JPRS ID: 9855 USSR REPORT MATERIALS SCIENCE AND METALLURGY

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• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/9855
17 July 1981
USSR Re ort
p
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND METALLURGY
(FOUO 3/81)
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NOTE
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JPRS L/9855
17 July 1981
USSR REPORT
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND METALLURGY
(FOUO 3/81)
CONTENTS
- COMPOSITE MATERIAIS
Interphase Phenomena in Polymers 1
Composite Sintered Antifriction Materials ~
MECHANICAIr PROFERTIES
Properties oi' Construction Materials Versus Working Environment.... 9
Strength of Construction Materials, Elements at Sound and
Ultrasonic Frequencies 13
MISCEI,LANEOUS
- Metals Requirements in Nation~s Production 21
Oxycarbides and Oxynitrides of Metals of Subgroups IVA and VA...... 31
Healing of Defects in Metals 35
- a- [III - USSR - 21G S&T FOUO~
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COMPOSITE MATERIALS
INTERPIiASE PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS
- Kiev MEZHF'AZNYYE YA`JLENIYA V POLIMERAKH in Russian 1980 (signed to press 31 Oct 80)
pp 5-6, 258-259
- [Foreraord and table of contents from book "Interphase Phenomena in Polymers", by
Yuriy Sergeyevich Lipatov, Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1700 copies, 260 pages]
~ [Text] Foreword
~ Interpha~e phenomena play a decisive role in the properties of polylmer composite
materials (filled and reinforced polymers, mixtures of polymers, etc.). The
physical chemistry of surface phenomena in heterogeneous polymer systems is thus
the theoretical basis for producing materials with the required combination of
- properties. This area of polymer physics and chemistry began to receive develop-
ment relatively recently. The first attempt in world literature to generalize
the problems of the physical chemistry of filled polymers was o~ur monograph, pub-
lished in 1967 (Yu.S. Lipatov, "Fiziko-khimiya napolnennykh polimerov" [Physical
~hemistry of Filled Polymers], Kiev, Naukova dumka, 1967). Since then studies have
appeared which generalize individual aspects of the theory of interphase phenomena
~n polymer systems, su~h as the adhesion of polymers (A.A. Berlin and V.Ye. Basin,
_ "Osnovy adgezii polimerov" [Fundamentals of the Adhesion of PolymersJ, Mo~cow,
Khimiya, 1974; A.D. Zimon, "Adgeziya zhidkosti i smachivaniye" [Adhesion of a Fluid
and Wetting], Moscow, Khimiya, 1974; A.D. Zimon, "Adgeziya plenok i pokrytiy"
_ [Adhesion of Films and Coatings], Moscow, ~imiya, 1977), wetting and spreading
(B.D. Summ and Yu.V. Goryunov, "Fiziko-khimicheskiye osnovy smachivaniya i rastekan-
iya" [Physicochemical Fundamentals of Wetting and Sgreading), Moscow, Khimiya,
1~76), and com�~atibility and the properties of mj~ctures of polymers ("Mnogokom-
ponentnyye polimernyye sistemy" [Multi~omponent Polymer Systems], edited by R.F.
= Gold, Moscow, Khimiya, 1974).
The theory of interphase phenomena in polymer systems can be regarded as consisting
of three basic parts--the theory of the adsorption and adhesion of polymers on
hard surfaces, the structural and thermodynamic theory of the properties of poly-
mers at the interface, and the theory of interphase phenomena in filled polymers
and mixtures of polymers. A detailed analysis of the status of the the~ry of ad-
s~rption and of experimental data was given in the monograph by Yu.S. Lipatov and
L.M. Sergeyeva "Adsorbtsiya polimerov" [Adsorption of Polymers], Kiev, Naukova
. dLmlca, l_972. The gen~ralization of data on the structure and physicocheinical and
relaxation properties of filled polymers and on the reinforcement mechanism was

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hUK UNN1l.lAL UJN. UtVLY
given in Yu.S. Lipatov's monograph "~izicheskaya khimiya napolnennykh polimerov"
[Physical Chemistry of Filled Polymers], Moscow, Khimiya, 1977.
' The above determined the principle underlying the structur.e of thE present mono-
graph, which represents, as it were, the missing link in the discussion of the
general theory of interphase phenomena in polymers begun in the two monographs men-
tioned. In this book a detailed discussion and a generalization are presented of
the results of research in the area of the thermodynamics of interphase ~henomena,
including the surface and interphase tension of polymers and the thermodynamics of
interphase interactions in mixtures of polymers and of st~sdying the structure of
boundary layers of polymers in relation to features of the processes of the adsorp-
tion of polymers at the interface. On this basis general theoretical ideas are
developed regarding ways of controlling the structure and properties of polymer
composite materj.als and regarding the role of interphase phenomena in the origin of
various levels of heterogeneity in the systems discussed.
The basis of this monograph is the results of studies published in the literature
over the last 6 or 7 years and the results of experimental research carried out in
tlie author's laboratory. In discussin~ the general state of the problem, which
is our basic purpose, at the same time in a number of instances we thought it neces-
sary to elucidate in greater detail individual experimental results which seemed
important t~ us for confirming the concepts developed by the author and his associ-
ates.
L.M. Sergeyeva (ch 2), A.Ye. Faynerman (ch 5) and A.Ye. Nesterov (ch 6) took direct
part in writing some chapters.
CONTENTS Page
Foreword 5
Chapter 1. Present Status of the Theory of the Adsorption of Polymers on
Hard Surfaces ~
1.1. Key traits of the adsorption of polymers from dilute solutions 8
1.2. Theoretical description of the conformational state of adsorbed chain
molecules 11
1.2.1. The (Lala-Stepto) theory 12
1.2.2. The (Khuve) theory 17
1.2.3. Other theories 19
1.2.4. Adsorption isotherm of com~act macromolec~les 23
1.2.5. Use of machine experimentation methods for calculating conformations
of adsorbed chains 26
1.3. Experimental estimate of the structure of the adsorbed layer 28
- 1.3.1. Hydrodynamic thickness of the adsorbed layer. 28
1.3.2. Calorimetric methods 30
1.3.3. Spectral methods 32
1.3.4. Colloid chemistry methods 35
1.3.5. Conformations of adsorbed chains in absence of a solvent 36
Bibliography 38
Chapter 2. Adsorption of Polymers ~rom Concentrated Solutions 42
2.1. Dependence on concentration of the solution o~ conformation o~ a chain
in solutions in good and bad solvents 42
2
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- 2.2. Formation of colloid-like structures in concentrated solutions o~ oligo-
