JPRS ID: 9878 TRANSLATION DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS OF NONINDUSTRIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS BY BORIS YAKOYLEVICH ORLOVSYIY AND ANATOLIY ALEKSEYEVICH MAGAY

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• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000400030059-0
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• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 239
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 59
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS~ L/9878
30 ~uly 1981
,
Translation
DESIC~N FUNDA~IAENTALS OF NONINDUSTRIAL
AND I~fDt~~?h~~'AL ~U~ttE?Ii+~iC~1~
ey
_ Boris Yakovoevich Oriovskiy and Ar~atoliy. Afekseyev~ch ~lagay
F~IS FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATlON SERVICE
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~ JPRS L/9878
30 July 1981
' DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS OF NONINDUSTRIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS~ ~
Moscow OSNOVY ~ROYEKTIROVANIYA GRAZHDANSRIKH I PROMYSHLENNYKH ZDANIY
in Russian 1980 (signed to press 26 Dec 76) pp 1-240
[Book "Design Fundamentals of Nonindustrial and Industrial Buildings"
by Boris Yakovlevich Orlovskiy and Anatoliy Alekseyevich Magay,
Stroyizdat, 80,000 copies, 240 pages; approved by the administrative
personnel and institutions of higher learning of the USSR Ministry of
' Heavy Industrial Construction as a training aid in speciality 120a
"Industrial and Nonindustrial Construction"; UDC 721.011(075.3)]
CONTENTS
Abstract . - _._____1
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
_ . . . . . . . . . . . .
_ Part One. General Instructions for the Course Design of Nonindustrial
- and Industrial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
_ Chapter I. General Design Principles of Nonindustrial and Industrial
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
- Section 1. Design Concepts and Baeic Design Requirements 5
Section 2. Design Phases and Composition of. the Deaign Documents. 8
Section 3. Standard Design, Modular System, Fundamentals of Standard-
ization and Unitization of Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Section 4. Tying the Standar~ Designs to a Specific Construction S3te . 15
Section 5. Technical-Economic Indices of Design Solutions 17
Chapter II. Cour~e Design Phases in Examples of Nonindustrial and In-
dustrial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~g
- Section 6. Drawing up Sketches and Preliminary Calculations of rhe
Designed Pro~ect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l9
Section 7. Development of the Master Plan 20
Section 8. Development of Plan Views and Sections . . . . . . � ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 26
Section 9. Development of Facades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � . 30
_ Section 10. Execution of Drawings of Architectural and Structural
Details and Units of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
- a - [II - USSR - FOUO]
YIII - USSR - 36a - FOUO]
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_ . _ - - _ - -
' Section 11. Selection of the Sanitary-EngineEring, Stock and Service 34
Equipment of the Desi~ned Project . . , � � � � ' ' ' ~ ~ ~ ~ 40
Section ~.2. Writing the Notes to the Designed Project . . . � � � � � � �
_ - _ - _ _ _ _ .
