JPRS ID: 9585 USSR REPORT BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
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,lPRS L/9585
3 March 1981
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BIOMEDICA~ AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
(FOUO 5/81)
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JPRS L/9585
3 March 1981
USSR REPORT
LIFE $CIENCES
BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
(FOUO 5/81)
CONTENTS
HUMAN FACTORS
E~G-Correlates in Heart-Rate Voluntary-Control Training in Man..... 1
Visual Information and Vision of Robuta 5
Annotation and Abstracts From 'Problems of Bionica' 9
Annotation and Abstracts From the Journal 'Problems of Bionice' 16
Time Factor in Human Perception Diacussea 23
Visual Simulation Devices for Flight Training Simulatora........ 27
The Explorations and Discoveriea of the Psychology of
Creativity in Artificial Intelligence 31
MonograpY: Examines Theoretical Problems of Human Ada~tation 37
= Psychological Conditions in Discovery by the Pilot of
Critica2 Inflight Situations 44
Psychophysiological Studies of Operator Performance
' and Equipment Used 52
i'SYCHOLOGY
Resolution of the All-Union Conference of the Council of Young
Scientiats and Specialists of the USSR Society of Peychologists . 58
Psychological Research by P. J, Safarik University in Koaice 60
, Intelligence Tests in Psychology 65
- a- ~III - USSR - 21.a S&T FOUO]
r.nn nrrrn~ . r t rcr- nwrt v
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~
HUMAN FACTORS
UDC 612.822.3.087
EEG-CORRELATES IN HEART-RATE VOLUNTARY-CONTROL T�cAINING IN MAN
Moscow DOKLADY AKADEMII NAUK SSSR ~.n Russian No 6, 1980 pp 1487-1490
[Article by A. N. Borgest, M. I. Talan, and Academician V. N. Chernogovskiy, US3R
Academy of Sciences Institute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov, Leningrad, sub-
mitted 26 Sep 79]
[Text] During the past decade the alluring prospect oi volunta.ry control of the
autonomic functions in man has stimulated extensive research on biofeedback con-
trol [bioupravleniye] on heart rate. At this time, however, the question is far
from solved. Up to now there has been no convincing proof of the "validity" of
training and the possibility cannot be e::~luded that the changes observed are
secondary and re~ult from voluntary regulation of other functions.l Moreover,
the facts concerning the correlation between the various components of the EEG and
heart rate, obtained during training to con,trol the biaelectrical activity of the
brain,2'S are contradictory. Information in the literature on the interconnection
between EEG processes and voluntary control of hea~t rate is scant. In order to
resolve these questions it was of importance to study EEG changes during the proc-
ess of training healthy sub~ects to control heart rate voluntarily.
Studies were done on 4 volunteer students (2 men and 2 women) aged 18 to 20. A
conditioned "avoidance" reaction convenient for studying EEG-correlate models was
selected. During the studies the subjects were under hypnosis (stage 2) makjng
it possible to impart suggestions aimed at muscular relaxation anci enhanced
motivation to carry out tasks, and this created the most favorable conditions
- for training of the autonomic functions.6 A I-lead EKG, respiration, and an EEG
covering the frontal, somatomotor and occipital fields (monopolar) were recorded
on a Nihon Koden encephalograph with an analyzer and integrator (integration time
10 seconds). A 15-second 1-kHz tone 65 dB above the threshold of human hearing
was used as the signal to carry out the task.
Evaluation of neart rate and of task fulfillment relative to EKG was done on an
MN-7M machine. If the task was not executed immediately after the sound signal
_ had ended the sub~ect was "punished"--a weak 2-second electric shock was applied
to the skin on the knee at a frequency of 1 kHz for 0.5 msec., exeeeding the
pain threshold but not causing motor reaction. Conditioning signals were generated
e~�ery 45 seconds. Amplitude readings of the integrated EEG spectrum and pulse were
taken during the last 10 seconds of the tone (test reading) and during the inter-
vals between the signals (control readings). Each 45-minute training session
included 60 test readings alternating with 60 control readings. Up to 20 baseline
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rva vrrl~l~w u~r. vivl,i
readings of the EEG and ~KG were taken before and after training sessions. The
material obtained was statistically processed on a Wang-2200 digital computer
using the Student t-statistic to find the reliability of the differences in the
studied parameters in test and control readings luring the training period, and
also initial baseline and test readings.
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Figure 1. Change in Amplitude of Integrated EEG Spectra Compared with Initial
Baseline with Given Change in Heart Rate (I), in training for Volun-
tary Control of Heart Rate (II), in Spontaneous Variations in Heart
Rate in Baseline Readings Before and After a Training Period (III),
1- delta. 2- theta. 3- alpha. I- Subject M. Increase in heart
rate of 6/min, C4 lead; subject I. Decrease in heart rate by 1.6/min,
F4 lead. a- averaged data for all test readings in the experiment.
b- test readings with statistically reliable changes in pulse
(p < 0.001). c- control readings without training. II - Subjects N
and M. Increase in heart rate of 7.2 and 9 beats per minute respec--
tively; l.ead P4. Subjects I and M. Decrease in heart rate by 8.4 and
5.2 beats per minute respectively, 02 lead. a, b, c. - as for I.
III - Subjects M.and I. Increase in heart rate of 4.2 and 8.6 beats
per minute respactively. Subjects I and A. Decrease in heart rate
_ by 9.2 and 8.2 beats per minute respectively. d- 02 lead, e- C4
lead.
2
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Three series of investigations were conducted: 1) with an unspecified set-up to
alter heart rate; 2) training to accelerate heart rate; 3) to slow heart rate in
order to avoid "punishment." No significant differences were found for the ~EG
pictures for test and control readings in the training period in all series of
obgervations. Taking into accout~t the insignif icant interval between these re~d-
ings, it is suggested that a certain inertia in the autonomic processes was also
reflected in the interial naCure of the EEG patterns.
Later, material will be presented from comparison of test readings with baseline
readings.
In the first series of investigations, half of the sub~ects coped with the task.
- Analysis of the EEG showed that regardless of whether or not the task was ful-
f illed, in all sub~ects during the training period there was an increase in the
amplitude of the integrated spectrs~ for delta or theta waves amounting to 25 to
30 percent (p t 0.5) in the frontal and central fields (figure 1, I).
During training to voluntary increase heart rate, task fulfillment was accompanied
in most cases by reliable (p L 0.5) increase in the output of delta and theta waves
amounting to 26 to 52 percent, as in the preceding series (figure l, II, 1,2,
subjects N and M). The tendency toward increase in the slow-wave section of the
EEG spectrum in all lead zones also appeared when actual fulfillment of the task
was not completed. In subjects who coped most successfully -~ith voluntary regula-
tion of pulse, there was also simultaneous increase in the amplitude of integrated
values for the alpha spectrum (figure 1, II, 3, sub~ect M).
During training to slow heart rate, there were no significant changes in delta and
theta rhythms in the process of task fulfillment, but in half the training sessions
there was a reliable 20- to 59-percent decrease in the amplitude of the integrated
alpha spectrum, P~ 0.05 (figure 1, II, sub~ects I and M).
As control, spontaneous changes in heart rate and EEG were analyzed in baseline
readings before and after the training period. It turned out that, similar to
during training, th~ amplitude of the integrated alpha spectrum reveals a certain
interconnection with heart rate, and in 63 percent of cases grows during heart
rate increase and falls during heart rate decrease (figure 1, III). This a rees
with data obtained during a study of diadaptive regulation of alpha rhythm.~~~~8
, We did not succeed in f inding a precise correlation between absolute magnitudes
of heart rate and the output of the alpha spectrum. It is probable that changes
in the latter may reflect transitory processes in pulse dynamics.
Whereas alpha waves were characterized by identical changes during baseline and
training periods, the slow-wave components of the EEG remained almost unchanged
during spontaneous increase in heart rate, in contrast to the training period; _
_ and in spontaneous slowing of heart rate, on the contrary, they were significantly -
reduced (p < 0.01). It is known that theta rhythm genesis is largely associated
with the limbic system.9~10 The latter, in turn, bears a direct relation on the
organizat{on both of visceral and emotional behavior.12,11 As a hypothesis it
may be suggested that the changes in theta rhythm during heart rate training
reflect very complex relationships. On the one hand, there are the emotional
inf luences in the set-up, leading, according to our data, to increased output in
the theta spectrum; and on the other, there is the restructuring of the autonomic
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functions (slowing or increasing pulse), which is also reflected in the presenta-
tion of the theta rhythm.
These kinds of relationships may show that in different set-upa, sub~ects employ
diff erent strategies in training, and as a result involve different mechaniams in
the process of biological adaptation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. McCanne, T. R.; and Sandman, C. A. PSYCHOL., BULL. Vol 83, No 4, 1976 p 587.
2. Nowlis, D. P.; and Kamiya, J. PSYCHOPHYSIOL., Vol 6, 1Jo 4, 1970, p 476.
3. Hord, D.; and Barber, J. PSYCHON. SCI. Vol 25, No 3, 1971, p 151.
' 4. Beathy, J,; and Kornfeld, Ch. PHYSIOL. BEHAV., Vol 9, 1972, p 733. ~
5. S chwartz, G. BIOFEEDBACK SELF REGULATION, Vol 1, No 7, 1976.
, 6. Talan, M. I.; Felderbaum, R. A.; Chernogovskiy, V. N. FIZIOLOGICEHSKIY
ZHURNAL SSSR, Vol S4, No 11, 1978, p 1585.
7. Markman, V. G. FIZIOLUGIYA CHELOVEKA, Vol 3, No 3, 1977, p 470.
8. Chernigovakaya, V. N. [as publishedJ; Tsukerman, A. S.; and Patolichchio, S.
ZHURNAL. VYSSH. NERVN. DEYAT., Vol 28, No 3, 1978, p 549.
9. Brazier, M. A. B. ANESTHESIOLOGY, Vol 28, 1967, p 192.
10. Grindzl, 0. M.; Bragina, N. N.; et al. In "Osnovnye problemy elektrofiziol.
golovnogo mozga" [Basic Problems in the Electrophysiology of the Brain],
Moscow, 1974, p 261.
11. Nutsubidze, M. A. "Emotsionalnaya i zamykatelnaya funktsiya limbicheskoy
systemy" [Emotional and Switching Function of the Limbic System], Tbilisi,
1969.
12. Veyn, A. M.; and Solovyeva, A. D. "Limbikoretikulyarnyy kompleks i
vegetativnaya regulyatsiya" [The Limbic-Reticular Complex and Autonomic
Regulation], Moscow, 1973.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR", 1980
[8144 /0159-9642]
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- UDC 007.52
VISUAL INFORMATION AND VISION OF ROBOTS
Moscow VIZUAL'NAYA INFORMATSIYA I ZRENIYE ROBOTOV in Russian 1979 signed to press
29 May 79 pp 2-6, 176
[Annotation, preface and table of contents fc~~m book by Georgiy Petr~vich Katys,
Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", 5500 copies, 176 pages ]
[Text] The book examines the principles of constructing systems for processing
visusi information. Systems are compared and the main characteristics and fields
of application are indicated. The potential of visual information processing
systems is demonstrated for enhancing the autonom~us nature of robots and extend-
_ ing their capabilities and spheres of application.
The book is intended for engineering and technical personnel specializing in the
field of automatic systems, cybernetics and data procesaing problems.
Preface
_ Expansion af the possibilities and spheres of application for robots at the present
stage of development in robotics engineering is associated with the need for inten-
- sive development of facilities for perceiving and processing information about the
environment ar.d for equipping the robot with greater autonomy. It should be
noted that the L~roblem of data handling by a robot is of extreme significance in
the totaJ complex of problems arising when drawing up the structural scheme and
general configuration of a robot. The level of autonomy achieved for the robot
largely depends on how comprehensively this problem is tackled. As is known, for
- normal functioning in an unstable environment, an autonomous robot must perceive
and process broad flows of visual, tactile, audio and other information. Visual
- information is of basic significance in this complex of data flows. The impor-
tance of visual data in the control of an autonomous system is confirmed by the
fact that a human being obtains about 85 percent of th~ data he needs through the
visual channel.
It could be said that visual analyzers are the main channels by which a robot
communicates with the external worYd; the main flow of information essential for
its control passes through these channels. Accordingly, the selection of rational
- principles for constructing and optimizing the structural schemes and parameters
for su~h devices, and also the creation of self-ad3usting visual systems possess-
ing the properties of adaptation to the changing characteri~tics of the external
environment, constitute an important problem.
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In this book we examine the set of problems and questions associated with the
various aspects of perception, processing and utilization of data in order to
control a robot. Ways of selecting rational principles for constructing visual
systems and methods of determining parameters for the structural schemes of such
systems are examined. Various aspects of perceiv~n~ and processing visual data aC
_ the diff erent hierarch ical levels in the visual analyzers of robots are analyzed.
In connection with the development of second- and third-generation robots, there
has recently been intensive work on developing visual systems cap~ble of carrying
out quite complex actions in recognizing external ob~~cts and orier.ting themselves
among them.
Various methods of data processing are used in the development of visual organs
for robots, includ ing methods of processing and discriminating among monocular
images, methods of handling stereoscopic images, and methods of separating light
array~ and so forth. These methods of analyzing visual data are examined in
the various chapCers of the book.
Marked successes have recently been achieved in the f ield of bionics research on
the organs of sight in animals. Judgir,g from the literature and the patent publi-
cations, the results of this research are making it possible to move on to the
development of technical devices that model some of the functions of the organs
of sight. It ia these circumstances that have prompted the author to examine
this complex of topics. The book examinea the results of bionic research on the
functionally original organs of sight in some animals. An analysis is made of
the various aspects of the perception and processing of visual data in the organs
of sight in living organisms, and also of the possibilities and ways of modeling
specif ic functions of the visual analyzers in technologic systems.
It is known t:-,at selection, filtration and identification of visual data of value
- to an animal are accomplished sequentially at the various levels of the visual
analyzer. The filters discriminate contours, straight lines and boundaries in a
specif ic orientation, moving objects and so forth that appear on the images.
Technologic models have recently been developed that realize some of these func-
tions. In the book the functional and structural schemes of various sign
detectors ldetectors f or moving objects, contours, lines and so forth) are
examined, and their paramPters and characteristics are shown.
Semiconductor, step-matrix and television technologies integrated with fiber
optics and integrated optics form the technical basis for realizing the bionic
principles of analyzing and converting visual data.
- On the basis of analysis of publiehed material the author has attempted to provide
one of the possible extrapolations in the future status of some avenues in the
development of visual systems for robots. This attempt has been made on the basis
of analyzing patents, certificates of invention and various publications containing
inforeiation on the possible directions in future developments. It should be noted
that it is precisely this material that after a given lead-time will be reflected
in the technical realization of systems in the class being examined.
At this time there are, unfortunately, no books in which aIl the material on
this topic published in periodicals and patent publications has been generalized
and analyzed. The book now called to the reader's attention is called upon to
fill this gap.
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The aim of the book is to provide the reader with an overall idea of the ways and
prospects in the development of a class of visual analyzers for robots carrying
large amounts of data, and also of the corres,ponding directions in coherent
technology, the techniques of spatiotemporal image fil~,ering, bionic processing
_ systems and discrimination methods, together with the present-day methods of
photoelectric image analysis. The book contains a classification of visual
analyzers for robots and an examination of the principles involved in their
construction, toge tt~er with s~ructural schemes and data characteristics. Indica-
tions are given for the possible ways of utilizing bionic principles for proceasing
visual data when developing structural schemes for visval analyzers for robots.
The material presented provides the reader with a good idea of the various prin-
ciples involved in constructing visual analqzers for robots and the methods of
selecting rational structural schemes, together with way s of determining the -
- paramPters for such systems.
Being aware of the shortcoming of the book the author thanks readers in advance
for all comments, which should be sent to the following address: 113114, Moscow, �
M-114, Shlyuznaya naberezhnaya 10, Izdatelstvo"Energiya".
Contents Page
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1. Data Systems for Robots 7
Chapter 2. Visual Data Processing in the Organs of Sight in Animals 31
Some questions of bionic research on the organs of sight 31
Bionic mechanisms of spatial f iltering and recognition of visual data 39
Electronic models of the organs of ~~ight in animals 50
Chapter 3. Processing Visual Data in the Organs of Sight in Robots 55
Aspects of Artif icial Intelligence 55
The mechanism of organs of sight in robots 69
Sensory elements of visual systems in robots 107
Chapter 4. Spatial Filtering, Functional Conv2rsion and Image
Recogn ition Systems 124
Movement detectors 124 =
Contour detectors 130
Direcred movemen t detectors 134
Oriented straigh t line detectors 141
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Multifunctional devicea for viaual data praceseing 145
Questions of shape recognition 154
Cdnclusion 164
Bibliography 170 _
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", 1979
[8144/0163-9642]
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- ANNOTATION AND ABSTRACTS FROM ~ PROBLIIKS OF BIODTICS'
~har'kovPROBLEMY BIOATIKI in Russian No 19, 1977 pp 1- 1~ with annotation -
[Following axe abstracts and the annotation appeaxing in the ?nthology "Problems
of Bionics" edited by A. P. Guzhva and prepaxed by the editorial board of the
Khar'kov Inetitute of Radioelectronice]
[Text] This anthology is addresped to the problems of a ma.thematical and phyai-
cal aimulation of the processee involved in proceseing information at various
levela of the nervoue system. Certain aspecte of huma.n intellectual activity _
and the ability to reproduce elements of this activity in man-made mapping and
control systems are explored for the first time. The latter is especially im-
portant in li~ht of the vast goals that the 25th CPSII Congress has set for
= Soviet scientists. The processing of verbal information, discrimina.tion of vi-
sual images and psychological aspects of the activity of c,~:eratore of complex
systems axe also described.
It ie inten3ed for ecientific workers ar.u specialists in the fields of cyberne-
- tics, computer technology, biology and medicine.
- v~c 62.502.2
QTTAI,ITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF NL'TTRON NEi'WORKS MADE UF OF
ADAPTIVE ELE~'lENTS. REPORT 2.
~Abstract of report by V. N. Yefrimov, A. V. K7.imenko and T. M. Bogatyreva,
PP3-8)
- [Text] Networks of analogous adaptive neurons axe exa.mined. The two-stage
- technique of analyzing the c~ynamics of neuron networka was employed and an
analysis was made of networks of the closed contour type with excitatory con-
nections and with inhibitin~ connections.
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Diagrama of neuron network conditions axe included which make it poseible to
define the d~ynamic properties of a neuron network ae a whole on the baeie of
- fixed elemental paxa.meters and maximum etructural parametere . 1 ill~xetration,
. 1~ referencee.
IIDC 62-506.222
- EMOTIONS FROM TF~ STANDPOINT OF BIOCY~F~RN~'TICS
[Abstract oi article by P. S. Grave, pp 8- 11]
[Text] The biological significance of the emotional sphere is analyzed. A
achematic block model of the structural associatione of emotions is set within
- the fra.mework of integral peychics. 1 table.
UDC 62.506.2
CLASSIFYING I~ITEZLECTUAL GOALS. REPORT 1.
[Abatract of report by V. M. Bondarev and V. A. Lovitekiy, pp 11 - 19]
[Text] The potent.ial ability to classify goale on the basis of defining the
concept of "goal" proposed in the axticle is explored. A survey of a number
of the existing definitione and meana of claseifying groals is given. 3 tablea,
2 illuatrations, 19 referencea.
UDC 62.506.2
THE VISIIAL ANALYZER A.S A MtTLTI-CIRCUIT BIOI,OGICAL SYSTEM OF ASSOCIATED
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
[Abstract of axticle by V. F. Ananin, pp 19 - 27]
The vieual analyzer is discuesed. as a biological variant in a multi-ci~cuit
system of associated automatic control.
The circuita for controlling the pupillary and accommodation reflexes, the cir-
cuit for control of the receptive field which is a follow-up to the optical
motor syatem, the circuit for controlling the dynami.c rar~e of the visual aystem
and others are included in this system. 1 illustration, 11 references.
. IIDC 62.506.2
MAT~IEMATICAL DESCRIPTION UF HIERARCHICAL STRIICTURE
~Abstract of an article by Yu. V. Isichenko, Yu. V., L. P. Popova and I,. D.
Donin, PP 27 - 3~ ~
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[Text] An a.pproach to etructuring a ma,thematical mndel of hierarchial etruc-
ture baeed on the precepta of the theor~~ of multiples ie 3eacribed. Hele, ar~
algebraic model structure is matched to the lovels in the hierarcr~r (the multi-
ple M with a number of relationehipa to it~. Homomorphisms of the madel coacrea-
pond to the associations between the levels. 3 illustrations, 2 references.
tmc 62.506.2
THE EFFECT OF SMOO~HING ON HEARING
~
[Abstract of article by 0. M, Abramov, A. Ya. D-^yuchenko, S. A. IIeenko, Yu. P.
Shabanov-Kuehnareko, pp 31 - 37]
- [Text] The issue of the applicability of Talbot~s generalized law to hearing
ia examined. Experimente that were run have prove;~ the correctnesa of Talbot's
law for heaxing in terms of sonic preeaure. 4 ill.uetrations, 3 references.