mers and polymers; direct measuremeats of dimensions of aggregates in
connection with odsorption 43
2.3. Features of adsorptian from concentrated solutions in connection with
structure formation 51
' 2.3.1. Dependence of adsorption on the concer.tration and naturE+ of the
solvent an3 amount of adsorbent in the system 51
2.3.2. Influence of temperature on adsorption 5~
2.3.3. Influence of molecul~~r weight on adsorption 63
2.4. Influence of structure forination on prope:.ties of adsorbed layers
in adsorpt~on from solutions of various concentrations 64
2.4.1. Thickness of adsorbed layer~ 64
2.4.2. Dependence on concentration of the solution of the percentage of
adsorbed segments of polymer molecules 6~
Bibliography 71
Chapter 3. Structure of Boundary Layers of Polymers on a Hard Surface 76
3.1. Some features of the structure of adsorbed layers in connection with
the aggregation mechanism for a3sorption 76
3.2. Structure of adsorbed layers from NMR data 83
3.3. Conformations and packing of chains as a function of the distance from
the surface 86
3.4. Boundary layers of polpmer mixtures 101
3.5. Gradient of inechanical properties of boundary layers 104
Bibliography 108
Chapter 4. Features of Physicochemical Phenomena at a Polymer-Solid Phase
Interface 110
4.1. Features of physicochemical phenomena at a reinforcing filler -
polymer phase interface 110
4.2. Features of processes at the phase interface between high-surface-
energy fillers and polymer binders 120
4.3. Organic fiber - binder interface 123
4.4. Lnf luence of state of the surf ace on physicochemical properties of
composites 1.26
Bibliography 128
Chapter 5. Surface and Ititerphase Tension of Polymers 131
5.1. Def inition of concepts 13?
5.2. Thermodynamics and statistics ~-3~
5.3. Surface tension of liquid polymers 13?
5.4. Surface tension of binary solutions of polymers 140
5.5. Surface tension of solid polymers 159
5.6.1. Determination of surface tension of solid polymers from~boundary
wetting angles lE0
5.6.2. Use of relationships established for fluids in estimating the
surface tension of solid polymers 1~~
Bibliography 1F31
Chapter 6. Thermodynamics of Interaction in Mixtures of Polymers and
Phase Separation 186
6.1. Introduction 1$6
6.2. Determination of parameters of X2 3 interaction in mixtures of
poly~ers 188
6.3. Some features of the thermodynamic behavior of mixtures of polymer~ 193
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6.4. Thermodynamic5 of interaction in mixtures o~ polymer homologs 201
6.s. Thermodynamic theory of the interface between two incompatible

~ polymers 205
Bibliography 209
Chapter 7. Interphase Phenomena in Mixtures of Polymers 211
7.1. Interphase layer in mixtures of polymers 212
7.2. Mechanism for formation of the transition layer [1-3] 214
7.3. Interphase layer in interpenetrating polymer lattices 215
7.4. Statistir.al theory of (Khelfand's) interphase boundary 219
7.5. Role of colloid chemistry factors in formation of the transition
- layer 224
- 7.6. St~ucture of interphase layers 228
7./. Structur~il estimate of thickness of the interpk~ase layer Z3~
242
_ Bibliography 245
Conclusion
' Role of Interphase Phenomena in Origin of He.terogeneity of Polymer Systems 245
I3ibliography 255
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1980
= 8831
CSO: 1842/115
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Ct~r1POSITE SINTERED ANTIFRICTION MATERIAIS
Kiev KOMPOZITSIONNYYE SPECHENNYYE ANTIFRIKTSIONNYYE MATERIALY in Russian 1980
_ (signed to press 30 Oct 80) pp 4-6, 402-403
[Annotation, foreword and table of contents from book "Composite Sintered Anti-

~ friction Materials", by Ivan Mikhaylovich Fedorchenko and Liya Ivanovna Pugina,
Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1600 copies, 404 pages]
[Text] In this monograph for the first time are generalized data on the properties,
composition and fabrication technology of the most extensive class o~ materials
for antifriction purposes which are fabricated by the power metallurgy method.
Gener.al information is presented on sintered antifriction materials intended for
bearings, packings and other friction parts working under conditions of supplying
a lubricant and without a lubi'icant, in air and under vacuum, when lubricating with
water, at elevated temperatures, at high speeds and under high pressure, in ag-
gressive and corrosive media. They are classified in terms of workir~g conditions
and a description is given of the �abrication technology and of trends in the de-
velopment of work relating to the creation of materials with better utilization
characteristics.
Intend~d for scientific and engineering and technical ^ersonnel involved in develop-
ing, studying and testing antifriction materials, as well as for WZ teachers and
students.
Foreword
The production of composite antifriction materials has become an individual branch
- of industry in recent times. Their practical value and interest in them are growing
steadily, but extension of their application has been hindered by lack of the
required information on fabrication technology, composition, properties and areas
of application.
A monograph by V. Tsegel'skiy and V. Rutkovskiy titled "Spechennyye podshipniki"
- [Sintered Bearings], which is already obsolete and, in addition, is nearly inacces-
- sible to Soviet readers, was published in Poland in 1960. Collections including
- articles on anti�riction and friction materials, but not elucidating the problem as
a whole, appeared in Czechoslovakia in 1964 and in the USA in 1970.
A.D. Moshkov's monograph "Poristyye antifriktsionnyye materialy" [Porous Antifric-
tion MateY�ials] was published in the USSR in 1968. In it are elucidated chiefly
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the utilization properties of some materials working in the presence o~ a lubri-
cant.
In individual monographs on powder metallurgy (e.g., M.Yu. Bal'shin, "Poroshkovaya
- metallurgiya" [Powder Metallurgyl, 1948; B.A. Borok and I.I. Ol'khov, "Poroshkovaya
metallurgiya", 1948; V.D. Dzhons, "Fundamental'nyye osnovy poroshkovoy metallurgii"
[Fundamental Frinciples of Powder Metallurgy), 1960; Ts.G. Gettsel', "Osnovy
poroshkovoy metallurgii" [Fundamentals of Powder Metallurgy], 1950; Z. Min�~str,
"Detali mashin iz metalli.cheski.kh poroshkov" [Machine Parts Made from Metallic
Powders], 1963) there are sections devoted to bearing materials, but tney are li-
mited in scope and do not refiect the most important results of research and de-
velopment achieved in the last 15 to 20 years. Taking this into account, the
authors decided to generalize their own results relating to the creation o� com-
posite antifriction materials and the published data. Based on an analysis of the
status of the problem of sintered antifriction materials, they also attempted to
formulate the key problems in this area and trends in the future development of
these materials.
They have discussed the principles of the creation of composite sintered materials
on the basis of modern ideas regarding the mechanism of f;-iction and wear and of
inFormation obtained on the role of the individual componEnts of antifriction ma-
terials and on their influence on physicomechanical and utilization properties.
A demonstration is given of the dependence of characteristics on various technolo-
gical factors and on the composition and working conditions of materials for vari-
ous purposes. Their structure, properties, the key fabrication conditions and
equipment employed, and areas of application are presented.
_ Materials have been classified by the authors according to a common trait and work-
ing conditions--with the presence of a lubricant and without a lubricar.t; with
friction under vacuum and in water and aggressive media; at elevated temperatures
and under increased loads, with elevated sliding speeds, and under other conditions.
An indication is given of the basic economic prerequisites for selecting materials
with regard to prescribed conditions of utilization and when arranging for their
_ production.
The authors hope tt?at the systematic discussion of questions relating to the
theory of the creation of composite antifriction materials, their fabrication tech-
nology, properties and areas of application will be of great assistance to the
personnel of scientific and planning institutes and to product engineers of enter-
pri~es.
For the purpose of preserving the original data relating to a number of studies
used in wt-iting this book, units of ineasurement given in primary sources have been
retained.
The authors wish to express their gratitude to V.S. Ageyeva, V.G. Dikiy, I.I. Belo-
borodov, L.V. 7.abolotnyy, V.D. Zozula, A.F. Zhornyak, L.F. Kolesnichenko, V.N.
Paderno, V.V. Polotay, N.Ye. Ponomarenko, V.V. Pushkarev, I.G. Slys', A.I. Yuga,
Iv'.I. Katsaveli and N.Z. Pozdnyak for assistance in the selection of data, for
affering some of the research data, and for technical help in structuring the book.