Part ~cao. Nonindustrial Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 52
,
Chapter III. Residential Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . 52
Section 13. General Design Principles of Residential Buildings 52
' Section 14. Brief Information About Laying Out Citi.es and Populated
Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Section 15. Structural Diagrams of Residential Buildit~~s 58
Section 16. Apartment and Ite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Section 17. Low-Rise Residential Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Section 18. High-Rise Residential Buildiuge (Sectional, Corridor,
Gallery-Type) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Section i9. Corridor Apartment Houses and Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . 87
Section 20. Design Examples and Their Technical-Economic Indices 90
Chapter IV. Public Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Section 21. Generu;. Principles of the Design of Public Buildings 94
Section 22. Classification of Pub].ic Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Section 23. Basic Floor Plans c~ Fublic Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.0
~ Section 24. Design of Entranceb . ~~.si ~`vacuation Problems . . . . . . . . . ~.ii
Section 25. Exasples of Design Solutions and Their Technical-Econom3c
Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Section 26. Elements of Construction Heat Engineering and Construction
Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Part Three. Industrial Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
~
Chapter V. Discribution of Industry and the Organization of Industrial
- Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Section 27. General Principles of Industrial Building Design 118
Section 28. District Planning Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Section 29. Distribution of Industri.al Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Section 30. Principles of the Forma+.:ion of Iudustrial Complexes 128
Chapter VI. Master Plans of Industrial Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . ~38
Section 31. Layout and Coverage o� the Industrial Site 138
Section 32. Blocked Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Section 33. Engineering Preparation and Amenities of the Pr~mises 147
Section 34. Examples of the Layout of Industrial Enterprise Ma.ster
Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Section 35. Industrial Transportation . . . . , . � � � � � � � � � � � � Z~~
Section 36. Technical-Economic Ind3ces of Nlaster Plar~s 157
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Chapter VII. Basic Design Principles of the Buildings of Industrial
Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
= Section 37. Classificatioa of Production Buildiags . . . . . . . . . . . 158 ~
Section 38. Flow Diagram for the ProducC3.cn Process . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Section 39. Materials-Handling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Section 40. Characteristic Features of the Standardization and
Unitization of Industrial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Section 41. Basic Rules for Tie-In Columns and Walls to the Center Lines. 175
~ Section 42. Economics of Industrial Building Design 178
Chapter VIII.Physical-Technical Principles of Industrial Building Design.. 181
Section 43. Air Exchange in Production Facilities 181
" Section 44. Natural Lighting 185
Section 45. Insolation and Solar Radiation 190
Chapter IX. Space and Floor Plan Solutions of Industrial Buildings....... 191
Section 46. Basic Principles of Architectural Layout and Floor Plan
Solutions of Industrial Buildings 191
Section 47. Architectural-Aesthetic Form of an Industrial Building....... 195
Section 48. Examples of Desiga Solutions o~ Industrial Enterprises....... 207
Chapter R. Auxiliary Suilding and FaciZity Desiga of Industrial
Enterprises............~ 223
Section 49. Organization of the 5ervice Network at the Industrial
Enterprises 223
Section 50. Space-Fioor Plan arid 3tructural Solutione of the Facilities
for Cultural and General Sergiaing of the Workers and
Production Administration......~ 224
Bibliography......, 234
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Abstract
A discussion is presented of the basic principles of the standard design of non-
industrial and industrial buildings and also the procedural instxuctions for the
development of course and diploma designs of these buildings. The problems of
the modular system, standardization and unitization of the investigated build-
ings are discussed briefly. The classification of nonindustrial and induatrial
buildings, their floor plans, structural diagrams and systems, and their techni-
cal-economic indices are investigated. T'he general principles of planning the
microdistricts and generation of master plans for industrial enterprises are
presented.
The book is intended for students at the middle institutions of learning in the
specialty of industrial and nonindustrial construction.
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~
For2word
The constant improvement of con~truction processes and construction engineering ~
requires improvement of the training of qualified workers and specialists. This
was pointed out at the 25th CPSU Congress. ~'heir professional training and
skills to a gr~at extent determine the achievement of the goals set by the
- party and government in the construction area.
During the training process, future builders and engineers must master skills
not only corresponding to the achieved level nf construction, but also corre-
sponding to a defined degree to the future requirements of construction develop-
men t .
The purpose of this publication is to familiarize the students of the secondary
technical schools specializing in cons~ruction with the fundamentals of the de-
- sign and construction of" residential, public and industrial buildings and.:struc-
tures. However, the book cannot claim to be an exhaustive discussion of all flf
the material apprnved by the existing program. Therefore when compiling the
outline, the authors began with the future development of the scientific-theo-
retical principles of the course in "The Architecture of Nonindustrial and In-
dustrial Buildings" as applied to the design of such buildings. The basic prem-
ise was that under the conditions of scientific and technical progress future
builders and construction engineers must know how to find correct solutions to
contemporary archir,ectural-construction problems independently.
