JPRS ID: 9862 USSR REPORT SPACE

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• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 43
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/9862 ~
22 July 1981
USSR Re ort
p
SPACE
(FOUO 3/8 i~
~~O$ FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMA~ION SERVICE
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JPRS L/9862
- 22 July 1981
USSR REPORT
~ SPACE
_ ~FOUO 3/81)
CANTENTS
= MANNED MISSION HIGHLIGHTS
- Space Support Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SPACE ENGINEERING
Model of the High-Temperature Failur.e of Heat Shields During the
Entry of Spacecraft Into the Dense Layers of the Atmosphere
(Radiant an~d Convective Neating) . . . . . . ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ y ~ 22
SPACE APPLICATIONS
Reducing the Error in Remote Measurements r:f the Ocean's Physical
_ Fie lds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Analysis of Remote Measurements of the Temperature of the Pacific
Ocean' s Surface From Space . . . . . . ~ ~ . ~ . . , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 42
Investigztion of the Orbits nf Artif.icial Earth Satellites Used for
Uceanographic Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
~ Main Directions of Earth Research From Space in Light of the
. llecisions of the 26th CPSU Congress . . . ~ . ~ ~ ~ . . ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ 61
New Experiment in Earth Research From Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Television Methods of Color Filtration in Aerospace Investigations
of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
- Comparative Analysis of Radiothermal and Infrared Images Obtained
With an Artificial Earth Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ , , . 74
- a~ (III - USSR - 21.L S&T FOUO]
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Radiophysical Methods for Sounding the Atmosphere and the Ocean's
Surface From Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8~
Experimental Multizonal Aerospace Surveys for the Study of Natural
Resources in Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Aerospace Research in the Polish People's Republic: The 'Zemlya'
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
SPACE POLICY & ADMINISTRATION
Space Shuttle Program: Political and Legal Problems 97
-b-
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MANNED MISSION HIGHLIGHTS
. UDC 629.124.68:629.78
SPACE SUPPORT SHIPS
Leningrad aUDA KO~MICHESKOY SLUZHBY in Russian 1980 (signed to press 12 Aug 80)
pp i90-225, ~46-247
/Annotation, table of contents and sections 3.1-3.4 from book "Space Support Ships",
by Vitaliy Georgiyevich Bezborodov and Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Zhakov, Izdatel'stvo
"Sudostroyeniye", 7,600 copies, 247 pages7
_ /T~xt/ ANNOTATION
T'his book is concerned with the scientif.ic research ships of the space service,
_ which play an extremely important role in the study and conquest of space. In it
the authors tell about the purpose of the ships and their scientific and technical
equipment. They also present the necessary information on the theory of space-
flight and space radio engineering, as we11 as a brief description of the space
co~and and measurement complex in which the ships of the scientific fleet function
as floating measuring points.
In this book there is a discussion of questions that are common to both cosmonaut-
i.cs and shipbuilding. The explication is intended for a broad circle of non-
- ~~eci:alist readers and does not require any priar knowledge in these areas of tech-
nology,
TABI.E OF CONTENTS
Page
'Cc the reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
f~'c rewo rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
~:hapter 1. The Purpose of the Space Service Fleet
l.l. Satelli*es and Interplanetary Statior.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2. Space Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3. Stages of Spaceflight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1..4. Observation of Spaceflight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.5. The Command and Measurement Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chapler. 2. The F2oating Measuring Point
2.1. Equipment uf. an On-Board Measuring Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
? . ? . ~'light Cantrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
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Page
2.3. Trajectory Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.4. Telemetric Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.5. Antenna Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.6. Determining the Ship's Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
2.7. Communications and the Time Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Chapter 3. The Space Sspport Fleet
, 3.1. Requirements for Space Service Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.2. The "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.3. General-Purpose Space Service Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3. 4. Small Space Service Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.5. The First Ships for the Investigation of Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.6. Working and Living on Expeditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Appendix 1. Marine and Shipbuilding Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Appendix 2. Scale of Wind Strengths (Beaufort Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Bib liography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
CHAPTER 3. Z'HE~SPACE SUPPORT FLEET
3.1. Requirements for Space 5ervi.ce Ships
Ships participating in the investigation of space are a special �lass of oceangoing
ships. Everything about them is unusual: architecture, the equipment in the in-
cernal compartments, the sailing conditions.
_ The architectural appearance of space service ships is determined primarily by the
high-powered structures in their antenna systems. For example, such architectural
elements as the 25-mecer mirror on the "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" or the 18-meter,
snow-white sphere of radio-transparent c~vers for the antennas on the "Cosmonaut
- Vladimir Komarov" attract attention to themselves right away and immediately create
~ a prevailing impression of the ship. A more attentive look reveals dozens of other
antennas of a11 different sizes and designs. There is no such abundance of anten-
nas, of course, on any ship of any other class. ~
The antennas and radio engineering equipment with which the expedition laboratories .
_ are equipped impose their own conditions that are specific for ships of this class.
The scientific assignments of expedition voyages dictate tre requirements for the
ships' seagoing qualities. Taken together, all of this also determines the re-
quirements for space service ships.
Good seagoing qualities are needed by space service ships so that they can fulfill
the scientific assignments they have been.given while sailing in any area of the
world ocean at any time of year and in any weather. At~the same time, the sailing
must be done safely. Expedition ships must go to those points in the ocean that
are determined by ballistic calculations and there perform the work assigned to
them without regard for the weather in that area. Sometimes they cannot even
choose their course freely when working with an object in space, so as to make
sailing easier with respect to the ocean's wave action: the course is determined
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by co~nunication session assignments, the ~.~irectian of the spaceflight trace, and
the viewing angle of the ship's antennas.
The ships must be able to be controlled well, even at low speeds and while drift-
ing, whicti are typical conditions for conducting communication sessions with space.
- One of the main requirements for space serv~ce ships is that they be highly inde-
pendent. Independence means a ship's abili.ty to stay at sea for a long time, per-
forming its work without putting into port to .replez~ish its stocks of fuel, fresh
water and provisions. A high degree of independence enables a ship not to inter-
rupt communication sessions and not to waste ti?ne on trips from its working area to
- a port in order ta replenish its stores. Given the great (as a rule) remoteness of
thesz region~, the loss of time on kxips would be significant and would possibly
require an increase in the number of ships tha~ support spaceflight while at sea.
Independent sailing is limited by the stocks of frESh water and ~rovisions. For
example, medium-displacement ships of the "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov" type can
sail without replenishing its provisions for 90 da~s, while the fresh water supply
_ for these ships is calculated fo~ 30 days. The ships are equipped with large pro-
- vision sCorerooms that have powerful refrigeratzng equipment. As far as the water
supply i.s concerned, independer~ce can be increased through the usP of distilling
units on the ships.
Space service ships conduct communication sessions at low speed and while drifting
or at anchor. Therefore, the fuel for the engines is consumed mainly during pas-
sages. The fuel supply determines another important characteristic of a ship: its
continuous cruising range. If it has a large cruising range, a ship is ~ble not to
interrupt its work with objects in space in order to put into port to take on fuel.
This as is the case with increasing independence essentially increases the
etfectiveness of the utilization o~ the space service fle~t. In order to form an
opinion abouC the actual figures, let us say, for example, thaC the cruising range
af the "Co~monaut Yuriy Gagarin" is 20,000 miles. This distance is only less than
an i.maginary ocean voyage around the world at the equator.
The next characteristic is a ship's stability and, related to this, its rolling pa-
rameters. The radio engineering and electronic equipment that is the basis of the
p~.p~dir_ir~n equipment of space service ships has a weight distribution that is very
_ di~advanta~eous for staU~lity. The heaviest elements of this equipment the an-
- tennas with their foundations and powerful electric drives are located high
above the decks and superstructure, while the intern.al comp~rtments contain basic-
aliy electronic units that are relatively light in weight. For example, the four
~~air space antenna on the scientific research ship "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin," to-
~;ett~er with their foundations, have a total weight of about 1,000 tons and are lo-
cated on decks that are 15-ZS meters above the water line, which di~places the
ship's center of mass upward to a considerable degree.
Difficulties with stability also arise because of the great surface area of space
antennas. For example, the four parabolic mirrors on the "Cosmonaut Yuriy
Gagarin," which are 12 and 25 meters in diameter, have a total surface area of
1,2~0 square meters. When they are set "on edge" and turr.ed toward the side of
. , thz ship (a typical position for beginning a communication session), they act as a
sail that is trying to capsize the ship. Therefore, communication sessions are not
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- held in high winds. It stands to reason that when an antenna is locked in the
"travel" position and is pointed straight up, its sail effect is many times less
and no longer poses a danger for sailing. In passing, let us mention here that
achinvement of the greatest space antenna viewing angles that are necessary to
track a satellite in flight is a complicated problem in designing space service
ships.
The rolling of a ship because of wave action creates considerable interference for
communication sessions with space. In the first place, heavy rolling leads to an
= increase in the loads on a ship's antenna stabilization system and lowers the accu-
racy with which they are aimed. Secondly, rolling reduces the fitness for work of
the scientific, technical and engineering personnel participating in a communica-
tion session. Therefore, reducing rolliiig is a very important goal when creating
any scientific resea~ch ship. All available measures are taken to do this. ;lari-
- ous kinds of stabilizers are usually installed on this type of ship.
The radio engineering systems on scientific research ships make increased demands
on the strength and rigidity of a ship's hull. It is necessary to reinforce the
_ hull at points where massive antenna and other pieces of equipment having; consid-
erable weight are installed. When several high-directional antennas are installed
- on a ship, increased hull rigidity is a condition for their joint operation. For
- sailing in subpolar latitudes, or in the middle latitudes during the winter, space
service ships have reinforced hulls in order to deal with ice.
Extended expedition voyages force serious attention to be given to living condi-
tions. The planners of space serv=ce ships try to create on them favorable condi-
tions for both successful work and valuable rest for all expedition members. This
is realized most fully on the space service's ge~.eral-purpose ships. Ever on the
- small ships, however, everything possible has been done to give the crew and expe-
- dition members comfortable quarters and so that they can take full advantage of
- their off-duty time.
3.2. The "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin"
The "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" is the largest expedition ship and has the most
powerful scientific equipment. As far as size, architectural appearance, equi.pment
and investigative capabilitie~ are concerned, it has no equal in worldwide ship-
building practices (Figure 3.1).
The ship's main dimensiuns are: greatest length 231.6 m, greatest width 31.0
m, midship side height 15.4 m. Its displacement when fu11y loaded is 45,000
tons and its draft is 8.5 m. Its 19,000-hp steam turbine power plant gives it a
speed of about 18 knots, and its continuous cruising range is 20,000 miles.
When sailing, the ship carries the followin.g: boiler fuel (fuel oil) 9,000 tons,
diesel fuel 1,850 tons; lubricating oil 115 tons, boiler water 80 tons,
provisions 180 tons, drinking and washing water 2,100 tons. As far as its
provisions and fuel and oi.l supplies are concerned, the ship can sail independently
for 130 days. Replenishment of the fresh water supply is required after 60 days.
With respect to the water supply, independence can be increased by using the two
distilling units on the ship, which produce 40 tons of water per day. The drinking
water is saturated with salts that, as far as composition and taste qualities are
concerned, make it as good as rioscow's water supply.
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~ )NLY
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Figure 3.I. The "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin": 1. antenna for long-range
communication with marine and land radio stations; 2. mainmast; 3. anten-
na for short-range (ultrashort-wave) radio communication with marine and
land radio stations; 4. A4 command and measurement system antenna; 5.
booth behind mirror; 6. drive booth; 7. antenna barbette; 8. A3 command
and measurement system antenna; 9. A2 conunand and measurement system an-
tenna; 10. A1 satellite co~nunication system antenna; 11. antenna for
communication with cosmonauts; 12. navigational system (location determi-
nation system) antenna; 13. ship's radar antenna; 14. foremast; 15. bow
secondary steering unit; 16. stern secondary steering unit.