6
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CQN~ENTS Page
Foreword 5
Introduction ~
Chapter 1. General Information on Antifriction Materials and Their
Working Conditions
Requirements for materials of friction components 11
Classification of friction components in terns of working conditions and
construction of bearings 12
Information on properties of composite antifriction materials and status
of their production 17
Modern ideas regarding the mechanism of friction and the wear of materials
under friction 26
Key trends in the development of antifriction materials fabricated by
methods of powder metallurgy 38
Chapter 2. Key Factors Inf luencing the Properties of Antifriction Com-
posite Materials
Role of chemical composition in providing the properties of antifriction ma-
terials 42
Influence of grading of original powders on properties of friction materials 47
Influence of parameters of the micro;;tructure and of porosity on the
strength and antifriction properties of a material 52
Influence of external factors on the supporting power of antifriction ma-
terials 59
Factors influencing the value of the friction coefficient 63
Role of structure and the distribution of stresses in the working layer 66
Influence of technological factors of the fabrication of materials ~n their
properties 68
Influence of the kind of treatment and the state of the surface of bearings
on antifriction properties 74
Chapter 3. Sel.ection of the Base Material for Antifriction Materials and
of Methods of Influencing Its Physicomechanical Properties
Classification of inetals and alloys by their wear resistance 78
Selection of composition of the base and alloying elements
Factors inf luencing fatigue strength 91
Hardening antifriction materials by means of compaction 94
Strengthening the base material by means of reinforcement 99
Hardening materials by means of heat and chemical-and-heat treatment 102
Chapter 4. Role of Antifriction Additives and Their Interaction with the
Material of the Base ~
Influence of solid lubricants on supporting power and friction coefficient
of composite materials 108
Lubricating capacity of graphite and its interaction ~,rlth the metal of the
base in sintering 119
Properties and behavior of sulfur and sulfides 128
Properties and behavior of selpnides and tellurides 142
Fluorides as solid lubricants � 145
Lubricating properties of lead and other low-melting metals 150
Properties of boron nitride as a solid lubricant 154
Oxides of inetals as solid lubricants 156
~ Chapter 5. Technology of the Fabrication of Composite Anti�riction
Materials
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rvic vrri~.~n~ vac vivt,~
Key requirements for the technology, and outlines o� technological processes 159
Aspects of preparation of the starting raw material 162
Forming products 170
Sintering 1~8
Additional heat treatment 188
Chemical-and-heat treatment 191
Hot pressing and extrusion 200
Fabrication of antifriction materials on substrates with a metallic anti-
friction layer 201
Antifriction plasma and electrolytic composite coatings 203
Technology for fabrication of inetal-polymer composites 206
Piechanical treatment of surf aces 211
Acldition of solid and liquid lubricants 225
Chapter 6. Maiii Types of Composite Antifriction Materials and Their Pro-
perties
Materials based on copper 229
Materials based on iron 238
Piaterials ~asPd on nickel and cobalt 259
i~faterials based on aluminum and other light metals 265
riaterials based on low-melting metals and compounds 269
rfetal-graphite materials 2~4
rietallic two-layer materials utilizing a steel substr~te 282
~fz~erials of the matrix-filled type 286
Metal-glass materials 289
Basic types and properties of inetal-polymer materials 292
Chapter 7. Special-Purpose Composite Antifriction Materials
riaterials for working in the presence of a fluid lubricant 300
rfaterials for friction without a lubricant in an air environment, under
vacuum and in inert gases 311
Materials for working at elevated temperatures 320
Materials for working with high sliding speeds 328
Materials for working in water and corrosive media 333
Materials for a sliding current collector , 339
Materials for end and radial seals 345
Materials for piston rings 354
Selection of bearing materials and economic efficiency of their use 358
Conclusion 365
Bibliography 366
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1980
8831
CSO: 1842/117
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MECHANICAI, PftOPERTIES
PROPyRTIES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAI~S VERSUS WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Kiev SVOYSTVA KONSTRUKTSIONNY'KH MATERIALOV PRI VOZDEYSTVII RABOCHIKH SRED in Russian
1.980 (signed to press 11 Dec 80) pp 2, 327-328
[Annotation and table of contents from book "Properties of Construction Materials
Under the Influence of Working Environments", collection of scientific works,
Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1000 copies, 329 pages]
[Text] In this collection, prepared for the 70th birthday of the founder of a new
line of science--the physicochemical mechanics of construction materials, Ukrainian
SSR Academy of Sciences Academician G.V. Karpenko, are presented studies relating to
research on the deformation and failure of construction materials taking into
account real conditions of use, aimed at the development of the elements of the
theory of processes of the interaction of working environments with deformable con-
struction materials, at the development of effective methods of determining the
stressed-strained state in a construction material with the short-duration and
- prolonged interaction of loads, elevated and reduced temperature and pressure and
of working environments, and at the development of inethods of improving the strength
and durability of inetals and alloys taking into account the influence of working
environments.
Intended for scientific and engineering and technical personnel working on problems
- of the physicomechanical mechanics of materials.
CONTENTS Page
Foreword 3
Maksimovich, G.G. "Brief Review of the Scientific Work of Ukrainian SSR Academy
of Sciences Academician G.V. Karpenko (1910-1977)" 4
Interaction of Working Environments with Deformable Construction Materials
Panasyuk, V.V. "Development of the Physicochemical Mechanics of Materials
in the Works of G.V. Karpenko" 9
Kobzaruk, A.V. and Balatskiy, L.T. "Influence of the Form of the Cycle and
the Frequency of Loading on the Short-Time ~'atigue of Steel in Sea Water" 16
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NUK UN'FIC'!AL U~E UNLY
- Romaniv, O.N. and Nikiforchin, G.N. "Mechanisms of the Growth of Macroc.racks
in Steel Under the Influence of Static Loads and Working Environment~" 32
Pokhmurskiy, V.T, and Matseyko, M.M. "Basir Mechanisms of the Influence of
Stress Concentrators on the Fatigue and Corrosion-Fatigue Strength of Steel" 42
Popovich, V.V. and Ihnukhovskaya, I.G. "Influence of Adsorption-Active Media
on Mechanical Properties of Metals and Alloys" 4~
Katsov, K.B. "Strength and Contact Tolerance of Steel in Adsorption-Active
Media" 55
Po~chmurskiy, V.I., Kalakhan, O.S., Prishlyak, A.M., Y aremchenko, N.Ya.,
Oleksiv, B.Ya. and Frankiv, M.I. "Influence of Environment on Fatigue Strength
of Titanium Alloys" 64
Yanchishin, F.P. "Influence of Active ;4ledia on Strength of Strained Metals
Taking Into Account the Degree of Fineness of the Structure" 59
Preys, G.A. "Influence of Fond Processing Technology Media on Failure of
Rubbing Surfaces" 78
Prishlyak, A.M., Krizhanovskiy, Ye.I., Tarnavskiy, I.I. and Pelekh, V.G.