The theoretical principles of standar.d d~sign adopted in our country as the ba-
sic area in the development of nonindustrial and industrial building design are
~resented in the book, the problems of modular coordination and unitization are
investigated, and brief information is presented on master plans.
A great deal of attention has been given to the typology of nonindustrial and
industrial bt.ildings, their architectural planning and structural solutions, the
problems of f;inctional and production inter.relations of individual zones and fa-
cilities.
One of the basic steps in reinforcing theoretical knowledge is the execution of
course and diploma designs. During the process of working on such desi~ns the
students ancounter difficulties in laying out the drawings on the sheets, compo-
sition, inking and pocheing procedures � and also the discussion of the material
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in an explanatory note and the performance of heat engineering calculations. A
procedure for developing designs is presented in the required detail in the
book, and examples are given of the heat engineering calculations of wa11s and
ceilings. Contemporary, advanced architectural planning and structural solu-
tions for buildings presented in the text can serve as examples for further,
more specific development of one type of building or another.
At this time a great deal of significance is attached to the problems of cun-
struction economics; therefore the hasic technical-economic indices of various
design solutions of buildings, master plans for housing and the territory ~of in-
dustrial nnterprises are presented.
The indicated consolidated digital technical-economic indices must not be con-
sidered during course and diploma design as fixed inasmuch as these indices
change quickly. However, they illustrate the methodology of the technical-eco-
nomic calculations well for the design of various pro~ects, and they offer the
possibility of determining the relative relationship of these indices.
In co~clusion, it must be noted that the study of the course in "Design Funda-
mentals of Nonindustrial and Industrial Buil-iings" is based on skills obtained
in drawing, sketching, structural design and other general theoretical and spe-
cialized disciplines.
The authors express deep appreciation to the reviewers, Candidate of Architec-
ture G. Yu. Orlov and instructor at the Donetsk Secondary Technical School of
Construction Ye. N. Ratnikova for valuable comments and recommendaCions for ~?m-
provement of the content of this edition.
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Part One. General Instructions for the Course Design of Nonindustrial and In-
dust_ial Buildings
Chapter I. General Design Principles of Nonindustrial and Industrial Buildings
Section 1. Design Concepts and Basic Design Requirements -
The design of any object, whether nonindustrial or industrial building, is a
creative process involving architects, engineers aud technicians of the design
organizations based on united state norms and etandards.
When developing the designed object it is necessary to determine its nature,
functional interrelation of the individual parts and elements of the bu3.lding,
establish the optimal shape organically connected with the floor and epace plan-
ning and purpose and also it is necessary to select contemporary materials and
an advanced structural design.
Thus, the design process is a multifaceted, complex process including calcula-
tions and structural design work. The fina]. purpoae of the design process is to
generate a design for a building which is of interest with respect to architec-
tural concept and corresponda to modern structural, economic, fire-sa�ety, sani-
tation and other requirements. The design consists of drawings, calculat3.ons,
explanatory notes and estimates. The drawings contain a graphical representa-
tion of the adopted architectural and etructural solution of the designed ob-
ject, its elements and parts.
The explanatory note discusses the substantiation of the adopted architectural-
planning, structural and engineering solutions, the basic technical-economic in-
. dices, characterizing the reaeonableness of the design.
The design estimates determine the total cost of construction and serve as a ba-
sis for planning the capital investments and finsncing of the construction of
the given pro~ect.
' The development of a design of a building or structure begins with the assign-
ment for its design which is compiled by the client with the participation of
the design organization. A design development assignment contains the initial
data for the design.
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The de~:3lgn assignment for a reaidential or public building contains the follow- .
_ ing material: the design phasing, the area of appl.ication of the design with
indication of the structural-climatic districts and calculated outside air tem-
peratur~s; purpose and type of residential or public building, number of floors,
extent; recommended types of apartments or rooms, areas of the facilities, re-
quirements on engineering equipment and public amenities.
The design assignment for an industrial building includes the name of the dis-
trict, the place and the construction site, the production nomenclature and ca-
pacity; the basic production processes and equ3.pment, the basic sources of sup-
port of the operation of the enterprise (raw materials, electric power, heat,
gas, and so on); the cooperation of the enterprise established as part of an in-
dustrial complex; planned expanaion of the enterprise.