The ship has a crew of 136 and can accommodate an expedition scientific, technical
_ and engineering staff of 212. As on other space service ships, the number of par-
ticipants can vary ~epending on the assignments for each expedition voyage. Here
and henceforth the greatest possible num~er of participants, based on cabin space,
is indicated.
The "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" has good seagoing qualities and can sail in any area
of the world ocean under any sea conditions. It has a passive stabilizer to reduce
rolling. In very high seas (force 7) the magnitude of the rolling is reduced from
T10~ to +3� with a period of about 16 seconds. Pitching at force 7 reaches +5�
with a period of 7 seconds.
This ship is equipped with secondary steering units. These are vertical-axis pro-
pellers, two in the bow a~id one in tt-le stern, that are mounted inside the hull in
open transverse ducts and driven by electric motors. Z'he secondary steering units
make it easier to control the ship at low speeds and when m~ored, and make it pos-
sible to keeo it on course when the ship is drifting during communication sessions.
They ar.e turned on by remote control from the wheelhouse.
The ship's hull has a bulbous bow and is reinforced for sailing in ice.
A1ong its length, the ship is divided into eight compartments by watertight bulk-
heads, while from bottom to top it is divided into 11 levels ~stages) formed by
decks and platforms. The lowest of these is the inner bottom plating, above which
are the lower, middle and upper platform decks. These four stages contain store-
rooms, boiler and diesel fuel tanks, fresh water tanks, ballast tanks and several
labora~ories. The second compartment (counting from the bow) of the second stage
has '~een set aside as a gymnasium, and above it on the upper platform deck is a
mo~;ie room. The seventh compartment contains the electric power station, while the
engine and boiler room occupies the eighth compartment. ,
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'Ifao superstructure stages that are located even higher the first-stage and open
decks extend the greater part of the ship's length from bow to stern. They are
included in the overall hull strength system and, along with the three platform
decks and the longitudinal and transverse bulkheads, increase its rigidity and re-
duce deformations caused by wave action and, consequently, make the work of the an-
tenna stabilization system easier. On these two stages there a�re cabins, labora-
tories, the crew and expedition command st~ff wardroom and two recreation rooms.
The first-stage deck has an open gallery along the entire perimeter of the ship.
The barbettes of two parabolic antennas with mirror diameters of 25 raeters are lo-
cated on this deck, close to the stern. The antenna structures are mounted on the
barbettes, with their purpose being to distribute the load of the antennas' weight
uniformly on the hull's basic longitudinal and transverse bulkheads.
Above the open deck the superstructure is divided into two parts bow and stern.
In the bow superstructure, the next higher stage is the lower bridge. In addition
to cabins and laboratories, there is the barbette of one of the two 12-meter para-
bolic antennas. Farther, on the middle bridge, there is the radio room, and even
highe,r, on the navigating bridge, are the wheelhouse and chart room and, finally,
on the upper bridge area ther.e are several antennas, including the second 12-meter
parabolic antenna. The upper bridge is 25 meters above sea level.
All 11 stages are interconnected by ladders and passenger and freight elevators.
Space Systems. The basis of the scientific and technical equipment on the
"Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" is a multifunctional command and measuremenC system. It
can operate simultaneously and independently with t~oo objects in space, transmitting
commands, making trajectory measurements, performing telemetric monitoring, carry-
ing on bilateral telephone and telegraph communication with cosmonauts, and receiv-
ing scientific information and television images from space. Co~nunication ses-
sions can be conducted with space objects in near-Earth orbits, with lunar stations
and with interplarietary stations flying to Mars and Venus. The achievement of such
great radio communication ranges is contributed to by high-directional receivin~
and transmittir.g antennas, powerful transmitters and high-sensitivity receivers
with input parametric amplifiers that are cooled by liquid nitrogen.
The three parabolic antennas that belong to the space co~and and measurement sys-
tem the second (A2), third (A3) and fourth (A4) from the bow of the ship
transmit and receive radio signals on the centimeter, decimeter and meter bands.
The 25-meter stern antenna (A4) has a single mirror, while the other two (A2, A3)
are double-mirror ones. Each of the A3 and A4 antennas weighs about 240 tons,
while the A2 antenna weighs 180 tons.
Depending on the length of the operating wave, the width of the 25-meter antenna's
radiation pattern ranges approximately from 10 angular minutes (centimeter waves)
to 10� (meter waves). In the booths under the antennas there are receiver input
units and hioh-frequency amplifiers. There is one other parabolic antei�na, with a
diameter of 2.5 meters. It is used to search for signals and is structurally com-
bined with the A3 antenna.
Automatic tracking of space objects by the incoming radio signals and guidance ac-
cording to a previously calculated program is provided for all the antennas. The
~ antenna control system normally operates for wind speeds of up to 20 meters per
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second and seas up to force 7. The "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" is the only scien-
tific research ship in the world with parabolic antennas of such a large diameter.
The "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" can control the flight of satellites and interplane-
tary stations independently, sending them commands and time programs. Another con-
trol mode is also possible: relaying of commands reaching the ship from the Flight
Control Center. Trajectory monitoring data (range and radial velocity are meas-
ured) and the results of telemetric monitcring underga preliminary machine process-
ing on the ship ar.d are then sent to the Center. In all of these instances, as
well as for te~ephone and telegraph conversations between cosmonauts and t:~e Flight
Control Center, the transmissions pass through "Molniya" connnunication satellites.
Radio conversations with cosmonauts and telemetric spaceflight monitoring are also
possible with the help of individual communication and telemetric stations; that is,
- in addition to the basic command and measurement system. In this case, special
communication and telemetry antennas are used. Ir. all, there are 75 antennas of
different types and purposes on board the ship.
Control of the space radio engineering systems is automated and their operation is
monitored from special panels. Information processing and control of the ship's
systems during preparation for a communication session and during the session it-
self is performed by two general-purpose computers and several specialized comput-
ers that solve the separate problems of controlling the antennas and other equip-
ment.
Supporting Systems. First we will describe the ship location determination system.
It must correlate the points in the ocean at which communication sessions with
space are held to geographic or rectangular geocentric coordinates and measure the
ship's course and rolling, pitching and yawing angles. On the "Cosmonaut Y~~riy
Gagdrin" this system is a branched, automated complex of variegated instruments and
devl:es. The latter compute the current ccordinates of the ship's iocation and
plot the ship's path on a map. Radio-optical sextants that measure the height and
azimuth ~f heavenly bodies by their light or radio-frequency emissions enable a
computer to allow for astronomical observation data. Signals from navigation sat-
ellites are used for location determination. Gyroscopic instruments with an accu-
~-acy of up to several angular minutes give information on the ship's course and
roiling, pitching and yawing, while hydroacoustical logs produce data on the ship's
speed relative to the water and the sea bottom. An optical direction finder makes
' it pos~ible to take into consideration the coordinates of shore reference points.
The r.olling rate due to wave action is also measured, since this is necessary in
order to calculate correction factors during trajectory measurements of the radial
velocity of satellites and interplanetary st~tions.
In addition to the devices listed above t1-.at ar~ part of the location determination
system, the ship has a complex of steeri.ig gear: gyroscopic and magnetic compasses,
logs, fathometers, a driftmeter, an as;omatic position plotrer, day snd night sight-
ing devices, a hydrometeorological ~cation and equipment for receiving synoptical
data. There are also variaus rad:o-navigation instruments on the ship, as well as
a ship radar station for observing the surrounding situation and measuring bearings
and distances. This equipment is also used on voyages, when the accuracy of the.
navigational correlation may be lower, and is located prii;iarily in the wheelhouse
and chart room.
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The parabolic antennas are fitted with a triaxial stabilization and control system
that allows for wave-induced rolling of the ship. The stabilization and control
error is no more than several angular minutes. There is also opticoelectronic
equipment to measure elastic deformations of the hull (the angles of curvature of
the hull in the center-line plane and the waterline plane). Data on the angles are
entered in the antenna stabilization system, as was described in an eaxlier section.
The accuracy of the measurement of the values characterizing hull flexure is about
40 angular seconds.
The ship's basic comanunication with the Flight Control Center is over a multi-
channel radio link through "Molniya" relay satellites. This link is used to send
command, trajectory, telemetric, telephone-telegraph and television information
from space objects. The same link is used for radio exchanges related to tine func-
tioning of the ship and the scientific expedition (initial conditions for ballistic
calculations, instructions on upcoming communication sessions, reports on sessions
that have already been held and so on). The bow parabolic A1 antenna, with a mir-
ror diameter of 12 me*_ers, is used to transmit and receive signals to and from the
"Molniya" satellites. As is the case with the AZ-A4 antennas of the command and
measurement system, it is equipped with a triaxial stabilization system that com-
pensates for rolling and deformations of the ship's hull.
As is well known, satellite communications require that the space relay unit be si-
multaneously visible from the ocean and from the territory of our~country, so that
space communication with the Center is not possible from all regions. When a ship
is sailing south of the equator, ship communication facilities operating in the
short-, medium- and long-wave bands are used. They provide reliable radio commu-
_ nication between a ship and the Flight Control Center from any point i~ the ocean.
The angled antennas of two power short-wave transmitters, with a characteristic de-
sign in the form of cones with converging acute vertices, are mounte~ on the left
and right sides of the ship's mainmast.at a height of 40 meters above sea level.
The list of expedition communication equipment installed on the "Cosmonaut Yuriy
Gagarin" (not counting satellite links) includes 7 transmitters, 28 receivers, 8
transceiving radia sets and 16 type-printing telegraph un~ts. They are used to
realize radio exchanges in all radio-wave hands in the telephone, acoustic tele-
graph and type-printing modes. It is also possible to exchange information with
the Flight Control Center over ground wire or radio-relay communication links,
through shore radio stations.
In addition to the radio communication facilities used by an expedition to solve
the problems assigned to it, on scientific ships there is yet another communication
complex that is at the captain's disposal and is used for navigation purposes.
Accurate time equipment has been installed on the "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin." The
standard oscillators' frequency instability does not excee~~:3~'10-10 per day, while
' the temporal scale's drift in the course of a day is no more than several micro-
seconds. The local scale is periodically correlated with common time by signals
Erom special radio stations or signals reaching the ship through "Molniya" satel-
:ites. 1'he accuracy of the correlation to common time on the ship is 2-3 ~ricro-
sec~nds .
The radio direction finders, lighting equipment and hoists on the ~~:.p are used to
search for and retrieve sections of satellites and interplanetary stations that
have fallen into the oceaii.
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'
The total number of laboratories on the "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagariri" is 86. On scien-
tific research ships, the name "laboratory" is given to an area in which the oper-
ating equipment for the solution of the expedition's problems is installed. It is
~ not obligatory that any.sort of scientific research, such as the analysis of tele-
metric infc,rmation, be performed. A laboratory usually r.onkains a complex of iti-
struments and units for the solution of a common functional problem, such as the
reception and transmission of radio signals, measurement of a satellite's range or
radial. velocity, eontrol of the ship's antennas and so forth.
Most of the ].aboratories are densely packed with racks holding radio engineering ~
and electronics equipment, consoles and infarmation dispiays. TCze planners of
scientific research ships usually try to save every possible met~:r of area. The
designers and shipbuilders give serious attention to the convenient placement of
_ equipment with easy access to it for maintenance and repair.
The entire shipboard comglex of space and support systems i.s cont:rolled centrally
_ from a laboratory in which the measurement facilities control paiiel is located.