"Failure of Threaded ConnPCtions of Loaded Drill Pipes" 82
F:~vlina, V.S. and Astashkin, V.I. "Diffusion Saturation o~ a Solid in the
Case of Commensurability of the Mass of the So1id and Container " 88
Zbozhnaya, O.M., Smiyan, O.D. and Borisov, Xe.V. "Distribution of Nonmetallic
Elements of Saturable Metal When Producing Diffusion Coatings in a Medium of
Liquid Metal Solutions" 91
Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Embrittlement
Vasilenko, I.I. and rfelekhov, R.K. "Polarization Factor in the Process of
Corrosion Cracking o� Metallic Materials in Solutions of Chlorides " 97
Petrov, L.N. "Physical Chemistry of the Reduction of the Chemical Resistance
of a Metal Under Conditions of Corrosion Under Stress" 115
Dikiy, I.I. and Yi~rkiv, O.I. "Corrosion Cracking of Austenitic Steel in
Solutions of Chlorides" 122
Vasil'yev, V.Yu., Isayev, N.I., Yakovlev, V.B. and Shumilov, V.N. '~Nature
of ttie Incubation Period of Corrosion Cracking Under Conditions o~ Local
Anodic Activation" 132
Savchenkov, E.A. and Svetlichkin, A.F. "Durability and Hydrogen Embritt.le-
ment of Steel in Hydrogen Sulfide Cracking" 142
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Malyshev, V.N., Stepanov, I.A. and Troshchenko, V.N. "Relationship Between
the Hydrogen Permeability and Corrosion-Mechanical Strength of Nj.~kel-Chrome-
Molybdenum Steel With Cathodic Polarization" 147
Gol'tsov, V.A. "Phenomenoa of Controllable Hydrogen Precipitation Haraening
of Metals and Alloys" 151
Nikitin, V.I. "Influence of the Water Heat Transfer Agent on Corrosion-Mechan-
ical Strength of the Material of Steam Generators" 165
Kharitonov, L.N., Samsonovich, Ye.N. and I~aimov, R.M. "Comparative ~eatures
of the Fatigue Failure of 20GL and 20GFL Ste~l" 186
Timonin, V.A. and Baru, R.L. "Relationship of the Processes of ~oca1 Di~solu-
tion and Hydrogenation in Corrosion Cracking of Steel" 190
Physicochemical Methods of Strengthening Construction Materials
Karlashov, A.V. "Questions pelating to Improving the Utilization Properties
of Materials and Elements of Aircraft Structures and Ways of Implementing
Them" 198
Medovar, B.I., Kusiitskiy, A.B. and Stupak, L.M. Electroslag Refining--an
Effective Means of Improving the Corrosion-Mechanical Strength of Metallic
Materials" 214
Babey, Yu.I., Gurey, V.M. and Gusti, Ye.Ya. "Influence of Ordinary and
Special Mechanical Treatment on the Serviceability of Steel and Cast Iro,1
in Mild Surface-Active Media" 22~
Soshko, A.I. "Physicochemical Mechanics of the Treatment of Solids Employ-
ing Polymer-Containing Lubricant-�Coolants" 232
- Shestopalov, V.Ye. "Some Kinetic and Thermodynamic Mechanisms for the
Workability of Metals in Polymer-Containing Media" 239
Babey, Yu.I., Maksimishin, M.D. and Lyubitskiy, T.T. "Temperature Fields
Originating in the Part-Tool Contact Zone in Friction Hardening Treatment" 247
Shatinskiy, V.F., Kopylov, V.I., Strongin, B.G., Varvus, I.A. and Fedorov,
V.V. "Influence of Coatings and Their Dislocation Structure on Mechanical
Properties and Internal Friction of Solids" 26~
Lyutyy, Ye.M. "Disintegration of So1id Solutions Based on Niobium" 276
Shatinskiy, V.F., Goykhman, M.S., Yatsenko, Yu.F. and Rybakov, S.V. "Investi-
gation of the Process of the Formation and of the Air-Tightness of Contact
Between Metallic Surfaces in Corrosive Media at Elevated Temperatures" 287
Ya~syuk, A.I. "Dependence of Quality Characteristics of Products on Method
of Mechanical Treatment of the Surface" 293
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Maksimovich, G.G., Lyutyy, Ye.M., Kudlak, S.M., Baranetskiy, V.S. and
Yeliseyeva, O.T. "Apparatus for Testing Materials in Controllable Negative-
Pressure Gas Flows at Elevated Temperatures" 307
Aiaksimovich, G.G., Pichugun, A.T. and Fedi~ko, V.N. "Micromachine for
High-Temperature Testing of Materials for Fatigue Under Vacuum and in Gas
Media" 313
- Rudenko, V.P. "Scale Effect in Short-Time Fatigue o� Steel in a Corrosive
Environment" 318
Kissil', A.Ye. and Lyutyy, Ye.ri. "Reduction of the High-Temperature Strength
of an :Jb-Zr-C Alloy During Prolonged High-Temperature Aging Under Vacuum" 322
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1980
8831
CSO: 1842/116
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STRENGTH OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, Ei,EMENT5 AT SOUND AND ULTRASONIC FREQUENCIE5
Kiev PROCHNOST' MATERIAi.,OV I ELEMENTOV KONSTRUKTSIY PRI ZWKOVYKH I UL~TRAZWKOVYKH
CHASTOTAKH in Russian 1980 (signed to press 20 Feb 80) pp 2, 486-491
[Annotation and table of contents from book "Strength of Construction Materials and
Elements at Sound and Ultrasonic Frequencies", collection of papers, Izdatel'stvo
"Naukova dumka", 800 copies, 491 pages]
(Text] This collection contains the papers of the second all-Union seminar titled
"Strength of Construction Materials and Elements ar Sound and Ultrasonic Loading
Frequencies" (Kiev, 1978). A discussion is presented of problems of fatigue
strength at high loading frequencies, of the strength of construction materials and
elements in strong acoustic fields, of the influence of sound and ultrasonic vibra-
tions on the mechanical properties of materials, of the strength of acoustically
active materials, of the development of new techniques for investigating the mech-
anical behavior of materials under conditions of high-frequency loading, and of the
development of inethods of calculating the elements of acoustic systems.
Intended for scientific and engineering and technical personnel interested in the
influence of strong sound and ultrasonic vibrations on the mechanical properties
and strength of construction materials and elements.
CONTENTS Page
Foreword 3
_ I. Investigation of the Endurance of Materials as a Function of the Frequency
of Cyclic Loading
Kuz'menko, V.A. "Influence of Frequency of Cyclic Loading on Endurance of
Construction Materials" 6
Borodachev, N.M. and Malashenkov, S.P. "Influence of Frequency o� Cyclic
Loading on Durability to the Formation of a Fatigue Macrocrack" 15
Gur'yev, A.V. "Influence of Loading Rate on Inelastic Behavior of a Material" 18
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Skalozub, S.L. "Use of One Model of the Buildup o.~ Damage for Describing
the Dependence of ttle Endurance of Materials on the Loading Frequency" 27
Vaynshtok, I.I., Xeremin, A.S., Rossel'son, B.S. and I~askel'berg, G.I.
"Forecasting the Endurance of Reinforcing Bar Stee1 and Welded Joints from
the Results of Ultrasonic Tests Under Asymmetric Cyclic Loading" 31
- Guslyakova, G.P., Sokolov, L.D. and Sl-?ibarov, V.V. "Influence o~ the
Energy of a Stacking Fault on the Process o~ the Deformation of Some Metals
. with Various Cyclic Loading Frequencies" 3~
Yevseyev, V.V. and Terebilo, G.I. "Thermal Model of the Fatigue Phenomenon" 40
- Matokhnyuk, L.Ye. "Influence of Loading Frequency on the Fatigue Strength
~ of Titanium Alloys" 48
- rialashenkov, S.P. and Bengus, G.Yu. "On the Froblem of Estimating the
Fatigue Endurance of Construction Materials When Varying the Cyclic Loading
I'requency" 56
Voynalovich, A.V., Matokhnyuk, L.Ye., Tabachnik, V.I. and Shvechikov, M.M.
"Investigation of the Influence of Loading Frequency on the Effective Stress
~ Concentration Coefficient in Ptodels Made of Titanium Alloys VT20 and VT22" 62
~ Grishakov, S.V. and Shevchuk, A.D. "Endurance o~ Thermostable Steel on Long
Cyclic Loading Rases" 6~
II. Investigation of the Elasticity, Anelasticity and Fatigue of Materials
at Sound and Ultrasonic Loading Frequencies
Botvina, L.R. and Shabalina, V.N. "Kinetics of the Growth of a Fatigue Crack
Under High-Frequency Loading" 73
Golovanev, Yu.M. and Matokhnyuk, L.Ye. "Investigation of the Rate of Propaga-
tion of a Fatigue Crack and of Endurance in Models Made of an Aluminum Alloy
in a Strong Acoustic Field" 79
~
Golovin, S.~.., Kuz'menko, V.A., Petrushin, G.D. and Pis'mennyy, N.N. "In-
vestigation of the Anelastic Properties and Fatigue of Cast Iron with
Graphite Inclusions of Various Forms" $4
' Bozhko, A.Ye., Samokhvalov, V.Yu., Fedorov, A.T. and Shipillo, S.V.