U.DC 62. 506. 2+ liFi
ON ~ QUESTION OF STRUC~[TRING AN ALGORITI~'I Or~ TSE SYNTHESIS OF VERB FORMS
IN ~ RUSSIAN I~ANGUAGE
(.Abetract of article by A. I. Chugun and T. A. Nedzel~skaya, pp 37 - 1~2]
[Text] A method of structuring a model fo�r the synthesis of word forms out-
side the relationahip of their context is diecussed and an algorithm for the
synthesis of the personal forms of non-reflexive verbs in th~ Russian language
from the infinitive form is proposed. 1 table, 2 illustratioris, 1~ references.
UDC 62.~06.2
TF~ PROBLIIK OF ORDERING NUMERICAL MASSES BY MAN AND COMPUTER. REPORT 1.
~.Article by S. I. Shapiro, S. V. Tsekhoi ~.nd A. y. Kornev, pp I~2 - 55]
[Text] Vaxious techniquea ~f ordering numerical massea by man and computer are
examined and the appropriate ma,chine programs are preeented. A structural the-
oretical-informational model of the mechaniem of ordering describes the solu-
tion to the problem of machine ordering based on the technique of separation
into submassea: fractiona,l orderirig, joining, the refinement function T(p).
3 tables, 1 illustration, 3 references.
_ UDC 62.506.2
THE PROBLEM OF ORDERING NUNNIEHICAI~ M9SSES BY MAN AND COP~R''iJrrER. REPORT 2.
~Article by S. I. Shapiro, Ye. N. Shilova and T. D. Ba.rr~yan, pP 55 - 64~
11
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~Text] A maeaive experiment with man in determining the c~ynamics of the
' function T(p) in resolving the problem of ordering a numberical maes by
breaking it down into submaeaee is described. The logic coordinates of a
aomputer progra.m and humn.n heuristice axe compaxed. ~he high poaitive cor-
relation of the function T(p) reaulting from the theoretical-informational
model ie confirmed experimentally for man and computer on a micro-level (for
the elementary proceeses of frequency ordering and joining) as is the low
degree on the level of integral processea where human mechanisms are epeciyi-
cally underatood in f~Zll mer~aure. 7 tables, 1 illuatration, 2 referencea
v~c 62.506.2
PROPERTIES OF A REPRESENTATION AND BIOLOGICAL SIMLTLATION OF THE NEHVOUS
SYSTEM. REPORT 7.
[Abstract of article by Yu. P. Bugay, pp 65 - 72~
[Text] Functional and structural diagrams of structures that make it possible to
realize the isolation of a whole number of relationahipa between the elements
of the situation being depicted. The potential for using such structures ia
- discuased. 1 illustration, 2 references
~c 62.506.2
PRpPERTIES OF A REPRES'r'~NTATION AND BIOLOGICAL SIlKITI~ATION OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM. REPORT 8.
[Abetract of an axticle by Yu. P. Bugay, pp 72 - 8~~
[Text] A comparative analyeis was made af the properties of the relationships
and other possible means of determining the properties of the relationships
needed for a more detailed descriptiona of the situations to be depicted in
terma of elements and relationships. Functional analogy of the procedures
described through integral-differential equations is discuased as is that
of the procedurea described in terme of the elements and relationshipe between
them. 1 table, 2 references
- UDC 62.506.2
A GENERAL CLASSIFIER FOR PERSONAZ FORMS WITH RESPECT TO HOMOGRAPHY
[Abstract of an article by Ye. A. Solov'yeva, pp 81 - 88] ~ .
[Text] A ma,thema,tical model has been proposed for the functions realized in
the proceea of morpholo~ically claesifying peraonal verb forms based on indi-
catore from all the inherently grammatical categories. The model is universal,
makes allowance for instances of ftiill or partial coincidence of personal forms
and utilizes the minimally necessary information about formal word structure.
3 tabler, 11 re.ferences 12
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a
u~C 62.506.2
~ IN CONSIDERATION OF A SINGLE METHOD OF CLASSIFYING VERB FORMS IN TFiE RIISSIAN
LANGII.AGE BY TYPES OF CONJUGATION
~Abetract of an axticle by .A. I. Chugun, pp 88 - 92]
[Text] ('urrent modela of man~s abilitiee to claeaify perQ;,nal verb forma in
- the Russian language by types of conjugation exe proposed. 1 table, 1 illus-
tration, 6 referencea
tmc 614.1: 3~ 3.13
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF ELECTROGRAMS �E~'INED BY UNITARY CCDES
[Abetract of an axticle by I. D. Ponomaxeva, pp 93 - 97~
[Text] It hae been demonstrated that analysis of a unitary code where the
- extreme moments axe maxked by impulses of a etandaxd amplitude and duration
is sufficient to isolate the periodic component as well as to evaluate the
frequency components of a continuous stationary random flxnction. Resulta of
an analygie of a cerebral electrogram throu~ the procesaing of unitary codee
axe presented. 1~ illuetrations, 4 references
IIDC 612.821
SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ~ FO'N'CTIONING OF AN OPERATOR IN THE
SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY
[Abatract of an article by V. V. Sviridov, Ye. V. Boc~yanskiy, I. M. Belaya
a.nd I. F. Kustov, pp 98 - 103]
[Text] The isaueg of developing a conceptual model of technological projects
and the notions of decisions based on it axe examined. The proceduse for con-
- trol is treated like a self-teaching process for the operator. 1 illuatration,
2 references _
v~c 62.506.2
DETERMINING ERROR IN COMPUTING A SINGLE FUNCTIONAL WHILE NORMAi,IZING
SHIFTS IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS
[Abatract of an axticle by N. K. Sergeyeva, pp 103 - 108]
[Text] Aepects of the technical realization of a aingle algorithm of normali-
zing the ehifts in two-dimensiona,l graphe de~ermined by eet of point objects
are inveetigated. 4 references
; 13
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' vDC 5~1.~.03+,77�3
ON DI~GNOSIZJG TFiE FONCTIONAL CONDiTION OF PLAN~.PS
- CAbetract of an axticle by A. P. Paeiohnyy, I. D. Ponomareva, G. B.~TsepkoV
- and ZT. I. Lavrinenko, pp 108 - 113]
[Text] A technique for determining the f~inctional condition of planta by analy-
sis of the bioaignala emitted from green leaves during intermittent changes in
extertial. cond.itions (i,llumi.na.tion) ie desaribed. The method is based on an
evaluation of quantitative values for the coefficients of differential controls
~ through which the conversion proceeaes in plants axe described. The description
, is illustxated with apecific examples. 1 table, 3 illuetrations, 4 xeferencea
uDC 62.506.2
N~RVOIIS SYSTEM TYPES FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE QIIAN'i'IIM WAVE THEORY OF TFiE
COH~RENT BRAIN
[Abetract of an article by V. N. Chudakov, pp 113 - 116]
[Text] Central nervous syetem types axe exam.i.ned on the basis of the quantum
wave theory of a coherent model of the brain. Functiona,l relationships axe
plotted for the basic properties of nervous system typea: the atrength-weal~ese,
mobility-inertia, equilibrium-imbalance of the excitatory and inhibitory pro-
cesaes in the nervous system. A chaxt of the divereity of nervoua aystem typea
is presented with an allowance m~,de for the interrelationahip of classea of
intellect and types of temperament. 1 table, 7 references.
- v~c 621.3.049.75.001.2-5:62~.383�93
AN OPTICAL-ELECTROrTIC INSTRUMENT FOR LAYING ROUTES ON A MAP
[Abstract of an axticle by F. D. Dubinin, pp 116 - 119]
[Text] The etructure and operational principle of a eimilax unit for the auto- .
matic latiying of routes on an ~.rea map or printed plat ie examined. The unit
consists of uniform optronic plotting boards and a photoelectric recorder.
2 illuetrationa, 5 referencee.
v~c 6a~.~4z.36
MACHINE SIMIII,ATION OF A CLASSIFIER FOR STANDARDIZED HANDWRITTEN SYNIDOI,S
[Abstract of an article by E. P. Chornostan, I. B. Sirodzha, pp 120 - 124]
[Text] A mathematical model of a claasifying device is being introduced in
- the development of which the mathema,tical device of R-functions was utilized.
11~
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An algorithm whiah simulates the work of a claesifier io described and the
~ results obtained via this algorithm are presented. 3 illustratione, 4
- referencee.
~C 62-523.8:621.1.033.3:621.383�93
USING A HOMOGENEOIIS MODEL OF A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM TG CONTROL TSE COORDINATION
OF A WALKING MECHANISM
[Abetract of an axticle by F. D. Dubinin, pp 121~ - 130]
[Text] An optoelectronia mosaic model of a, two-dimeneiona.l neuristor is examined
ae is ite behavior in transient conditione.
An example of uaing the model to control a bioaimilax meohanism with a cyclic
operational rY~ythm is preaented. 3 illuetratione~ 11 reference~
~nc ~5.370.~53
T~iE BIOIVIC METHOD OF CODING COMPLEX SIGNALS
[Abetract of an article by P. I. Chinayev, A. M. Shkvax, pp 130 - 137]
~Text] A technique haa been developed to code a complex eignal by breaking it
' down into inf'orma,tional indicators. . An axraxigement has been propoaed for a
functional automatic unit of an informa,l type in which high-preciaion coding
of a signal takes place via the signal itaelf and ita first two derivatives in
time. 2 illustrations, 6 references.
UDC 62.506.2
CLASSIFYTNG NORMAL AND ANOMALOIIS FORMS OF INTELLECTUAL ACTNITY ON THE BASIS
OF ~ QIIANTUM WAVE TFIEORY OF A COHE~ENT MODEL OF ~ BRAIN. REPORT 2.
[Abstract of a report by V. N. Chudakov, pp 137 - 150]
[Text] The relationahip between hereditary tendenciea in the nervoue aystem
and talent ia explored. Intervale of intellect axe introduaed. Conditions for
self-or~anization in the neuro-paychical typee of intellect are explained. A
principle is formulated for incoherence which ie a corollar-,~ +,o the principle
of coherence in the informa,tion flow of wave signale among the neuron ~~~~~turea
and which maintains the desynchronization and dispersion of theae flowe while
leading to an initial independence in the activity of the individua.l neurone.
An attempt ie ma.d.e to exami.ne the relationship of the informational flowe of
wave eignals in the Q and C etructuxes of the brain of those that are highly
coordina,ted. 10 referen~es.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'skoye ob"yedineniye "Vishcha shkola", 1977
[271-9003] �
9003
CSO: 1840
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UDC 62.506.2
_ ANNOTATION AND ABSTRACTS FROM TfIE JOURNAL ' PROBLEMS OF BIOrTICS'
- Khar'kov PROBLEMY BIOrTIK[ in Rueaian No 20, 1978 pp 1- 4
[Following axe abstracts and the annotation from the anthology "Problems of -
- Bionics" edited by 9. P. Guzhva and A. L. Aliyeva and prepared by the editorial
board of the F~arkhov Inetitute of Radioelectronice, Ukrainian SSR Ministry of
Higher and Middle Specialized Education]
[Text] Thie anthology is addreased to the problems of a ma,thematical and pY~yei-
ca1 aimulation of the processea involved in prQCeasing inform.ation at vaxioue
levele of the nervous syatem. The va~ioua aspecta of human intellectual activity
are discuseed. Results are deacribed from atudies of the processes of procesaing -
verbal information, diecrimina,ting viaual shapes as well as the psychological as-
pects of the ftiinctioning of operatora of complex ayateme. The queations of coding
biomedical information are examined ae a,~e mathematical models of the epectral
senaitivity of man~a visual apparatue.
It is intended for scientific workera and epecialists in the fielde of cybernetica,
computer technology, engineering psychology, biology and medicine.
Bibliographiea are give at the end of the axticlea.
~nc 62-50~ .72 -
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINIlJG IN SYSTII~lSS OF SITUATIONAL CONTROI,
[Abetract of an article by A. A. Kryukov, A. B. Karunin, Yu. I. Klykov, M. V.
Volchenko, pp 3 - '~5~
[Text] Mechani sme of developing semiotic models in the process of training
through examples axe investigated in thia work. Training is examined here aa
the interaction of micro- and macro-languages as a reault of which, the forma-
tion of new concets takee place within the macro-language. A detailed descrip-
tion is provided of training programe.Ariented towaxds the structuring of
16
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eemiotic modela of systema in which the description of aituatione requirea de-
finition of a single basal relationehip: the combination of wood systema.
2 illustratione, 6 referencea
~ ~nc 62.5o6.z
EXPERIl~IVTAL INVESTIGATION OF A MODEL OF INDIICTIVE COLOR CONTRAST
[Abstract of an axticle by Yu. P. Sha.banov-Kuehnarenko, V. Ya. Serc~yuchenko and
V. A. Grabina, pp 15 - 23]
[Text] Methods for conducting and the reeulte from experiments involvin~ an
inveetigation of a model of inductive color contraet axe examined. 2 illus-
tratione, 4 references.
UDC 62.506.2
DEDIICTIVE DERNATION OF A MATHEMI~TICAL MODiEL OF THE SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF THE
HIIMAN VISIIAI, APPARATiTS. Report 1.
[Abetract of a report by V. P. Pchelinov, pp 23 - 3'~~ _
[Text] A method for setting up experiments that make it posaible to oY~tain ob-
jective evidence while investigatin~ the apectral seneitivity of the human vi-
sual organ is examined, conditions for the existence of color are formulated
and a mathematical concept of color ia introduced. Based on analyais of the
properties of input signals of the viaual appaxatus, types of aggregation of
theae aignals which are viewed as L2 epatial elements axe determ.ined. 3 illus-
trati.ons, 5 references.
uDC 62.506.2
DEDUCTIVE DERNATION OF A MATfIEMATICAL MODEL OF THE SPECTRAI, SENSITNITY OF TSE
HUMAN VISIIAL APPARATUS. Report 2.
[Abstract of a report by V. P. Pchelinov, pp 32 - 42]
[Text] The problems of proving the theorems that define the lineax propertiea
of a function realizin$ the transformation of input signals for the visual
appaxatus axe examined in sat of three numbera which serve as the coordinatee
of a color. A mathematical model of the spectral sensitivity of ma,n~s viaual
apparatue is d~erived by the deductive route, ita objectivity and high degree
of reliability are subatantiated. 6 referencea.
17
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UDC 62.506.2
THE BRAIN AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM IN A RF~L SCALE OF TIME
[Abstract of an article by V. F. Ananan, pp L42 - 52] _
[Text] An ana.logy ia drawn between the biological system of the brain with it~
peripheral receptor appaxatus and effectors and a technical syatem on a real
- scale of time. That these two aystems have an easentially common atructural _
system and an integral aeriee of units tha,t axe ar~alogous in their functional
purpose ie demonatrated. 1 illustration,~10 referencea.
U~C 681.1 L42 . 36
PARAMETERIZING DESCRIPTIONS OF CONIPLEX D~PICTIONS AS A 2'ECffi~'IQIIE OF TI~
CONTROLLED COMPRESSION OF INFORMATION. REPORT 1. _
[Abatract of a report by V. P. Romanov and V. M. Kiselev, pp 53 - 58~
[Text] A ma,thema.tical model of the visual as~s.lyzer ie examined. It ia demon-
stratecl tha,t the problem of compreseing graphic information can be resolved by
composing a description of .a picture i. ~ the form of f~i.nctions that are fixed in
contour and by selecting atandardized forma to identify eegments of the contour.
2 references.
v~C 681.11i2.36
PARAN~7TERIZING DF~CRIPTIONS OF COMPLEX DEPICTIONS AS A TECHNIQIIE OF THE
CONTROLLED COMPRESSION OF INFORMATION. REPORT 2.
. [Abstract of a report by V. P. Roman.ov and V. M. Kiaelev, pg 59 - d9~
~Text] Chaxacteriatics of the progressive analyeis of contoured depictions
_ are examined. Recommendations are given as to the uae of techniques of selec-
tive regreaffi.on and a prog~ram of adaptive progreseive analysis and identifica-
_ tion of curve aectors is presented. 1 illuetration~ 4 referencea.
tmC 62.506.2 -
THE PROBLEM OF OPTIMUM HIGH SPEID RESOLVED BY TFiE NEiTftA.L CELL
[Abatract of an article by V. S. Em, V. G. Pak~ pp 6g - 79]
[Text] Structuring of a mathematical model of the kinetics of the metabolic
proceseee which make allowance for the elementary atructural organization of a
cell has ahown that a nerve cell solves the problem of the optimum high speed
by the eelf-reorganization of
probable ensembles: at the points which lie below
the gamma line and within the p~Q trajectory, there is a refinement of
18
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the ensemblea; ~.t the pointe which lie above t:1e gamma line and within the
d0 trajectory, there is a procees of enlaxging the ensembles. No more than
_ one switchover is proven here for each opti.mum trajectory. 1 illustration,
10 references.
UDC 62.506.2 -
A BIOTECHIJICAL SIl~IUI,ATOR OF Tf3E HDMAN VISIIAL APPARATIIS
[Abstract of an article by V. F. Ananin, pp 79 - 86]
~
[Text] A flinctional d.iagram for a biotechnical aim~ulator which includes an
_ optical arrarigement, ecanning unit, photomoeaic, a.mplifier and electrode blocka
has been developed on the baeis of the meah~.niems for the transformation and en-
codin~ of an outside atimulua in the retina of the human eye suggested eaxlier.
1 illustration, 10 references. -
~nc 616.127-005. 8-073 � 97
ON ENCODING BIOMEDICAL INFURMATION (IISING AN ELECTROCARDIOGRAM DIIRING MYOCARDIAL
INFARCTION A~ AN EXAMPLE). REPORT 1.
[Abstract of a report by L. T. Malaya, V. G. Voronov, M. S. Mendlin, M. I. Ko-
zhin, A. Yu. Gopp and A. Ye. Shul~ma.n, pp 87 - 95]
~Text] Basic questions of tranalating biomedical informa,tion from the language
of patient hiatories and laboratory records to the language and concepta of
computers are exa.mined in the example of EKG encodin~. Primaxy attention is
focused on the mutually eynonomous correspondence of codes and baseline para-
meters as well as on the simplicity and etandardization of translation.
7 tables~ ~ illustration, 5 references.
II'DC 62.506.2
CLASSIF'YING NOI~MAL AN~ ANOMALOUS FORM'S OF IN~TELLECTUAL ACTNITY ON THE B~ASIS OF
TF~ QIIANTUM-WAVE THEORY OF A COHE~r MODEL OF TF~ BRAIN. REPORT 3.
[Abstract of an article by V. N. Chudakov, pp 95 - 105]
[Text] The role of sources for ~pontaneous aelf-stimulation of the CAN's within
structures of the euro-reactive types is examined. The mechaniams for accumula- ~
ting the genetic inf~rmation of psychotisme ia forma.lly examined. The sources
for the formation of informational energy among euro-reactive types are revealed.
An analyeis is ma.de of psychotisms or the ger~rators of apontaneous self-excita-
tion of neurona,l complexes and their involvement in the intellectual activity of
the highly gifte d is explained. q referencea.
19
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UDC 62.506.2
- CLASSIFYING NORMAL AND ANOMALOIIS FORNL'S OF INTELLECT[TAL ACTNITY ON THE BASIS OF
TE3E QIIANT'IIM-WAVE ~ORY OF A COHERENT MOlaE.L OF THE ERAIN. REPORT
[Abetract of an article by V. N. Chudakov, pp 106 - 114]
[Text] A paychoeurotic relationship ie introduced for the chaxacteristica of
the mutual relationship between the atructures of psychotism (the generatoxs of
spontaneoue self-stimulation of the neuronal ensemb~es) and the etructures of _
giftedness. An analyais was made as was a classification of the highly-gifted
intelloct as a function of the psychoeurotic relationship. The transitions
between the peychoeurotic etructures in the highly talented axe exa.mined. The
internal neurocybernetic mechanism of the PIG method ie explained. 2 tablee,
8 referencee. _
UDC 62.506.2
A SINGLE I~ANGIIAGE FOR TI~ FORMAL DESCRIPTION OF ALGORITHMS IN THE MORPHOLOGICAL
PROCESSING OF U'NITS OF TEXT
[Abatract of an article by E. M. Buznitslcatiya, pp 11l~ - 120]
[Text] A dua,l-level aystem has been developed for recording the algorithms of
analyeis and adjectival syr.thesis in the Ruasian language. In the first level,
every algorithm is formed by means of a small reserve of verbal rules which have ~
a fixed formulation. At the second level, there is a tranaition from the ori-
_ ginal notation to a meta-language. One of the vaxiants of the applied calculus
of predicates is used as the meta-lang~uage. 1 table, 6 references.