During a communication system, operaticns at the central control panel are led by
the expeditiori's leader ~r chief engineer.
Power Equipment and Ship Systems. This ship is equipped with a s~team turbine power
plant. The engine and boiler room aze in the stern. In it there are two steam
boilers and a steam turbine that turns the screw. The ship's main power plant has
a high degree of automation.
Two power stations are i.n operation on the ship. Power Station No 1 is located.in
a separate com~artment in the hold. It is used to power the expedition's scientif-
ic and technical equipment and consists oF f~ur 1,500-kW diesel g~snerators. Power
Station No 2, which is located in the engine and boiler room, prociuces current for
all the other consumers on the ship. This power station's two 750-kW turbo-
generators operate when the ship is movin� while the single 300-~:W diesel genera-
tor takes over when it is not moving. There is also an emergency power station
two 1G0-k4J diesel generators. Thus, the total power of all the electricity sources
on the ship is 8,000 kW. The main power plant and Power Station No 2 are con-
trolled from a central post in the engine and boiler room, while Power Station No 1
is under remote control from a separate panel.
The ship's air conditioning system is.highly developed. Regardles~ of the outside
temperature, it maintains a temperature of 21-25� C in all the living, public and
- service quarters, with the possibility of individual temperature control in each
area. A powerful refrigerating unir i_s the basis of the air conditioning, ventila-
tion and radio equipment air-coolir~;, system. There is yet another refrigerating
ur.it on the ship that insures ttie maintenance of a given temperaturP regime in the
provision storerooms. Liquid nitrogen for cooling the parametric amplifiers is ob-
tained from atmospheric air by a cryogenic unit.
Habitability. Habitability means the working and leisure conditions for partici-
- pants in expedition voyages. On the "CosmonauC Yuriy Gagarin" the crew and expedi-
tion members are assigned comfortable one- and two-bed cabins (48 of the former and
145 of the latter). Each cabin has a shower (one shower for each two-bed cabin).
The ship's corr~nand staff and the leader of the expedition's staff have suites that
consist of a sitting room and a bedroom (17 suites), with the captain's and the
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expedition leader's suites also having conference rooms. Telephones and rebroad-
casting facilities are installed in all the cabins. In all Chere are sleeping ac-
- commodations for 355 people in 210 cabins.
~n the ship there are also two recreation rooms, a library with a reading room, a
250-seat movie theater, a gymnasium with a swimming pool (plus two open pools on
deck), a 60-seat wardroom `for the ship's officers and the expedition's main staff,
and two 100-seat messes. Large provision storerooms, a galley, a bakery and pan-
tries support the feeding of the sailors and the expedition members.
The medical unit on the ship consists of an operating room, a sick bay, a dispen-
. sary, an X-ray room and physical therapy and dental offices. They are manned by
- qualified physicians. The planners and shipbuilders gave special attention to the
artistic decoration of all the ship's interior areas.
Construction. The ship was built in Leningrad in 1971. The design was based on
the hull of a series-produced tanker that had proved itself in practice. Work be-
- gan in the building berth in March 1969. The ship entered the water 7 months lat-
er, and on 14 July 1971 the USSR's flag was raised on the "Cosmonaut Yuriy
Gagarin." The ship went to sea on 16 July 1971, sailing from Leningrsd to Odessa,
its port of registry. �
- From 1971 to 1980 the "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin" completed 8 expedition voyages and par-
ticipated in many prominent experiments in the Soviet program for investigating and
conquering space.
- 3.3. General-Purpos~ Space Service Ships
This group of space service expedition ships includes those having scientific and
technical equipment that enables them to carry out all.the functions of stationary
measuring points while at sea. In addition to the "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin,"
which was described above, this group includes the "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov" and
the "Academician Sergey Korolev."
The "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov"
The "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov" is the first genEral-purpose ship that was spe-
= cially designed and built for the investigation of space. It began its expedition
voyages in August 1967.
In order to shorten the planning and construction time, the ship was developed on
the basis of the hull of a series-produced dry-cargo ship, while its radio engi-
neering systems were based on the stations used at land measuring points. Tha.s re-
quired the solution of many pressing problems in i~isuring the stability of the fin-
ished huli when the heavy antenna installations wes-e installed on it, as well as
the creation of the proper conditions for the operation of the radio engineering
and electronics equipment. The ship's greatest leiigth is 155.7 meters, its great-
est width is 23.3 meters, and the height of the si~le at midship is 14.8 meters.
The main power plant is a 9,000-hp diesel engine.
- The ship has two platforms, four decks and bow and stern superstructures (Figure
3.5). It has the seagoing qualities that are necessary for ships that can sail
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1
~ , 9 4. .
, f ~ . 5
i-~ .i ~ i
~ ~
6
1 /8
.
~ ..9
v . ...e.. e. ee w ...e ~
rr T-~
! e~.�
~ ,
- ~
-
Figure 3.5. The "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov": 1. antenna for l~.,ng-range
coimnunication with marine and land radio stations; 2. radio-firansparent
cover of A3 command and measurement system antenna; 3. nav~.gation system
(location determination system) antenna; 4. antenna for ~hort-range
(ultrashort-wave) co~nunication wich marine and sho~~ radio stations; 5.
ship's radar antenna; 6. radio-transparent cover r;f A2 command and meas-
urement system antenna; 7. radio-transparent covar of A1 command and
measurement system antenna; 8. radiotelemetry ~ystem antenna; 9. antenna
for communication with cosmonauts.
~ anywhere. When fully loaded with 5,500 tor?s or fuel, 65 tons of lubricating oil,
85 tons of provisions and 320 tons of drinkin~ and washing water, its displacement
is 17,850 tons and it has a draft of 8.8 met~rs. Its speed is 15.8 knots and it
has a cruising range of 18,000 miles. It caxries a crew of 121 people and can ac-
commodate llti expedition members.
The power supply for general ship consumption comes from a 900-kW electric power
staeion. The expedition's space and support systems are powered by a separate
2,40U-kW station. The air conditioning and ventilation systems maintain a constant
temperature of about 20� C in the laboratories and living and public quarters when
tne outsile air temperature ranges from -30� C to +30~ C.~
Space and Support Systems. The multifunctional command and measurement system in-
stalled on the "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov" operates in the decimeter wave band.
It measures the motion parameters (range and radial velocity) of satellites and ~
?nterplanetary stations, receives telemetric and scienCific information, transmits
~or~nan3s, and carries on two-way conversations with cosmonauts. All of the coimnand
measurement system's elements are encompassed by a couuaon monitoring and con-
_ trol sS?stem. The telemetric part of the system has separate antennas and receivers
t:hat make it possible to make telemetric measurements and receive scientific infor-
mation without turning on all the or_her equipment.
Two high-directional antennas (receiving and transmitting) with parabolic mirrors 8
_ meters in diameter, parametric input amplifiers cooled by liquid nitrogen, and
powerful transmitters make it possible to maintain radio communication with space
objects at circumlunar d~stances (400,000 kilometers). Such communication with a
flo.~:t?.ng measuring point was first realized in 1968, in operations with the
"Zond--4" and "Zond-5" automatic interplanetary stations.
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A third parabolic antenna rhat is 2.1 meters in diameter insures sutomatic tracking
of space objects and generates signals for correcting the antenna guidance program.
All three antennas are mounted on stabilized platforms. The 8-meter antennas, to-
gether with their stabilized platforms, weigh 28 tons each, whi?~ the weight of the
direction-finding antenna with its platform is 18 tons.
j~ind pressure on the surface area of each of the 8-meter antennas could create sig-
~ nificant moments applied to the elements of the electric power drive and the struc-
Cure of the antenna itself and would inevitably lower the accuracy of the stabili-
zation and control process. For this reason the antennas have radio-transparent
covers that are 18 meters in diameter. The direction-finding antenna's cover is
7.5 meters in diameter.
The design of all three radio-transparent housings is identical. The large covsrs
weigh 20 tons apiece, the small one 2 tons. They consist of three-layer fiber-
_ glass panels that are glued together. The outer side of the radio-transparent cov-
- ers is coated with a paint that has water-repellent properties. For antenna assem-
bly and repair, there are releasable connections in the middle section of the
spheres that make it possible to remove their upper halves when necessary. The
electromagnetic energy losses during passage through the radio-transparent panels
- do not exceed 1 percent.
By eliminating wind pressure, the radio-transparent covers make it possible to con-
duct communication sessions when the wind is coming from any direction. Besides
this, they protect the antennas from rain, snow, sea spray, solar radiation and
- dust, thereby making maintenance of the antenna installations considerably easier.
The command and measurement system antennas and the laboratories are situated such .
that the length of the cables and waveguides connecting the antennas to the receiv-
ers and transmitters is minimal. The A1 bow antenna is a reGeiving one, and the
- laboratories containing the command and measurement receiving units are located on
the decks under it. The laboratory with the transmitting units is located under
the A3 stern (transmitting) antenna. Three transmitters, the power of which is
_ added together in the antenna, are installed in it.
The antenna and stabilized platform control laboratory is located iri the middle
part of the ship, on the boat deck. Here, also, is the central control console for
all the ship's measuring facilities and the common time laboratory.
Determination of the ship's location during communication sessions is realized by a
complex of instruments that utilize data from radio and optical sextants, the sat-
ellite navigation system and radio-navigation and direction-finding equipment. The
coordinates are calculated by a computer. The magnitudes of the rolling, pitching
and yawing angles, which are needed by the antenna stabilization and guidance sys-
tem, are measured by gyroscopic instruments. There is also a unit that determines
the antennas' linear rate of displacement due to wave action so that correction
factors can be introduced when measuring the radial velocity of space objects.
The ship's information and computation facilities calculate target indications and
antenna control programs, process information coming in from space in order to ob-
tain preliminary evaluations, and condense informati~n for transmission over the
communication links to the Flight Control Center. On the ship there are also a
general-purpose computer and several specialized ones.
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For conversations with cosmonauts, on the ship there is an ultrashort-wave radio
station that provides b ila~eral teiephone and telegraph communication. This sta-
tion's receiving antenna i:. of the spiral type and has a radiation pattern width of
about 25�. The antenna features remote control and is located on the main deck in
the bo~a section of the ship. A discone antenna on the mainmast is used for trans-
mitting.
SaCellite communication li.nks provide for the transmission of trajectory and tele-
metric information to th e Flight Control Center and also make it possible to send
telephone and telegraph information to the Center during conversations with cosmo-
nauts. When satellite communication is impossible, short- and medium-wave equip-
ment is used for radio exchanges with the Center. Transmissions can also be made
in the acoustical telegr aph, type-printer or telephone modes.
The ship's snace and support systems equipment is located in 43 laboratories. Ra-
dio sign.al reception and transmission is realized with 40 antennas of various types.
Radio Reception Interference. For the first time in the practice of building sci-
entific ships, on the "Cosmonaut Vladimir Kumarov" a large number of powerful
transmitters and highly sensitive receivers, many of which must operate simultane-
ously, were concentrated in an area only 150 meters long and 20 meters wide. The
compley and hard to solve problem of the electromagnetic compatibility of the radio
- engineering facilities was an urgent one.
In such conditions, the strongest radio reception interference is created by trans-
- mitters operating on nearby frequencies. Their nonbasic emissions on the har-
monics, subharmonics, combined frequencies and so on also interfere. It was al-
su necessary to take into consideration the spurious radiation of the heterodynes
in the receivers.
The reradiatior. effect also carries substantial weight in the creation of interfer-
ence. The role of reradiator is filled by masts, deckhouses, guard rails, neigh-
boring antennas, spar and rigging elements and other equipment. Currents that are
induced du:ring the operation of transmitters also become a source of interference
if they pass through coup lings with poor contacts. The complexity of the electro-
magnetic situation is deepened even tr,ore by the fact that transmitting and receiv-
ing antennas that carry out directional tracking of satellites turn during communi-
ration sessions; that is, they change their position.