"Estimation of the Fatigue Resistance of Sheet Alloy AMg-5M Under Asymmetric
I.oading with Reference to a Diagram of Limiting Peak Values" 93
VG"LTlyy, T.S. aRd Troyan, I.A. "Investigation of the Influence of an Asymme-
tric Cycle on the Endurance of Aluminum Alloys AK8 and AL4 Under High-
Frequency Tension-Compression" 98
Vaynshtok, I.S, and Khaskel'berg,.G.I. "Znvestigation o� the Dissipation
of Energy in Models of the Iteinforcement of Ferroconcrete Structures and Its
Welded Joints in the Process of Ultrasonic Fatigue Tests" 100
. 1L~
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, Voynalovich, A.V., Matokhnyuk, L.Xe., Minenko, A.M. and ~ongaue~ V.L.
"Endurance of 1Kh2M and Kh18N9 Steel Under High-k'requency Tension~Cqm~
pression" 105
Apinis, R.P. "Investigation of Mechanisms for the Buildup of Fatigue
Damage i:? Glass-Reinforced Plastic at an Acou:.~tical Loading Frequency" 112
Skvortsova, N.V. "Investigation of the Dependence on Temperature o� the
~ Elastic and Anelastic Properties of Glass-Reinforced Plastics Based on
Thermostable Binders" 118
Vasil'chenko, I.P., Malezhik, M.P, and Tutakov, O.V. "Investigation of
the Elastic anc3 Anelastic Properties of a Basalt-Reinforced Plastic" 127
III. Investigation of the In~luence of High-Frequency Cyclic Straining
on the Structure and Strength of Construction Materials
Polotskiy, I.G. and Prokopenko, G.I. "Use of Ultrasonic Methods of Treat-
ment for Increasing the Strength of Metals" 133
- Goryushin, V.V., Krivko, V.~P., Prokopenko, G.I. and Svechikov, V.L.
- "Influence of Ultrasonic Shock Tre.atment on the Structure and Properties
of the Surface Layers of Iron and Some Steel" 137
- Glavatskaya, N.I., Golub, T.V. and Polo*_skiy, I.G. "Influence of High- .
Frequency Cyclic Straining on the Structure and Microhardness of Copper-
Iron Alloys in the Hardened and Aged State" 141
Polotskiy, I.G., Belostotskiy, V.F. and Nikitova, G.A. "Mechanical Pro-
- perties and Kinetics of the Ordering o� an Ni-Cr Alloy Prestrained at
an Ultrasonic Frequency" 146
Bazelyuk, G.Ya., Kovpak, V.I., Matsiyevskaya, S.Ya. and Polotskiy, I.G.
_ "Influence of Preliminary Ultrasonic Irradiation on the Microstructure
and High-Temperature Creep of Alloy AK4-1" 150
Beletskiy, V.M., Polotskiy, I.G., Prokopenko, G.I, and Tabachnik, V.I.
"Fatigue Characteristics of a Titanium Alloy Subjected to Surface
Ha~dening" 156
Gringauz, F.M. and Dubinin, V.V. "Investigation of the Fatigue Endurance
- of Models Made of Alloy AK4-1T1 After Preloading in an Acoustic Field" 161
Voznyy, T.S. "Endurance of Construction Materials Under Repeated Static
Loading with the Application of Vibraticns" 167
Katina, L.V., Kortnev, A.A. and Makarov, V.K. "Critical Velocity of a
Cavitation Shock in Failure of a Solid Surface in the Process o� Ex~
- posure to Ultrasound" 172
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Bord, V.I. and Dovgyallo, I.G. "Change in the Strength and Ductility Charac-
teristics of Metals and Alloys with Different Straining Rates in an Ultra-
sonic Field" 176
Trnshko, V.P. "Investigation of the Ultimate Strength of Alloy 42NKhTYuA
Atter Drawing with Ultrasonic Vibrations" 184
Kuz'menko, V.A., Tsimbalistyy, Ya.I. and Yurchenko, B.I. "Influence of
- High-Frequency Cyclic Loading on Relaxation of Mean Stresses and Creep in
1Kh2M Steel" 186
IV. Investigation of the Strength of Piezoelectric Ceramics and Other
- Acoustically Active Materials
Gavrilyachenko, V.G., Dantsiger, A.Ya., Dorostienko, V.A., Zhitomirskiy,
G.A., Pikalev, M.M., Revenko, L.G. and Fesenko, Ye.G. "Problem of
Improving the Fatigue Strength of Piezoelectric Ceramic Materials" 194
Klevtsov, A.N., Prokopalo, O.I., Rayevskiy, I.P. an.d Reznichenko, L.A.
"High-Strength Ferropiezoelectric Ceramic Materials Based on Niobates of
Alkali Metals" 199
Grineva, L.D., Zatsarinnyy, V.P. and Panich, A.Ye. "Influence of Modifiers
on the Mechanical Strength of Multicomponent Piezoelectric Ceramics" 202
Kirillov, V.I. and Pavlov, P.A. "Principles of a Phenomenological Descrip-
tion of Processes of Delayed Fracture of Brittle Materials " 206
Gots, O.M., Kiril.lov, V.I., Mezhevitinov, Yu.P. and Pakhomova, A.A.
"Procedure for Processing Experimental Data on the Longterm Static and
Fatigue Strength of Piezoelectric Ceramic Elements" 212
Kirillov, V.I., Potikha, L.Z, and Salomakhin, V.G. "Investigation of the
Fatigue Strength of Piezoelectric Ceramic Models" 218
_ Kuz'menko, V.A. and Pisarenko, G.G. "Endurance of Piezoelectric Ceramics
Under Cyclic Tension-Compression at a High Frequency" 223
Gerikhanov, A.K., Golyamina, I.P., Ugryumova, M.A. and Chushko, V.M.
"Investigation of the Fatigue Strength of Piezoelectric Ceramics of the
TsTTsNSN Composition" 234
Gaaza, N.Ye. and Koshchakova, IV.P. "Influence o� Thermal Paramaters of
Piezoelectric Elements on Their Fatigue Endurance" 238
Barchukov, V.K., Kochetygov, V.V., Kholopov, V.S, and.Shtukarev, Yu.A.
"Investigation of the Strength of Cylindrical Pi_ezoelectric Ceramic Ele-
ments" 242
Paragova, L.ri., Solokhin, N.V. and Tsvetyanskiy, V.L. "Investigation of
tlie Failure Characteristics of Piezoelectric Ceramics Under Cyclic Tension-
Compression" 246
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Solokhin, N.V. and Tsvetyanskiy, y.L. "Re7.ationship Between Internal k'ric-
tion and Fracture Toughness of Piezoe],ectric Ceramics" 251
Bondarenko, A.A., Karas', N.I. snd Ulitko, A.F. "Piezoelectric Losses in
Elements of Structures Made of Piezoelectric Ceramics" 254
Karlash, V.L. "On the Investigation of Dynamic Stresses in Thin Piezoelectric
Ceramic Elements Under Strong Electrical Excitation" 25~
Gerikhanov, A.K., Golyamina, I.P., Pisarenko, G.G., Khlopotunova, N.A.
and Chashina, T.N. "Influence of Glass-Forming Additives on ttie Fatigue
Strength of Magnetostriction Ferrites" 264
Gerikhanov, A.K. and Chushko, V.M. "Experimental Investigation of the
Amplitude Dependences of the Dissipation of Energy in Acoustically Active
Materials" 268
Ganeva, L.I., Gerikhanov, A.K. and Golyamina, I.P. "Influence of the Method
of Making Models and of a Permanent Magnetic Field on the Fatigue Strength of
Magnetostriction Materials" 2~3
V. Investigation of the Strength of Elements of Structures Under the
Effect of High-Frequency Cyclic Loads
Viter, P.A. "Improving the Reliability of Aircraft Long-Life Gas Turbine
Engines in Terrus of the Fatigue Strength Criterion" 279
Moskalenko, A.I., Serebrennikov, G.Z., Sulima, A.M. and Fedorov, L.A.
