exceeds the cost of the internal
one gradually falls off,and at some point,becomes equal to zero, and then moves
over into the region of negative values, We shall find the geornetric locus of
the points r= R and t= T, for which the substitution does not change the
- expenditures, i.e.:
C(F)=min {C(G)+C(H)}.
Taking (1) ,(2) and (3) into account, the following conditions should be met
in this case:
p_TT_8=~
i
bR-aT'd+bp'"T-B=bR-aT-P,
Pp0'T�=8az�Ra.
By transforming this system of equations to exclude the variable p and t, we
- o'tstain:
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(4)
R-rT-D= i1A,
where ('Y Tia+a/o
V - ~~'Sa)
QWia (6a) eie '
(5)
Line II in Figure 1 corresponds to the derived equation (4). Any spaceborne
equipment complex, the vertex of the angle of which in the graph is located to -
the left of line 2 can be replaced without loss to carry out the observation
missions by a less expensive pair of complexes which meet condition (3). Such
a substitution yields a negative result to the right of line 2. We will note
that the f orm of equation (4) is similar to the equation of the envelope of
tasks (1). Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that to assure minimum expendi-
tures, it is necessary to chose the terrain resolution and survey periodicity
of the spaceborne equipment complexes so that they fall in the region between ~
lines I and II. This makes it possible to design-ate line II as the envelope to
the left of efficient spaceborne observation complexes.
We shall next find the line which is the geanetric locus of the spaceborne
equipment camplexes, each pair of the ad3acent ones of which satisfy optimality ~
condition (3). In Figure 2, this line is designated with the Raman nuneral III,
while the straight lines I and II have the same meaning as in Figure 1. The '
points of intersection of the sides of the angles alongside the arranged complexes '
are located on envelope I. We shall seek the equation for line III in a form
similar to I and II, i.e.: '
i
T-Tt-�=BA, (6)
where B is a new constant.
If line III exists, then the following should be observed simultaneously
(Figure 2):
_ --The condition that the spaceborne camplexes belong with line III:
R t_'T, _ � =RZ-,T-6 =BA,
--The condition that the sides of the angles of adjacent complexes on line I '
intersect:
lq2-TT,-~-,q,
--The optimality condition (3) :
^(~R=aTs�=BacR,aT,".
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We shall determine the quantity B from this system of equations:
ve
B = (Ywa)va-oQ .
The values of B exist and are continuous for any positive parameters Y,
S, d and a, with the exception of the singular point:
- ~~/Sa=1.
However, in this case Coo, one can restore the continuity of the values of
B by as stuning :
ve
B = lim (Y~/8a)v~-��.
vHibc--i
By computing the li.mit here using L'Hospital's rule, we find that in this
case:
B=exp (1/a) =exp
(7)
By comparing the values of the constants B and V, specified by equalities
(5) and (7) respectively, one can establish the fact that for positive
parameters Y, S, R and a, it is always the case that
V > B (8)
- It follows fram this that ]..ine III passes between I and II, and therefore,
none of the spaceborne equipment complexes belonging to it can be replaced
by a pair of less expensi-te (total) internal ones. Moreover, it is not
difficult to see that the breakdown of each of its complexes into any number
of internal ones increases the total expenditures even more. We shall further
check the expediency of the opposite operation: the combining of adjacent
c anplexes lying on the line III. We find the equation of a line IV, to which
the vertices of the spaceborne complexes obtained by means of such combining
belong (Figure 2). For a point with coordinates of r= R and t= T which
belongs to line IV, the following equalities should be observed:
~ [;,-:Tt-a-R2-,T:-�=BA,
NZ-'T,-0=.4.
It can be found from this that:
R!-TT2 �=B'A,
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aad consequently, line IV is speci::ied by the equation:
r''t-O=BZA.
Qne can establish the fact that it is always the case that
B2>V
and therefore, line IV is located to the left of line II. It follows from this
that the cambining of adjar.ent complexes for line III likewise leads to a rise
in the expenditures, and is thus inexpedient.
- Simple relationships which can be derived from equation (6) exist between the
major parameters r and t of adjacent spaceborne equipment complexes belonging
to line III (Figure 2). Since in this case:
( R,-TT,-B=R,-TTy-6= BA
~ Rz-T T , -6=A,
Then
Rx/R,=B"T, (9)
Tz1T, =B-'io,
or, taking (7) into account,
8
/f 2lHi = (Yp%6a)70-ea
Y (91)
Tz/Ti = (YR/ba)aa-vO
It can be shown that the adjacenL subsystemti on l:ine III not only satisfy
condition (III), but for them, a stronger ..;sertion is also justified: the total
expenditures for a set of n= 2, 3, 4, alongside the arranged spaceborne -
equipment complexes are lower than for any other set of complexes which perform
_ the same observation missions. To check this fact, we shall first derive a
condition similar to (3) for the case of a breakdown into n camplexes. Here,
the following relationships should be observed:
~ b1?,-�T,-0+bR2-�T,-0+... +bR�-aT�-�=min,
R2-TTt-6_R,-7T2-0= . . . -R�-,Tn ~,=A.