The basis for compiling the design aesignment is a resolution by the executive
committeE of the Council of People's Deputies, a resolution of the union repub-
lic gosstroy or the GosgrazY:dansCroy [State Committee for Nonindustrial Con-
struction].
_ The developed documents for the design of any building or structure must satisfy
the requirements of the effective construct3on norms and regulations (SNiP)
which are the state standards with all-union significance. The SNiP contain the
basic principles and requirements with respect to the construction and desi.gn of
cities and populated areas, all types of buildings a~d structures, the selection
and application of structural elements and engineering equipment, and determina-
tion of the estimated cost of construction. '
1'he conetruction norms and regulations consist of four parts:
_ 1. General principles.
2. Design norms.
_ 3. Performance and acceptance regulations.
4. Estimate norms and regulations (with unit-construction estimate norms ap-
pended).
Part I"General Principles" establishes the system of normative documents, the
construction terminology, classification of buildings and structures, regula-
tions for specification of modular dimensions and tolerances in construction.
Part II "Design Norms" contains the requirements with respect to the gen.eral de-
sign problems (construction climatology and geophysics, fire-safety standards,
structural heat engineering, loads and exposures, construction in seismic areas,
and so on); bases and foundations, structural elementis, engineering equipment
and external networks; the planning and development of cities, settlements and
rural populated areas, housing and public buildings and structures; the produc-
J tion and auxiliary buildings and structures of industrial enterprises; farm
buildings and structures; warehouses and storage structures, and so on.
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Part III "Performance and Acceptance Regul.at3ons" contains the requirements with
respect to the general problems of organizing the construction and acceptance of
enterprises, buildings and structures as finished construction; geodetic opera-
t.ions; safety engineering; performance and acceptance operations when erecting
earthworks, bases and foundations, structural elements, and ao on. ~
Part IV "Estimate Noxms and Regulations" contains inetructions with respect to '
the development of el-emental and consolidated estimate norms for consCruction
operations; determination of the estimated cost of equipment; determination of
the estimated cost of materials, structural elements and operation of construc-
tion machinery, definition of the limited and oCher expenditure norm~; determi-
nation of the estimated cost of construction.
For each part of the SNiP colored vertical strips are placed on the Zeft side of
the leaves for convenience of using them: Part I--red; Part II--blue; Part
III--green; Part IV--brown.
The chapters of the SNiP are published under the corresponding code approved by
the USSR Gosstroy, for example, SNiP II-L.1-71 "Residential Buildings. Design
Norms" means: Part II, Section L, Chapter 1, 71 is the year of approval of the
given chapter. At the present time a transition is taking place to a three-
number designation of the SNiP code, such as, for example, SNiP I-1-74 "General
Principles. System of Normative Documents" means: Part I, Chapter 1, 74 is the
year of approval.
Section 2. Design Phases and Composition of the Design Documents
The construction norms and re;gulations are developed when necessary in the �orm
of technical specifications, instructions and other normative documents. These
normative documents arE coded with the letters SN (construction norms), TU
(technical specifications); after these identification codes, the number and
year of publication are indicated.
When developing designs for nonindustrial and industrial buildings it is neces- �
sary to be guided by the "Temporary Instructions for the Development of Designs
and Estimates for Residential and Nonindustrial Conatruction" SN 401-69 and "In-
structions for the Development of Designs and Estimates for Industrial Constiruc-
tion" SN 202-76. According to theae documents, the design of nonindustrial and
industrial buildinga or complexes of them takes place in one or two phases.
These phases are preceded by the pxedesign development--the technical-economic
substantiation. The ma~ority of the designa are developed in two stages--con-
tact design and working drawings. When designing small projects it is permissi-
ble to develop the design in one phase--the contract-detail design (combination
of the contract design with detailed working drawings).