"Investigation of the Fatigue Strength of Gas~Turbine Engine Parts at High
Sound Frequencies" 280
Borisova, Ye.A., Voynalovich, A.V., Matokhnyuk, L.Ye., Minenko, A.M. and
Sh~echikov, M.M. "Fatigue Strength of Welded Elements Made of Alloys VT20
and VT5-1 Under High-Frequency Bending" 285
Chernyak, B.Ya., Isayev, A.I., Khalmurzayev, Kh. and Shevchuk, A.D.
"Investigation o� the Endurance of Titanium Fa3teners at Ultrasonic ~re-
quencies" ~ 289
Belov, I.I., Belova, L.M., Vrachev, A.V., Yevdokimov, B.I., Neronov, A.A.
and Rochegov, M.V. "Investigation of the Sonic Endurance of an Airframe
in Plant Test Cells" 29~
Sidorov, O.T. "Employing Damping of Component Structural Elements for
~ Hastening Estimation of ~heir Fatigue En3urance" 299
Sidorov, O.T. and Rakshin, A.F. "Investigation of Damping Mechanisms in
Elements of Structures with Bol*_ed Connections in the Process of Fatigue
Test Runs" 305
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Gryaznov, B.A., Goredetskiy, S.S., RudPnko, V.N. and Rovkov, V.A.
_ "Investigation of the Fatigue Strength of Alloy AK-6 Taking into
Account the Influence of the Technology for Fabri~ating Real ParCs" 312
Balalayev, Yu.F., Astredinov, M.I., Kholodnyy, V.I. and Meshkov, N.K.
"Influence of the riedium and Metallic Coatin;s on the Strength of
Materials Under the Effect of High-Frequency Vibrations" 321
Kuznechik, T.I., Tyavlovski_y, M.D. and Chupilko, V.A. "Investigation
of the Endurance of Structural Elements Made of Microwire Under
Cyclic Loading" 325
Al~firenko, V.M., Stoler, V.A., Tyavlovskiy, M.D. and Faotovets, Ye.P.
"Investigation of the Vibration Strength of Joined Co;zstruction Elements" 331
Davydov, G.V. "Strength of Electrode Leads of Semiconductor Devices
- and Integrated Circuits Under a Strong Acoustic Inf.luence" 336
VI. Development of Methods of Calculating Elements of Acoustic Systems
Bogomolov, S.I. and Simson, E.A. "Some Problems in Optimizing Waveguides" 341
Kvitka, V.Ye. "Calculation Method for Determining Acoustic Loads in
Tet Aircraft" 358
Koshevoy, V.V. and Soroka, S.A. "Acoustic Tests as an Analog of the Holo-
graphic Process" 363
Trapezon, A.G. "On Analysis of the Stressed and Strained State of Models
, for Fatigue Tests Under Simple Bending" 369
rfartynenko, M.D, and Dovgyallo, I.G. "Calculation of Longitudinally Vibrat-
ing Multistage Rods" 374
Pel.�ts, S.P. and Tsvetyanskiy, V.L. "Investigation of the Stressed-Strained
State of a Rod-Plate System Under Vibration" 379
Barvinskiy, A.F. and Kalynyak, N.I. "Asymptotic Method of Investigating
the Transverse Vibrations of a Beam with a Temperature Field Nonuniform
Along Its Axis, Taking into Account the Dissipation of Energy in the Mater-
ial" 384
Voytsekhovskiy, N.I. and Grigor'yev, Ye.T. "Estimation of the Fatigue
_ Strength of Models and Elastic Structures Taking into Account the Loading
Frequency" 389
Troyan, I.A., Tsimbalistyy, Ya.I. and Shevchuk, A.D. "Opportunities for
Reducing Thermal Stresses in High-Frequency Straining" 395
Burak, Ya.I., Galapats, B.P. and Kondrat, V.F. "Mechanothermoelectrical
Phenomena in Conducting Solids Under Cyclic Loading in an External Magnetic
Field" 400
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_ Allaverdiyev, A.M. and Kuliyev, Yu.N. "Calculation o~ the $tressed State of
a Piezoelectric Ceramic Ring and Disk During Al.ternating Electrical Excita- 405
tion"
Kovalev, S.P., Pisarenko, G.G. and Chushko, V.M. CalculaYion of the
Stressen State of Piezoelectric Ceramic Rods Under"Vibration" 412
VII. Development of Methods of Experimental Investigation of the Mechanical
Properties of Materials and Elements of Structures Under Conditions
of High-Frequency Vibration
Vasinyuk, I.M. and Kruk, B.Z. "Apparatus for Testing for Fatigue Under
Programmed Loading" 420
Voloshchenko, A.P., Grishko, V.G., Gryaznov, B.A., Zhurbenko, V.V.,
Konoplyannikov, Ye.G., Onishchenko, A.D., Rovkov, V.A., Troshchenko, V.T.,
Fedorov, Yu.N. and Fot, N.A. "Automated Bench for Testing Gas Turbine
Engine Blades ~or Endurance" 425
Skvortsova, N.V. "Procedure for Vibration Testing of Construction Materials
Under Rapid Heating to High Temperatures" 430
Boreymagorskaya, L.A., Navarenko, A.F. and Samoylenko, V.V. "Hydrodyn~nic
Emitting System for Investigating the Stre~xgth of Materials Under Con-
ditions of the Effect of Cyclic Loads" 436
7.habko, N.I. "Influence on Endurance of Residual Stresses and Strains
Caused by Cyclic Elastoplastic Bending" 438
Lezvinskaya, L.M., Muravin, G.B. and Finkel', V.M. "Investigation by the
Method of Acoustic Emission of the Energy F1ux Density Field at the Apex of
a Normal Fracture Crack" 449
Tripalin, A.S., Buylo, S.I. and Kholodnyy, V.I. "Problem of the Correla-
tion Between the Formation and Growth of a Fatigue Crack in Models Made
of High-Strength Steel and Acoustic Emission Parameters" 456
Grishakov, S.V., Kuz'menko, V.A. and Pisarenko, G.G. "Employment of
Acoustic Emission for Investigating the Fatigue of Piezoelectric Ceramics" 458
Grishakov, S.V. and Kolmogorov, V.N. "Question of Using the Method of
Harmonic Analysis of Ultrasound for Investigating the Fatigue of Materials" 461
Vyshemirskiy, A.V., Obychev, N.M. and Sofinskiy, B.A. "Experimental
Methods of Investigating Vibrations of Elements of Electronic Device
Constructions by Employing Lasers" 465
Drobinskiy, V.S., Radin, N.N. and Shevchuk, A.D. Instrument ~or Measuring
Amplitude of Vibrations" " 470
Lyashko, F.Ye., Khalmurzayev, Kh. and Chernyak, B.Ya. "System for Recording
Amplit~~de of Vibrations in Testing Metals at Ultrasonic Frequencies" 472
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Vyboyshchik, M.A. , Itkis, Yu.A. and Krishtal, M.A. "Appar~tus ~or Dete~nining
the Elastic Modulus and znternal ~riction of Model.s in the Process o~ Long-
- Duration Cyclic Loading" 476
Voytenko, A.F. "Method of Investigating the Temperature Dependence of the
Elast~c Moduli of Metals with the Automatic Recording of Measurement Results" 480
Lysenko, M.V., Pustovalov, G.A. and Sabayev, A.S. "Apparatus ~or Measuring
the Speed and Coefficient of Absorption of Ultrasound in Polymer Materials" 482
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1980
8831
- CSO: 1842/118
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MISCEI,LANEOUS
,
METALS REQUIRENIENTS IN NATION S PRODUCTION
Moscow VOPROSY EKONaMIKI in Russian No 3, Mar 81 pp 82-90
[Article by L. Zusman: "Metals Requirements of Societal Production"]
[Text) A materials-conserving type of development is one of the principal direc-
tions of technological progress in the material production sectors. A special role
in this connection is played by metal, which is a universal ob~ect of labor and
serves as a material foundation of implements of labor, means of transportation, and
structural materials.