TF~ere are three basic ways of dealing with mutual interference. They are fr,equency,
t~mporal and spatial sep aration of signals. In the frequency separation method,
different sections of th e frequency band are selected for the operation of the ra-
_ dio transmitting and recei.ving equipment. The correct choice is made more diffi-
cutt by the fact that it is necessary to take into consideration not only the rated
- frequencies of the radio signals, but also the nonbasic emissions, the ~uppression
of which is a di~ficult problem. Here we encounter various measures for combatting
interference that are based on the use of the spectral characteristics of signals,
such as the use of pseudorandom signals.
. The te;s~paral separation method consists of strict regulation of the order and time
of use of all ship radio facilities. In particular, during communication sessions
, with space objects, the operation of all other emitting devices is sharply limited
on board a ship.
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The method of spatial signal separation requires that the transmitting and receiv-
ing antennas be as far apart as possi~le, which is realized at land measuring
points solving the same problems without any special difficulty but runs into in-
; auimountable complications on expadition ships. On these ships the antennas are
maximally concentrated on the decks and masts. As a rule, receiving antennas are
in the bow and transmitting antennas are in the stern.
The most essential measures for reducing mutual interference can be taken in the
stage of the development of new radio engineering equipment. Primarily, this means
the creation of highly selective receivers that have a low degree of sensitivity to
any kind of incidental radiation, as well as a reduction in the incidental emis-
sions of the transmitters themselves. The problem of mutual interference has con-
tinued to retain its urgency for space service ships built recently.
The creation of the "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov" saw the first solution for scien-
tific research ships of the problem of shielding the personnel from the radio-
frequency emissions of the space systems' powerful transmitters. Compartment
screening was used on the ship. A signaling system was introduced that informs the
personnel when it is prohibited to be on decks and in other places subject to radi-
ation.
The scientific research ship "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov," built in Leningrad, has
its home port in Odessa. The experience accumulated during its planning and con-
struction has proven to be of valuable assistance in the building of subsequent
space service ships.
The "Academician Sergey Korolev"
As is the case with the space service's other general-purp~se ships, the
"Academician Sergey Korolev" also performs at sea all the functions carried out by
land measuring points. As far as the extent of its scienti.fic and technical equip-
ment, the level of automation of the measurements and information processing, the
number of computers and control machines, and habitability conditions, this ship
occupies an int~rmediate position between the "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov" and the
r "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin."
The scientific research ship "Academician Sergey Korolev" was built in Nikolayev in
1970. It has the following specifications. Main dimensions: greatest length
180.8 meters, greatest width 25.0 meters, side height at midship 18.2 meters.
Its displacement with a full complement of supplies is 21,250 tons and its draft is
7.7 meters. Supplies: fuel 5,720 tons, provisons 105 tons, fres~i water
(drinking and washing) 810 tons. The main power plant is a 12,000-hp diesel en-
gine that provides a spesd of 17.5 knots. Its cruising range is 22,500 miles. The
ship has a crew of 119 and can accommodate 188 expedition members. A side view of
this scientific research ship is shown in Figure 3.6.
The ship has secondary steering units: one propeller in the bow and two in the
stern. The bow propeller is located in a transverse duct inside the hull, while
the stern units are propeller steering columns with a changeable direction of oper-
ation. The propeller steering columns move the ship at up to 3 knots.
The ship's electric power station is equipped with six diesel generators that each
- produce 600 kW. The air conditioning and ventilation system insures constant air
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7 4~ p
? 1
- 11
- l 3 S p 9)0 12
y E 1J
lf
7
8
. ~ c.~- . _ -
~ .
~ ,
u'?'~~`---------------- ------------------------i
Figure 3.6. The "Academician Sergey Korolev": 1. A3 satellite communica-
tion system antenna; 2. antenna for long-range communication with ship
and shore radio st~tions; 3. mainmast; 4. antenna for short-range
(ultrashort-wave) communication with ship and shore radio stations; 5. A2
cammand and measurement system antenna; 6. booth behind mirror; 7. drive
booth; 8. antenna barbette; 9. radio-transparent cover of A1 command and
measurement system antenna; 10. radiotelemetric system antenna; 11. navi-
gation system (location determination system) antenna; 12. ship's radar
antenna; 13. foremast; 14. antenna for communication with cosmonauts.
- parameters in all compartments and also cools the radio engineering and electronics
- equipment.
- The command and measurement system, which is the basis of the ahip's scientifi~ and
technical equipment, operates on decimeter waves. It transmits commands, performs
telemetric and trajectory monitoring of a spaceflight (measures the values of r~and
r), and makes it possible to carry on two-sided telephone and telegraph conversa-
tions with cosmonauts. Trajectory and telemetric information processing is per-
formed by computers.
On t.he siiip there are three parabolic antennas: A2 and A3 with mirror diameters of
12 meters and A1 with a mirror diameter of 2.1 merers. The A1 antenna has a radio-
transparent cover. The A1 and A2 antennas are used in the space command and meas-
urement system, while the stern A3 antenna is used for satellite communication with
= the Flight Control Center. Both 12-meter antennas have triaxial revolving support
units with automatic stabilization relative to the rolling, pitching.and yawing an-
gl.es. The small an*enna is mounted on a gyrostabilized platfornr..;.
The ?~bor.atories are located on the mai~, boat and superstructure decks. In con-
r.rasr. to the "Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov," on this ship and on all subsequent
= ones the space and support system equipment that was installed was specially de-
velopEd in marine versions for use on ships. On the ship there are two general-
purpose computers and several specialized ones. The total number of laboratories
i.s 79.
The location determination, communi~ation and time service systems are basically
the same as on other general-purpose space service ships. This ship is equipeed
with sl-~ort- and ultrashort-wave direction finders for searching for sections of
spacecraft that have landed in the ocean.
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The "Academician Sergey Korolev" departed on its first expedition voqage in March
1971. Its port of registry is Odessa.
3.4. Small Space Service Ships
This most numerous group of expedition ships for investigating space includes four
ships of the "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov" type and four of the "Kegostrov" type.
They all perform the same list of functions when working with space objects: tele-
metric monitoring and the reception of scientific information, as well as two-way
telephone and telegraph radio communication with cosmonauts. However, as far as
completeness of monitoring, the degree of automation, and perfection of the ship's
space and support systems are concerned, the ships of the new "~osmonaut Vladislav
Volkov" series are considerably better than the other four ships, which began their
expedition voyages as far back as the 1960's. The na.ne "small ships" is somewhat
conventional, since it refers not so much to their relatively small (in comparison
with the general-purpose ships) displacement as to the narrower circle of problems
that can be solved and, consequently, to the reduced amount of scientific and tech-
nical equipment. ~
- The "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov"
Between the construction of the most powerful (in capability for scientific re-
search) expediton ship, th2 "Cosmonaut i~uriy Gagarin," and the leading ship of the
new series, the "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov," 6 years passed. During this time
there appeared improved and more compact modifications of the basic space and sup-
port systems and methods for the machine processing of space information and auto-
matic control of co~nand and measurement systems were developed. Therefore, if we
compare the investigative capabilities of the~two ships the "Cosmonaut Yuriy
Gagarin" and the "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov" it turns out that the fivefold
difference in displacement in no way reflects the relationship of their scientific
potentials. The new ship is packed with modern radiotelemetry, information and
computer and machine data processing equipment, as well as the newest location de-
termination and communication facilities and so on. While staying within the
framework of the list of small space service ship assignments listed above, this
new ship represents a significant step forward in the development of floating meas-
uirng points.
The scientific research ship "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov" is characterized by the
following data. Main dimensions: greatest length 121.9 meters, greatest
- width 16.7 meters, height of the side to the upper deck 10.8 meters. Its
displacement with a full load of supplies is 8,950 tons and its draft is 6.6 meters.
The main power plant is a 5,200-hp diesel engine that gives it a speed of 14.7
knots. The ship's supplies are: fuel 1,440 tons, lubricating oils 30 tons,
drinking and washing water 600 tons. What is held in its fuel tanks gives it a
cruising range of 16,000 miles. The ship's independence relative to provisions is
90 d^ys, while for water it is 30 days. The crew numbers 66 and it has accommoda-
tions for 77 expedition members.
The ship's seagoing qualities correspond to the requirements for ships that can
sail anywhere.
As far as its design is concerned, the "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov" (Figure 3.7) is
a two-deck steamship with two platforms that extend the entire length of the hull
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10 .
f ,2 4 ~11
, s - , ~ ~2 4 . -lf
3~ s ,2 ~ , -11 � 11
1 ~ l. i ~1J 3 ?
6
L 8 ~1 . p .
( ~ ~ ~
l- ~`J` ~6 ~
4 m i g ~ 2
m ,
~ a x m m a o m~ ~
- - W
- ''~~['R"~~'C_ ' " ~
� ~T� . ~1
`6�
,y j - .
~ ~
~ -
~ ~
Figure 3.7. T'he "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov": 1. satellite conanunication
system antenna; 2. antenna for long-range communication with ship and
_ shore radio stations; 3. m'izzenmast; 4. antenna for short-range
(ultrashort-wave) comanunication with ship and shore radio stations; 5.
antenna for system for communicating with cosmonauts; 6. antenna for re-
ceiving television broadcast programs; 7. antenna for general-purpose
radiotelemetry system; 8. booth behind mirror; 9. antenna ba:bette; 10.
main~rast; 11. navigation system (locztion ~eternina~ian system) antenna;
_ 12, ship's radar antenna; 13. radiote~.emetry system antenna; 14. foremast.
~rom bow to stern. Six watertight transverse bulkheads divide the ship into com-
partments. Above the first-stage superstructure deck there rise two "islands"
the bow and stern superstructures and between them is the main four-mirror an-
Cenna for receiving signals from space.
The expedition's laboratories are located mainly ~n Che first platform and the main
and upper decks, as well as the second-stage superstructure deck, th~ navigating
bridge and the second platform. The planners had to find that variant for placing
the laboratories for which minimum lengCh communications would be required, partic-
ularly insofar as the high-frequency switching between the laboratories and anten-
- n.as was concerr?ed, in order to avoid immoderate attenuation of the radio signals.
The comm~n quarters (messes, recreation rooms) are located on�the.uppe~:deck. ,Qn
~ the upper and main decks there are a large number ot cabins, with only the few cab-
ins of the ship's command staff and the expedition leaders being located on the
first- and second-stage superstructure decks. In the central part of the ship, the
entire height of the fifth compartment is occupied by the engine and boiler room,
- while the electric power station is in the sixth compartment. Closer to the bow,
the refr.igerating machinerq of the air conditioning system is in the fourth com-
partment and the gymnasium is in the third compartment.
In the bow superstructure (on the first- and second-stage decks) there are the med-
ical unit and the radio room, while the wheelhouse and chart room are on the navi-
gating bridge. The la~ter two are comt~ined on thi~ ship, but the navigation offi-
cer can create the conditions necessary for instrumerit operation by using movable
wall panels. Such a wheelhouse layout is very convenient for navigation.
Space and Support Systems. The scientific research ship "Cosmonaut Vladislav
- Volkov" is equipped with a general-pu�rpose telemetry system that ac,quires
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information from all the existing types of telemetric equipment on board the ship.
~ This universality is manifested grimarily in the broad range of frequencies for the
incoming radio signals, from the shortest ones in the decimeter band to the longest
meter waves, and also in the possible fo~:ns of moduiation. This system also has a
parabolic mirror antenna, receiving and direction-finding equipment and equipment
~ for converting and recording telemetric and scientific information.