Af ter the development, coordination and approval of the design asssignment, the
. designers begin with the development of the contract design which is the initial
design phase. The basic, most efficient architectural-planning and struc~uxal
solutions. are diacovered and established, and a decision is made with respect to
engineering equipment and transportation. The total estimated cost of
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construction and the basic technical-economic indices of the designE~ pro~ect
are determined.
The contract design includes the following parts: architectural-construction
design, technical-economic, productioa procesa and sunmoary cost estimate calcu-
lations.
Depending on the type of developed pro~ect the individual parts of the contract
design can be altered, supplemented, combined or omitted.
The architectural-construction part includes the following:
the plans for nonrepeating floors on which all of the basic dimensions of the
rooms and placement of furniture and equipment are indicated;
sections and elevations with indicat3.on of all of the basic levels (the bottom
of the foundations, ground level, floora, ceilinge, windows, doors, stair land-
ings, :~verheads,, and so on) ;
the structural layout of the building, subassemblies and parts, their mating,
the nomenclature o� products with dimensi.ons, their weights, materials, and so
on;
layouts of engineering networks and serqice liaes, types and capacity of sanita-
tion engineering and heating uuits.
The technical-economic part of the contract design contains an explanatory note
with the description and substantiation of the decisions made in the design, the
basic technical-economic indices and a comparison of them with analogous data of
existing building designs. Data are presented on the sources of supply o� the
designed pro~ect (water, electric power, gas, and so on). The correspondence of
the developed deaign data to the design assignment is indicated in the explana-
tory note.
The master plan which enters into the architectural-construction part is devel-
oped in the contract design.
_ When developing the design ror a nonindustrial building, the location aif this
building on the construction site, the access routes and walkways in the vicin-
ity of the building, landscaping and amenities ar.e defined on thQ master p1an.
The master plan is especially important when dssigning complexes of buildings
and structures for industrial enterprises. The basic design principles of a
master plan for an industrial enterprise based on the produ~tion layout are dis-
cussed in Section 7 of this publication.
The production process part of the design coatains the general productior~ route
sheet, the planned specialization nf the production and operating conditions of
the enterprise, and tihe system of basic sources of support (raw materials, water
supply, power supp~.y, gas, and so on).
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, ~
The summary cost estimate calculation of the desigir. determines its total cost
and is the basis for financing construction and developing the working drawings.
The contract design must be agreed on with the ispolkom [executive committee~ of
the local Council of People's Deputies and local agencies of the State Sanitsz'y
Inspectorate and State Fire Inspectorate.
After consultation and examination, the contract design serves as the basis for
d,F~veloping the working drawings. The working drawings are developed for more
_ precise definition and detailing of the design solutiions adopted in the contract
design.
_ The c~mposition of the working drawings f~r nonindu~trial buildings differs
somewhat from the composition of workin~ drawings for the buildings of indus-
trial enterprises in which the specific nature of these entErprises is taken
into account.
The working drawings of a nonindustrial building must contain the following ma-
terial:
the site master plan with the solution for amenities and external engineering
- networks, and grading;
transport routes, amenities and landscaping;
nonrepeating floor plans of the building;
foundation plans with the required detail.ed drawing and cross section;
plans for overheads, floors and ceilings with indication of their composition
and structural solutions;
sections of the building, one of them necessarily through the stairway;
elevations of the building with details and arch itectural details;
drawings of individual elements used in the design (nonstandard doors, built-in
closets, gates, and so on);
drawings of the erection and installation of items with indication of their
types and sequence of erection, with specitication of the plant-manufactured
items;
drawings of the engineering and service equipment (water lines, sewage, power
. supply, gas supply, heating, ventilation, and so on).
The working drawings of industrial buildings and structures also include the in-
stallation drawings of power engineering equipment and the foundations under the
production equipment.
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After final development, the working drawings are transmitted without additional
approval to the construction organization for performance of the construction
and installation operations.