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rvn vrrMIAL uI~G ViVLY
By employing the Lagrange method, we obtain (n - 1) equations:
a a ~ 10~
1(~Rr+,T++,=a6RjaT,a, i=1, 2, . . . , n-1.
By substituting the values of Ri+l/Ri and Ti/Ti+l from (91) in (10), we
convince ourselves of the justification of the assertion made above.
Thus, the aggregate of spaceborne equipment complexes located on line III
possesses a series of optimum properties from the viewpoint of economy of the
observation process. This makes it possible to draw the following conclusions.
1. If the set of observation missions, represented in a two-dimensional system
of coordinates (terrain resolution vs. survey periodicity) can be bounded on
the left by an envelope having equation (1), while the cost function for the
satellite system has the form of (2), then for a complete solution of these
- problems, it is efficient to utilize the set of spaceborne complexes which
provide for the survey periodicity resolution which satisfy equation (6).
2. The ratios of the values of the spatial resolutions and survey periodicities
of adjacent complexes are the same for any such pairs from the efficient set.
They are determined from formulas (9) or (91).
3. The replacement of either several adjacent complexes by one which per�orms
the same mission volume, or vice versa, the replacement of any of the efficient
sets by a set equivalent to it in terms of the mission to be performed can lead
only to an increase in the expenditures, and is therefore not expedient.
- For example, to perform a set of tasks, for which condition (1) has the form:
r 2 t = 400 [m2 � day],
the cost function (2) is
C = 3,500/r1/2t1/3
while the terrain resolution r and the survey periodicity t change within
a range of from 2m up to several kilometers and from 0.1 days up to several
years respectively, the efficient space system should consist of the following
three complexes: R1 = 2m, T1 = 100 days; R2 = llm, T2 = 3 days; R3 = 60m
and T3 = 0.1 days. In this case, the relationship between the parameters of
the complexes considered here is as follows:
R2/R1 = R3 /R2 = 5.5; T1/T2 =T2/T3 = 30.
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In the case where equation (1) asswnes the form:
r 2 t = 10,000 [m2 � day],
while the ultimate requirements placed on the resolution r and the periodicity
t are taken equal to 6m and 0.25 days respectively, then to maintain the pre-
- ceding cost function, the composition of a system of efficient canplexes will be
as follows: R1 = 6m, T1 = 250 days; R2 = 35m, T2 = 8 days; R3 = 200m and
T3 = 0.25 days.
BIBLIOGRAPAY
1. Uspenskiy, G.R., "Trebovaniya k kosmicheskim sredstvam dlya issledovaniya
prirodnykh resursov Zemli i vozmozhnyye tipy ISZ" ["The Requirements Placed on
Spaceborne Equipment for the Study of the Earth's Natural Resources and Possible � -
Types of Satellites"], in the collection, "Kosmicheskiye issledovaniya zemnykh
resursov" ["Space Studies of Earth Resources"], Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1976,
pp 303-310,
COrYRIGHT: Izdatel's tvo "Nauka", "Issladovaniye Zemli iz kosmosa", 1980.
[26-8225]
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SPACE POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION
SPACE AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROBLEMS
Moscow KOSMOS I MEZHDUNARODNYYE ORGANIZATSII: MEZHDUNARODNO-PRAVOVYYE PROBLEMY
in Russian 1980 signed to press 17 Mar 80 pp 2-7, 166-167
[Annotation, introduction and table of contents from book by Ye. P. Kamenetskaya,
Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1950 copies, 168 pages]
[Text] A study is made of a broad class of urgent problems of cooperation in the
exploitation of space within the framework of international organiaations.
The author analyzes the theoret3cal problems arising in this field,she evaluates
the activity of the space organizations, and she develops specific proposals with
respect to further improvement of this form of international cooperation.
Introduction
The third decade of the space age of man began on 4 October 1977.1 During this
short historical period cosmonautics has gone from the first artificial satellite,
the first interplanetary automatic station and the first cosmonaut to flights by
man to.the moon,the lunokhods [Soviet unmanned lunar vehicles] and the long-
range orbital stations with replacement of crews.