The main space antenna consists of four parabolic mirrors that are each 6 meters in
diameter and are united in a common structure. By comparing the signdls in the ir-
radiators of neighboring mirrors, this antenna layout makes it possible to deter-
mine the direction from which radio waves arrive; that is, to find the direction of
the space object. Until now we have been talking about direction finding carried
out with four irradiators located close to the focus of a single parabolic mirror,
~ but the principle of determining direction in both cases is obviously the san;e.
The four mirrors' total radiation pattern has a width of from approximately 1� to
- 10� (depending on the radio signal's frequency).
A triaxial revolving support unit makes it possible to track the flight of a satel-
lite within the limits of the entire upper hemisphere, including when the satellite
passes through the zenith. The antenna stabilization system allows for the ship's
rolling, pitching and yawing angles. The tracking drive for each of the three axes
consists of an amplidyne and an actua~ing motor. The error signal that is needed
for automatic tracking of satellites according to their radio-frequency emissions
is received from the receiving and direction-finding equipment laboratory, while
the antenna stabilization signals come from the location determination system's in-
struments.
The main space antenna's revolving support unit and the mirror and electric drive
elements weigh 95 tons. Its base is mounted on a barbette. High-frequency para-
metric amplifiers are located in the booth behind the mirror. Other space and sup-
port system antennas are located in the forecastle, on the~upper bridge and the
superstructure decks, and on the foremasts, mainmasts and mizzenmasts. In all,
there are 50 receiving and transmitting antennas that are used for different pur-
poses.
Signals that have been received by the main space antenna and amplified and recti-
fied in the receiving and direction-finding equipment are sent into the telemetric
and scientific information conversion and recording laboratory. In this laboratory
they are deciphered, distributed to the proper channels and recorded on magnetic
tape. Machine processing of the information then follows.
relemetric data processing is performed by a general-purpose computer, but first it
- is necessary to solve the problem of information coupling between the telemetric
station and ttie computer, and after processing, of coupling between the computer
and the satellite communication link into which the information is sent after com- ,
puter processing. Thus, a continuous flow of telemetric data passes through the
ship during co~nunication sessions. The path it follows is: space object-
scientific research ship-communication satellite-Flight Control Center.
Telemetric information can be evaluated not only by personnel at the Flight Control
Center, but also by specialists on the ship itself who view the telemetric data
they need on special cathode-ray tube screens that are similar to those in the
_ i 8
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Flight Control Center's main room. We have already said that a11 space information
is recorded on magnetic tape simultaneously with its transmissi~n over the couQnuni.-
cation links, so after a coumiunication session it can be played back repeatedl,y.
TE~?e ship can received telemetric and scientific information simultaneously from two
space objects. Telephone and telegraph information follows the same path
. through the space co~nunication link when the Center is conducting two-way con-
versations with cosmonauts.
In addition to the general-purpose computer that processes the space information
and makes the necessary calculations for co~unication sessions, there are several
specialized computers of the digital and analog types on the ship.
The elimination of trajectory measurements from the number of functions perforn~ed
by the small scientific research ships sharply loosened the requirements for accu-
racy in determining their location in the ocean. Therefore, the location determi-
nation system on the "Cosmonaut Vladislav Volkov" is considerab~y simpler than the
one on the space fleet's general-purpose ships. It is based on equipment that de-
termines the ship's location with the help of signais from navigation satellites
and gyroscopic instruments that measure the course and the rolling, pitching and
~ yawing angles for antenna stabilization purposes. In addition, the ship has the
noi-~nal full complement of navigating equipment.
Information exchange with the Flight Control Center is realized over satellite and
the normal short- and medium-wave coimnunication channels. The co~non time ser-
vice's equipment insures correlation of the local time scale to the standard scale
with an error of no more than several microseconds. T~ao direction finders operat-
ing in the ultrashort- and short-wave bands can determine the direction to space-
craft sections that have landed in the sea. '
This i.s a short list of the space and support equipment installed on the "Cosmonaut
Vladisla~ Volkov.~' It is located in 25 expedition laboratories: the receiving,
recording and telemetric and scientific information analysis facilities occupy 5
laboratories; the location determination, direction-finding and antenna control
equipment another 5; the facilities ~or co~aunicating ~with space obJects and the
Flight Control Center, with its control point, and the common tiiri~ service's re-
ceiving station 11; the information and computation center 3; the measuring
- equipment control point 1.
Power Equipment ~nd Ship Systems. This scientific research ship's main power plant
is located in an engine room in the middle part of the ship. ~lere there is also an
electric power station that supplies electricity for general ship usage. It con-
sists of three 200-kW diesel generators. Another electric power station that is
used to power the expedition's scientific and technical equipment is located in the
next compartment toward the stern, and consists of three 630-kW diecel generators.
The emergency electric power station has one I0a-kW diesel generator.
The air conditioning and radio engineering and electronics equipment cooling and
ventilation systems have about the same characteristics as they do on other space
service ships.
Hati_tability, The installation of a complicated complex of equipment on a ship
with comparatively small dimensions resulted in a need for maximum econom; of space
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in the planning nf all areas. This could not help but affect the habitability condi-
tions if they are compared with, for example, the c~nditions on the scientific re-
- search ship "Cosmonaut Yuriy Gagarin."
The crew and expedition has two recreation rooms available. A large ~mnasium
that occupies two stages between the inner-bottom plating and the first platform
can be adapted for holding meetings and showing movies. The crew and expedition's
r.?ess is also used to show movies, and the movie-showing equipment is next to this
area. The swimming pool is open and is located on the first-stage superstructure
deck.
= The crew and expedition memb~rs sleep in one- and two-man cabins. The cabins are
well laid out, which compensates somewhat for their small size. The senior ship's
officers and the expedition leaders have suites consisting of a sitting room and a
~ bedroom. On the ship's decks there are several shower rooms. In the cabins, lab-
oratories, shiphandling and public areas there are telephone equipment thut is part
- of the ship's automatic telephone exchange and radio rebroadcasting facilities.
The canteens, galley and bakery are located on the upper deck, toward the stern and
immediately behind the crew's and expedition's messes.
Construction. The hull of a standard lumber carrier was used as the basis of the
plan for all the scientific research ships of this series. They were designed and
built in Leningrad_and entered the service of the scientific research fleet in the ,
~ years 1977-1979. In addition to the "Co~m~naut Vladislav Volkov," there are three
more ships in this series: the "Cosmonaut Pavel Belyayev," the "Cosmonaut Georgiy
_ Dobrovol'~kiy" and the "Cosmonaut Viktor Patsayev."
All of the ships belong to the Baltic Oceangoing Steamship Line and are registered
in Leningrad. The first ship sailed on its first scientific voyage in the Atlantic
Ocean on 18 October 1977. It was followed by the "Cosmonaut Pave1 Belyayev" (15
March 1978), the "Cosmonaut Georgiy Dobrovol'skiy" (14 October 1978) and t~e
. "Cosmonaut Viktor Patsayev" (1S June 1979). In the same way that the "Cosmonaut
Yuriy Gagarin is a significant achievement of Soviet science and technology in the
c:reation of general-purpose ships for investigating space, these four ships, led by
. the "Cosmonaut ~1].adislav Volkov," are a substantial landmark in the creation of
small scientific research ships for the space service.
The ''Kegostrov"
The scientific research ship "Kegostrov" i.s from a series of monotypical ships con-
structed in 1967 (Figure 3.10). Its characteristics are as follows: total dis-
placement 6,100 tons; length 121.9 meters; width 16.7 meters; draft 4.7
meters- It has a 5,200-hp diesel engine that gives it a speed of 15.6 knots and
its cruising range is 16,000 miles. The crew numbers 53 and it can accommodate 36
- expedition members. The "Morzhovets," "Borovichi" and "Nevel have the same char-
acteristics.
As is the case for all small ~ace service st~ips, the "K~gostrov" performs two ba-
sic functior.s at sea: the ship's space systems receive telemetric and scientific
inforcnation from satellites and interplanetary stations and carry on two-way radio
~ommunication with cosmonauts. In order to accomplish this, the ship is equipped
with various types of telemetry systems and a radio station for telephone and
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1 ~ti
_ 1 1 ~
~ ~
1 6 8
~y 'S 7
\ ~ 7 .5 \
1'; o 0 0 0 \
m m.~mom
.i_., ~ o o � ~
~
1 '~.A
~
Figure 3.10. The "Kegostrov": 1. antenna for long-range communication
with ship and shore radio stations; 2. mizzenmast; 3. ship's radar anten-
na; 4. navigation system (location determination system) antenna; 5.
radictele~etry system antenna; 6. mainmast; 7. antenna for cammunication
with cosmonauts; 8. foremast.
- telegraph communication with the crews of spacecraft and orbital statians. Tele-
metric and scientific information are processed and analyzed on the ship by spe-
cialists on the expedition's staff. The analyzed data are sent to the Flight
- Control Center over radiotelegraph communication links.
The sp~~:e and support system equipment is located in 10 laboratories on the
"Kegostrov." It includes equipment for receiving, recording and processing tele-
metric and scientific information and conducting radio cotmnunication with cosmo-
nauts and the Flight Control Center, as well as a common time service receiving
station and a radio engineering equipment control point. ~
The laboratories, living quarters and service and public quarters have a stable
rnicroclin~ate createcl by an air conditioning system. The system for ventilating and
cooling the scientific and technical equipment provides the temperature conditions
needed for its normal operation when the ship is sai~ing in any climatic belts at
at any time of the year.
All four ships were designed on the basis of the hull of a series`.-produced lumber
carrier. In past years their scientific equipment has been repeatedly supplem~nted
and improved. Outwardly, this is expressed primarily by changes in the number,
types and locations of the radio antennas. Such work will also be done in the fu-
ture, so the diagram of the side view of the "Kegostrov" (Figure 3.10), as is the
case with the other general layout diagrams presented in this book, can differ in
3etail �rom the actual external appearance of these ships.
The ships' first expedition voyages took place in 1967. Their port of registry is
Leningrad.
These steamships have come to be known as tireless laborers for science. From 1967
to 1980 they each completed 13-14 expedition voyages. Their work was im.portant and
necessary for m3ny achievements of Soviet cosmonautics.
CaPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Sudostroyeniye", 1980
11746 21
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SPACE ENGIN~ERING
UDC 621.313.12:538.4
M~DEL OF THE HIGH-TEMPERATURE FAILURE OF HEAT SHIELDS DURING THE ENTRY OF SPACE-
CRAFT INTO THE DENSE LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (RADIANT AND CONVECTIVE HEATING)
Kiev KOSMICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA NA UKRAINE in Russian No 14, 1980 ~signed to pres~
4 Sep 80) pp 89-95
~ /Article by V.S. Dvernyakov, Kiev, manuscript received 16 Oct 79/
/Text/ Investigations of the rules governing the high-temperature interaction of
materials in different mediums are related to the determination of heat and mass
transfer in a gaseous medium and inside a material, as well as the experimental
study of the properties of materials with different external flow-past parameters.
When creating materials with given properties ~for multilayer heat-shield systems,
it is necessary that there be a substantiated interrelationship of the external pa-
rameters along the flight patY~ with the nati~re of the separate components, their
relationship, the structure of composite materials and their production process,
the choice of th~ relationship of these camponents to the structure of the multi-
layered system as a whole, the moment of the realizatian of one reaction or another
on the surface and inside the material, and so �orth. Materials experts must have
an opportunity to evaluate the kinetics of the high-temperature interaction process
for the purpose of rapid implementation of correction of the composition, structure
and manufacturing method of materials created with given properties. In connection
with this, the experimental methods for determining the dynamic interrelationship
among the parameters of the medium and materials and the rate of advance in the
latter of the boundary of physicochemical transformations must be easily accessible,
l variegated with respect to th~e conditions created, and easily regulated.