_ As has been pointed out, in addition to the two-phase design of pro~ects, provi-
sion has also been made for the development of the designs in ome phase. In
. this case the contract design and working drawings are combined in the contract-
detail drawings. The work on the designs begins after approval of the deaign
assignment. The approval and agreement on the contract-detail drawings are
given by the same offices as the c~ntract design.
Section 3. Standard Design, Modular System, Fundamentals of Standardization and
Unitization of Buildings
- The enormous volumes of construction in the Soviet Union have necessitated the
creation of a large-scale production-industrial base. One of the basic condi-
tions for the growth of industrialization of construction is mass manufacture of
prefabricated construction products and parts based on standardized design work.
The basis for standardized design work is the standard design planned for mass
construction and developed considering advanced archit~ctural-planning and
structural solutions and high techn3.ca1-economic indices.
The goal of standardized design ~nclu~ies maximum reduction of the construction
times, reduced cost and improved quality of construction as a result of indus-
trialization of it, the fastest conversion to the erection of fully prefabri-
cated buildings from large structural elements and factory-made elements.
The standard designs are developed both for defined climatic regions considering
the natural climatic and local conditions (permafrost, seismics, unstable ground,
and so on) and for a provisional region with calculated winter temperature of
-30� C and versions of the solutions for regions with a calculated temperature
of -20� and -40� C.
Standard designs intended for application in seismic regions have the index "S,"
for ex2mple, series 111-02S.
Standard designs are basically disseminated by the Central Institute of Standard
Designs (TsITP), and some of the standard designs are disseminated by organiza-
tions developing the designs.
_ During the erection of buildings from industrial prefabricated products, corre-
lation of all of the dimensions of the items used is necessary. This is po~si-
ble only under the condition where the designation of the dimensions of the
products will be subordinate to a defined system. The "United Modular System in
Construction" (YeMS) has been developed and approved in the Soviet Union.
The YeMS is a set of regulations for the coordination of the dimensions of
floor-planning and the structural elements of bui7.dings and structures, con-
struction products and equiptnent based on the ali-taiionstate module equal to
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100 mm (M). In addition to the basic YeMS module, derivative modules have been ~
established which are divided into consolidated modules of 6,000, 3,000, 1,500,
' 1,200, 600 and 300, r~spectively, 60 M, 30 M, 15 M, 12 M, 6 M and 3 M--~nd frac-
tional modules--50, 20, 10, 5, 2, 1 mm, respectively, 1/25 M, 1/5 M, 1/10 M,
1/2.0 M, 1/50 M, 1/100 M.
The modular grid (Figure la) is compiled on the basis of the mo.dul.ar series. It
is in the form of a grid of module lines with spacing equal to the derivaCive
modules adopted for a specific design. The module grid defines the location and
the basic dimensions of the floor-planning and structural elements and parts ~
(Figure lb).
Three basic types of dimensions of ~loor-planning and structura.'~ elements and
parts have been established in the YeMS: structural, nominal and natural (Fig-
ure 2a).
The nominal modulur dimension is the provisional dimension of the floor-planning
and structural elements including the ~oints and clearances between elements. '
The structural dimension is the designed dimension of the floor-planning and ,
structural elements, the construction products and equipment, which is less than
the nominal dimension by the thickness of the joint and clearance.
The natural dimension is the actual dimension of the floor-planning and struc-
tural element, the construction product.
The nominal dimensions are used in the design materials and in the catalog prod-
uct codes. When developing the working drawings of a design, the structural di-
mensions are inserted.
The basic parameters of buildings and structures characterizing their floor-
planning and structural solutions are transverse span, longitudinal span and
height .
The transverse span is the diatance between the basic transverse bearing struc-
tures (columns, walls, and so on, Figure 2b).
The longitudinal span is the distance between longitudinal bearing structures
(see Figure 2c). The story height is the distance between the floor level and
ceiling of this story (Figure 2b).
As is ubvious from Figure 2c, the transverse and longitudinal spans usually are
designated by layout center lines.
The modular layout center lines determine the position of the basic bearing and
enclosing structures and also the division of the plan of the building or struc-
ture into basic elements.