UDC 62.506.2
_ EV.ALUATING ERROR IN CONiP[TTING THE PQRAt~r~"?'FR~ FOR NORMALIZING THE ROTATIONS OF
TWO-DIMEN'SIONAI, PICTURES
[Abatract of an article by N. D. Sergeyeva, pp 120 - 127]
[Text] A number of algorithms for normalizin~ rotations of two-dimensiona,l
depictions axe examined. An assessment of error is provided in computing the
paxameters of normalization for pictures fixed by an aggregation of point-like
objecte. A comparative assessment ia made of the functions, forms of represen-
tation a.re shown for which the moet effective algorithms axe exa.mined. 2 illus-
trations, 5 references.
20
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tr~c 57:62--50
A MODEL REPRESENTATION OF ~ FONCTIONAL REI?ATIONSHIP HETWEEN TWO LEVEI,S OF A
CONTROL SYSTEM
[Abstract of an article by V. A. Tumar~yan, pp i27 - 132]
[Text] Several paxameters and a number of conditions establiahing the optimum
- control and f~znctiona,l interaction within the cortico-hippocampal system being
studied in the p.rocess of forming and reinforcing acquired habits axe examined ~
and evaluated on the basis of experimental data. A model investi$ation makes
it possible to refine the concept of the corre~tive effect of the hippoca.mpus
on the cortex during the initial ~tagee of the development of temporal asaoci-
ations. 5 reference~. .
Unc 351.814.33:62.506
DETECTING CONFLICT SITIIATIONS DURING TFiE CONTROL OF AIR TRAF'FIC IN AN
AIRPORT ZONE
[Abstract of an axticle by P. P. Novikov and A. G. Paputo, pp 132 -~39J
[Text] An algorithm for detecting potentially conflicting aituations has been
proposed on the basis of a model for the making of decisions by an ATC dispatcher
structured as a result of an experimental study of his activity. An analysis of
the algorithm is indicative of its effectiveness as compaxed to other techniques
for predicting conflicts. The ~,ccuracy of the bionic approach in developin$
mathema,tical support for complex syatema of control has been confirmed.
1 table, 1~ references.
~c 62-50~ .72 -
STRIICTURING A SYSTEM TO FORECAST SOCIAL BEHAVIOR ON THE BASIS OF SF~NlIOTIC
MODELS. REPORT 1. Stating the Objective. Framea.
[Abstract of a report by S. A. Filonik, pp ~40 - ~49~
[Text] An origina.l approach to the construction of a system to forecast social
_ behavior is underway. A social system is viewed as consisting of three compo-
nent paxts. The objective of predicting the system's behavior is formulated.
Frames are defined and described ae a convenient means for cleaxly visualizing
the unexpreased in-depth concept of the texts (which deacribe the behavior of
a social ayatem) for the purpose of an adequate understanding of the origina~.l.
thought in theee texts to obtain information needed to construct predictions.
1 illustration, 7 references.
21
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1rDC 535 � 37 � 4~
ELECTROC~CAL IIKISSION IN ORG1~i1JIC SUBSTANCES AND ITS ROLE IN TBE BIOLOGICAL
PROCESSES. REPORT 3. Investigating the Possibility of Eatabliahing Coherent
Emieaion Ba,sed on the Appeaxance of Electrochemiaal Emisaion.
[Abatraat of a report by N. N. Rozhitekiy and A. I. Bykh, pP 14g - 156]
[Text] The pos~ibilitiea for realizing a mode of generation in electrophoretic
- compositions during their electrolysia that will make it possible to consider
the establishment of such sourceg probabls along with their uee in simulating
a number of processes in living organisms are explored. 1 illuetration, -
iU references.
OPYRIGHT� Izdatel~ekoye ob"yedineniye "Vishcha shkola", 1978
~270-9003~
9003
cso: ~840
22
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TIM~ FACTOR IN HUMAN PTs~tCEPTIO~I DISCnSSED -
Lenitigrad FAUTOR VREI~NI V VOSPxIYATII CH~iLOVSROI~I in Russ ian 1980 pp 2, 5-8, 96
[Annotation, table of contents and introduction from book 'The Time Factor in
Human Perception", by N.D. Bagrova, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 3,200 copies,
96 pages ]
[Text] The monograph is dedicatsd to an ieiportant problem coacerning the psycho-
phyaiology of ~?ork--the perception of tima by naa. The moaograph pre~ente the
Marxist-Leniaiet conception of time as a methodological basis for an analyeie of
the natnral sciencee' concept of time. The etudy describes and analyzes the clas-
sical paqchophysical methods of ineasurement aad their field of application; it enb-
staatiates the optimal mathod of analysia in atudie~ of the time factor in hnasa
perception. The study correlates the reanlts of the anthor's ezperimental re-
aearch, the literatnre data concerniag mvalnation af the h~an capacity for dif- _
ferentiation and ecaling of the langths of toaal eonnde, and analyeea of the human
anditary analyzer's capacity for refZect4ag the lengtha of to~tal sonnds in relation
t~ the conditions of anal.ysis (psychoph~eical me~hod selected, ateadard length,
individnal characteristics, aad othsr factora). The study eaeminee the differeat
forms of reflection of the time factor in h~an conacionsnese. It attempts to
thraw light on the phyeiological mechanisme that maintain the procese of time ger-
ception by man. viteratnre: 209 titlea; illnotrations: 28; tables: 14.
Conteats Page
Preface 3
Introdnction 5 -
Chapter 1. The Concapt of 2ixe in the Dlatural Sciences 9
The Philosophical Concept of Time 9
Biological Time 10
- Chapter 2. Methods of Analysis 20
' The Claeaical Paychophyeical Mathoda of Determining the Hifferen-
tial Thresholds 20
The Clae9ical Methoda of Scaling ...........a 24
Description of the Methods Employed in Beaearchiag the Sw~aan
Anditorq Analyzet ...................................................28
B~cperimental 3ubstantiation of the Optimal Hethod of Scaling the
Length of Sound Stimnli 41
- 23
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Ch4pter 3. Analyais of the Differential 3ensitivity to Changee in
the Leagth of Tonal Sounds 48
Time-Dependent Differential Thresholds of the Anditary
Analyzer, Obtaiaed by Hathod ASh 50
Time-Dependeat Differantial Thresholds Obtained by
Mathoda AV-2 and AV-3 51
Dependence of the Tima-Belatnd Dif~~rential Threaholds -
~ on the Staadard Sonnd Length 56
Dependence of the &elative Threahold Value on th~ Staadard Valne.. 58
Dependence of the Differentiation of Tonal Sounds of Varions
Lengths oa Conditioaing 60 _
Analysis of Individnal Indices of the Abilit~ to Differentiate
Pnlsed Tonal Sonnd4 by ?heir Length 62
Chapter 4. Scaling of the Madalitise o� Pnlsad Tonal Signale 66 -
Brief flistorical Data and ~'ormnlation of the Problema 66
Coaclnsion 84 ~
Literatnre 88
Zntrodnction
The age of acientific-technological prczgress ia characterized by the rapid develop-
ment of technology and antowation and by the openiug np of onter apace and of the
depthe of the aea. At preaent~ the establiahmeat of a~tomatic machine control sys-
tema does not aim at totallq replacing man; on the coatrary, it aakes increaeingly
heavy demands on man's paychophysiological and psychological qnalities. In onr
age, man mast be able preciaely to regnlate hie activities over time, eatiefacto-
rily Arientate himaelf in this time fremework and snfficiently accnrately differ-
entiate, perceive and evaluate the time-related charact~igtics of signals. This
ie related to the fact that moat of the electronic meaaaring devices that are ~i.de-
ly ueed in prese~t-day technology ara based on the operator'a reading of the time-
dependent characteristics of the signals; sad in a a~amber of com~unication systems,
the time parameter is the wost significant one as a maana of codifying the infor-
matioa transaitted. In practice, the informative qnalities of the aignals' dura- -
tion have been put to nae in radiotelegraphic commnnication (Morse code), avia-
- tion, etc.
Analysis of the professional work of apecialists of the operator tqpe (radio and
radar operators, machine operators) has ahcn~a that anticipatory or delayin.g acti~as
daring their work lead to errore and in some caeea to dangerous situations. It is
- well knowa that differeat profnesional activitiae of the operators are effected by -
different psqchophysiological functions. For ~xxaa~pl~, the rrork af radio and sonar
operators is determisud primarily by the fuactioas of the auditory analyzer; the
Mork of radar etation operatore is determined by the functiona of the optical ana-
_ lyzer, and the work of machine operatora, by the functions o~ the motive analyzer. _
Conaeqnently, the induatrial peychologiets and phyaiologiate are confroated with
the task of etndying t;~e time factor in the work of operatora of various tppes-- _
both under customarq conditione and nader comditions subject to the inflnence of
nnfavorable factors characteristic of their ~ork.
21~
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As regarda the study of the hnmsa capacity for ganging time intervals, there is a
great deal of literatnre (49, 58, 70, 96, 100). At the same time, however, maay of
the problema pertaining to thia qneation remain unaolved. Thns, if the character-
i8tice of the perception of a number of stimnlus parametera such ae force, int~n�
sity and fr~quency are eatisfactorily explored, then the dnration paremeter is in-
eufficiently analyzed, evea though the aolution of many biophyaical and biometrical
problems is conting~nt upon kaowledge of that qneation. The principal task con-
frontiag the reaearchere ie to clarify ahether in the perception of other parametera
of physical signals the patterns of time perception are ~ithin the framework of the
iJeber-Fechner paychdphysiological law vhich prevails Mithin epecific limit~.
The present etudy repreaente theoreti.cal and euperimental data concerning the etndy
of the precise qnantitative principlea of the reflection of time in hmnan conscioae-
neea through analysis of the processee of sensation, diecrimination and perception.
Thie problem ie solved through coastruction of natural scales of aonad length bq
direct and in3irect research procednres. Direct ecaling is based on the methode of
qnantitative evalnation of the stimuli (181). The indirect ecaling procednres are
' ba8ed (118) on the integration of the differential thresholds. Since the reaolving
power of the auditory analyZer is the principal psychophqsiological qnality distin-
guishing the professional work of specialiata of the operator type (sonar operators,
radio operatora, etc.), a large part of the reaearch ia thia study ie devoted to
_ iavestigating the characteriatice of the perception of. pnlsed tone signala by man~s
auditory analyzer. A great deal of attention ia given to the description of the
psychometric methods of ineasuring the differeatial reaponse and to the scaling pro-
cedurea that of late have been nsed eatensively in peychophysics and ia sense organ
physiologq. Special attention is directed toward potential e~rrora in the applica-
tion of e given method of analysis.
The present atndy subatantiates an optimal method of analysis that is adeqnate to
the problems at hand. It ie known that in evalnatiag time paremetere, people irc-
evitably make certain errors tnrning on the coaditions of the experiment. Natural~y
enough, if one precisely determinea--nnder various condition3--the patterns of re-
flection of the signal length in human conacionsneas, thie vill allow correction of
the work reeulta of a certain class of specialiate of the operator type and it may
be useful in the developaaent of optimal methode of information tranamission in the
"man-machine~' sye tem.
The atndy preaents the results of reaearch concerning tt~e time-dependent differen-
tial threaholds of man's anditory analyzer; it establiahes the dependence of the
di�ferential threshold valne on the leagth of the standard and oa conditioning. The
studq verifies the hqpothesis concerning the conatancy of the Weber-Fechner rela-
tion in regard to perception of the length of pnlsnd tone signals in the 100-700 ms
range.
The etndv describes the constrnctioa of a natnral souad leagth scele involving
application of direct and indirect acaling methods; it examines the analytical
interrelationships between the form of the psqchophyeical fnnc~ion of the tone
length perception and the method of analysis employed. The overall quantitative
evaluation of the capacitq for reflecting tonal leagths ie presented as an aggre-
gate of natural acalea, of reflected btimnlns values that under dinerse esperimen-
tal coaditions pertained to sets of logarh~thmic, expoo~~ial or linear relationa.
25
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The stndy enbstantiates this facts The reflection of ti.me-dependent characteristics -
- in higher nervoue activity dependa an the mode,of differentiation and evalnation of
the aignel length and ie eubject tc? var~ous paychophyaiological lawa. The study
di~Cnsaes the problems in conaection ~ith the fact that the differentiatiott�attd tihd
- evaluation of the signal lengtha are baeed on eosentially different fanctioaal _
mechaniems of the human anditory ayatem.
The selection of the time intervals reqnir~d for the atudy preaenta certain diffi-
cnltiea. As is kaowa from a number of etndiea (14, 28), there are some aufficient-
Lq clear-cut hypotheses concezning t~o basically diffarent ~echanie~cs of perception
of ehort and long time intervals. Proceeding fron a nuaber of practical considera- _
tione (most of the ai~nals used in technolog~ are of ahort duration) and certain
theoretical consideratioae (cloaeneas to the intrinsic time of the cyclical pro-
cesaes of the central nervous syete~n), in setting np the acal~s We decided on
_ lengtha betv?een 50 and 700 ma, dieregarding tha characteriatice of percaptioa of
very ahort iapnl~es (ahere the Weber-Fechner lev is tno~n not to ba operative) and
of long time intervals ~where the selection of the readiag hours shoNe wide indi-
vidual fluctnation).
The taske aet in the atndy are on tha one hand of a generall~ theoretical natnre
and involve analyses of the psqchophysiological characteristica of the human andi-
tory analqzer; oa the other hand, they aasume the cbaracter of an applied acieace,
of indnstrial paychology and ergono~ica. Specification of the problems~ applied-
science aspeet�necessitates application of the methods of peychopbrpaiology to the
taska of indnetrial peychology and projective ergonomics--the ecience concerned
tiri.th the optimal, complex sqntheais of the "~an--~aachine--enviromnent" syeteana.
In connection with the development of the scientific fonndations of ergonamics,
_ probleaa aueh as the peyehophreiologieal eorre~pondence of the "man--maehine" ays-
tems are asansing epecial eignificance (21).
In order to be able to solve thean probleas, one sa~t firet of all knaw the optimal
procednres for reflecting the parameter range of the "man--~aachine--eaviro~ent"
- system (coate~plated are procedurea of information reflection) and thne ensnre
naxime~ prodnctivity of Lhe entire system with the lo~?est poasible strese on the
operators belonging to that eyetan.
Inasmuch as the perception of information, the proceesing of the information re-
ceived in the ceatral nervoua systeaa, aad the process of decieion-making are tt~:~
principal stages of the Work procesa, it is also important to knaw the opti~aal var-
iants of the information flow and same of the pattarns of its repreaentation in
man'a central nervous syatem.
~Ie hope that the present Work~-which ia dedicated to the stndq of the patterns of
- time raflection in hvman conscionsnee~--Mill campl~ment the presently exietfng per-
tinent concepta and that it v~ill malce it poesible to nse short time intervals as
criteria for the selection, conditioning aad physical diagnosia of the opera~ors,
for whom the time faetor represents an element of their ~?ork proeesa.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980
[126-8760]
8760
CSO: 1840
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UDC 629.7.018.2.001.2
VISUAL SIMULATION DEVICES FOR FLIGHT TRAINING SIMUL,ATORS ~
Moscow IMITATORY VIZUAL'NOY OBSTANOVKI TRENAZHEROV LETATEL'NYKH APPARATOV
in Russian 1978 signed to press 4 Oct 78 pp 2-4, 143
[Annotatioi?, preface and table of contents from book "Visual Simulation Devices
f or Flight Training Sim~lators", by Valeriy 5ergeyevich Babenko, Izdatel'stvo
"Mashinostroyeniye", 1330 co~ies, 143 pages]
~ [Text] The basic principles for modeling the visual environment in flight train-
ing simulators are reviewed in the book. Theoretical substantiation is offered
for visual environment simulators based on the principles of physical and mathe-
matical modeling. Construction principles and the features and directions of
development of visual environment simulators are set forth.
The book is intended for engineers and scientific workers. It may also be of use -
to students of the appropriate specialities.
Preface
In solving the numerous problems associated with the design and operation of air-
craft and aircrew selection and training, and in research on optimizing the aircraft- -
pilot system and so forth, increasing use has been made recently of the modeling
method, and various kinds of modeling devices and complexes are being created. In
this an important part is played by the group of modeling devices with whose aid
the main characteristics and processes of flying and flight control are recreated
(with a certain degree of accuracy) on the ground. Flight trainers and simulators
belong to this group.
Flight simulators, sometimes called modeling test benches, are designed for studying
and optimizing aircraft characteristics and the characteristic~ of the equipment
mounted in them during the process of design and ~production, and flight trainers
are for training pilots in the skills of flying the aircraft in series production
and operating the equipment in them. The use of simulators during aircraft design
work and of flight trainers for pilots makes it possible:
1) to reduce the time taken for research (or training) as the result of working -
through processes at any stage of flight without having to carry out other stages, -
and to stop the f light at any moment and return to the initial situation and make
operations independent of ineteorological conditions and so fortt~;
27 -
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2) to enhance the effectiveness of research (or training) thanks to the more
comprehensive working-through of flight processes in complex conditions with
various kinds of malfunctions, even emergency situations, and as a result, to
record and examine flight results more fully and ob~ectively;
3) to make savings in design (or training) through the lower expenditure of fuel,
less wear on and loss of parts, maintenance costs reduction, and so forth;
4) to reduce airport traffic involving test (or training) f lights and release the
aircraft and pilots used for these flights;
5) to improve research (or training) safety, lower the degree of environmental
pollution with combustion products, reduce the noise level at projects and on the
population living near airports, and so forth.
The use of flight simulators and trainers does not obviate the need for research
and training flights, but already a conaiderablQ portion of flight training has
been transferred to model systems. In the future, in connection with the develop-
ment of new large and fast aircraft, and flights under complex weather conditions,
toge~ther with the improvement of modeling devices, the role of flight simulators -
and trainers will grow even more.
Today's flight simulators and trainers consist of a great number of subsystems:
simulators modeling the operation of various flight devices and the environmental
� effect, means of interaction between the tester (or flight instructor) and the
modeling system and pilot, and so forth. One of the most important subsystems
in a flight simulator or flight trainer is the visual environment simulator that
models the external visual picture of the space visible to the pilot from the f light
deck of an aircraft during flight. W~th the aid of tl-~e visual environment simula-
tor, problems associated with visual flight in an aircraft can be solved in a
flight simulator or trainer.
In this book we examine a broad range of questions connected with the theoretical
substantiation and technical realization of visual environment simulators in
flight simulators (or trainers). The first part of the book (the first and second
chapters) is devoted to a postulation of the bas:~c principles and theory in
modeling the visual environment. In the second part (chapters three through five) -
design principles and the features of optical-mechanical, cinematographi.c and
television visual environment simulators and visual environment simulato~:s with
electrical image synthesis based on essentially different technical principles,
are examined. Particular attention is paid to visual environment modeling in a
complete system with the aircraft trainer for pilots at the takeoff and landing
phases. In principle, taking into account the goal-oriented purpose and initial,
constraining and other conditions, the basic conclusions can be applied to other
cases of visual environment modeling: in flight simulato~..:, other kinds of fligltt
- trainers, set up for other aircrew members, and so forth.
Contents Page
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter l. Basic Princip~es for Modeling Visual Enviro~ment S
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1.1. Flight trainers. The function of the visual environment
simulator 5
1.2. General schemes for visual environment modeling 7
- 1.3. The quality of visual environment simulators 15
1.4. Features of various kinds of visual environment simulators 19
- Chapter 2. Theory of Modeling the Visual Environment 24
2.1. General questions in the theory of modeling the visual environment . 24
2.2. Physical modeling of the geometric characteriatics of the visual
environment 25
= 2.3. Mathematical modeling of the geometric characteristics of the
visual environment 33
2.4. Modeling the energy characteristics of the visual environment 42
2.5. Modeling the visual environment in complex weather conditions 54
2.6. Engineering and psychological questions in modeling the visual
environment 60
Chapter 3. Visual Environment Simulators with Light and Optical Components . 70
3.1. Features of visual environment simulators with light and optical
components 70
3.2. Light and optical elements in visual environment simulators 71
3.3. Optical-mechanical visual environment simulators with false images . 76
_ 3.4. Shadow projection visual environment simulators 82
3.5. Optical-mechanical visual environment simulators with projection
optics 85
3.6. Cinematographic visual environment simulators 89
Chapter 4. Television Visual Environment Simulators 93
4.1. Basic principles of the television method for modeling the visual
- environment 93
- 4.2. The mock-up of the terrain. Modeling translation movements 94
4.3. The optical system for the transmission room. Modeling rotational
_ movements. The lighting system 98
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4.4. The television channel for the visual environment simulator 103
- 4.5. Light visual environment eimulators. Modeling limited visibility 113
- 4~6. Modifying television visual environment simulators 117
Chapter 5. Viaual Environment Simulators with Electrical Image Synthesis . 122
5.1. General principles of visual environment simulators with electri-
cal image synthesis 122
_ 5.2. Modeling the visual environment using the method of analog
synthesis 126
5.3. Digital methods for modeling the visual environment 127
5.4. Digital visual environment simulators for flight trainers 135
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye"~ 1978
[8144/0162-9642 ]
9642
CSO: 8144/0162
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THE EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CREATIVITY IN ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Moscow VOPROSY PSIIQ30IAGII in Russian No 4, 1980 pp 171-173
- (R,eview by V. A. Lyaudis of the book "Intellekt cheloveka i programma EVM"
(Human Intelligence and the Computer Program) edited by 0. K. Tikhomirov, Moscow,
Izdatel'stvo"Nauka; Moscow, 1979, 230 pages]
_ [Text] It cannot be said that when aomputers first appeared in different areas of
intellectual labor, psychology was ready to receive and adquately conceptualize
this new phase in the history of development of the resources of human activity.