In this article we offer an analytical relationship that reflects the qualitative
picture of these interrelationships for the radiant and convective heating condi-
- tions in the SGU-3 installation at the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences' Institute
of Problems of Material Science.
~ This installation combines a solar furnace having a parabolic mirror 2 m in diame-
ter with a special supersonic flow generator ~a gas and air reaction engine).
The installation is described in / 1/. The special feature of the combustion cham-
ber's design (dkp = 12 mm) is primarily that its transverse dimension has beer. re-
duced to the least possible width (the middle section s diameter is 55 man) for a
length of 600 mm. This made it possible to reduce the thermal stress on the cham-
ber and avoid shading of the radiant energy from the parabolic mirror when the
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a~
!
~ r
- ~
-
,
~ 1,f
~ _
- f.
f
~ .
. ~ � . ~
~ ~
_ ~
~ }e
~ o~r ~ r
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of installation for investigating heat-
shielding materials acted upon by the combined effect of radiant and con-
vecCive heat flows.
- distance from the nozzle's mouth to the focal plane i:; up to 130 ~n. Si:nce the ra-
diant energy concentrator follows the Sun, the fuel and measuring lines ,are con-
nected to the chamber by flexible hoses.
The radiant heat flows are controlled by a regulator placed at the apex of the pa-
raboloid, movement of the elements of whic~i screens the appropriate part of the ra-
diation striking the test piece. The regulator consisr_s of four telescoping cylin-
ders with annular, dual action supports that realize reciprocal engagemer~t of the
c}�linders. The regulator is connected to the programmi.ng unit of the syatem for
the automatic reproduction of given heating curves.
The convective heat flows, as well as the velocity of the incoming gas jet, are
regulated both by changing the consumption rates of the: fuel components w:ith the
appropriate throttles and by changing the distance of the combustion chamber noz-
zle's mouth from the piece being tested.
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A test piece of the material being investigated is placed in a conical, water-
cooled holder and covered by a cooled shuCter that actuates heating of the test
- piece when the installation is operating in transient modes. The parabolic mirror
is pZaced in the operating position, the automatic Sun-tracking system is turned
on, and the gas jet generator is started and brought into the working mode. When
the protective shutter is removed, the programming unit and an electric timer,
which records the test piece testing time, are turned on automatically.
For the purpose of preventing a change in the radiant flow and the parameters of
the incoming medium on the surface being destroyed, the SGU-3 is equipped with an
automatic test piece feed system that compensates for the wear on it.
The SGU-3 installation's basic parameters are as follows: D= 2,000 ~n, d= 1Z mm
(diameter of the focal image), qrad = 0-1,500 W/cm2, qcon - 420 W/cr~2, Pk~ = 5�105
Pa, V~ = 1,300 m/s, Ta = 1,500 K.
- If we consider only the radiant flow, in our case we can describe the transfer of
radiant energy on the basis of a diffusion approximatien. The condition for the
applicabilitY of the diffusion approximation is smallness of the radiation density
gradient / 2/, which must not change much at distances on the order of the radia-
tion's path (~R). As a matter of fact, when materials are being irradiated with
the Sun's radiant energy, it is possible to eliminate the mirror reflection from
the concentrator and consider the entire layer of the atmosphere as an optically
thick layer with a small density gradient at the Sun's effective temperature.
In the general case, the energy parameters at each point of the
focal spot of solar power engineering units depend on the point's distance from the
Sun.
In an infinite medium with a constant temperature, in a steady state the radiation
is in thermodynamic equilibrium. Its intensity does not depend on direction and is
determined by Planck's formula. At the same time, the condition for the existence
of local equilibrium smallness of the gradients in an extended, optical thick
medium serves as justification of the diffusion approximation when discussing
radiation transfer.
Starting from (Rosseland's) concept of the average value of the length of the radi-
ation's path, the flow of radiant energy can be represented in the form /2-47
" , ar
9'=-~ ax '
In this case the radiation transfer is of the thermal conduction type, or radiant
- thermal conduction. In connection with this, the coefficient of thermal conductiv-
ity (the expression before the temperature gradient _(cAR/3)(d(QT4)/dT), or
A' = 16QART3/3) depends on the temperature.
The diffusion approximation, which in some cases results in significant errors,
nevertheless does not distort the qualitative picture of the radiation transfer
phenomena, even when the angular distribution is strongly anisotropic. This also
enables us to use it to solve the radiation transfer problem when it is essentially
not in equilibrium. We are dealing with a radiation field and an abrupt jump in
temperature on the test piece's surface, which is divided into strongly heated and
cold sections.
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In the high-temperature (T~) are~, the radiation density is high on the order of
the equilibrium density UP = 4v'T~/c. In the low-temperature area quanta are not
given off, for all practical purposes, and the radiation density in it is deter-
mined by the flow emanating from the heated area's surface and is much greater than
~he ec.ilibrium density UpW = 4cTW/c, since T~� Tw (the x-axis is directed along -
the beam of light).
Despite the fact that this case is far from local equilibrium, the diffusion ap-
proximation leads to a qualitatively correct result, which is that if tne cold me-
dium (the test piece) absorbs light, the radiation density and flow are reduced as
the distance from the heated surface into the depths of the cold medium increases.
In connection with this, the scale of the distance for a noticeable reduction in
these values is the free run for the absorption of quanta in the cold medium. The
diffusion equations in the cold medium give the solution for the radiation density
and flow:
cU
S~ _ ~ e'~
3
(where iy =~kydx is the opti.cal thickness of the layer), which correctly reflects
- the reduction in these values / 2/.
' Even in such an extremely "nondiffusion" layer, where there is maximally expressed
anisotropy of the quanta's angular distribution and all the quanta are moving in
one direction in the cold medium (the test piece), it turns out that the flow is
proportional to the density gradient Sy =-l~ec(dUy/dx) with a proportionality fac-
tor that is triple that of the usual diffusion factor. For the case of pure ab-
sorption of a paralle3 beam of light in a nonradiating medium, there is the exact
solution Sy = cU�J~+e which differs from the solution in the diffusion approxi-
mation only by the numerical factor ~ in the exponent's coefficient.
In our case, the radiating medium borders on a solid and the boundary condition is
given in terms of the temperature at the wall (T = Tw). The heat flow through the
boundar~ is considered to be the sum of the radiation flow and the molecular heat
flow / 3 7.
_ On the radiation flow we superimpose the molecular flow, which in our case is cre-
ated by the gas jet generator (Figure 1). The gasoline combustion products in the
air flow around the test piece, which is 10 mm in diameter and is situated in the
solar installation's focal plane. Since the test piece is placed at a distance of
- 130 ~ from the nozzle mouth in order to reduce shading, the flow's parameters are
~ reduced considerably because of zhe injection of surrounding air. For calculating
the compression zone above the surface, the Mach number is assumed to be M= 1.2.
The compressed layer's thickness can be evaluated with the help of the following
formula / 5 ~/R = 0.66 /1 - where E _ (k - 1)/(k + 1) + 2/((k + 1)M2) = the
adiabatic curve's coefficient. For our case, this estimate gives a value for the
layer's thickness on the order of 20 mm.
According to the results of the calculation of the combustion product (C02, H~O,
C0, OH and other) absorption coefficier~t, with due consideration for the partial
pressures and the gaseous products of decomposition of the material (Cg, CN, S~0
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= Oj vapor, Si and so on), an estimate of the
~ q, length of the radiation's free run QR was
made in accordance with /6,7/ for an ef-
~ ~-w fective Sun temperature T~ = 6,000 K.
4'-. These estimates yield values on the order
- j- of QRN p.l mm. In this case, the optical
- thickness of the layer, as evaluated by
r ~ e
_ the formula `W k~dx, is optically thick.
~
~ To this we should add that this optically
thick compressed layer, together with the
T shock wave, is irradiated by an external
o x radiation flow of solar radiation. As is
Figure 2. Model of interaction during well known, transillumination of a layer
radiant and convective heating of of gas increases that layer's effective
heat-shielding material, allowing for optical thickness.
thP moving transformation boundary.
Considering thaC the shock wave is not
very intense, the transfer of radiant energy inside the compressed layer because of
the molecular flaw's kinetic energy can be ignored.
It is fully obvious that, starting froat the assumptions and calculations that have
been presented, the radiant energy transfer can be represented by the expression
9.=-~~~ a ~8�
- The final model of the interaction, allowing for the moving phqsicochemical trans-
formation boundary inside the material, has the form depicted in Figure 2.
In Figure 2, Te = temperature at the outer boundary of the compressed layer (b),
which equals the Sun's effective tempera~ TW = temperature on the material's
surface; T~~~ = temperatuse at an infinite distance into the material.
The indices ~ and 1 correspond to the compressed layer and the material, respect-
ively.
We assume a linear rate of motion of the surface being destroyed (the wear rate)
- that is equal to rate of motion of the physicocheau.cal transformation (coking,
melting and evaporation) boundary; that is,
dz
at =
I. The initial conditions are:
' (1)
c=0, x=0, Ta=T~� l .
0, x= oo, T1 = To�1
II. The boundary conditions are:
ti>O,~x=b, 7'e=7'~=T~ l (2)
Stefan's condition: qm-q~=qPc J
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The flow of heat (qW) to the surface being destroyed is the resultant of the con-
vective flow from the incoming gas jet (qa), the radiation flow from the external
radiation (q~) and the radiation flow from the body's intrinsic radiation (qt);
that is, qW = qb + Q~ ' qt'
The density of the flow of physicochemical transformations (qpt) is a combination
- of the followin~ endothermic processes: coking (L1~'1), melting and partial evapo-
ration of the liquid film (kLi~i); that is,
- -
_
(J~o - ~r) l ar ~8 - ~ 1 ax - (kL~Y~ -f- ~Y~) d = 0� (4)
where Li and L1 = latent heats of inelting and coking, respectively; k> 1= correc-
tion factor for evaporation of the melted surface. When k= 1, there is no evapo-
ration.
This representation of the phase~ transitions' heats is the result of an effort to
discover the essence of these processes. As is knowm, melting and evaporation take
place on the surface of a material that has already undergone a transfox~??ation
(coking), and its density (~i) and subsequent transformations (kLi) differ substan-
_ tially from the corresponding transformations for the material in its original
~ state ~Llyl~�
Since the thickness of the melted and coked zones in the process of the destruction
of heat-shielding materials is, as a rule, insignificant, all the physicochemical
transformations are removed to the corroding surface of the m~terial.
Thus, at the &as-solid interface we have:
- 9e -f- 9~ - 4T - 4i = 4~t ( 5)
. .-Y--
v. -
- where qd =-~a(aT/r3x)d = density of the molecular heat flow; q~ _~7~~(aT/ x)~ _
density of the flow of radiation from the external source; qt =-at(aT/~x)a = den-
sity of the radiation flow from the material's surface; q1 =-~I1(~T/ax)1 = density
of the flow absorbed bq the material; qPt =(kLi~i + L1~1)(dx/d'~) = specific flow
of phase transformations. The balance equation can be written as
q~t = ~kL~~~ -F- L~Y~) dT ' ~6)
If we assume a partial solution of the Fourier equation in the form of a rectii-
linear dependence on the Gaussian error function that is, Ti = Ci + Di�
�erf(x/2 a'C) it is pflssible to write
Te = Ce -I- i.%eG (z), ( 7 )
7', = C, D~G (z). }
where Ci, Di = arbit ry constants; G(z) = erf(x/?_ ai); G~0) = 0; G(oQ) = 1= the
Gaussian function. Let us datermine the c.:r:stants Ci and Di from the initial and
boundary conditions.