The enormous importance of inetal enables one to consider the metalloyemkost' [metal.s
requirements, metals-intensiveness] indicator as one of the most important
characteristi~s of technological advance. It characterizes not only a decrease in
the weight of counterpart machinery and equipment, structures and transfer devices
per unit of their principal technical parameter (output, lifting capacity, accommoda-
tion capacity, speed, etc), but also progressive structural changes in utilized
structural materials and created fixed assets.
Excessive metal content of transport vehicles and equipment, as well as moving
parts in stationary equipment, which amount to not less than one third of the metal
by weight contained in all machinery, equipment and transport vehicles, determines
additional ongoing outlays during their entire service life. Additional outlays are
also due to the necessity of placing bearers and bedplates under stationary machinery
and equipment, crane tracks and supporting columns. In addition, it is necessary
to use repair parts which weigh more than necessary in minor repairs and major
overhauls as a result of increased metal content of fixed assets. Therefore
decreasing metal requirements makes it possible to achieve savings not only in metal
but also in ongoing expenditures as well.
A study of correlation factors for the period 1961-1962 between growth in this
country's metals fund volume and growth in volume of gross societal product in-
dicated that this factor is 0.72, growth of generated national income 0.77, and
growth in national wealth 0.89. Thus the level of inetal requirements of societal
production, national income and national wealth is reflected fairly faithfully in
the relationship with change in the country's metals fund volume.
Resources of ferrous metals hold back growth and development of machine building
and to some extent construction as well. Therefore the CPSU Central Committee and
USSR Council of Ministers decree of 12 July 1979 states the necessity of drafting
21
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programs for achieving savings in fuel and metal as one of the priority tasks for
the immediate future.
Metal requirements are determined by the pace of growth and development of the
metal-consuming branches and sectors, their structure and average level of produc-
tion metals intensiveness, that is, consumption of inetals per unit of output capaci-
ty of maniifactured machinery and equipment, per cubic meter of erected buildings and
structures, per kilometer of rail line, etc. The dynamics of inetals intensiveness
of fixed assets characterize the direction and intensity of change in this in-
dicator, which is of great importance for future planning of inetals requirements in
conformity with the targeted growth in fixed assets and structural changes in fixed
assets.
Average metals content i n th e f ix ed assets of the national economy has been
as follows (in tons per million rubles of value of fixed assets, in constant
prices): in 1960 1,043.3 (100%); in 1965 1,016.2 (95.8%); in 1970 996.3
- (95.0%); in 1975 940.1 (89.6%); in 1978 916.9 (87.4%). Consequently, during
the period 1961-1978 the average level of inetal co n te nt of fixed assets of the
national economy declined by 12.6%, which secured a metal savings of 125 million
tons for this period. The decrease was achieved as a result of an approximately
8% improvement in the quality and mix of inetal products.
The above calculated figures on change in the average level of inetal content in the
fixed as~ets of the national economy for 1961-1978 apply to the overall volume of
utilized fixed assets. These changes are due chiefly to movement on-stream of new
fixed assets, and partially to retirement of fixed assets. Since the volume of
fixed assets increased 3.86-fold in the period 1961-1978, the above figures on
change in the average level of inetal content in respect to new fixed assets coming
on-stream should be increased correspondi~gly by approximately one fourth. Thus the
decline in the level of average metal content of fixed assets of the national economy
brought on-stream during this period was approximately 15 percent.
In the period 1961-1978 the percentage share of cast iron and steel in consumption
of all categories of ferrous metals and castings declined from 22.3 to 17%. Replace-
mei~t of iron castings with welded structures of sheet steel re.duces the weight of
- structures by 25-30 percent. The principal cause of decrease in the percentage
share of iron castings is change in the machinery and equipment product list, and in
part machine casting of steel in place of using ingot molds. Therefore the
decrease in the metal content of the comparable group of machinery and plumbing
fixtures is estimated at 1.0-1.5 million tons, which represents 1.0-1.5 percent of
total consumption of all types of ferrous metals and castings.
- There occurred in 1961-1978 an intensive process of replacement of steel structures
with reinforced concrete structures. Production of precast reinforced concrete
structures and components increased from 30.2 million cubic meters in 1961 to 123.2
- million cubic meters in 1978, or fourfold. Consumption of inetal in reinforced con-
crete structures in 1978 totaled approximately 15 million tons, as compared with
5 million tons in 1961, while the percentage share of inetal in reinforced concrete
structures in overall consumption of inetal in the construction industry increased
from 37 to 52 percent. In 1978 the quantity of inetal structures employed in the
construction industry was up 96 percent over 1975, while the corresponding increase
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for precast reinforced concrete and concrete structures and components was 130 per-
cent. In the estimate of VNIlzhelezobeton [A~.~-Union Scientific Research Institute
of Industrial Technology of Precast Reinforced .^.oncrete Structures and Components],
as of the beginning of 1976 reinforced concrete structures and components for the
construction industry contained approximately 15U million tons of inetal (37-40 per-
- cent of the total volume of inetal in buildings, other structures, and transfer
- equipment).
In connection with metal savings achieved by replacing metal structures and com-
ponents with reinforced concrete (according to the estimate of VNIlzhelezobeton,
28 percent on the average), the decrease in metal content of buildings, structuras
and transfer equipment in 1978, in comparison with 19b1, comprised approximately
3.6 percent of total consumption of inetal in the national economy, including ap-
proximately 13 percent for buildings, structures, and transfer equipment.
In the period 1961-1975 not more than 1.0 percent of ferrous metals were replaced
~ by plastics in the machine building industry. In the construction industry plastics
were used in the mansfacture of pipe, plumbing fixtures and accessories. This
replacement of ferrous metals by plastics made it possible the save in the period
1961-1978 only 0.4 percent of total metals consumption. Thus the decrease in metal
content of fixed assets in connection ~rith change in the structure of structural
materials is estimated at..approximately 4 percent.
Change in the level of average metal content of fixed assets is influenced by the
branch and category reproduction structure of fixed assets, since this indicator
varies considerably among individual branches and sectors of the national economy,
industry and transportation. An increase in the percentage share of fixed produc-
tive assets, with fixed assets of industry the main contributor, with a decrease 3n
the percentage share of nonprociuction fixed assets,constitutes an important factor
in an increase in the average metal content of the fixed assets of the national
economy as a whole. As of 1 3anuary 1972, for example, the amount of inetal by
weight per million rubles of replacement value of fixed assets was as follows:
1,203 tons in industry; 600 tons in agriculture (including livestock), and 755 tons
excluding livestock; 1,492 tons in transportation (including roads, road construc-
tion and maintenance); 538 tons in co~unications; 1,490 t~ns ia the construction
industry; 600 tons in municipal and domestic services; 314 tons in housing; 460 tons
- in other nonproduction assets. Consequently, metal content in fixed assets varies
by almost fivefold between the different branches and sectors of the economy. As
~ calculations show, differences in the branch/sector structure of fixed assets in
1978, in comparison with 1960, influenced an increase in their average metal con-
tent (by 4.5 percent).
In the period 1961-1978 there occurred significant changes in the percentage
shares of individual branches in total industrial output: the percentage share of
the chemical and petrochemical industry, machine Uuilding, metalworking, and
electric power engineering increased, with a decrease in the percentage share of
the other branches of indu~try. These changes resulted in a 3.6 percent increase
in the average metal requirements of induetrial output in 1978 in comparison with
1960.