The beginning of the era of cybernetics caught it unawares. At first, the science
of human consciousness and the mind began speaking in a language hitherto atypical
of it. It began to dismember the human mind into blocks, cycles, programs, and
sub- and metaprograms. The more optimistic the forecasts of the investigators of
artificial intelligence became, the more successfully this technomorphism rooted
itself in the consciousness of psychologists.
But the shock produced by the first victories of cybernetics is passing. Computers
have become a practical element of the daily occupational activities of tremendous
mass~s of people. It is now time for psychology to think about the specific
theoretical and methodological significance of this situation.
The information-cybernetic approach to the mind, which was the origin of both
technomorphism in psychology itself and anthropomorphism and hegemonism in cyber-
- netics, is becoming an object of serious criticism. But real solutions began to
be found to these problems only when psychology joined the investigation of the
structural and functional changes brought on in the system of man's intellectual
activities and personal attitudes by the use of computers. The very possibility
- of such research was the result of theoretical advancement in the development of
_ the principle of historicism in application to research on human activity.
That such advancement has occurred is evidenced by an entire series of collections
published in recent years by a scientific collective headed by 0. K. Tikhomirov.
The most recent book, which contains the works of this collective and other
researchers collaborating with it, provides persuasive evidence of the fact that
psychology has reached an important level of theory--development of the general
theory of personality function and development of inental processes in the presence
of historically changing resources of cognitive activity.
~ 31
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Z'he key position of the author collective, which was laid at the basis of new
methods and approaches to natural and artificial intelligence in psychological
research, is declared with sufficient distinctness by O. K. Tikhomirov in the
book's introduction and conclusion, and it is realized in all three of its parts
more or less completely. This position is itself based on a sociohistoric inter~
- pretation of the new phase in development of man's cognitive and controliing
activity, a phase which has given birth to the use of new technical devices.
Three premises substantially reveal the essence of this position, and offer a
point of view opposite to the information-cybernetic interpretation of the possi-
bilities of computers, and their role in h~nan activity. The first premise asserts
the need for arriving at a new object of investigation in the development and study
of artificial intelligence. This object must be nat the characteristics of artificial
or nataral intelligence itself, but the psychological characteristics of htunan
intellectual function associated with computer use. Thinking generated by a new
- historic type of organization of huanan activity is precisely what should be the new
object of psychological research. The book's foreword emphasizes: "Thinking
mediated by computer programs is the most complex form of externally mediated
verbal-logical thinking. Study of such thinking is the new task of general
psychology, posed by automation of inental labor" (p 10).
The second premise substantiates the sociohistoric position of the authors in
application to the development of special methods and procedures for studying the
relationship between natural and artificial intelligence. Revelation and creation
_ of mutual associations between natural and artificial intelligence in the course of
man's purposeful activity made up the methodological foundation of each particular
investigation of natural and artificial intelligence. This methodological starting
point not only permits us to devise new methods of psychological study of dialog
= systems having the purpose of organizing cooperation between man and machine (and
not their competition and rivalry), but it also has broad significance as well.
_ It helps us to surmount a naturalistic interpretation of computer functians,
according to which artificial intelligence is in direct opposition to natural human
thinking, which leads to the conception of "autonomy" of artificial intelligence
and "replaceability" of the functions of human intelligence. Computer functions
are made absolu~e and universal in the naturalistic approach. A technical device
is interpreted as an autonomous system existing in opposition to the cognitive
possibilities of the human brain, defined in one way or another and, in the end,
also made absolute. The logic of historic analysis makes the conception of autonomy
and replaceability untenable, and it permits us to view the computer as a specific
tool of purposeful human activity, as a resource called upon to make man's creative
- and com~nunicative potentials objective, to materialize and amplify them, and not to
subvert, constrict~ and replace the functions of natural intelligence. Thus the
idea that creation of a mutual relationship and cooperation between natural and
- artificial intelligence is a prerequisite for further development of purposeful
activity and of man's specifically intellectual potentials was found to be the most
productive in application to development of inethods for studying dialog systems, as
demonstrated in this book.
The position of the authors is also expressed consistently in the third premise,
in which the historical approach is made concrete in application to the prospects
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for using computers in research on the mind, and in application to development of
the potentials, of artificial intelligence. Once again, in opposition to natur~listic
tendencies, the book asserts the prospects for mutual enrichment of studies of
natural and artificial intelligence. Development and improvement of computer pro-
grams cannot be the result of independent efforts by different engineering-cyber-
netic services. Every decisive step along this path is the product of the joint
forward motion of psychologists, mathematicians, and cyberneticists in objectivi-
zation and mediati~~*~ of the psychological components of human activity. Thus im-
provement of computer programs and the principles af their creation lead~ not to
the pre-eminence of "superintelligence" but to revelation, objectivization, and
enrichment of the possibilities for mental regulation of humar, activity, to fuller
consideration of the functions of inental components in all forms of human behavior,
in contrast to the tendency for neutralizing, for castrating the unique features of
the human mind. The position taken by the book's authors in this issue is marked
by maturity and thoughtfulness. The entire content of the book supports the premise
that use and improvement of computer programs with a consideration for the unique
features of human activity raises all rPsearch on human intelligence to a new
theoretical level.
The prospects for development of artificial intelligence are also explored by the
book in a particular fashion in this conn~ction. The strategy of substituting
man's real mental capabilities by the "superintelligence" of a computer is viewed
as a most serious obstacle in the way of improving artificial intelligence, while
the strategy of mutual association and cooperation between man and computer is
- viewed as the historically most justified and th~ most constructive and productive
strategy.
It should be emphasized that this approach to the prospects for development of
computer programs is just beginning to make headway today. The yearning to isolate
and utilize the specific possibilities of both computers and hiunan reason, and to _
seek the ways of their interaction has not yet gained universal recognition among
the investigators of artificial intelligence. In the words of H. Dreyfuss, "most _
researchers can agree on nothing more than an independently operating intelligence:'*
Thus the solutions p~sed by this collective work, which presents the programs and
results of concrete studies on man's cooperation with computers in the solution of
problems associated with cognitive and controlling activity, are all the more re-
markable.
The premises examined above, which define the sociohistoric position of the authors
in research on the relationship between artificial intelligence and human intelli- _
gence, are realized in psychological investigations of ~hree central areas of
practical automation of inental labor: use of computers in dialog mode, and creation
of effective dialog systems; planning automated control systems and evaluating their _
effectiveness; development of the prospects for automating mental labor and~creating -
artificial intelligence approximating human intelligence.
* Dreyfus, Kh., "Chego ne mogut vychislitel'nyye mashiny" [Is There Nothing
Computers Can't Do?], Moscow, Izd-vo Progress, 1978, 278 pages.
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Research aimed at developing the gsycholoqical fundamentals of dialog systems is
described in the book fully and interestingly. ~'he first two articles, written
by O. K. Tikhomirov in collaboration with N. G. Belavina and Yu. D. Babayeva,
describe a vast research program aimed at evaluating and improving dialog systems
from the standpoint of a criterion which most significantly defines the creative
component of human activity--the criterion of goal-setting. First of all the
authors supplement and reorganize our understanding of the categories and phenomena
associated with interaction between man and machine. The informational and techni-
cal criteria of interaction dynamics are in many ways predetermined by the psycho-
logical features inherent to the structure of interaction between an individual
and a computer, the program of which mediates and materializes, one way or another,
a particular context of communication with other people (the programmer, other
users, the experimenter).
The authors suggest new interes~ing principles of organizing dialog between man
and computer, viewi.ng, as the dominate feature of their interaction, their mutual
relationship, organized in a particular fashion, in solution of two types of pro-
blems--problems of thought and communication. They demonstrate the far-reaching
influence of the factors of communication upon intellectual processes, and they
distin~uish new possibilities for controlling various aspects of the act of
thinking in a dialog with a computer: through influence upon the goal-setting
process, upon the rhythm of communication, and upon the form of relationships
existing between man and the machine. Isolation of these three psychological
variables, which can be regulated in the course of dialog with a computer, not
only broadens the possibilities for controlling human intellectual activity, but
also helps us to differentiate the entire area of study of specifically mental
- regulation of human activity, viewed not only in the context of man-machine dialog
- but also in other interaction cont~~ts. Thus the rhythm of communication is treated
as a unit of interaction analysis that is extremely important to solving the pro-
- blems of optimizing any sort of activity.
Revealing the psycholoqical variables of interaction, the authors offer a deep
_ interpretation of a large nimlber of specific phenomena arising in the course of
man's dialog with a computer ("persohificatir~n" of the machine, "partnership",
"rivalry"). We cannot but agree with their premise that the tendency to personify
a technical device, arising even among professional users of such devices, has its.
roots in the deepest properties of the human mind. Riding with this interpretation,
the authors suggest not exorcising but exploiting this tendency for personification.
They suggest exploiting man's motives of competition and emotional attitude, arisinq
in the course of interaction with a machine, for the purposes of optimizing and
"humanizing" the most heuristic programs.
- In their analysis of the mutual relationship and unity of communicative and intel-
lectual processes in dialog systems, the authors do not limit themselves to the
simple alternative of either raising the machine's "intelligence" or raising the
intellectual reserves of the individual. They point to a more-productive and
realistic path. The creative potentials of an individual using a computer in his
cognitive activity rise as the computer programs are "hLmnanized" and as the computer
"learns" to respond to various communicative influences, as the resources and pro-
cedures of controlling the intellectual and emotional spheres of the human person-
ality broaden.
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In two articles devoted to the problems of communication and improvement of dialog
systems, A. Ye. Voyskunskiy pre~ents interesting evidence as to the role of psycho-
logical knowledge in development of the problems of artificial intelligence. He =
raises doubts concerning a number of premises that have already become axiomatic,
p~rticularly the premise of the meaningfulness of Turing's criterion to determining
the intellectual possibilities of computers, and the premise thatcommunication with
a computer in natural language is the most promising direction in the development _
of dialog programs. These problems also give rise to questions that are more
complex than they appear today, associated both with the need for further deep
psychological study of human communication and with mutual penetration and synthe-
- sis of psychological and cybernetic research on comanunication. -
It should be pointed out that all twelve articles in the collection are marked to
one extent or another by the attributes of work on the frontiers of science. These
articles are directed at seeking new paths leadinq to synt;iesis of isolated aspects
of the realities under investigation. More than any other area of research, the
effort to automate mental labor has revealed the importance and spurred on psycho-
- logical investigation of a problem facing all modern culture--that of surmounting
the separation of the intellectual and emotional spheres, of the conscious and
unconscious, and of cognition and communication. On the whole the book leaves the
impression that the search for methods for synthesizing all aspects of the complex _
realities of the human mind is successful and active, that we are successfully
surmounting reductionism typical of those specifically psychological and cybernetic
interpretations.
The sole disappointment of the book is that it does not have a subject index. The
latter would have made it easier for the reader to evaluate and assimilate the
diversity of new concepts and terms introduced and developed by the authors, an3
it would have helped him to immediately sense the refreshing breath of innovation _
_ in rese arch on old problems and in suggestion of original problems, the breath of
innovation borne by research at the point of contact of psychology with information
theory in cybernetics.
On important merit of the book is that it is written without bias, with an effort
to encourage debate. The book raises a debate with the positivist interpretation
of the relationship between natural and artificial intelligence, with attempts at
representing the laws of technical superintelligence as laws explaining hiunan
psychology.
The entire content of the book, which pursues the possibilities of thinking with
the help of a computer--a new cultural and historic capabi.lity of the hiunan mind,
forces us to look in a new way at the subsequent fate of the debate on the question
"Can a machine think?". Obviously before resolving this debate we would need to
gain a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon of man itself. The
question as to what should be given preference in the next stage of evolutionary
development of intelligence--human thinking or computer thought--cannot be answered
apart from historv, from the positions of naturalistic opposition of man and machine,
apart from the logic behind development of human intelligence and its tools, within
the context of char~ging systems of human activity and communication. I believe
that the effort of the authors of this book provides full grounds for suggestinc~
~
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that we are fully prepared for the next step--a new lev el of theoretical generaliza-
tions that would significantly deepen ou; ideas about the nature of human intelli-
gence.
COPYRIGHT: "Voprosy psikhologii", "Padagogika", 1980
[78-11004 ]
11004
CSO: 1840
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MONOGRAPH EXAMINES THEOR~TICAL PROBLEM3 OF HUMAN ADP;PTATION
Novosibirsk SOVREMENNYYE ASPEKTY ADAPTATSII in Russ iaa 1980 s igned to press
- 5 Mar 80 pp 2-9, 191
[Annotation, table of contents and introduction from book "Modern Aspects of
~daptation", by V.P, Kaznacheyev, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka'�, 3550 copies, 191 pa~es]
[Text] Annotation
This monograph examines the theoretical problems of human adaptation, work on which
is acquiring special urgency. Because new, previously uninhabited regions of the -
country are being developed and major industrial production complexes are being
created in these regions, scientifically grounded recommendations on preserving and
developing the health of the individual (the population) in diffexent climatic,
geographic, and production conditions are required. This work studies the mutual
relationship existing between adaptatian and pathological states. Some principles _
of diagnosing different human states are noted, and their significance to prenoso-
logical dispensary treatment of the entire population and to early disease preven-
tion is analyzed. The basic directions of research on human adaptation to the
- Far North and Siberia are discussed.
" The book is intended for biologists, physiologists, hygienists, and ~hys icians.
Twenty-four tables, twenty-e ight figures, five hundred forty bibliographic references.
Table of C~~ntents Page
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Part I. Theoretical Aspects of the Adaptation Problem -
Chapter 1. General Principles of Adaptation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Principles of the Systems Approach to the Adaptation Problem 11
Definition of Adaptation and Its Assessment on the Basis of Its Results 16
' Adapation Strateyy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
_ Classification of Adaptation Processes and Their Diso~ers 22
1
G'hapter 2 . Problems in Human Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3
Some Features of Human Adaptation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Pathological Problems Associated With Chronic Diseases
From the Aspect of Human Adaptation and Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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- Part II. Basic Results and Prospects ot Adaptation Research
Chapter 1. Human Metabolic Features Associated With Adaptation to
Ecological Factors of the Far NortY? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 61
Specific Ecological Features of the High Latitudes . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamics of Free-Radical Lipid Oxidation in People in the Arctic 62
Unique Features of Gas Metabolism During Human Adaptation to ~
Hign Latitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
= The Role of Nutrition in Adaptation to the Far North 77
' Chapter 2. Some Clinical, Physiological, and Social Aspects of Adaptation 92
Problems in Human Psychophysiological Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Clinical Description of the Psychoemotional Stress Syndrome 96
The Body's Thermoregulatory System During Adaptation to Cold 107 _
The Cardiovascular System During Human Adaptation to the North 118
Medical and Social Aspects of Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 _
The Unique Features of a Section Physician's Work in Light of
the Aaaptatian Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 .
Prospects for Future Research on the Adaptation Problem 142
The "Human Ariaptation" Pr.ogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
A Prediction on the "Human Adaptation" Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
_ Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
~ Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Introduction
Development of our country's national economy and assimilation of new, vast terri-
tories, especially ones offering severe climatic and geographic conditions and
characterized by specific, insufficiently studied bacteriological, viral, and para-
sitic infections encountered in natural foci, introduction of new production
technologies, urbanization (of the North, the zone of the Baykal-Amur Rail Mainline, -
high mountains, and deserts) and other consequences of scieni:ific-technical progress _
have significantly altered man's interaction with the encironment. Evolved eco- _
systems, the psychophysiological properties of contemporary human population, and
the structure and nature of diseases are undergoing transformation. Qualitative =
changes in biological and psychophysiological indicators of today's population are
typified by development of new biological and general pathological laws, and by
their specific orientation in particular climatic, geographic, social, and production
conditions.
The social, production, and hygienic aspects of life-support s�rstems are acquiring
increasingly greater significance in the effectiveness of preventive measures.
Works by A. L. Chizhevskiy and V. I. Vernadskiy on the biosphere, the noosphere,
_ and the problems of regional and global ecology are very important from a practical
point of view.
Analysis of public health in the country's eastern regions, some high-altitude
regions, tne arid zone, and marine envi.ronments would show that a significant pro-
portion of the immigrant and indigenous population is under a state of chronic
stress. Given the increasing manpower shortage, growth in labor productivity, and
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the faster rate of production and rhythm of life, one certain task is gaining priority -
significance--that of not only predicting arisa]. of disease:s and premature aging,
but also preserving and developing the health of the present generation and guaran-
- teeing the health of future generations.
Man and civilization, ethnic, biological, and psychophysiological laws, alteration -
of the environment, and the processes of technospherogenesis, noospherogenesis, and -
noocosmagenesis are becoming the most important problems of modern natural history
n~t only because their study is revealing the increasingly greater potential of
science in all areas, but also owing to their priority practical significance to
society. The pr.esent scientific-technical revolution, transformation of historically
evolved natural conditions over vast territories of the earth and its waters, and
profound shifts in the biosphere have made the "Man and Environment" problem one
of the urgent ones, and the mutual dependence of these processes on earth a problem
of global scale. Its resolution is acquiring increasingly greater sociopolitical
importance.
, Among the issues associated with today's "Man and Environment" problem, adaptation,
- which has been the focus of a number of major international programs in recent years,
is one of the fundamental issues. Many years of research on human ad~ptation to
extreme conditions within the framework of the International Biological Program
(1964-1974) have been completed. The results of research conducted by Soviet -
scientists have been published in the periodical literature and in a special mono-
graph consisting of three volumes (Z. I. Barbashova, N. G. Rychkov, M. M. Mirrakhi-
mov, N. N, Sirotinin, N. R. Deryapa, A. L. Matusov, F. F. Sultanov, N. P. Neverova, ~
T. I. Andronova, N. N. Mikloshevskaya, I. I. Likhnitskaya, and others). Publica-
_ tion of the collective monographs "Obshchestvo i zdorov'ye cheloveka" [Society and
Human Health] (1973) and "Filosofskiye problemy ~eorii adaptatsii" [Philosophical
Problems of Adaptation Theory] (1975), under the edi~orship of G. I. Tsaregorodtsev,
was a major contribution to the problem's development. The theoretical and clinical
issues have been illuminated in works by V. V. Parin, A. P. Avtsyn, G. M. Danishevskiy, -
A. M. Chernukh, F. Z. Meyerson, M. M. Mirrakhimov, A. D. Slonim, Z. I. Barbasho~va,
- I. S. Kandror, N. R. Deryapa, and L. Ye. Panin.
Four international symposiums on physiology and pathology of human adaptation to the
North have been organized and held (Alaska--1967, Finland--1971, Canada--1974,
USSR--1978). Works presented by Soviet scientists at these symposiums were given
a highly favorable assessment.
Important fundamental and applied prok.lems associated with studying human adapta- `
tion to the North were discussed at the Fourth International Symposium on Circum- -
polar Medicine (Novosibirsk, 1978).
The key laws governing the health, adaptation, and pathology of the individual
cannot be correctly understood apart from the concepts of population and ecology.
A biosocial being, man is still part of the biosphere, upon which he depends in
view of the cycling of matter and energy, and which man is transforming with in-
creasingly greater intensity (as a social being in this case), engaging in titanic
- biogeochemical work that has become the foundation of the noosphere's formation
(Vernadskiy, V. I. , 1.977) .
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The rate at which man develops habitats which are new to him and which satisfy the
growing needs of society is rising constantly. Contemporary national economic
development of the coiuitry's eastern and northern regions is a graphic example of
this. The scale of anthropogenic changes being made in the environment in connec-
- tion with man's economic activities is universally known (?edorov, Ye. K., 1972; -
etc.). Such changes are i.mportant to biologists not only from the standpoint of
environmental contamination or exhaustion of vitally important natural resources,
but also as a process of active formation of a qualitatively new, more-complex
environment, in relation to which man, as a biological species, does not possess
inherited stereotypic adaptation mechanistns. ~
Modern human populations can no longer be viewed as conservatively stable grours
constantly isolated, over several generations, in the places they have assimilated. -
Modern populations are better viewed as continuous flows of people migrating through
~ geographic space in complex interaction with social, production, and natural condi-
tions. The high migrational mobility of the populati~n (Malinin, Ye. D.,
Ushakov, A. K., 1976; etc.) is becoming a regularly encountered. phenomenon,
characterizing one of the most important aspects of socially governed adaptation
of modern populations. This unic~ue feature is especially evident today in Siberia, -
_ the Far North, and the Far East--that is, in territories where the proportion of
land developed by man is rising swiftly.