I. ~=0.x=0,Ta=Ca=7'~� ~
T= Q, z= oo , T 1= Cl -F- Di = T
a ~
From which
- Ce =T~, C, =To-D,. (8)
27
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Substituting (8) into (7), we have
Te =T~ -F- DaG(z), (9)
T, =To-Dljl -G(z)1.
II. x=b, Te=T,=T~,.
T~-~- DaG( 2 aa sl= T~_Dl ~ 1- G( 2 ~ 11 ~ T��.
\ ~ / ~ z ~lO)
The last equation will be correct only on the condition that the numerator in the
error function's argument is proportional to�~; that is,
s_m~. (ll)
From (10) we then obtain
.
Tm-T~ T.-7'.
' Dl - 12 )
D6 - G/2~ ~ 1_G( 2~ 1~ ~
l ~ ~
- Substituting the value of Di, we obtain:

, T. --7,. _
Ta=T~- m :
.
G m, � l 2 abs
\2~/ (13)
T, = To `
Tm- m~ (1 _ GC 21~ )1.
1-Gr
_ \ 2~
Differentiating expression (11), we have
~ m (14)
ds - 2~ .
On the basis of the assumptions that have been made, we assume conditionally that
the rate of growth of the boundary layer's thickness equals the rate of movement of
the physicochemical transformation boundary or the wear rate; that is,
- dz d8 _ n? (15 )
a~-az~~'-~yz.
If we take the derivatives of the last expressions in (13), after making the appro-
priate transformations we obtain the equation in its final form:
exp Km) ~ ~e%p KmKu) _ j{~J(m = 0~ ~ 16 )
~1 + ~ ~ m - Kp d ert cKmKo.
~ erI K '
Where ~Kr = K~ - Kt, K~ _~~/]1~, Kt = 7~~ /~1~ = radiation criteria = ratio of photon
to molecular thermalcanductivity; Kd =~TW - Tp)/~Te - TW) = temperature criter-
ion = ratio of the heat differential in the bod to the heat diff.erential in the
_ compressed layer of the medium; Kb =(~c~ 1/(~c~ a= bl/bs = heat penetration cri-
terion; Ka = ad/al = temperature conductivity criterion; Kt =(kLi~l +~1~'1~~
/((c~)alTe - TW)) = phase transition criterion = ra~io of heat absorbed during the
physicochemical transformations of the mar.Eria~ to the molecular heat flow through
the boundary layer; Km = m/2~d = criterion for rhe rate of movement of the physico-
chemical transformation boundary or the wear rate.
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The derived equation (16) reflects the qualitative picture of the interrelationship
of the properties of the medium and the material and the physicoche~ical transfor-
mation baundary's rate of movement. Here the flexible, synthetic relationship be-
tween the theoretical and experimental data is expressed quite clearly. Its solu-
tion requires the use of data on the high-temperature properties of m.aterials
- ~available in the literature) and the results of ex~erimental investigations of
th~rmophysical properties, mass we~r rates, sulid failure temperature and mechanism,
the optical properties of the surfaces of solids and so on.
In order to nr.ake a qualitative analysis of the interdependences of external condi-
tions and the properties of material~ in a broader range of temperatures and pres-
sures that are not achievable under the conditions of the experiment described here,
the parameters indicated above were used as input data for the solution of the
equation. It was onZy from these positions that we investigated the picture of the
inter�relationships of the properties of the medium and the raaterial for various
limi.ting cases, which in the final account makes it possible to expose the
formulative and technological aspects nf a directed effect on the course of the
process of the high-temperature destruction of heat-shielding materials.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Frantzevich, I.N., Dvernyakov, V.S., and Pasichnyy, V.V., "High-Temperature So-
lar Installations of the Institute of Materials Science, Academ,~ of Sciences of
the Ukraine: The Service Performance oi Oxidation-Resistant Coatings," in "Pro-
tective Coatings on Metal.s," New York-London, Consultants Bureau, Vol 3, p 27-34.
2. Zel'dovich, Ya.B., and Rayzer, Yu.P., "Fizika udarnykh voln i vysokotemperatur-
nykh gidrodinamicheskikh yavleniy" /Physics of Shock Waves and High-Temperature
Hydrodynamic Phenomena/, Moscow, Izdatel'stva Nauka, 1966, 133 pp.
3. Tsyan'-�Syuye-Sen', "Fizicheskaya mekharcika" /Physical Mecha~ics/, Moscow, Izda-
tel�stvo Mir, 1965, 498 pp.
4. Sess, R., "Combined Action of Thermal Radiation With Thermal Conductivity and
- Convection," in "Problemy teploobmena" /Problems in Heat Exchange/, Moscow, Iz-
datel'stvo Atomizdat, 1967, pp 25-37.
5. Polezhayev, Yu.V., and Yurevich, F.B., "Teplovaya zashchita" /The.rmal Shield-
in~/, Moscow, Izdatel'stvo Energiya, 1976, 390 pp.
_ 6. Blokh, A.G., "Tep.lovoye izlucheniye v kotel'nykh ustanovkakh" /Thermal Radiation
in Boiler Plants/, Leningrad, Izdatel'stvo Energiya, 1967, 250 pp.
- 7. Klyuchnikov, A.D., and Ivantsov, G.I., "Teploperedacha izl.ucheniyem v ogne-
tekhnicheskikh ustanovkakt~." /Heat Transfer by Radiation in Fyrotechnical Instal-
lations7, Moscow, Izdatel'stvo Energiya, i970, 190 pp.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1980
11746
CSO: 1866/104
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- SPACE APPLICATIONS
~ UDC 551.46.083:629.785
REDUCING THE ERROR IN REMOTE MEASUREMENTS OF THE OCEAN'S PHYSICAL FIELDS
Kiev KOSMICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA NA UKRAINE in Russian No 14, 1980 (signed to press
- 4 Sep 80) pp 80-89
/Article by S.V. Dotsenko and M.G. Poplavskaya, Sevastopol', manuscript received 2
Aug 79/
/Text/ One of the most promising and rapidly developing areas in the study of the
o~ean is tihe remote, noncontact measurement of its physical fields. The use of re-
mote sounding equipment, which senses electromagnetic waves in the band from ultra-
violet to microwave radiation, makes it possible to investigate the ocean from air-
planes and directly from space /1-4/. This explains the huge interest in remote
methods of studying the ocean and the great progress that has been made in recent
years in the development o~ remote sounding equipment and methods of interpreting
the data obtained with its help.
Despite the diversity of the engineering realization, all remote instruments con-
tain a sensing section that consists of a sensor (an objective in the opti~al and
infrared bands and an antenna in the microwave band) and a sensitive element that
is connected to a signal amplification and processing unit. Real objectives and
antennas have a radiation pattern of finite width. Therefore, the volume of the
medium from which radiation is sensed by the instrument (the instrument's senso::'4
"resolving element") also has finite dimensions and gets larger as the instrument's
sensor moves away from the volume. Although at close range (meters) the resolving
element's value is comparable to that of traditional oceanographic equipment, when
sounding from an airplane and (in particular) from space,it takes on much greater
values (up to tens of kilometers).
The instrument's output signal is the result of averaging of a measured field with
respect to the resolving element and without regard for it with a weight assigned
by the instrument's spread function, which in turn is a projection of the instru-
ment's sensor's radiation pattern onto the sea's surface. Such averaging leads to
suppression in comparisc~n with the measured field in the instrument's output
signal of the high-frequency components of the spectrum of the field's spatial ir-
regularities and, consequently,_to the appearance of an error in the measurement of
the field's spatial structure / 5/. This averaging is most tangible in passive
microwave sounding of the ocean, where the width of the antenna's radiation pattern
is quite large, while the methods for narrowing it that are realizable in active
radar are not applicable here. Naturally, this error can be reduced by simply nar-
rowing the width of the instrument's radiation pattern, but this requires a
30
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proportional increase in the antenna's dimensions, which cannot always be imple-
mented technically. However, measurement error is determined not only by the size
of the resolving element, but also by Che form of the instrument's spread function
both within rhe limits of this element and outside it. This was confirmed by ca1-
culations in /5-7/, where it was shown that for identical resolving element dimen-
sions, a remote instrument's metrological characteristics depend on the form of its
spread function. In connection with this there arises the problem of finding that
form of an instrument's spread function for which th~ smallest measurement error is
_ insured for a given value of its resolving element.
Below we give one of the possible methods for solving this problem and then demori-
strate it on a particular example that is of considerable interest for practical
purposes.
The mean square of the absolute error in measurenient of a homogeneous, isoiropic,
"frozen" field by an instrument with a sensor having axial symmetry is determined
by the expression / 8/
~
eZ = 2n ~ G= (cc) (1 - h(cc)j! ada, ~ 1)
0
where a( = wave number; G2(~) = two-dimensional spatial energy spectrum of the field
being measured; h(~C) = spectrum of the instrument's spread function, which is re-
lated to the spread function h(r) itself by the (Gankel') transformation
. ~
h ~r) _ ~ ~ h (a) ~o ~ar) ada. ( 2 )
0
- Here, J~(x) = Bessel's function. The spread function's characteristic radius
Rs - h ~o~ ,
~r~ dr
0
whicn is the radius of the instrument's resolving element, can with due consid-
eration f'or relationship (2) be defined as
a
s h ~a~ ~
0
R= _ .
s h {a) ada
0
~ In order to solve the proble~; formulated above it is necessary to find the spread
function that insures a n:inimum value for e::.~resaion (1), providing that
Rs~= const. (3)
We will call this spread function optimul.
Finding this solution by the precise methods of calculus of variations is difficult.
Therefore, let us show how to solve it directly with the help of the er.pansion of
h(a) into a finite sum by the full (in an infinite interval) system of functions
I~n(P~c), which are the spectra of the partial spread functions:
3'
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- ~ N
h ~a) _ a~a ~Pa), ~ 4 )
a.=n
- where P= some factor that is identical for all hn(~ooc). Considering the fact that
' ir~ this case h(�) is an even function of its own argument, as this system we will
- Cake the functions / 9 /
jtR (x) _ ~ e` s
x~. ( 5)
(2n)t~
_ In connection with this, the integrals for all the practically important forms of
- the spectrum of field G2(oc) and any numbers n of sum (4)'s components mak~ sense.
The problem of finding the optimum function h(ac) now reduces to determining that
set of coefficients in expansion (4) that (keeping condition (3) in mind) insure a
minimum error (1}.
Let us find the relationship between the coefficients a,n that results from condi-
= tion (3}. Considering that /10/
0o s� eo z� .
_ f e ~ x~'dx = Y 2(2n - 1)Il, ~ e~ ~ x~'+~dx =(2n)II,
b'
~nd choosing P= RX, we find that condition (3) reduces to the equation
" ~ (6)
Z g,~~ = o.
~o
where it is designated that
, ~ (2n - 1)II
gn = 1 - V 2 (2ri)I1 '
Substituting sum ~4) into formula (1), we find .
N N N
' en+ = a= 1 - `Z ~ aa~a ~ ~ amanAmn ~ ~ 7 ~
( �~o ~o �a.o
where v2 = dispersion of the field and it is designated that
Mm.}.~ ~11 2Mn (~2) ~ 8~
A""' ~ (2m)!I (2n)11 ' ~O - nl
and, in turn,
Mk ~t~ a
R~ ~ G= lt Rx 1 e~z,z~+~~~ ( 9)
~
Index N in the variable ~N means that we are looking for a finite, optimum set of
N+ 1 coefficients an. From formulas (2), (4) and (5) we find that the optimum
spread function has the form
N
h (r) _ ~i are~n ~r~~ . ~ 10 )
�=o
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~
it being the case that part of thfs expression is the partial spread functions
e ~
h~ ~r~ - ~ eXp 2R~ ) L" ( 2R2 ~
x x =
where ;~~z) are the Laguerre polynomials /10/
~ (-1) R
Ln~Z,=~ kl R(jt~z.