The Soviet Union opened up the road to space for mankind. The great progress of
the USSR in the mastery of outer space "has become the symbol of creative efforts
of victorious communism, the pride of all mankind."2
A great deal of attention has been given to the development of cosmonautics in
the Soviet Union. The mastery of outer space became possible as a result of
1The reckoning of the space age from the 4th of October 1957 the day the Soviet
~ Union launched the first artificial earth satellite in the world was approved
by resolution of the Congress of the International Astronautics Federation in
-September 1967 (KOSMONAVTIKA: MALEN'KAYA ENTSIKLOPEDIYA [Cosmonautics: Small
Encyclopedia], 2d edition, Moscaw, Sovetskaya entsiklopediya, 1970, p 210).
222d Congress of the Soviet Union: Stenographic Report. Moscow, Gospolitizdat,
Vol 3, 1962, p 238. 58
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achievements of our science and engineering which "�ound its concentrated
expression in the study of outer space."1 In the "$asic Areas of Development of
the National Econoiny of the USSR 1976-1980,".de fined by the 25th Congress o� the
CP5U, a broad space research program has been planned which provides not only for
the study of the universe, but alao the use of space and the achievemeits of space
science and engineering for the solution of many national economic problems.2
Emphasizing the significance of the Soviet space program, Comrade L. I. Brezhnev
emphasi2ed that "expanding our activity with respect to the study of outer space,
~ we not only are laying down the foundation for future gigantic gains by mankind,
the fruits of which will be used by succeeding generations, but also we are
deriving practical benefit today for the population of the earth, for our people,
for the business of our b uilding of communism."3
The mastery of outer space began under the symbol of international cooperation.
The fact that the launching of the first artificial earth satellite was by the
Soviet Union during and within the framework of the International Geophysical
Year an important event in the history of the cooperation of governments which
was participated in by 67 countries is profoundly symbolic. Today the progress
in the field of international cooperation in the study and use of outer space has
become the symbol of overall political detente, its materialization and graphic
results for millions of people on the earth.
The cooperation of governments in the mastery of outer space is closely connected
with the development of international agreements which will define the conditions
of outer space, the goals of space activity and the principles of the development
of international cooperation itself.
The Soviet Union was an initiator of the conclusion of international agreements
and the arrangement of broad cooperation in the study and use of outer space
for peaceful purposes.4
Since the first days of the space age the USSR has constantly promoted the investi-
gation and use of space explicitly in the interests of peace and security of
people. The Soviet Union considers the peaceful exploitation of space as the
basic principle of its space activity. The consistent and pers"Lstent struggle
of the USSR for peace in space serves as a logicai continuation and one of the
areas of the struggle of the Soviet Union for peace on earth. As was noted at
the 25th Congress of our party, the Soviet Union cannot ignore the solution of
such important and urgent problems as the mastery of space which touches on the
150th Anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution: Topics of the
Central Committee of the CPSU, Moscaw, Politizdat, 1967, p 45.
2Materials of the 25th Congress of the CPSU, Moscow, Politizdat, 1976, p 215.
3L. I. Brezhnev, LENTNSKIM KURSOM: RECHI I STAT'I [Lenin Course: Speeches and
Articles], Moscow, Politizdat, Vol 2, 1970, p 352.
4See the proposal of the Soviet Government on the problem of prohibiting the use
of space for military purposes, elimination of foreign military bases in foreign
territories and international cooperation in the field of studying outer space,
15 March 1958 (PRAVDA, 1958, 16 March).
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interests af all mankind and will have more and more active influence on the
life of all people and the entire system of international relations.l
The sctive role of Soviet diplomacy in the growth and deveZopment of the legal
principles o� studying outer space is a characteristic feature of international
space law. The basic space agreements were developed and signed by the initiative
of the Soviet Union, including the agreement on the principles of the activity of
governments in the study and use af outer space, including the moon and other
heavenly bodies.2
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet Government consider the
international cooperation in the study of outer space as one of the manifestations
of a policy of peaceful coexistence, one of the important conditions of inter-
national detente and insurance of the exploitation of space for peaceful purposes
for the good of and the interests of all countries and people.
Initially the interna*ional cooperation in the exploitation of outer space was
, realized on a bi.~ateral basis, and it was primarily limited to joint optical
observations of satellites and the exchange of scientific information. Later,
as the problems of the investigation and use of space became more and more compli-
cated and a larger and larger number of countries became involved in the sphere
of ini:ernational cooperation, along with the two-way ccoperation the countries
began to make wider and wider use of the methods of multilateral coordination and
cooperation. Today the united efforts of many countries have creat'ed spacecraft
and booster rockets, scientific research has been performed, and international
manned flights have been made. The national space programs of the countries
are inevitably and naturally supplemented by broad-scale joint research.3 At the
present time dozens of countries are participating in one form or another in the
international cooperation in the mastery of outer space.