These circumstances--namely the high rate of the environment's modification, the
constantly increasing mosaic heterogeneity of the biotic and physicochemical pro-
perties of the biosphere (especially in connection with urbanization, as well as
agricultural industrialization), migrational mobility tlong- and short-term)
connected with industrial development of previously uninhabited regions, and in-
tensification of man's own microevolutionary change--do not for practical purposes -
oermit man to achieve any sort of stable relationship with the environmeiit.
Using E. Bauer's terminology (1935), we can say that man's mutual relationships
- with the environment are typified today by an ever-increasing degree of stable
imbalance, supported by constant adaptation.
One of today's scientific directions capable of accounting for all of these
' phenomena without ignoring processes and factors significant to human health, and
of placing the accum~ilated knowledge in systematic order, is human ecology--that
is, a new scientific direction extending significantly beyond the framework of ~
_ demography, hygiene, medical geography, and so on.
The health of the individual and the population is a product of social anthropo-
- ecological interactions. it is becoming increasingly more obvious that we need _
to develop, in addition to the purely medical problems, directions,associated with
studying ecological laws, particularly human ecology--a new interdisciplinary -
direction studying the laws governing interaction of human populations with en-
vironmental factors, development of populations, maintenance and development of
human health, and improvement of the physical and mental potentials of species _
Homo sap~�ens. In short, we need to reveal the laws governing interaction, with the
environment, of large groups of people which, owing to common social, production,
cultural, and biological bonds, are commonly called populations. We can already
reveal such laws in relation ta the populations of major territorial-industrial -
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_ ~omplexes in the Arctic, certain permanent settlements in the Arctic, stations in
the Antarctic and other territories and, finally, the population of the European
and Asian North as a whole. Despite the sign:ificant arbitrariness of such a dis-
tinction, this approach creates the possibility for studying the most general,
fUndamental laws governing preservation and development of health with a consider-
- ation for the unique features of all climatic, geographic, social, and production
conditions. It should be emphasized that the concept of an individual's health
and the concept of a population's health, though they are mutually associated and _
mutually dependent, pertain to different levels of society's organization. Thus -
individual health can be defined as the process of preserving and developing the
individual's mental, physical, and biological functions and his optimum work effi-
ciency and social activity in the course of a maximum (active) life span. Population -
health is a process of sociohistoric development of the psychophysiological and bio-
logical vi.ability of a population, and of the continuity of generations in the face
of an ever-increasing rate of social production and improvement of the population's
_ stability as it develops new territories. It follows from these definitions that
in addition to the criteria used to assess individual health, appropriate processing
and generalization of which would provide important information on population health, -
we need to distinguish additional i.ndicators reflecting the state of the popia.lation
as a single whole. One of the most effective ways for developing such indicators -
might be to analyze the laws of human ecology. -
It is precisely in the aspect of the laws of human ecology that ;ae caa understand,
with greater depth and accuracy, the development of adapative processes in the
diversity of their manifesta.tions within the individual and the population. -
Analysis of human adaptation from the aspect of population ecology leads us to a
definition of population health as a process of sociohistoric development of the
viability (biological and psychosocial) of a group of people over a nizmber of
- generations, growth in the efficiency and productivity of social. labor, and improve-
ment of the properties and characteristics of the species.
In addition to the individual properties of a population's individuals, the criteria
describing the health of a given population of people include birth rate, health of
offpsring, genetic diversity, the population's degree of adaptation to climatic
and geographic conditions, its readiness to perform diverse social roles, its age
structure, and so on (Merkov, A. M., 1973; Bednyy, M. S., 1972; Urlanis, B. Ts.,
1973; etc.).
Such are the basic modern aspects of human adaptation and human ecology, the
scientific and practical significance of which would be difficult to overstate.
The work "Biosistema i adaptatsiya" [The Biosystem and Ada~tation7, in which I made
theoretical generalizations and stated some premises concerning thz problem's
further study, was published in 1973. Since that time many issues presented ir_ the
book have enjoyed experimental and clinical development. The scientific subdivi-
sions of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences' Siberian Branch. have accumulated
~ new, original facts, and the research results have been published in scattered
sources. Meanwhile the growing scientific attention to the problem and its practi-
cal significance to development of public health and the national economy argue for
further work on the issues. It was not my task to illuminate all areas of the pro-
blem, the modern literature on which is enormous. This book basically contains -
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- facts acquired during expeditionary studies performed by scientists of the Institute
- of Clinical and Experimen~al Medicine of the USSR A~ademy of Medical Sciences' -
Siberian Branch. Some chapters illumiMate issue:~ that are presently debatable.
2'his is natural, inasmuch as study of the problern as a whole, as was indicated
aboVe, began relatively recently. MeanwhilE, de~elopment of the Far North, the
eastern regions, and various extreme zones of our country, and urbanization are -
proceeding so intensively that we are constantly fa~ced by more and more new problems.
- Consequently unification and cooperation, clearer integrated planning of specific
research, and better interaction with other problems having scientific and practi~cal
- significance are becoming all the more necessary. I also feel that the new data
presented here might have important practical significance to both organization of
scientific research and the planning of the national economy,
Adaptation is without a doubt one of the fundamental qualities of living matter.
It is inherent to all known forms of life, and it is so universal that it is often
identified with the concept of life itself (Sel'ye, G., 1972). This is not acciden-
tal, since both the processes responsible for the origin of life, no matter where :
they proceed, and the evolution of life have always had adaptive properties. And
being mandatory attributes of life, these properties become more complex in the .
course of life's development. They progress, acquiring an increasingly more active,
sometimss overwhelming nature. And if we were to interpret evolution as progressive
development of the properties of adaptation to the environment and of the properties
of this environment's adaptation in behalf of living beings, then naturally the =
concept of life and the concept of adaptation would overlap significantly.
It is apparently no accident that ttie highly important concept of "normal health" is defined
"...as the optimum state of a living system insuring maximum (italics mine--V. K.)
czdaptation" (Parin, V. V., 1973). In light of P. K. Anokhin's theory (1975) on
anticipatory reflection of reality by living systems, and his conceptions on
functional systems, notions as to the telenomic nature of vital activities and
adaptation also come together. In the course of evolution of species and indivi- -
duals, both functional-morphological mechanisms of adaptation to particular environ- _
mental conditions and new properties typical of the functional organization of _
internal and external adaptive processes were selected and reinforced, to promote
further preferential survival of individuals, and preservation and development of
the s~~cies (population). It is by these properties of adaptation and adaptive
features, together with their concealed maximum potentials, that V. V. Parin's
"normal health" of a living system is defined. t
In the same way that properties of individual development are contained in the
genetic apparatus and the qualities borne by genetic structures can be understood
only when they are realized in individual life (in ontogenesis) so it is with the _
- properties of adaptation and adaptive features--that is, the quality of life, the
"normal health" of the individual may be deeply analyzed only when the~e properties
manifest themselves in real life. For this purpose the given organism must be
placed in natural or artificial conditions requiring maximum mobilization and exer-
tion of its potential adaptive possibilities for survival and preservation. Thus
the property of adaptation of a living system is essentially a measure of indivi- _
- dual health. These properties can be evaluated and predicted both by extrapolation
and by revealing some characteristics (l.abels) measured by convPntional physiological
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tests. However, it should be stated that few sufficiently informative criteria are
available yet, and the theory of long-range prediction of the health of living
_ systems in extreme conditions is practically non~xi~tent, though important data have
been obtained on the predictive role of ~ertain factors--hypodynamia, change in
bibrhythms, hypoxia, nutritional imbalances, bacterial-viral and antigenic surround-
_ ings, psychoneur al stress,the mutagenic background, and so on. The clinical aspects
of adaptation, pathological process for example, have been studied much better
- (Avtsyn, A. P., 1972; Bayl', S. S., 1973), but their further development is being
significantly restrained due to the lack of knowledge on the mechanisms of adaptation
of healthy life in extreme conditions, and its reversible (pr~pathological) states
- (Parin, V. V., 1973).
Even greater difficulties arise in research on human adaptation in Zight of bio- -
social problems (Fedoseyev, P. K., 1976). It should be noted that by recognizing the
future significance of social factors in assessment of man's biology, physiology,
adaptation, and pathology (Dubinin, N. P., 1966), we impose special requirements on
further research on adaptation riot only in the social and hygienic aspects but also
in light of the problems of the evolution, biology, and genetics of man, human
_ popu.lations, and the species Homo sapien8 (Dubinin, N. P., 1977). As far as the
latter is concerned, I would like to caution the reader against relatively unsub-
stantiated attempts at using data on the systemic organization, trermal dynamics,
- and evolution of some ecosystems in nature to interpret the state and evolution of
_ human ecosystems, and attempts to find more similarities among biological, biosocial,
and social systems without considering their qualitative differences. At the same
time we should turn special attention to studying problems associated with evolution
_ of the biosphere, the laws of which have hardly been explored by evolutionary
biology (Dyubishchev, A. A., 1968j. This is all the more important because the
ever-increasing rate of evolution of the technosphere and noosphere has essentially -
- embraced the entire surface of our planet, and near-earth space. Changing its en-
vironment, mankind must bear full responsibility for the future, which will be un-
imaginable apart from the laws of biology, psychophysiology, and other fundamentals
o~ life .
The facts contained in this monograph are the author's generalization of the results
of integrated scientific research conducted in the last 5 years by scientists of
the Institute of Clinical and Experimental Medicine of the USSR Academy of Medical
Sciences' Si.berian Branch: L. Ye. Panin, V. Yu. Kulikov, V. V. Lyakhovich, M. A.,
Yakimenko, L. A. Kovalenko, M. M. Yegunova, Ts. P. Korolenko, V. I. Turchinskiy,
and other institute colleagues. The author extends his gratefulness to them, as
we11 as to I. A. Privalov, L. G. Matros, and D. N. Mayanskiy for their great help
_ in preparing this monograph.
COPYRI(~iT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980
_ [73-11004] _
11004 -
CSO: 1840 -
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- PSYCHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN DISCOVERY BY THE PILOT OF CRITICAL INFLIGHT
- SITUATIONS
Moscow VOPROSY PSIKHOLOGII in Russian No 9,1979 pp 114-117
~Article by A. A. Oboznov, Moscow7
~ex~7 Flying activity belongs in that kind of operator occupations for
which the appearance of camplex and critical situations is a not in-
frequent event. The most important condition for effectiveness of pilot
- action in such situations is timeliness of discovery by him of the cam-
plication being generated. Meanwhile, pilot practise indicates that many
mistakes of a plane crew involve, precisely, an untimely exposure of a
critical situation.
- In the paper being presented we dwell on an analysis of a rather typical
mistake of that kind involved in late discovery, by the pilot, of dan-
gerous loss ~f height during withdrawal of the plane fram a camplicated
situation, a mistake which can lead to the most serious consequences
/3/, /7/.
We started out from the position that a psychological analysis of causes
of untimely discovery, by the pilot, of dangerous loss of height--hawever
thia appliea to an analysis of any mistake of an operator--should begin
with an exam3nation of the concrete content of the goals which face him
/5/. If one accepts the assumption that an operator forms a concrete
goal of action of control, in the form of a model of the future (given)
status of the controlled model, then this model, in a functional sense,
can be termed the model-goal /4/, and it can be assumed that it, pre-
ciaely, determines the sequence and order of the operator's perception
of signal~ about the status of the ob~ect being controlled.
In this conn~ction, it is pertinent to note that--according to reco~amen-
- ations of same methodists of flight training--withdrawal of a plane fram
a complicated situation (CP), under conditions of horizontal flight, im-
plie3, above all, correction of devfations initiating on the gyro horizon
indicator with respect to banking and pitching /2/. In such a method of
training, withdrawal from CP is associated, by the pilot, with reaching
_ ~4
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definite magnitudes of bank and pitch which, as parameters of the object
being controlled, have specid 1 sub~ective importance and occupy a central
place in the model-goal. And this means that, in the process of with-
drawal from the C~, the pilot will devote main attention to the on-going
readings of the gyro horizon indicator and can omit looking at the heigh't
parameter. According to the hypothesis advanced by us, the timeliness of
pilot discovery of a dangerous deflection of any sort in a f light para- -
meter will depend on what kind of place this parameter occupies in the
model-goal, or (which is the same thing), on the subjective importance
of this parameter. -
PROCEDURE
The investigation was carried out in a pilot trainer which was a single- _
seat plane cabin with an ins trument panel and control organs. The pilot
was given the initial flight conditions, after achievement of which the
instrument panel was covered with an opaque curtain. In a short time,
by using the control box, the experimentor and his aide inserted, on the _
instruments, a complicated situation (the pilot could not see what kind
- of changes were put into the instr~mment indicators). Then the instrument
panel was uncovered and the task of the pilot consisted of rapid withdraw-
al of the "plane," from the c omplicated situation, into horizontal flight. -
~ The character of the complic ated situations and the order of their inter- _
- change were not known earlier by the pilot.
The experimentally-created complication was a change in the altitude
reserve for withdrawal as compared with the altitude of the initial
conditions.
In the course of the experi.ment, basic flight parameters were recorded
on a f'ilm of an autographic apparatus; the controlling activity of the
pilot; moments of radio exchange between pilot and experimentor (content
_ of radio exchange was recorded in parallel on a tape recorder); marks of
turning on or turning off the film equipment f or recording the direction
or th.~ pilot's glance with r espect to the instrwnent panel. Film record-
ing of a glance was carried out with the help of an "NAC" apparatus.
' Speed of snapshots was equal to 8 frames per second. These film record-
_ ings were processed on an "M- 220" computer.
Twenty-four pilats participat ed in the experiment carrying out, altogeth-
er,312 experimental tasks.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of the recordings of pilot controlling movements showed that
withdrawal from the complicated situation begir,s with elimination of the
banking with.subsequent leve lling off of the plane with respect to pitch-
ing. The average time fram uncovering of the curtain to the first con-
trolling movement with respect to counteracting the banking and to the
initial movement with respect to elimination of pitching, respectively, -
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was equal to 1.5 � 0.6 sec and 3.0 � 1.3 sec.
It is understood that, in the time consumed in elimination of the deviat-
ion in banking and pitching, the altitude reserve was decreased, whereby,
in 40% of all cases, the loss of height exceeded 1000 M, and, in 12.5%,
2000 M and more which--with a small reserve of time--can lead to the
hazard of unsafe flight, These data once again point out the importance
of timely stock-taking of the altitude for a safe withdrawal from the
complicated situation.
- What kind of attention is to be devoted--in the process of withdrawal--
to the altimeter? For an answer to this question, let us examine the
materials of film recording of the glance of the pilots (Tab. 1). This
shows that the greatest attention in the process of withdrawal from a
complicated situation was devoted to the gyro horizon indicator, a fix on -
the reading of which was taken in all cases without exception. For com-
parison, let us note that, even in those si*_uations where the altimeter _
indicator was monitored, the percentage for it amounted to only 3.1% of
the total time of monitoring of all the instruments, whereas fixes on the -
gyro horizon locator were longer by a f.actor of 26!
In a number of cases the testees reported reaching the tasked horizontal -
f flight without ever having monitored the altimeter reading or even caring
to estimate the hEight reserve actually at their disposal. Precisely in
these conditions, the pilots were not always able to discover in time the
dangerous height loss (set up by the experimentor) and continued to work
the controls for 8-10 sec after the height was already equal to zero.
Thus, the ongoing magnitudes of bank and pitch are unfailingly monitored
as of first order and basic by all the pilots dur.ing withdrawal from CS.
_ This circumstance permits the view that the cited parameters occupy a -
central place in the content of the model-goal formed in the pilots; in
- other words, they are urgently important components of that model-goal.
A parameter is viewed as urgently important when reaching a definite
magnitude of it is directly required for resolution of the task, and for
this reason the ongoing m~gnitude of the urgently important parameter is
controlled, f irst of all. In this sense, the parameter of height in
many of the situations studied by us can by no means be regarded as ur-
gently importanc components of the model-goal.
Naturally, the height parameter always enters into the content of a model-
goal of a pilot since for any pilot the need is evident for a definite -
height reserve during resolution of any concrete task; however, that
parameter can have diff erent sub3 ective importance. In those cases where,
in itself, maintenance of a certain height is not a direct requirement,
though it is a cczdition for resolution of a task, the height parameter
often becames not an urgently, but potentially, important component of the
model-goal. This means that the ongoing altimeter indicators are only
"kept in mind" by the pilot and are monitored when there is a reserve of ` -
46
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Table 1. Indices of Assembly of Pilot Information during Withdrawal fram
a Complicated Situation (Averaged Data)
� Indices of structure of information assembl �
nd. of fixes time of monitoring mean duration of fix,
Instruments in ~ of total �in.�y of total time in sec.
no:. of fixes of monitoring
gXro horizoa indicator 50.1 80.2 2.5
rate of climb indicator 22.8 9.3 0.5
= velocity indicator 19.3 7.4 0.6
altimeter 7.8 3.1 0.5
Table 2. Number of Cases (Frequency) of Perception of the Altimeter in
the Process of Withdrawal from a Comp licated Situation
Type of experi- Magnitude of Reserve of height Frequency of
mental situation initial height in a camplicated perception of
~H3.nit~ ~M) situation (Hres~ altimeter (in
(M) % of total
- number of each
situation)
- A 1500 1500 86
B 1500 5500 86
- ~ 5500 5500 73.5
- D 5500 1500 72
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time, i.e., in second place. Whence it follows that timeliness of pilot
disc overy of a dangerous loss of altitude during withdrawal of a plane
from CP depends on the sort of subjective importance the altitude para- -
meter has as a component of the model-goal.
To clarify the f actors which determine the different subjective importance
of the height parameter, a special series of studies were carried out. ~
Serving as controlled variables in the studies were the initial height
~Hini~) and reserve of height in a complicated situation (H~g). Changing
these variables, we created four types of experimental. situations (Tab. 2) .
- Serving as the initial condition, always, was a horizontal flight while
- the complicated situation was a descending spiral with a right or left
banking of 80�. Situations in which H~p amounted to 1500 M were con-
ditionally termed critical, while situations with H~p = 5500 M were termed
- saf e. (Footnote: The altitude was altered at the time of interjecting
_ the c omplicated situation, i.e., it was hidden from the pilot).
Results of this series of experiments permitted the view that the sub- ~
jective importance of the height parameter is a function not of the act- -
ua11y existing H~p but, rather, of the magnitude of Hinit�
First, the probability of monitoring the altimeter readings during with-
drawal from a camplicated situation is a function of Hinit magnitud~s
(See Tab 2). If one compares, with each other, situations A and B or C
and D, it appears that, with the same Hinit~ the altimeter is also monit--
ored in the same number of cases, independent of the actually-existing
height reserve f or withdrawal. Conversely, in situations with n different -
Hinit~ the frequency of monitoring also appears to be different. Thus,
in s ituation A(Hinit=1500M) as compared with situatiori C(Hinit-5500M), .
the altimeter is monitored 14% mor~ often, although in both situations the
height reserve for withdrawal was the same (H~p = 5500M).
- Second, there is an analogous dependency demonstrated by the results
characterizing the moment of first fixation of the glance on the altimeter
af ter starting the withdrawal from the camplicated situation. For example,
in s ituations A and B wherein Hinit is the same, the distribution of the
moment of first fix on the altimeter is also practically the same although
the height res2rve in situation A was critical and less by almc,st a factor
of f our than in situation B. In addition, in the saf e situation B, a f ix
on t he altimeter occurs 2-3 sec earlier than in the critical situation D
_ (Fig 1) . ~
Thtis, according to the data obtained, diff erences in importance of the
height parameter are determined by the magnitude of Hinit� This depend-
enc y can be interpreted from the point of view of the influence of a
subj ective adjustment on the evaluation of objective conditions of reality
/1/, /6/. In this context, under adjustment is understood the prepared-
ness of the pilot for selective perception an3 intelligent anticipation
j 48
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eva+w.+w eeoA yv+~ce?Kan~
Ncxoa��o~ cnoacnoro s tnm~~+
eucar.+ nonmKCr�~ nonohctM~
(M~c�~ ~Ncn~
CHrv~r.a 5$00 M
5500 r d
H~
~
Q1TY4l(l01 ~ ~
)}OOM 1SOOM
0
" 1 CN7YAU,NA ~
-r~.'~
_ 90 i'
8~ / `
70 ~ cury~ulyp 0
e ~
~ ~
/
3
20
10 ,
~ t 2 ~4 5 6 7 6 9 1011 1213 141St,c
Fig. 1. Integral function of distribution of time of
the first visual fix on the altimeter at
- situations B and D
- Key to Fig. 1:
1. First colimin: Magnitude of initial height (Hi11it)
situation 5500 M (D)
~ situation 1500 M (B)
_ 2. Second column: Introduction of a complicated situation (CP)
3. Third column: Reserve of height in the complicated situation
~HCP)
4. Graph . Situation B
Situation D
Abscissa t,s
L~ 9
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of a complicated situation. In these situations, where Hinit is not great,
an adj ustment f or the worst is formed in the pilot, and his model-goal
conta ins the altitude parameter as an urgently important component. In
these cases, ind ependently of the actually-existing H~p, the ongoing in-
dicators of altitude will be perceived as of first order items. Here, in
the ccnflict between the adjustment for the worst and the safe withdrawal
fram the CP, adj ustment by the pilot can take the upper hand.