,w..o
Function Mk(t) in formula (9) is presented in terms of the field's two-dimensional
spectrum G2(oC). In some cases that are important for practical applications, it is
desirable to express it in terms of the field's spati~l autocorrelation function
- B(r). Let us consider the fact that in a homogeneous, isotropic field /11/,
. ~
Gz (a) _ ~ `B (r) Jo (acr) rdr.
d'
Substituting this relationship into formula (9), by changing the order of integra-
tion and using ~he integral value /12/
�O 2 =
s Jo (t R~ xl e"'x~+~dx = 2~ exp -4 1 Rz J J Lk L 4` R: ~~J'
l 1
we obtain the desired expression
~
Mk ~r~ 2a R; ~ B~r~ eXp I' 4 1 Rx / J Lk l 4 l Rx td~. ~ 11)
The solution of the formulated problem reduces to determining the set of coeffi-
- cients a0,a1,...,aN that insures a minimum value of (7) providing that condition
(6) is met. Let us write the latter in the form
' N-1
aN 8N n~ g~'a~'. ~ 12 ~
Given condition (12), the minimum of the square of error (7) is achieved in the
case when N equalities are satisfied:
r l = 0 for k- 0, 1, N- 1,
daR ` a /
which, in developed form, have the form
N-1
~ ~I Aok 8N �Qn/y~ ~AhN - gN ANN~ I Qa = ~k - gH ~N (13)
\ ~ /
for k=0, 1, N-1. .
When differentiating expression (7) with respect to ak, it was taken into consider-
_ ation that, in accordance with equality (12), aaN/a ak - gk~gN'
Let us simplify expression (7), which corresponds to a minimum measurement ,error.
Iii order to do this, we mutt; r Che k-th equation in system (13) by ak and sum up
33
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the equalities thus found, with respect to k, from 0 to (N - 1). Combining the ex-
pression that is obtained with formula.(7) yields
C 6~' = 1- ~ w�an. (14 )
0
where coefficrerts a~,...,aN_1 are a solution of system (13), while aN is deter-
_ mined by formula (12).
The coefficients ak (0 < k< N) obtained from system (13) solve the formulated prob-
lem for any finite number of partial spread functions. For N~! po, formula (10)
can be used to find the limiting form of the instrument's optimum spread function
- (if it exists), while formula (14) yields the measurement error that corresponds to
it. For large values of N, however, there is no need for this. As will be shown
below, the value of N determines the number of lobes of the spread function. In
practice, it is possible to create antenna radiation patterns (which means spread
functions, also) with only a finite number of lobes. Therefore, finite values of N
evoke the greatest interest.
Assuming that they are isotropic, the spatial correlation function of many physical
fields of the ocean (in particular, fields of temperature, transparency and other
irregularities) can frequently be approximated by the exponential aurve /13,14,17/
' (15)
_ B = Q=er .
where cT2 = the field's dispersion, while rX is its characteristic scale. The de-
termination of the form of a remote instrument's optimum spread function during the
measurement of such a field is a matter of great interest. Let us find the form of
- these spread functions for different numbers of lobes and evaluate the accuracy of
the measurement of a field with instruments with sensors that are described by
these functions.
Let us substitute correlation function (15) into formula (11). In connection with
this, having made use of the value of the integral /12/
eo v
~ x~-ie-sY~-vx~ _ ~2~)~ ~ r ~y~ eXP ~ 8~ / D_� ` y2~ ~ '
0
where r('~!) = a gamma-function and DP(z) = function of a parabolic cylinder, we can
write
, k k
Mk (t) _ ~ exp ( 2`, 1 ~;o (-1)'" (2m -}-1)!! m D_zcm+~~ ( ~ Z ~ � (16 )
l 1
Consequently, in the case under discussion, functions Mk(t) are expressed in terms
of parabolic cylinder functions with integral, even, negative indices. According
to /12/ we have
~ ~
Do(z) =e ' , D~i(z) =Y 2 e' (1-~( Y2 ~l, (17)
l \ 1
where ~(x) = the probability integral. The values of functions D_2~m+l~~z) with
the necessary indices can be derived from (17) with the help of the recurrence
- 34
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formula /12/
D--~n+:) ~2) = n i ~D-n (2) - zD_~n-F~~ ~Z)~�
Combining expression (16) and (8), we find that for the field under discussion, co-
efficients (8) have the form
A,,,,, = 2'~'"+"~ m+ n ex Z' m+n 1 k 2k 1 11 m+ n+D_ k i 2z
( m ) P~2 -f- ) C k ) x+~~) (18)
and
e n~
_ WQ = ~p 4 ) ~o(-1)k (2k -}-1)It ) D~x~+� ~z)� (19 )
As 2 standard for the comparison of optimum spread functions for different values
of N, let us take a spread function with a bell-shaped form:
~
h (r) _ ~ exP R~ ~ ~ ( 20 )
the characteristic radius of the resolving elments of which is RX. Let us mention
here that questions on the remote measurement of physical fields with instruments
having such spread functions are also of independent interest, since they_approxi-
- mate the radiation patterns of infrared and optical radiation receivers /15,16/.
The spectrum of spread function (20) also has ~ bell-shaped form:
h(a) = ao eXp (R~a)~ j. ( 21)
l J
The mean square of the error in measurement of an isotropic field having a two-
dimensional spectrum G2(~ by a remote instrument with an arbitrary spread function
h(r) is given by formula (1). The field's two-dimensional spectrum, corresponding
to correlation function (15), has the form
G, (a) _ f 1-t- (acr,~s1~~� ( 22 )
Substituting expressions (22) and (21) into formula (1) and using the values of the
tabular integrals /12/, we find that the value of the mean square of the error E ~
thae c~~rresponds to the bell-shaped spread function can be determined with the for-
mula
z
( Q ) = 1 - 2aoP, ~uP2, ( 23 )
where
P1=1-ie" ~t Yn /J~
-
p,=1-Y2ze" ll-~~Y n z1J'
~ whil~ the variable z= RX/rX is the ratio of characteristic radius of the instru-
mPnt's spread function to the f.ield's characteristic scale. Error (23) reaches its
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minimum vnlue 3t
~ = pi~pa~ (24)
it beix~g the case that
~ ~M~n._1' _ 1 _ ~ ~ 25 )
a ~ .
For z~ ,
30
~o.tu.
~ . ~
~ ,
. NyBuacKUtc ? y0 w u[:~
_ oKeoH A
~ '
~
~ .
~'i..~.` F... _ ~ ~ ~
.
a
~ 50 ~a.r~.
, a ' 25�e.a d
Figure 2. Synchronous infrared (a) and radiothermal. (b} images of the
east coast of Africa from the equator to 50� S.Lat. in the 8-12~,tm and R
mm bands, respectivel3~, as taken by the "Meteor" satellite.
Key:
1. Pemba Island 3. Africa
2. Zanzibar 4. Indian ~cean
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the surface's elect..rophysical properties and daily changes in the thermodynamic
temperature are less than the minimally measurable contrast in radiobrightness
temperature (20K). Relatively smal.l section.s of dry land, such as Pemba Island
(1,000 km2) and Zanzibar (1,600 km2) near the African coast in the region of 5~
S.Lat., 40~ E.Long., can be detected positively in the radiothermal image, but in
the infrared image they are masked by clouds.
� In this case the cloud cover pattern in the radiothermal im3ge differs substantial-
ly from what is seen in the infrared image. In the first place, in the infrared
image almost all the water area of the Mozambique Channel is covered with different
types of clouds ~for example, upper-level clouds with a low water content in the
area of 10� S.Lat. that are noticeable even against the land backgrouna, since
their temperature is considerably lower than that of the land surface). In the
radiothermal image we can see clearly only the part of this cloud cover to the east
of the African coast that has a higher content of liquid-drop water. In the second
place, in tt:a radiothermal image the cloudy zone over the Indian Ocean in the area
' from 30~ S.Lat. to 50� S.Lat. is expressed only by longitudinal light (intense pre-
cipitation) and oblique gray (moderate precipitation) bands, whereas different
types of cloud cover are seen in this area in the infrared image. In all probabil-
ity, the two light bands in the lower part of the infrared image represent cirrus
clouds through which the contours of the medium- and low-le~vel cloud cover shows
quite clearly.
As a result of the comparison of infrared and radiothermal images obtained with the
"Meteor" satellite, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1.In niany cases, dry land sections can be distinguished much better in radiothermal
images than in synchronous infrared images. This applies, in par.ticular, to the
discrimination of small sections of land amounting to only several resolvable ele-
ments ~islands from 600 to 2,000 km2 in size). Although land sections are repre-
sented by a certain tone in a radiothermal image, in an infrared image they can be
represented by different tones on the same orbit, depending on whether the satel-
lite is over a sunlit section of the Earth's surface or on its shaded side.
2. Analysis of a radiothermal image makes it possible to determine the location of
zones of precipitation and to make an approximate evaluation of the cloud cover's
water content, wiiile analysis of a syncfironous infrared image makes it possible to
establish the altitude of its upper boundary. A comparison of infrared and radio-
thermal images makes it possible to distingu;sh clouds with a very low moisture
content in an entire cloud cover field.
- nIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Schaer~r, G., A Comparison of Thermal Imaging at Microwave and Infrared Wave-
lengths," INFRARED PHYSICS, Vol 15, 1975, p 125.
2. Yegorov, S.T., Plyushchev, V.A., Vlasov, A.A., and Morozov, V.F., "Mapping the
Earth From an Artificial Earth Satellite According to Its Intrinsic Radio-
- Frequency Emissions in the 0.8-cm Band," IZV. AN SSSR. FIZIKA ATM. I OKEANA
/Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Physics of the Atmosphere and
Ocean/, Vol 15, No 12, 1979, p 1262.
78
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3. Domb~ovskaya, E.P., and Egorov, S.T., "Analysis of Cloud and Precipitation
- Fields From Satellite IR and Microwave Pictures," in "(COSPAR) Space Research,
- edited by M.I. Ryckroft, Pergamon Press, Vol 19, 1979, p 59.
4. Savage, R.G., and Weinman, J.A., "Preliminary Calculations of the Upwelling Ra-
diance From Rainclouds at 37.0 and 19.35 GHz," BULL. AMER. METEOROL. SOCIETY,
Vol 56, N~ 12, 1975, p 1272.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Issledovaniye Zemli iz kosmosa", 1981
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UDC 551.51:629.78
- RADIOPHYSICAL METHODS FOR SOUNDING THE .ATMOSPHERE AND THE OCEAN'S SURFACE FROM
SPACE
Moscow ISSLEDOVANIYE ZEMLI IZ KOSMOSA in Russian No 1, Jan-Feb 81
(manuscript received 21 May 80) pp 63-74
/Article by A.S. Gurvich, S.T. Yegorov and B.G. Kutuza, Institute of Physics of the
Atmosphere and Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics, USSR Academy of Sci-
ences, Moscow/
/Text/ Radiophysical investigations of the atmosphere and the underlying land and
sea surface were begun in 1968 by an experiment utilizing the "Kosmos-243" artifi-
cial Earth satellite. Since then there has been a series of satiellite experiments
- conducted by both the Soviet Union and the United States that have proven the ef-
fectiveness of radiophysical methods in investigations of our surrounding natural
environment.
In compar~.son with waves in the optical band, radio waves make it possible to ob-
tain new information about the state of the atmosphere and the