However, the progress in this area could be more significant. International
cooperation must be based on trust and mutual understanding among peoples, and
the effort of some political circles of the western countries to convert space
to an arena of military competition is tiaving a harmful effect on the expansion
of international cooperation in the s�tudy and use of outer space for peaceful
purposes.
Internatior,al cooperation is an important factor of the successful mastery of
outer space. Combining the efforts of the countries facilitates the solution of
1L. I. Brezhnev, LENINSKIM KURSOM: KECHI I STAT'I [Lenin Course: Speeches and
Articles], Moscaw, Vo? 5, 1976, p 512.
2The significant contribution of the USSR to the development of internatioflal
space law has also been recognized in western literature (see, for example:
G. Reijnen, LEGAL ASPECTS OF OUTER SPACE, Utrecht, 1977, pp 152-163).
3For more details see: R. Sagdeyev, "tJniversal Cooperation in Space," NOVOYE
VREMYA [New T3mes], No 39, 1975, p 21.
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the most complicated problems of studying the universe; it is promoting the
coordination of the activity of the various countries and the elimination of the
unnecessary dup]_ication It permits more efficient use of available means and
possibilities.
Thp exploitation of outer space can be realized by the efforts of individual
countries and without international cooperation. This is indicated by the great
progress made by some countries, above all, the Soviet Union and the United
States of America, in the implementation of their national space programs. How-
ever, the course of curtailment of international cooperation and promotion of
tension in the relations between governments pronounced by the President of the
United States J. Carter at the beginning of the 1980's can do serious harm to
cooperation in the exploitation of space. As Comrade L. I. BrezhtLev emphasized,
"refusal to cooperate in the field of economics, sciencer engineering and culture
means the rejection of significant advantages which each side could receive. The
main thing is that this would be an entirely purposeless rejection which cannot
be justified by any intelligent reasoning."1
The coordination of the activity of the governments in the exploitation of outer
space implies the necessity of creating the international mechanism of cooperation
- with countries and the app.lication of various organizational and legal forms of
coordination and cooperation in our field.
This paper is devoted to an all-around analysis of the international legal problems
of the cooperation of governments in the study and use of outer space for peaceful
purposes within the framework of international organizations. Joining of efforts
of different countries within the framework of international organizations is one
form of international cooperation. As the range of space research expands, the
role of the number of international organizations dealing with the problems of
cooperation in the exploitation of space will grow. This fact leads to the
necessity for investigating the legal principles and activity of such organizations
and also the analysis of possible trends and prospects for rhe development of this
form of joining of efforts of the governments and search for means of improving
the mechanism of cooperation in the exploit.ati_on� of space.
Contents
Introduction
Page
3
Chapter I. Legal Principles and Forms of Cooperation of Governments $
in the Investigation and Use of Outer Space
1. Prerequisites of international cooperation in the exploitation
of space 8
~ 2, Legal principles of the cooperation of governments in the
investigation and use of outer space 14
-L,. I. Brezhnev, LENINSKIM KURSOM: RECHI I STAT'I [Lenin Course: Speeches
and Azticles], Moscaw, Politizdat, Vol 4, 1974, p 171.
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3. Basic areas and forms of international cooperation in the
conquest of space 29
Chapter II. International Organizations for Cooperation in the Study
and Use of Outer Space 44
1. Cooperation of countries in the conquest of space within the
framework af universal organizations 51
2. Cooperation of countries in the conquest of space within the
framework of international, intergovernmental space organiza-
tions 68
3. International cooperation in the exploitation of space within the
framework of nongovernment space organizations 100
Chapter III. Trends and Prospects for the Cooperation of Governments
in the Study and Use of Outer Space Within the Framework of
International Organizations 110
1. Expansion and deepening of the cooperation of governments in the
exploitation of space 110
2. Coordination of the activity of governments with respect to
individual areas of the conquest of space within the framework
of international organizations 112
3. Problem of creating a specialized universal organization for
problems of the conquest of space 115
Conclusion ' 140
Appendix
Agreement between the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub lics and the United
_ States of America on Cooperation in the Study and Use of Outer Space
for Peaceful Purp oses 145
Agreement on Cooperation in the Study and Use of Outer Space for
Peaceful Purposes 148
Agreement on the Creation of an International System and the
Intersputnik Space Communications Organization 154
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980
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