Let us take the example of an incorrect assessment of a safe situation as -
the result of influence of adjustffient for the worst. After completion of
the initial conditions in situation B(Hinit = 1500M), pilot B. began
- withdrawal from the complicated situation, having a reserve altitude of
5500 M(see Fig~l). The very tirst (after removal of the curtain) fix of
vision is upon the altimeter and only then does the pilot complete action
to counter bank ing and pitching. After 6.1 sec from the start of with-
drawa 1, there came the report "I am e~ecting!", although at this moment
H~p was over 5000 M. In this same radio interval the following appeared.
Since the initial altitude was not great, the pilot earlier had already
adjusted himself for the worst. Precisely under the influence of the
adjus tment for the worst, there took place a mistaken assessment of the
altimeter readings: figure 5 on the screen in the center of the altimeter,
showing the numb er of total kilometers, was taken to be the number of _
hundr eds of ineters, hence the height reserve--instead of 5000 M--was fig-
ured as 500 M, i.e., less by a f actor of 10.
In the presence of a sufficiently large Hinit ~situations C and D), an r
adjustment is created in the pilot for the subsequently positive withdraw-
al fr om the CP. In corre~pondence with this adjustment, a model-goal forms
in him, in which the height parameter enters as a potentially important
comp onent. Hence, in withdrawal of the p lane from the CP, the pilot f irst
of a 11 perceiv es the gyro compass locator readings, f iguring that the -
- existing reserv e altitude configured in it is adequate and not losing time
to f igure out the altitude readings.
- Under real cond itions of f light, danger arises in those conditions where
there is a contradiction between an adjustment for safe withdrawal and a
- minimal actual altitude reserve. Adjustment to a favorable outcome ren-
ders it harder f or a pilot for timely recognition of an arising critical -
situation and thereby it hinders transfer of the altitude parameter from
a potentially to an urgently important camponent of his model-goa1.
Whenc e, a1so, is created the impression that the pilot is forgetting about
altitude although the psychological nature of this mistake is quite
dif f erent . _
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BIBLIOGRAP~IY
1. Bruner, Dzh., Psychology of Perception�[~,tn Russian7. Moscow, 1977, 411p
2. Kachorovskiy, I. B., Distribution and Switching of Attention with
- respect to an Instrument ~n Russia~ ~ Moscow, 1972. 104 p
3. Kupriyanov, A. and Dubnikov, V. "What's th~ Altitude?" AVIATSIYA I
KOSMONAVTIKA, No 10, 1972, pp 44-45 `
4. Lomov, B. F., Ways to Construct a Theory of Engineering Psychology
Based on a Systems Approach--in the book: Engineering Psychology. Theory.
- Methodology. Practical Lise Lin Russian7. Moscow, 1977, pp 31-55
5. Dobrolenskiy, Yu. P., editor, Methods of Eng ineering-Psychological
Research in Aviation [in Russia~. Moscow, 1975
6. Uznadze, D. N., Experimental Bases of the Psychology of Adjustment
/~n Russian7. Tbilisi, 1961, 210 p
7. Hemming, F. 0. Aircraft Accidents and Human Factors, AEROSPACE MEDs
- `Jol 44, No 6, 1973, pp 682-684
- COPYRIGHT: "Vanro~sy psikhologii", "Pedagogika", 1979
_ [8144/1364-8586]
- 8586
CSO: 8144/1364
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UDC: 621.612.8
-
- PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICL~L STUDIES OF OPERATOR PERFORMANCE AND EQUIPMENT USED
Moscow PSIKHOFIZIOLOGICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA DEYAT~L~NOSTI CHELOV:":A- -
OPERAT ORA I IKH TEKHNICHESKOYE OBES PECHENIYE in Russian 197~ signed to
press 18 Jul 79 pp 2, 88-91
[Annotation and abstracts of articles from book "Psychophysiological
Studies of Human Operator Performance and Technical Support Thereof",
edited by V,G. Volkov, candidate of engineering sciences, chief editor,
Izdatei'stvo "Nauka", 1900 copies, 92 pages ] _
[Text] This collection covers new methods and instruments for the study
of psychophysiological parameters and characteristics of man as part of a
semiautomatic control system, as well as the results of experiments con-
ducted under various ~including extreme) conditions.
It is intended for a~aide circle of engineers, mathematicians and physio-
logists working in the field of applied human physiology.
Abstracts
"Dynamics of Operator Mistakes in Recognition of Visual Images," by
M. V. Frolov, Ye. P. Sviridov and L. S. Khachatur'yants
This article discusses the results of exgerimental studies of recognition
of visual images obscured by interference (Arabic digits 2-9, 0) in the
course of prolonged (for many hours and many days) operator work. A differ-
ence was demonstrated in the dynamics of errors of different types ("skipping
- a signal," "false alarms," "confusion of signals") as fatigue progresses
due to prolonged work and lack of feedback about the results of work, as `
well as a correlation between these dynamics and prior instructions, which
form a sub~ective model of the experimental situation. A comparison is
drawn between the physiological parameters of the operator's functional
state while working to the parameters of the quality of his performance.
= Illustrations 3; bibliography lists 2 items.
52
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"Optimization of Methodological Approach to Simulation of Conflict
= Situations," by V. I. Kichkin .
- One of the possible methodological appr~aches to experimental modeling of -
a conflict situation is described, involving strict competition for the
purpose of testing the effect on the latter of some psychophysiological
parameters of competing ["antagonistic"] operators (time of sensorimotor -
reaction, attention, level of emotional zxcitement).
A potential variant is proposed of a device that permits simulation of
a number of aspects of strictconflict that are of practical importance
("noisy," "blind," duel; duel with different exposure between "shots";
duel with addition of attention distributing task). Illustrations 1;
bibliography lists 5 items.
- "Autogenic Training as a Method for Stimulating Operator Efficiency," _
by Yu. F. Isaulov
This article submits data describing the influence of special autogenic[bio
feedback] training on efficiency of an operator involved in various
control systems and professional work. An evaluation is made of the
_ efficacy of autogenic training to improve efficiency in the ~resence of -
different degrees of occupational fatigue. Illustrations ' bib~iography
lists 6 items.
"Simulator for Pursuit Tracking With an Adjustable Pseudorandom Program
for the Marker Trajectory," by V. G. Volkov
- A method and device are described for conducting tests of two-coordinate
- pursuit tracking, the trajectory of the "pursued" marker simulating the
movement of a tangible point in a viscous medium, which is submitted to
impacts with other material particles. The trajectory of the marker on
the visual display screen is determined by the direction and force of "col-
lisions," which are governed by a random law, while its "mean" velocity -
is determined by the number of these "collisions" and depends on the
quality of the subject's perfonnance. Illustrations l; bibliography lists _
- 7 items.
"Some Results of Using Speech Parameters for Objective Diagnosis of
Emotional Disorders," by N. A. Yerashchenko, A. Yu. Magalif and V. L.
Taubkin
A study was made of the behavior of the parameters of flow of speech and
acoustical characteristics of the voice of patients with manic-depressive
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psychosis, at different stages of illness. It was demonstrated that a
_ number of speech parameters can be used for ongoing objective monitoring
of the recovery process. Illustrations 1; bibliography lists 11 items.
"Physiological Distinctions of Psychological Models of Hypo- and Hyper-
Gravity," by L. P. Grimak and N. N. Lebedeva
This article submits the results of a 10-day experiment with the use of
psychological models of hyper- and hypo-gravity against the backgroiind
- of strict hypodyna~aia. According to the EKG, EEG, EMG, ERG and x-ray
findings referable to the heart, a differential analysis was made of the
functional changes in the body as related to the model formed. On the
basis of this analysis, suggestions are formulated on curbing the adverse
changes caused by the weightlessness factor in actual space flights.
Illustrations 5; bibliography lists 6 items. _
"A study of Man's Psychophysiological Characteristics Under Extreme
Conditions," by N. F. Luk'yanova
The study of functional and psychological capabilities and personality
distinctions of subjects makes it possible to predict the degree of their
endurance in an experiment involving a stay on rescue [emergency] flotation
devices. In the course of this experiment, a number of distinctions was
demonstrated in the mental state of the subjects, with negative dynamics
of the main mental processes (attention, thinking). Such experiments
could serve as a model for psychological studies of people under real
situations of this type. Illustrations 2; bibliography lists 6 items.
"Analysis of Mean Number of Intersections of Zero Level by a Physiological
Process," by M. V. Frolov
Ttiis article discusses problems of estimating the mean number of
zeros due to finiteness of analysis time and ignorance of the spectral
form. rormulas are furnished, which permit evaluation, in particular,
of the magnitude of a centroid according to mean number of intersections
of zero level by the signal per unit time. Illustrations 1; bibliography
lists 5 items.
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"Operator's Blepharomotor [Blink] Reaction During Intensive Visual Work
on Detection and Tracking of Visual Signals," by Ye. P. Sviridov
This article discusses the frequency characteristics of the blepharomotor
reaction (recorded by the contact method) in the course of many hours _
of operator work for detection and tracking of visual stimuli, which
- appear at random times. A specific "aftereffect volley" was discovered,
which occurs after development of the goal, the frequency and duration of
which change consistently in the course of many hours of work against the
background of increased blepharomotor activity. The hypothesis is ex-
pounded that the parameters of this "volley" reflect the subjective
- complexity of the task to be performed. Illustrations 2.
"Study of Reserve of Operator's Visual Efficiency," by A. K. Yepishkin
This article describes the methods and results of stimulating a person
in a state of extreme fatigue during a 3-day period of continuous work.
It was demonstrated that purposeful stimulation enables the operator to
mobilize his psychophysiological reserves and increases visual efficiency -
= considerably. The experimental data make it possible to predict the
quality of operator performance under e~ctreme conditions, and they out- -
line the ways and means of purposeful activatjon of visual efficiency
when this is necessary. Illustrations 1; bibliography lists 13 items.
"Amplitude-Phase Discriminator With Display on a Two-Beam Oscillograph,"
by G. I. Nikitin
A description is offered of an amplitude-phase discriminator to single
- out spikes of concern to the researcher during extracellular recording
of the activity of a neuronal population, with concurrent display on the '
screen of a two-beam oscillograph of the tested signal, bottom and top
~ levels of the discriminator and output pulse of the discriminator.
Structural and functional diagrams of the discriminator and display are
- provided. Illustrations 3; bibliography lists 42 items. `
"Setting Standards for Psychophysiological Reactions of Working Pilots," _
by E. A. Kozlovskiy, V. F. Zhernavkov and F. A. Zubets
This article substantiates the desirability and feasibility of setting
group standards to assess the ~evel of a pilot's psychophysiological
reactions. The studies established that individual differences and
degree of reactions can be determined the most accurately by regression
analysis of interrelations between the initial values of the psychophysio-
logical parameter and its values during flight. ihe authors demonstrate
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that one can express the degree of nervous and emotional tension in a pilot
as a score [in points]. Illustrations 1.
"Method for Generalized Evaluation of. Quality of Operator Performance in
Multidimensional Tracking," by E. A. Kozlovskiy and V. F. Zhernavkov
The authors propose a method for overall evaluation of the level of pilot
training according to a single integral indicator of piloting error,
which reflects mean error, dynamics and maximum deviations of each of the
monitored flight parameters. The proposed approach can be used to assess
the quality of performance and analyze the dynamics of training in any
system of multidimensional sensorimotor tracking.
"Automated System for Microionophoretic Testing of Biologically Active
Substances," by S. N. Kozhechkin, G. N. Bobrov and V. K. Kudryashov
The proposed system is intended for deliberate searchers of biologically
active substances, development of new neurotropic drugs and the study of
mechanisms of their action. The chemicals are delivered to a neuron by
means of the microionophoretic method. The distinctive feature of this
system is that the functional state of the target cell is stabilized.
~ The frequency of neuronal generation of action potentials is held at a
constant level, set by the operator, by means of delivering a chemical
agent to the chemoreceptive membrane. The efficacy of the tested agent -
- is assessed on the basis of change in magnitude of stabilizing effect.
Measurements are made automatically with a calculator that implements
multilevel stabilization of functional state of the neuron with display
of a family of dose-effect curves. Illustrations 1; bibliography lists
- 5 items.
"Stimulating Effect of Autogenic (Biofeedback] Training on Speed of
Information Processing," by Ye. A. Cherenkova
This article submits data on the rate of processing semantic information
in the course of continuous operator work for 3 days. The use of autogenic
training improved performance substantially. Illustrations 2; bibliography
lists 3 items.
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"A Method for Statistical Analysis of Background Neuronal Activity With
the Use of a Computer," by V. A. Zosimovskiy
A method is proposed for mathematical analysis of experimental data ob-
- tained from simultaneous recording of background activity of several
neurons, which includes the following: 1) input in the computer of
series of spikes of two neurons first isolated from a primary experimental
tracing and each rerecorded on a separate track of magnetic tape in the
form of series of formed impulses; 2) formation of series of times of
appearance of spikes by means of the computer, and 3) statistical analysis
of these time ser~.es, which includes plotting of distributions of inter-
spike intervals of first order, histograms of auto- and cross-correlation.
The processing programs were written in the FORTRAN IV language. The
method was used with an YeS-1020 computer. Illustrations 2; bibliography
lists 6 items.
"Attachment for Commercial Pulse Analyzer~ for Plotting Histograms of
Slow Processes," by G. I. Nikitin
Structural and functional diagrams are submitted of attachments to a
standard, high-speed pulse analyzer. Illustrations 1; bibliography lists
- 1 item.
"Graphic Recording of Galvanic Skin Response With Automatic Tracking of
Tracing Level," by S. A. Varashkevich
This article demonstrates the advanta~es of recording a special class of
electric signals by means of a device for automatic tracking of recording
level (ASUZ). The basic diagram of the ASiJZ device and analysis of
modes of operation of different units are discussed on the example of
. recording the galvanic skin response signal. Illustrations 2.
"Operator's Oculomotor Reaction While Tracking Discrete Stimuli With
Random Time and Space Distribut~on," by V. G. Volkov, N. N. Lebedeva and
V. M. Mashkova
This article deals with development of a method and equipment it involves
in the form of a specialized unit for testing the oculomotor reactions of
an operator tracking discrete stimuliwith random distribution in time and
space. The results of an operational test of the method are submitted.
Illustrations 4; bibliography lists 3 items.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1979
[009-10,6571
10,657
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_ PSYCHOLOGY
RESOLUTION OF THE ALL-UNION CONFERENCE OF THE COUNCIL OF YOUNG SCIF.NTISTS AND
SPECIALISTS OF THE USSR SOCIETY OF PSYCHOLOGISTS
Moscow VOPROSY PSIKHOLOGII in Russian No 2, 1980 p 18S
[Text] On 10 December 1979 the Council of Young Scientists and Specialists of the
- USSR Society of Psychologists held its Second Conference in Obninsk. The following
resolution was adopted:
1. Approve . the organizational structure of the bureau of the Council of Young
Scientists and Specialists of the USSR Society of Psychologists.
2. Approve the following composition of the bureau of the Council of Young
Scientists and Specialists of the USSR Society of Psychologists.;15 persons in all):
N. Maksimova (Kiev), A. Karpov (Yaroslavl'), Ye. Shlyagina (Nbscow), V. Barabanshchikov
(Moscow), V. Ren'ge (Riga), I. Skotnikova (Moscow), M. Yegorova (Moscow), R. Sakvarel-
idze (Tbilisi), V. Semenov (Nbscow), A. Asmolov (Moscow), T. Titarenko (Kiev), R.
Gasparyan (Yerevan), Z. Bigvava (Tbilisi), A. Zhuravlev (Nbscow), V. Gerbachevskiy
(Leningrad) .
3. Elect V. Semenov, scientist of the Scientific Research Institute of General and
Pedagogical Psychology of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, as chairman of
. the Council of Young Scientists and Specialists of the USSR Society of Psychologists;
- elect A. Asmolov, assistant of the department of general psychology of the school of
= psychology of Nlpscow State University and V. Barabanshchikov, scientist of the USSR
Academy of Science Institute of Psychology, and assistant chaixmen.
4. Approve the initiative of the councils of young scientists and specialists of the
Georgian and Moscow branches of the USSR Society of Psychologists to hold joint
scientific conferenc~s devoted to the problems of the theory of activity and sets.
5. Hold a scientific-theoretical seminar on the topic "The Problems of Set" in
Moscow in February 1981, and a scientific-theoretical seminar on the topic "Pressing
Problems of Activity and Set" in Tbilisi in 1982. ~'hese seminars are to be sponsored
by the bureau of the Council of Young Scientists and Specialists, and the councils
of young scientists and specialists of the Georgian, Moscow, and Yaroslavl' branches
of the USSR Society of Psychologists.
6. Hold a joint meeting of the councils of young scientists and specialists of the
Armenian, Georgian, Azerbaijan, and Moscow branches of the USSR Society of Psycholo-
' gists in October 1980 in Yerevan. This meeting is to be sponsored by the councils
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of young scientists and specialists of the Armenian and Georgian branches of the
_ U~SA Society of Psychologists.
7. Approve the report on the work of the Council of Young Scientists and Specialists
ot the Ukrainian branch of the USSR Society of Psychologists.
8. Approve the composition of the organizing committee and expert commissions of
the Sixth All-Union Competition of the Works of Young Scientists in Psychology,
"The Prospects for Development of Fundamental Directions of Soviet Psychology",
_ dedicated to the 110th anniversary of V. I. Lenin'~ birth.
COPYRIGHT: "Voprosy psikhologii", "Pedagogika", 1980
[79-11Q04]
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PSYCHOIAGICAL RESEARCH BY P. S. SAFARIK UNIVERSITY IN KOSICE
Moscow VOPROSY PSIKHOIAGII in Russian No 4, 1980 pp 176-178
(Article by Yan Gvozdik, Kosice, Czechoslovakia~
[Text] The 14th CPCZ [Czechoslovak Com�nunist Party] Congress laid special emphasis
on the ta~k of shaping the man of socialist society, a conscious creator of a new
society. The 15th CPCZ Congress discussed the need for more effort on this task
in the area of education, noting that in contrast to the traditional training system
that has been in existence until now and which emphasizes verbal assimilation and
mechanical reproduction of training material, the center of gravity of education
in the schools must be shifted to systematic development of the activity and
creativity of schoolchi.ldren. The llth Plenum of the CPCZ Central Committee
emphasized the need for effective work in all areas of our life.
Z'his is why we directed our research at developing the personality of the student.
We shifted the center of gravity from personality diagnosis and consultation to
creation of programs, techniques, forms, and strategies promoting personality
_ development. Consequently we are undergoing a transition from individual work to
methods that could be applied on a broad scale in the school, in extended-session
- school groups, in clubs, and in various hobby circles. �
L. 2. Brezhnev suggested the idea at the All-Union Teachers' Congress that it is not
enough for students to simply recall information and knowledge; they must be taught
to make independent creative use of this knowledge, and to acquire new knowledge
independently. We believe that our work would be more effective if we orient our-
selves on the problems of personality development, particularly on important
qualities such. as,for example, the individual's activity, his social orientation,
_ and his conscious, creative approach to work.
This article will briefly illuminate some important results in the latest psycho-
logical research conducted at P. J. Safarik University in Kosice, mainly by the _
- gsychology department of the school of philosophy in Presov.
Most oF the attention will be devoted in this article to analyzing the attained
- results, and the basic theoretical starting points and methodological principles
of the research will only be touched upon briefly.
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= The goal of our research is to find reserves with which to develop the students,
ar.d use them to create programs of develop~ent, mainly far under-aehieving ~tudents. -
The Basic Theoretical and Methodologi~al Premises of the Research
_ The goal of our research is closely associated with an important contemporary
direction of Soviet psychology and pedagogics, mainly with the works of V. V. _
Davydov, D. B. E1'konin, and N. F. Talyzina developing the concept of developmental _
training; in the final analysis, our research is also closely associated with a
pressing problem of modern psychological science--personality development.
As we know, th~s~ authors base their thaory of developmental training on premises
- worked out by L. S. Vygotskiy (1970) concerning the psychological uniqueness of
individual stages of inental development.
Experience shows that directed training may be used to optimize a student's
development and create special programs having the goal of developing concrete
mental functions. A child's development may be effectively supported by a system
of conscious compensatory forms of activity--predominantly by so-called psychologi-
cal exercises or txaining microsessions (Ya. Gvozdik, 1978). Use of these develop-
_ mental. programs is dictated mainly by their effectiveness in individual, differen-
tiated pedagogical work with students and in the educational counseling system.
These programs can also be used to reveal compensatory mechanisms that would im-
prove the productivity of teaching students suffering retarded development of some -
mental function. The possibility arises for creating a program .to improve motor _
functions, perception quality, attention, memory, and psychomotor rate, to reduce
impulsiveness, to raise sensitivity, and so on. Naturally programs could be devised
for optimizing social relations and nurturing social and emotional characteristics
which would result in a positive orientation of the personality in relation to it-
self and its relationship to the surrounding world. I am referring to development
of personality qualities such as the sense of trust, cheerfulness, self-confidence,
curiosity, endurance, sociability, and self-discipline.