Change in the category structure of fixed assets among the branches and sectors of
the national economy can substantially affect the average metal content of fixed
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assets in each branch/sector, since the level of inetaZ content varies substantially
among the various ~ategories of fixed assets. According to figures as of 1 January
1972, for example, the average metal content of buildings, structures and transfer
equipment per million rubles value was 893 tons in industry, 1,265 tons in power
machines and equipment, 1,417 tons in working machines and equipment, 2,063 tons in
means of transportation, 416 tons in measuring and controlling instruments, devices
and laboratory equipment, and 2,100 tons in tools, auxiliary maintenance and
production accessories. In the last 20 years there has been a decrease in the per-
centage share of. buildings, structures, and transfer equipment, power machines and
equipment, w~th an increase in the percentage share of working machines and equip-
ment. Modification of the category structure of fixed assets of industry helped
increase the average metal content of industrial fixed assets by 0.9 percent.
There has also been a change ict the structure of production (freight turnover) and
- productive fixed assets of mair~line transportation: the percentage share of rail
hauls in the total volume of all freight hauls declined from 79.8 percent in 1960
to 57.6 percent in 1978; river cargo traffic from 5.3 to 4.1 percent; for
marine cargo there was an increase from 7.0 to 13.9 percent, motor transport
from 5.~ to 6.6 percent, oil and refined products pipeline transport from 2.7 to
17.6 percent. There was a significant increase in the percentage share of natural
- gas pipelines transport volume of conveyan ce of inerchantable natural gas in 1978
reached 35i.1 billion cubic meters, as compared with 112.3 billion in 1965.
At ttie same time level of inetal content (metal quantity by weight in fixed assets per
billion ton/kilometer5 of freigilt hauled) is as follows: 33,000 tons for rail trans-
port; 14,350 tons for maritime transport; 47,900 tons for river transport; 12,400
tons for common-carrier motor transpor*_; 19,700 tons for oil pipeline transport.
These changes in the subbranch structure of transport production (services) in 1978
as compar~d with 1960 led to a drop in the average level of inetal content of produc-
tic,.: by 4.4 percent.
, Thus the following factors influenced change in the level of inetal content of the
fixed assets of the national economy in the period 1961-1978 (as percentages of
1960):
Improvement in metal products qualit;~ and mix -8�~
I~nprovement in the structure of structural materials -4.0
_ Change in the sector/branch structure of the national economy +4.5
Change in tne branch structure of industry +3.6
Change in the branch structure of transportation -4.4
Change in the category structure of f ixed procluctive assets:
industry +0.9
agriculture +50.0
average +7.0
Increase in the unit output of machinery and equipment -10.0
Other factors (improvement in designs and perFOrmance of
machinery and equipment, reduction in weigi~t of construction
industry structures, etc) -4.4
Total decrease in metal content -15.0
_ Consequently, in spite of a number of objective factors which influence a 15.1 per-
- cent rise in the level of the metals content of fixed assets of the nation3l
_ 2~~
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economy, in the final analysis a decrease of approximately 15 percent in the metal
content of fixed assets over the period 1961-1978 was achieved.
Corresponding to each period in this country's economic development was a correla-
tion between growth of fixed assets and aggregate volume of inetal content in these
fixed assets (metals fund), gross societal product, and national income.
In the period 1929-1940 growth of gross societal product and generated national in-
come was averaging twice the rate of increase of fixed productive assets. This was
achieved due to an increase in the average annual work force from 11.4 million per-
sons in 1928 to 33.9 million in 1940, including an increase to 25.6 million in the
sphere of material production, as well as an increase in labor productivity in all
sectors of material production, including a 3.1-fold growth in industry, 1.7-fold
in agriculture, 2.7-fold in rail transportation, and 2.5-fold in the construction
industry.
A substantial growth in the employed work force during this period was achieved by
drawing into societal production new contingents of the able-bodied population and
freed labor resources in agriculture. In 1940, in comparison with 1928, the average
metal content of fixed productive assets had increased by 58 percent as a result of
an increase in the percentage share of industry. In connection with this, the
metal content of gross societal product and national income declined by only 15 and
26 percent respectively.
In 1965 gross societal product increased 3.5-fold over 1950, while the increase in
generated national income was 3.6-fold, fixed productive assets of all sectors of
the economy was 4.0-fold, employed work force 1.9-fold, and societal labor
productivity 3.1-fold. During this period growth in gross societal product and
national income began to fall behind the increase in fixed productive assets, and
their output-capital ratio increased by 11-14 percent. An ir.dustrial output growth
of 68 percent was achieved by improved labor productivity in the Fifth Five-Year
Plan, 72 percent in the Sixth Five-Year Plan, and 62 percent in the Seventh Five-
Year Plan. Nevertheless, in order to ensure the achieved production volume growth
in 1965 in comparison with 1950, it was necessary to bring on-stream fixed
- productive assets exceeding in growth rate ::he gross societal product and generated
national income. However, average metal content of fixed productive assets brought
on-stream during this period declined an average of 25 percent in comparison with
the extensive employment of high-strength low-alloy steel and reinforced cor.crete
structures and components in place of inetal structures, as we11 as branch struc-
tural changes. As a result of this, the metal content of gross societal product
and generated national income declined by 15 and 18 pErcent respectively.
In 1975 gross societal product was up 94 percent over 1965, generated national in-
- come was up 91 percent, and fixed productive assets were up 124 percent, that is,
- there is continuing a growth in the output-capital ratio of gross societal product
and national income. In contrast to the preceding period, however, the metal con-
- tent of fixed productive assets declined by only 9 percent, as a result of which
the metal content of gross societal product and generated national income increased
by 5-6 percent.
Labor productivity growth in the Eighth Five-Year Plan accounted for 73 percent of
total industrial output growth, and 84 percent in the Ninth Five-Year Plan.
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Nevertheless, in order to ensure an increase in output volume in 1975 in compari~on
with 1965, it was necessary to br-ing on-stream productive assets exceeding gross
societal product and generated national income in rate of growth. This increase
, was approximately 15-17 percent in the period 1966-1975 as compared with 10-14 per-
cent in 1951-1965. In 1976-1978 gross societal product volume inereased by 15 per-
cent ~~z comparison with 1975, with a 15.9 percent increase in national i~icome,
while volume of fixed productive assets rose 25 percent, that is, growth of the out-
- put-capital ratia of gross societal product and national income continued.
As regards total volume of gross societal product, there is observed~a trend toward
an increase in the percentage share of industry, transportation and communications,
_ trade, procurements and supply, with a decline in the percentage share of agricul-
ture.
~ In 1978 1.32 billion rubles of gross societal product in industry was generated per
billion rubles of fixed assets value, while in agriculture the figure was 0.89 bil-
lion rubies (average for 1976-1978), 0.21 billion in transportation and communica-
tions, 2.07 billion rubZes in construction, and 1.17 billion rubl~s in the remaining
sectors of material production. It is evident from the above figures that change in
the sector distribution of gross societal product fostered an increase in its
volume. A lag in growth of gross societal product behind growth in volume of the
metals fund in the sectors of material production is due chiefly to an increase in
- the output-capital ratio in the sectors of material production. For example (in
comparable 1973 prices), industrial output volume in 1978 increased by 250 percent
over 1975, wi_th a 285 percent g~owth in fixed productive assets, while during this
perio:i gross output volume in agriculture increased by 44 percent, with a 2.7-fold
- gro~ath in fixed assets, freight turnover volume increased by 2.14 percent, while
volume of fixed assets in transportation and communications increased by 151 per-
cent, volume of completed construction and installation work in the contruction in-
dustry increased by 130 percent, and volume of fixed assets by 300 percent. Thus in
1978, in comparison with 1965, the output-capital ratio was up 14 percent in in-
dustry, and had increased 6.1-fold in agriculture, 17 percent in transportation and
communications, and by more than 70 percent in the construction industry. We should
note that actual growth in the metal content of gross societal product in the
p