This work was based on our own research demonstrating existence of reserves for
development of the minds of poor students, and the trainability of their creative
thinking (Ya. Gvozdik, 1977; L. Klindova, 1978).
Of course it should be emphasized in this connection that work with the developmental
program must proceed from a new standpoint accounting for the contemporary concep-
tion of personality development and formation, developing within the framework of
Marxist psychology. This conception basically states tnat the human personality
develops and forms through its own conscious activity, mediated by social condi-
tions. It follows from the principle of the unity of the mind, consciousness and
activity that the main resource for dEVEloping the student's personality is effect- _
ive study itself. Therefore special programs will never replace education as the
main and most effective way for developing all of a student's personality and
capabilities.
Since the goal of developmental programs is to exert systematic influence upon the
personality in order to develop a concrete mental function, sur.h as self-regulation
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of inental activity, research being conducted in this area commonly follows a basic
methodological pattern consisting of three basic pha~es: a) study of the existing
state, b) influ~nce upun the existing state, c) measurement of the effect of this
_ irifluence.
The main plan of our research is based on the idea of controlling variables to such
an extent that it would be possible to ascribe, with full certainty, an improvement
to the observed variable: Preplanned interferPnce is applied in the experimental
group, while being absent from the control group. Effectiveness is measured as
a rule by a set of certain criteria, and both groups of subjects are subjected to
measurement before and after experimental interference.
- Some Research Results, and Their Evaluation
Up to now, our research has praeeeded.in the following three areas:
1. Development of cognitive processes and the possiba.lities of cognitive development.
- 2. The motivation area, in the broadest sense of this word, emotional r~lationships,
and emotional approaches with special emphasis on student regulation and self-regula-
tion. We found from our previous research that development of this sphere of the
student personality is an urgent necessity. The fact is that pedagogical practice
in the school does not yet touch upon the internal world of the student's experi-
ences. Little research has yet been done in this area, and pedagogical influences
upon it are even less effective.
3. The area of socialization. Pedagogical practice shows that mutual relationships
and cooperation among students are understated. As far as the first area of our
res~arch is con~erned, we discovered important reserves for development of cogni-
- tive processes, and mainly some mental functions such as, for example, creative
thinking, critical thinking, and so on. Our research showed that these reserves
can be utilized by students from problem families, by under-achieving students,
by students exhibiting low m~tivation for study, and in general by those who work
is below their potential. In this regard, reserves were revealed in the training
_ process itself. We tried to find out what sort of textbook problems or questions
and answers provided by the teacher afford. the students a possibility for working
independen~ly, actively, and creatively. We established that some textbooks (Slovak
language and mathematics for fourth grade of primary school) contain few problems
that develop creative independent activity of the students. In the Slovak language
textbook, only 6.6 percent of the assignments can be said to develop creative,
independent activity. There are very few such assignments in mathematics textbooks
as well.
An analysis of the tr.aining process would show that the questions and assignments
_ posed by the teacher do not develop creative thinking to the needed degree. We
discovered that depending on the type of lesson, the teacher provides questions and
assignments that would develop the creative independent activity of the students
in only 4-5 percent of the cases. Nbst of the assignments and questions involved
memorization and convergent thinking. One-third of the statements made by teachers
were warnings and orders, aimed predominantly at maintaining discipline in the
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- classroom; for the most part the assignments do not motivate the students to com-
plete them.
On the other hand it was demans trated that the rese~ves available in development
of the creative thinking of students co~ild be utilized to a much greater degree
by creating new forms of activity whieh could intensify development of certain
mental functions. We must disti.nguish those forms of activity which lead to
positive interiorizat~on, self-regulation, and development of the student's
conscious relationship to himse lf and to society. Our research demonstrated
the possibility for successfulZy applying prog=ams for development of the creative
independent activity and creative thinking of students, programs of language
development ~or children from a pedayogically less--fawrable environment, and
training programs for children tha~ are socially and emotionally unprepared for
school. Students doing well in school also exhi.bited a positive response to such
activity in comparison with a control group. Not onZy psychologists but also
_ teachers and educators should make successful use of the program for development
of creativity. This program contains 50 lessons, and it may be of.fered to
students in the third through last grades of secondary school. Students demon-
strated the most persuasive gro~ath in originality of thinking, then in productivity
of thinking, and finally in flexibility of thinking. The program for development
- of creative thinking also has the influence of improving attention; it raises the
activity of the students in general.
The speech development program is intended mainly for children from a pedagogically
unfavorable environment and enrolled in tlie senior nursery school group and in
first and second grades of primary school. This program contains 50 lessons. It
makes use of six testinq and retesting techniques and 15 basic training exercises
intended to develop the speech of the students (increase the~r word capacity and
upgrade the quality of spontaneous verbal activity).
We also applied a training program for children that are socially and emotionally
unprepared for school. We managed to either cainpietely eliminate or restrict
difficulties in adaptation experienced by children going from nursery school to
primary school.
As far as the area of motivation is concerned, I should note that up to now, we
have not had suitable techniques for revealing the motivations of students.
This has significantly retarded the work ori developmental programs. We dev~sed a
questionnaire ~�~ith which to study motivation, and the methods for improving seli-
regulation of the students. Bas ing ourselves on the conceptions suggested by the
_ Soviet authors V. Morgun and V. Aseyev, we are working on a progr.am for increasing
the scholastic motivation of s tudents. We are developing, on the basis of P. Ya.
Gal'perin's conception, a program intended to raise student attenti~n. The moti-
vation of weaker students is known te be lower, and therefore we are highly inter-
ested in studying the motivation structure of these students and discovering the
areas in which motivation is weak.
- We include analysis of school assignments from the standpoint of their m~tivational
. functions in this research area as well. We have developed a recording method
that may be used ':o raise the s cholastic activity of students. Use of this re-
cording method showed that the experimental group improved its attention, it made
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-`?'rj -
use of divergent thinking more often, its activity increased, and its interest in
the content of the assig,lments improved. The students can now draw from memory,
and they have impro;red their knowledge and their mutual relationships with other
ohildren. 5imilar positiva results were ohtained in the program for raisina atten-
and concentration.
In the third area, the area of student socialization, we are workinq on the problem
of intensifying cooperation among students in their scholastic assignments. The
results show that development of cooperation is basically associated with certain
specific requirements that must be satisfied by the training material, anfl the
concrete assignments and problems. Our work on this program is continuing. ~
Our research not only confirms the suggestion tnat there are reserves for mental
development of students, but it also demonstrated the possibility for utilizing
these reserves. This was persuasively conf~.z:med in the area of cognitive functions
, and cognitive activity. Reliable results were also obtained in the development and
use of programs having the purpose of developing the motivation of students, and
_ their socialization. The present sta~e of education in the schools does not yet
- offer sufficient possibilitias for utilizing these reserves. Our research showed
that neither the content of education in the schools nor the methods and forms of _
work presently employed are able to create adequate conditions for optimum, compre-
hensive development of the student's personality, and especially for development
= of his independent creativity, his independence, and his activity, and development
of his thinking and critical outlo~k. In order to fill in this gap, we would need
to further develop and use the forms of developmental training, developmental
programs, and developmental counseling.
Our research is based directly on pedagogical practice. It shows the direction
in which the content of education (in particular, that having to do with students
and textbooks specifically) in the scnools must be channeled and modified, it -
demonstrates how to improve the teacher-student system, and it reveals to us the
sort of educational forms and methods we should use if we are to optimize and
develop important aspects and properties of the personality, such as independence,
activity, and independent creativity, satisfying the requirements af socialist ~
- society. We can hope that special developmeiztal programs will play a significant
~ role in this great struggle to impart a new countenance to the socialist school in -
our effort to modernize the pedagogic~l proce~s.
COYYRIGHT: "Voprosy psikholcgii", "Pedag~gika", 1980
[78-1100!+]
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INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Moscow VOPROSY PSIKHOLOGII in Russian No 2, 1980 pp 53-64 ~
[Article by K. M. Gurevich, Scientific Research Institute of General and Pedagogi-
- cal Psychology, USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences]
[Text] The techniques of psychological diagnosis are used to study and compare `
mental de ~elopment of individuals and groups selected on the ba~is of some signi-
fir_ant characteristics. Major changes occurred in recent years in our under-
standing of the nature and laws of inental development. The need for considering
the concrete historic nature of ontogenesis is being brought to the forefront today. -
The possibilities of inental development are being interpreted in a new way (3; 181). -
Can the present problems of psyctiology be solved by techniques which had basically
_ evolved back at the beginning of the century? Two questions arise: What aspectG -
or properties of the mind must become the object of study and diagnosis and, corres-
- pondingly, what techniques should be prepared for this purpose? Will these techni-
= ques, tested by the traditional criteria of standardization, reliability, arid
- validity, work in psychological diagnosis?
First of all we must see what traditional psychological diagnosis might offer in
general for researcii on mental development. Intelligence tests that appeared on ~
the scene in 1905-1;11 in ~he works of Bir~et and his colleagues played the main role
ir. this area. These tests constantly revealed law but stable correlations with scho-
lastic aptitu3e in many European and North American samples of schoolchildren; in
their modern versions, intelliqence tests (Binet-Stanford, Wechsler, and so on) are -
distinguished by high reliabilzty.
But the situation that has evolved in intelligence testing cannot be deemed satis-
factory. Following long years of research, the very concept of intelligence is -
still ~uzzy and theoretically confused. Cases of significant differences, constantly
recurr.ing in testing and invariably revealing themselves in tests of samples differ-
- ing in nationality or educational, cultural, and economic status, have not been con-
_ ciusively explained. There are psychologists who assert that these differences are ~
elicited by differences in the intelligence of representatives of these groups.
- Others believe that the true causz lies not in differences in intelligence but
rathe r in the nature of the tests and testing. The testers themselve�s admit that '
- "Some t}iing is rottenin Denmark." As was indicated earlier, intelligence tests stand -
up well to the criteria of reliability and validity, which, according to the -
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established point of view, should be in their favor, even despite contradictory
evaluations of testing results. But can we remain satisfied with this?
The wide acceptan ce o~ testing i.n the West, the coum?ercial interest of companiee
selling tests, and the certain social authority of tests hinder perception and
sober evaluation of the present status of research in psychological diagnosis.
It should be noted that Soviet diagnostic psychologists do not find it possible,
in the overwhelmirig major~.ty of cases, to go al~~ng with the conceptions of Western
_ testing. Our country is developing diagnostic techniques structured ir. such a way
that they would be in line with modern viewpoints on the mind and its development.
However, while recognizing all of our achievements, we must admit that the soil in -
which Soviet ps;~chological diagnasis is to form is still inadequately prepared.
Critical rema.rks ~~once~ning traditional testing have never been systematized. We
do not have a c~mmon ~osition concerning the criteria used to evaluate the tech-
niques--validity and reliability. 3'he tools that have evolved in testing are not
always employed competently. Some things are also still unclear in regard to
social evaluations of tests.
The justification for the present article lies in the discussion above. It poses -
_ and discusses some problems of psychological diagnosis, particularly on the basis
of intelligence test data. Intelligence tests have a right to be the primary
center of attention: Great is their popularity, and far-reaching conclusions are
sometimes made on the basis of intelligence testing results. It appears to me that
- discussion of intelligence tests would provide a possibility for also eliminating
other problems of importance to all diagnostic techniques.
First of all it would pay to touch upon the terminology that has evolved in
psychological diagnosis. _
Psychological tests are usually used as a tool for testing people. In Fnglish, the
word "test" itself ineans examination, or tria~. But n~any different sides and
properties of the m.ind can be tested. We do not need to waste time proving that
the sides of the mind studied by the Rorschach technique are not at all the same
as those studied by the psychophysiological techniques ("pressing a kay in res~onse
_ to a signal"), or those stud.ied by questionnaires ("Do your hands sweat in diffi-
cult situations?") or, finally, by those psychological sets of assignments in which
the subject is asked, through clear instructions, to perform particular actions wi+~h -
certain materials, producing a particular sort of response at maximum speed.
- Usually all forms of testing are referred to identically in books on testing--as
tests (15),(13). Inasmuch as all of these forms of testing are psychologically
different, it would have been proper to name them differently--we should have used
the term test in the manner of Cattell (1890) and Binet (1895) in application to
psychological assignments providing instructions that determine the subject's
behavior, and all others should have been named psychological diagnostic techniques,
attaching a label indicating the unique features inherent to each of them.(psycY:o-
physiological, planning, and so on).
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~ A test is an examination, and the examinees enjoy different degrees of success:
_ Some are able to solve only a few problems, while others manage to practically -
' solve almost all.. The number of correctly solved problems serves as a measur~ by
which the examinee is evaluated, and in intelligence tests it is a measure of his
intelligence. The obvious explanation h~re is that for one examinee the test pro-
- blems are more difficult, while for another they are less so. Why?
According to the instructions of intelligence tests, the examinee must perform
_ some logical actions. Should it be concluded that the difficulty encountered in
taking a test and, on the other side of the coin, the success enjoyed in such a
test depends on how well the examinee manages with the logical actions required
by the test? Y:e cannot agree with this conclusion.
' Normal examinees who would be unable to correctly solve a single problem are ex-
tremely rare. Whenever they are encountered, the psychologist suspects that they
- had not listened to the instructions, or they simply did not wish to work according
to the instructions. In the overwhelming majority of cases the examinee is able
to solve at least some of the problems correctly. Can it be said of such a person
that he is unable to perform logical actions? There are no grounds for this;
by solving even three or four of the problems, the examinee demonstrates that he
is capable of logical actions. The cause of his failure must be sought elsewhere. _
And in fact, many works have appeared analyzing the various causes that reduce the
successfulness of the examinees. The culture factor is given the greatest signi-
ficance today.
We must obviously begin with the testing conaitions. Both individual and group
testing is structured in the form of a lesson. The psychologist performing the
experiment plays the role of teacher, and the examinees play the role of students.
The psychologist begins by offering short and clear instructions, communicating
the nature of the work, the way it is to be done, and the signals that would indi-
cate the beginning and end of testing. The psychologist prepares the examinees
_ for action, analyzing examples with them and answering their questions. All of
this very much recalls ordinary classroom activity. In general, testing reproduces
the order of the European and North American schaol. This order is well familiar
to the bulY. of children and adults, who have no need for special adaptation to
it. But when working with subjects who had recPived their education (if they had ~
received it) in schools of a different type, or subjects who had a short school
career or had left school long ago, this testing procedure would be uncomfortable
and unusual, and it would invariably have an unfavorable influence upon the
testing results. But this is not all. Children who have gone to school for the
same r.umber of years may also evaluate testing conditions differently. Some are
certain that they will pass these examinations as well as many others they had
taken previously. Others are sure that they will once again fail. Any such test
will cause discomfort in the latter, discomfort from which they will hasten to -
extricate themselves.
Researchers have established that children of a low socioeconomic level take tests -
hurriedly, they select their responses randomly, without thinking, and they finish
their work before the allotted time runs out. Such reactions were observed, in
particular, in the USA during testing of Puerto Rican schoolchildren (13; 345-346).
r
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In the opinion of the researchers this sort of work reflects both a lack of
interest of the subjects in abstract assiqnments, and their certainty that they
should not expect to do well_ i7nderstandably, the results are poor. But what is
important is that the p;ycho logist does not have the right to declare that he is
"indifferent" as to why a sub ject did so poorly in a test. The same consequellCe
brought about by different causes requires a different attitude and evaluation.
But the main influence of cul ture, we can suggest, reveals itself in something
other than the testing conditions. As time goes by, we are gradually beginning
to realize the exceptional role played by the content of the problems or, more
accurately, the role played by material through which the problem is presented:
In tests, problems are given either in verbal form, or in graphic form--as geometric _
- figures, illustrations, and so on. The significance of accounting for this material
in the subject's final evaluation is very high.
B. Simon, a well known ~gli sh educator, noted that tests given to English children
contained words which far from all of them knew (Simon's book was published in the
early 1950's). Such wor~s in cluded "counterfeit", "antique", "extrinsic", and
"irregular". Simon believes that some children did not know what these words -
meant. A child taking a tes t"must know the function of telegraph in distinction
from the telephone, ...why money accumulates, the goals pursued by benevolent
societies, and so on. Many workers' children will not even ever hear about such _
things, and, moreover, they c annot answer these questions until the meaning of each
word is understood completely" (10; 47-48) .
This passage refers to two c lose but, nevertheless, incompatible features of word
understanding. The child would be ur~able to solve a problem if the words contained
in this problem are unknown to him. But this passage also implies that test questions
cannot be answered "until the meaning of each word is understood completely". Word
understanding should be defined in this context as the subject's grasp of the set
of semantic associations th i s word has with other words of the given language
assimilated by the subject. In general, the associations of a word with other
words are diverse, and sometimes innumerable; they include associative links re-
- inforced through oral commun i cation, and logical-functional relationships revealing
~ mutual dependenci.es: genus- species, part-whole, membership to one or several
~ logical classes, analogy, opposition, identity,~and so on. Assimilation of these
associations occurs in ontoge n esis,inasmuchas they are fixed within the language
system of the social society within which the given person lives; he masters them ~
in the course of his object ive activity. But owing to national, class, and
historical restrictions, not one social coi?ununity has mastery over the entire -
wealth of its language, or a 11 of its interverbal (and interconceptional) association.
Therefore it is always easy to find differences in the word compositian of languages
spoken by different social communities, and differences in the associations esta-
' blished between words within a particular language system. Here is a simple illus-
tration: The word "class" ma.y be encountered in different professional groups-- _
in the speech of a schoolteacher, a historian-philosopher, and a natural historian-
biclogist. But all of these specialists would rely upon different associations in
- their understanding of this word: The teacher understands the word "cZass" in
association with the word s tudents , teacher , lessons , school , an so on.
For the historian, the domin ate associations would reveal themselves in the mainstream
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of historical and economic thought: antagonistic classes, the withering away of
classes under sociali.sm, and so on; for the biologist, the ~oncept "class" is
associated with the grouping of taxonomic orders or ani.mals or taxonomic orders
- of plants. It tnay be possible that these specialists are not ignorant of the
associative and logical-functional associations behind this vaord in other ~ro-
fessional lexicons, but when communicated on a relatively neutral background, the
_ word "class" would more readily, and in a greater number of cases, recall those
associations which had evolved in the given specialist's mind.
Such associative and logical-functional features of the associations represer_ted
by words can be revealed much more clearly in stable social communities that have
developed over a long period of history--nations and nation states. In one
study more than half of the Americans participating in the experiment responded
to the word "eagle" with the word "bird". ICazakhs, meanwhile, gave that answer
in only a small number of cases (14 percent), while more than 60 percent of their
responses consisted of words such as "golden eagle", "fox", and "rabbit". The
golden eagle is a traditional helper of the Kazakhs when hunting for these
animals.(4; 82).
The culture concept is usually brought up to explain such differences in the
associative-logical background of a word. Americans establish certain associations
between words, while Kazakhs establish others, and this can easily be explained by
differences in the national culture of the peoples. Today, when such differences
are discovered in testing studies, the uniqueness of national cultures is what is
usually cited at the explanation. This uniqueness is also used to explain the -
poor performance--in comparison with the performance of the white majority--in
intelligence tests observed in American nationa?.minorities--Negroes, Mexicans,
and so on. The same sort of differences are also r~oted in comparisons of the
contemporary spiritual and material life of. European and African peoples. In this
case the differences are so pronounced that no specialist could doubt their exis-
tence.
However, can we limit ourselves to recognizing national differences without noting
the differences existing among social commu.nities within a particular nation? We
cannot deny that nations make a certain impression upon their members, but within
each nation there are social classes, and membership to particular classes also
makes a distinct impression. In 1913 V. I. Lenin wrote: "There are two nations -
in every modern nation--this we say to all national-socialists. There are two
national cultures in every nation.~l culture" (1; 129). Within the framework of -
each of these cultures, we can find cultures representing lesser social communi- ~
ties--they may be referred to as subcultures, or cultures of particular social
and occupational groups. To be clearly understood, let me say that the words
- "culture" and "subculture" signify not different levels of "education and upbring-
ir,g"--another interpretation that has taken its rightful place in the language,
- but an integral characteristic of the psychosocial and economic conditions of
material and spiritual life having a direct and indirect influence upon the mind
and activity of the individual, and upon formation of his individuality and
personality.
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Sociologists and philosophers recognize the difficulty of giving a scientific
definition to the concept of culture. Let us use the wording suggested by
V. M. Mezhuyev: "Cultur~ represents the individual's functional-practical unity
with nature and society, a particular means of his naturally and socially detezmined
functional ~xi~t~nce" (6; 101). The broadness of this definition elicits a po5ltive
relationship; it pe rnaits inclu~ion, within the cultur~ concept, of the historically
changing factors of human life, and it implies that man and his activity are not
only determined by culture, but they are also a motive force of its development.
Culture is one of the most all-embracing characteristics of the state of productive
forces and production relations; thus it follows a historic pattern, and within every
national culture, given all of its diversity, we can always reveal a phase of forward
progress of human history. Membership to a particul3r culture forms, sometimes
without directed effort on its part, the unique features of the subject's mental
and verbal activity, and creates the algorithms of his mental development. But it _
also imposes restrictions on the mind's development, particularly on the range and
orientation of the assimilated as,sociations between words. These restrictions will
gradually disappear as the walls between social c~mmunities disappear. (Culture _
makes its impression not only on mental-verbal activity but also on the personality
as a whole; however, these issues are outside the topic of this article.)
Serious testers assert that no test is perceived identically by people of different
cultures: "No test could be universal in its use, or equally 'valid' in relation
to all cultures" (13; 345):
It would be entirely unsatisfactor,~ to correct the problem of intercultural d:.ffer-
ences in testing by "lowering" the norms for some subjects or "raising" them for
others, depending on the culture to which they belong. In this case membership to
one culture differing from that embodied within a given test is interpretedas~~er-
ship to a lower level of that culture, with which we cannot at all agree, since the
uniqueness of the subject's own culture is simply ignored.
Recognizing this, we should also recognize tY:at the author of the test unavoidably
introduces, into the test he is preparing, into the material that he places within
it, his own knowledge, his own algarithms of lagical actions, and his own c:ulture.
In the particular social conditions o~ the antagonistic classes of
= Western society, the test represents the culture of the ruling classes, and
thus it is no surprise that a subject from one of the exploited classes usually
cannot relate to it.
A. R. Luriya's book (5) provides a unique basis for discussing these problems. The
study described in the book was performed in 1931-1932 in remote regions of Uzbeki-
stan. The subjects were illiterate or barely literate farmers, some of whom had
already entered into social life, and others of whom had a first or second grade
education. -
Although this study can in no way be referred to as a test, the material offered
to th~ sub~ects corresponded completely to the problems of intelligence tests. In
this case the psychologists paid no attention to what testers are usually interested
in--the individual Features of the subjects. Moreover the method of study did not
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correspond with tes~ing either. "The experiments were performed in unrestrained
surroundingG--usually in a tea room, following a long talk over tea, in the form
- of a'game' with an accompanying interview. Sometimes the experiments were per-
fornied concurrently on two or three subjects, who attentively examined the illus-
tr3tions presented to them, interrupted one another, and suggested their own solu-
tions" (51).
- The value of the psychological experiment described in this book is that it
er.amines not only the responses of the subjects but also the considerations that
encouraged them to provide such responses. A tester usually qualifies the responses
of his subjects by means of a few labels--right, partially right, and wror,g, but
_ he is cieprived of the possibility for expanding on the mental-verbal activity at
the basis of the responae. The subjects of these experiments freely discussed their
responses,~ sticking to or rejecting their decisions. It was amazing how seriously
and thoughtfully the subjects prepared their responses, and how consistently they
defended them.
They had complete respect for the psychologist performing the experiment. But
_ his attempts at encouraging them to recon5ider their responses w~re not always
successful. In the course of discussion, the subjects replied with their own
. arguments, using them to prove the correctness of their responses. Meanwhile
the psychologi~t who had prepared the experimental material found neither their
responses nor the arguments they raisedin support of the latter to be uncondition-
" ally ri,ght.
- We will limit ourselves tc~ examination of only a few of the experiments in which
the subjects were given generalization problems. Four illustrations were pre-
sented. The objects represented in these illustrations had to be classified:
By the psychologist's intent, three had something in common, and the fourth stood
apart from them. The material was thought out meticulousiy: "Objects to be
classified were selected in such a way that they could be combined on the basis
of two principles--either their membership in a single logical category, or their
membership in a single practical situation. This condition was satisfied, as an -
example, by the group: hammer-saw-log-axe. Were we to combine these objects
according to the "implement" or "tool" characteristic, the log would not fit with -
the rest, while were we to combi.ne them on the basis of a practical situation,
the hammer would not fit. Subjects performing this classification had to verbally
describe the group into which the three objects fit. If for some reason the psycho-
logist was dissatisfied with the response, he suggested his own version: "Another
person solved the problem differently, he placed such-and-such objects into one
group." "Analyzing his own solution to the problem and another possible, hypo-
thetical solution suggested by 'the other person', the subject permitted us," the -
- author writes, "to penetrate more deeply into the psychological processes under-
lying his mental operations..." (page 60).
The psychologist made a special effort to prepare images of objects that were
well known to the subjectsfrom their day-to-day experience. It was this that
predetermined the most interesting results of the experiments. As it turned out,
the subjects employed neither the first nor the second principle conceived by the -
psychologist, instead suggesting a third principle which can be conditionally
referred to as "Robinson's principle" (this texm is not used in the book). This
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is a principle of immediate necessity. It obviously played an important role in the
living conditions of the subjects.
The subject is offered certain objects (illustrations): hammer, saw, log, spade.
Z'he subject offers the following solution: "Z'hey are all similar. I think they are
. all things I need. If I were to saw something, I would need a saw, and break up
soil, I would need a spade.... See, I would need e~verything:" The psychologist
tries to explain the test with another example whieh seems simpler to him: "Here,
as another example, you see three adults and one child; clearly the latter does
not fit." But this solution does not meet the support of the subject: "But they
need the boy:~ Look, all three are working, and if they had to constantly keep
leaving to fetch somethinq, they would never get any work done; the boy could fetch
things--he would be learning something, and this would be better, since all would
be able to work well" (page 69). And subsequently, as soon as the subject reveals
- the principle of immediate necessity, he responds in accordance with this principle,
no matter what 5ort of "ar3uments" the psychologist suggests.
In one of the experiments the psychologist asked his subjects: "What three objects
would you have to pick up if I asked you to pick up all that could be named by
the same word?" (he had the word "tool" in mind). One of the subjects--there were
three of them this time--replied: "It seems to me that a log is also a tool, be-
cause tools could be made from pieces of it as well." Tze psychologist cited
his "other person" who felt that the log was not a tool.. The subjects would not
give in: "No, only a crazy person could have said that" (page 74).
The mutual disagrePment may be explained by the fact that the psychologists, in
asking the subjects to classify objects on the basis of the category characteristic--
tools, household objects, and so on--hoped that the subjects would make their
generalization independently of the particular characteristics of these objects
that would make them necessary in the situations in which they are used. The
psychologist presumed that the subjects would understand that a generalization
may be made apart from a practical si~`uation. But to the subjects, performance of
the theoretical action of generalization was possible only in the context of a
practical (be it eveii imagined) situation. Consequently the truth is not that the
subjects do not know how to generalize, but that their acts of generalization are
always based on the principle of immediate necessity, and only "a crazy person"
could ignore this principle. Perhaps any classification characteristic would
have been entirely acceptable to the subject, if its presence were necessary in
a practical situation.
In any case we cannot xeject the fact that the subjects are entirely capable of
the act itself of logical generalization. But the logical-functional associations
off_ered to them are incompatible with their culture. Can they establish other
logical-functional associations? The book confirms that they certainly can.
Differences in mental development manifest themselves most distinctly not in the
fact that some persons, for example representatives cf the urban intelligentsia,
are capable of making generalizations while others, for example representatives of
rural areas suffering retarded economic development, are incapable. The differ-
ences manifest themselves in the sort of logical-functional associations upon which
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communication is based, in the sort of associations at the basis of the mental
search for the characteristics used in generalization. Some people havE accumu-
lated sizeable experience in making generalizations on the basis of any character-
istics, no matter how divor~ed from the immediate situation, while others have
been "programmed" by their way of life to seek characteris~ics which would perinit -
them to combine different objects on the basis of their immediate necessity. This
is al~o a generalization, and it may not be any simpler than generalization
accordi.ng to the category principle. Generalization on the basis of the principle -
_ of immediate necessity is, first of all, an indication of a practical mind-- _
"...practical activity 'always has to do with the particular', and in it, human
intelligence encounters a special task: application of universal knowledge to
particular cases. This task is completed by the 'practical mind'," wrote B. M.
- Teplov (12; 255).
In the experiments described in A. R. Luriya's book, the subjects were shown objects
known to be familiar to them. The insuzmountable difficulty which B. Simon noted
- did not arise in these experiments--the subjects did not encounter something with
which they were unfamiliar. Nevertheless the objects offered to them in the ex-
perir.?ents were understood by them in contentsentirely different from those that
seemed obvious to the psychologist. Had this been a test, rather than a study
involving special tasks, the subjects would naturally have received the lowest
possible scores. But what in fact do test scores tell the psychologist? Only that
the test compared two different cultures, and no conclusions on intelligence could
be made on the basis of such a comparison, since such conclusions would be absurd
and unscientific. Obviously the psychologist must also consider this in cases
- where the gap between cultures, the historical distance between them is not so
great; in such situations the differences would not reveal themselves so distinctly.
But no matter what the differences are, they could be interpreted in accordance
with their psychological nature--that is, as differences between the cultures of
the social communities the subjects represent. As will be shown below, this fact
ope:.s up new perspectives for tests.
Consequently intelligence tests reveal how close the subject is to the cu].ture
upon which the test is oriented; owing to this functian, tests have naturally
become a necessary tool in the social system of the West. The previous discussion
demonstrated that the capability of the subjects for performing logical actions
does not play any special role in these tests, and it may even be that it does
not play any role at all. It would then have to be presumed that the subject's
affinity to the culture represented in the test could also be evaluated on the
basis of some other characteristics, not just his capability for performing
- logical actions. As an example it could be evaluated on the basis of the subject's
acquaintance with words, concepts, and opinions regularly encountered in communica-
tion in the social community having the given culture. After all, such acquaintance
- is not based on a capability for performing logical actions; memory has little to
= do with it (we ignore memory pathology in this case); it is an attribute of the
mind, invested into the latter by the subject's way of life without any special
effort on the part of the subject.
The authors of the most widespread intelligence tests adhere to precisely this
point of view. Here is an incomplete list of questions of this sort in the _
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale: The subject must state the colors of the
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American flag, the shape of a ball, the nimiber of months in a year, what a thermo-
meter is, who the famous Longfellow was (a poet, a musician, or something else), _
how f~r it is from Paris to New York, the population of the USA, the number of
sen$tors in the U.S. Senate, the three types of blood vessEls in the human body,
and so on (18; 33-35) .
A person answering these questions (or some of them) would thus demonstrate how
close he is to ~he culture dominating in the social community, within which he will
have to display his educational or job suitability. Acquaintance with these terms
is a ph~nomenon of entirely the same order as logical actions in the suggested
group of words. In the foreword to his tests, Wechsler presents some of the
correlations he obtained. Interesting in this case are the coefficients of corre-
lation between assignments gauging the extent to which the subject is informed,
and the rest of the verbal series. The coefficien~ is 0.89 for subjects 17-18
years old, it is the same for older age groups, and for the 40--54 year group it is
even as high as 0.90. One is forc~d to think that responses to questions gauging
the degree to which the subjects are informed could fully replace the entire scale.
It would be meaningless to seek a rule followed in selecting questions devised to
gauge the degree to which subjects are informed, or material used in intelligence _
test problems. The entire matter lies with the psychological intuition of the
test's author. The literature on testing does not co~nonly explain why the author
chose these and not other words, illustrati~ns, and questions for his test. An
ironic remark by well-known testers would be pertinent here: "Writing good test
problems is an art. To some extent it recalls writing a good sonnet and baking a
good cake. The actions are not as free and whimsical as with the writing of a
sonnet, and they are not as regimented as with baking a cake. They are somewhere
in the middle" (17; 60). What is meant by this is that the author of a test in-
_ tuitively selects the material, relying on his own experience as a practical
psychologist. Selecting the questions, the author has in mind a model of an
"average" person useful to his social community: The questions represent the
"average" mental composition of such a person.
Such a model is not universal; it is not compatible with all representatives of
the social and national groups in the given community, all of which have their ~
own subculturES; more likely this is not even a model of the average, but rather
~ the most frequently encountered variant. Complete agreement of scores based on ~
tests and scores based on career successfulness does not in fact occur, but corre-
lation coefficients on the order of 0.40-0.50 are observed within the framework of -
a given social community. The intuitive approach obviously leaves little more to
hope for. This is the usual degree of compatibility between intelligence test
characteristics and the subject's background characteristics.
The discussion thus leads us face-to-face with the question as to what is defined _
as intelligence in testing. Let me make the qualification that the reference here -
is to test intelligence, and not wisdom; test intelligence is not equivalent to
wisdom. Test intelligence is the capacity or ability to perform prescribed logical
actions with material representative of the social community upon which the test
is oriented; it is the ability or capacity to find prescribed logical-functional
relationships between certain objects common to the given social community. There
is no reference here to the degree to which a subject is informed at least because -
assignments measuring this attribute cannot be called tests.
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Moreover we must keep in mind that test intelligence is "speed" intelligence.
= The overwhelming majority of intelligence tests, and other tests as well, are timed
tests. No matter how well and accurately he works, a subject who works slowly will
always lose out. It is taken as a self-evident truth in testing that fast thinking
is of great social value. What, then, can we say about the slow thinking typiCgl
_ of Einstein, or the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century, N. N. Luzin and
D. Gilbert? It would not be difficult to an~wer this question. Testers who in-
sist upon the great significanee of thinking speed probably base their model on
the ordinary, and not the outstanding, individual. People characterized by high
thinking speed are more useful. But the psychologist should consider that swift- -
ness in testing is an ambigu~us parameter. The pace of any work, including that
associated with testing, depends not only on the subject's natural pace but also
on the extent to which the actions being perfonned are automatic. Therefore every
sample may contain subjects completing, as an example, a third of the problems;
- but one might have finished only that many because he works slowly, while another
might simply be unaccustomed to working with the given material, even though he
could generally be classified as a"fast" worker. Only a person who knows little
- of psychology would treat both subjects as being of equal intelligence, even
test intelligence.
It would be impossible to embrace all questions associated with intelligence testing
within a single article. What is the future of testing? How should intelligence
tests be used in the development of psychological diagnosis? First of all the true
nature of these tests should be revealed. That which they do test is important and
necessary, but the word "intelligence" has extremely arbitrary meaning in the names -
of these tests. What these tests do study is the extent to which the individual
is a part oi' the culture upon which the test is oriented. The ability to establish
logical-functional relationships of particular content--today's tests have demon-
strated in their camouflaged form--is a very import.znt ability, one needed in school
and on the job. Bui: between which words must the subject know how to establish
associations, and precisely what sort of associations should he establish? The
answer to this question would probably require a significant amount of research by
a team of scientists working together--a psychologist, a linguist, and an educator.
Such research would have to define, by way of psychological-linguistic analysis,
the range of words, concepts, and objects that should be assimilated at a given
stage of ontogenesis. Next it would have to establish the sort of logical-function-
al relationship that the developing individual must know how to establish between
them. This material is what would make up the basis of the intelligence tests or, _
more correctly, the tests of inental development adequate to the given culture. By
testing students, we should establish whether or not they have facility with the
arsenal of words, concepts, and so on, and with the system of logical-functional -
relationships between them, that would serve as the basis for their cultural~and
psychological development. Testing different samples of students, the psycho].ogist
and the educator. get a possibility for objectively comparing these samples on the
basis of the described characteristics. Concurrently, tests would help eliminate
omissions and errors discovered in the development of the children. Within known =
limitations, this information may also apply to individual students.
It appears to me tliat objective-cultural psychological tests in mathematics, linguistics,
physics, and so on enjoy considerable room for develo~ment. I am not referring to
aptitude tests. Tests developed with a consideration for special requirements
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imposed by these and other areas of knowledge upon mastary of logical-functional
relati~nships typical of them wduld permit us to determine the degree to which
students are a part of the mathematical, linguistic, and other specific "subcultures".
Such research will probably mak~ it possible to consider the problem of individttal
psychological differences.
Developing the conceptions a~sociated with tests of inental development, we will -
have to review the system of criteria employed (standardization, reliability,
validity). In particular we will have to reexamine the traditional idea that the
psychological test results acquired with large samples should supposedly distri.bute
themselves as a Gaussian curve--that is, as a normal distribution~ This idea ob- "
viously has no serious grounds, and thus we cannot but agree with the criticism "
to which it is subjected by Hofmann (14). Without going into all of the ramifica-
tions ~f the question, we should note that a.normal distribution exists when a large
number of diverse factors act upon a random variable, and wh~n the proportion of
the influence exerted by each factor is identically low in comparison to their
number (see (11)). But an entirely different pattern can be seen in intelligence -
testing: In addition to numerous diverse factors, one very powerful factor--the
_ culture factor--also affects the distribution. In this case the distribution of
the testing results would depend on the proportionate representation, within the
given sample, of persons exhibiting different degrees of affinity to the culture
reflected in the test; because the characteristics of the set of subjects cannot
be predicted, nothing can be said of the nature of the distribution beforehand
either. On occasion a normal distribution may arise, but this would be the excep-
_ tion, and not the rule.
Understandably, a distribution differing from normal poses a large number of diffi-
culties to the psychologist; the main one is that he would have no grounds for
- applying parametric statistical methods. He would probably have to refrain from -
making comparisons with any criteria when such comparisons are based on groups
created according to an inherent criterion, for example the standard deviation.
Obviously the psychologist will have to switch to other means of comparison, ones
which, incidentally, would seem more adequate and up-to-date (see for example (16)).
We can no longer be satisfied with the evolved definition of the reliab ility
- criterion, according to which the greater the agreement between testing and re-
testing, the higher is the quality of the test. This criterion bears within itself
the notion of inetaphysical constancy of the content of the mind, and it does not
_ allow for its development. The new definition of tests suggested here is based on
the notion that acquisition of verbal-logical skills presupposes development of
- thinking. A high reliability coefficient with retesting should more likely be =
perceived as a signal of trouble: Either the test does not ref lect changes that
had occurred in the mind, or such changes had in fact not occurred, but this would -
mean a pause in development, which could not but alarm the psychologist.
The thoughts presented here concerning reexamination of the methodological machinery ~
of psychological diagnosis provide only one particular impression of the paths of
future research. For the moment we can only discuss them tentatively.
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As with other techniques of psychological diagnosis, tests require further research.
Without a doubt, in addition to those i.ndieated here, other ways for improving
tests are possible. What I am asking is not to reject tests, but to evaluate
- them adequately, to open up broad seientific-practical perspectives before them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Lenin, V. I., "Critical Remarks on the National Question," in "Poln, sobr.
_ soch." [Complete Collected Works], Vol 24.
- 2. "Voprosy diagnostiki psikhicheskogo razvitiya" [Problems in Diagnosis of Mental
Pevelopment], Tallin, 1974, p 206.
3. Davydov, V. V., E1'konin, D. B., and Markova, A. K., "Basic Problems of the
Contemporary Psychology of Young School-Age Children," in "Problemy obshchey,
vozrastnoy i pedagagicheskoy psikhologii" [Problems of General, Developmental,
and Pedagogical Psychology], Moscow, 1978, pp 180-205.
4. Kondratov, A. M., "Zvuki i znaki" [Sounds and Symbols], Moscow, 1978, 208 pp.
5. Luriya, A. R., "Ob istoricheskom razvitii poznavatel'nykh protsessov"
[Historical Development of Cognitive Processes], Mpscow, 1974, 172 pp.
6. Mezhuyev, V. M., "Kul'tura i istoriya" [Culture and History], Moscow, 1977,
200 pp.
- 7. "0 diagnostike psikhichPSkogo razvitiya lichnosti" [Diagnosis of the Mental
Development of the Personality], Tallin, 1974, p 146.
8. "Problemy psikhologicheskoy diagnostiki" [Problems of Psychological Diagnosis],
Tallin, 1977, p 234.
9. "Psikhologicheskaya dia,~ostika. Yeye problemy i metody" (Psychological
Diagnosis. Its Prob~ems and Methods], Nbscow, 1975, p 178.
10. Saymon, B., "Angliyskaya shkola i intellektual'nyye testy" [The English
School and Intelligence Tests],Moscow, 1958, 253 pp.
11. Sukhodol'skiy, G. V., "Osnovy matematicheskoy statistiki dlya psikhologov"
[Fundamentals of Mathematical Statistics for Psychologists], Leningrad, 1972,
430 pp.
12. Teplov, B. M., "Problemy individual'nykh razlichiy" [The Problems of Individual
Differences], Moscow, 1967, 536 pp.
13. Anastasi, A., "Psychological Testing," New York, 1976, p 750.
14. Hofmann, M., "Zu einigen messtheoretischen Problemen der padagogisch-
psychologischen Diagnostik," PROBLEM UND ERGEBN. DER PSYCHOLOGIE, Vol 66,
1978, PP 49-69.
15. Lawshe, C. H., and Balma, M. J., "Principles of Personnel Testing," 1966,
426 pp.
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. 16. Po~ham, W. J., "Cri~erion-referenced Measurement," 1978, 260 pp.
17.. Thorndike, R., and Hagen, E., "Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and -
Education," 1961, 430 pp.
18. Wechsler, D., "Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale," 1955, 110 pp.
COPYRIGHT: "Voprosy psikhologii", "Pedagogik_a", 1980 ~
[79-11004]
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