By .tie-in we mean the distance from the modular layout center line (longitudi-
nal, transverse) to the face or geometric axis of the structural element. The
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_ tie-inof ttie structural elements of buildings to the modular.layout center lines
is realized considering the possibility of using construction items of the same
_ dimensions for the middle and edge uniform elements.
The bearing structures are tied ~~r,.~o~ modular layout center lines differently.
In the middle longitudinal svans in the middle of the structural element is the
so-called zero tie-in and in edge longitudinal spans with displacement of ~the
' structural element in one direction or another by the distance a considering the
length of the structural elements and the conditions of their abutment and sup-
port.
s ' 6 11Mx12M
~
80 M ~ ~
30 M .
15 M 12 M a
t
~
Figure l. Modular design grid (a); floor plan solutions based or: the modular
grid (b).
a - .
' + ~ : ~ �
~ ' ~ � , ^ ~
( t . I . ~ 6
~`-�~(structural) ~
t
.~----t2oo (nominal)
~ ~ t
_
_ ~
~
lra~s(,~ eo �~o b~ g4ao . o =
erSe_ C~J � � ~a'~ra n r
sAa~ ~~$~,~c
. A b 6
Figure 2. Basic forms of dimensions of structural products (a); space-floor
_ plan parameters of buildings and structures (b, c).
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,
~ g b ~ ~
aN
i , ~ I I ,
0
_ I ' ~
~ .
I' I 1 '
o , i
m ~ i , ( ~-3 a ;
~s~~� ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~ ,
A
~ ~
. ~ ;
b -b b ~
, ~
, .
c d
~ ;
e�0 ~ ~ ~
, 11 . ai~ b T p�-b T ~
2 ~
~ ~ z b ~b~.
Figure 3. Examples of t~ie-in of;. bearing, self-supporting or hanging walls and
columns to the modular layout center lines. In buildings with trans- ~
vexse bearing walls; b--in buildings with longitudinal bearing walls;
c--in one-story frame buildings; d--in multistory frame buildings.
In design and construction practice, according to SNiP II-A.4-62 the tie-in of
the walls to the modular layout center lines can be realized as illustrated in
Figure 3a-d.
In order to ensure mutual replaceability of the structural products and elements
executed from differen~ materials, the possibility of using these products and
structural elements in various types of buildings, their dimensions are desig-
nated considering standardization and unitization in construction.
By standardization we mean establishment of the optimal values of the parame-
ters, the dimensions of the planning and structural elements and parts designed
for application in mass construction.
Standardization in construction is ac complished in ordex to reduce the types of
buildings, structures, their structural elements and parts to a technically ex-
pedient and economically advantageous uniformity.
Standardization presupposes the satisf action of the requirements established by
all-union state standards,SNiP and oth er normative documents imposed on the
structural-planning elements and manufactured structural products and structural
elements.
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The end purpose of unitization, type design and standardization consists in de-
termining the minimum number af standard sizes of products considering the vari-
- ety of lay-out arch~tectural-planning and structural solutions of build-
- ings for different purposes.
For industrial prefabricated cor.struction and production of structural elements
and parts it is necessary to establish defined dimenaions and their technical
_ descriptions. The products are characterized by such indices as standard size
and type.
Standard size
.s;;; �Type 1 ~ �':'TYPe 2 TYPe 3
j;: .
. '
S10 , : .
� . ~ . ::1.. ~
~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
P'igure 4. Types of structural elements of one standard size.
The products of certain dimensions (width, length, height) and identical struc-
tural design belong to the same standard size of structural products and ele-
ments .
The products of one standard size but having different reinforcing, embadded
fittings or installation openings (Figure 4) are designated by one type indica-
tor.
The nomenclature of the construction products is contained in the developed all-
unior, catalogs of standardized construction products (Catalog II-04, the all-
un.ion catalog of industrial reinforced-concrete and concrete products) mandatory
- for application in industrial construction, and so on.
On the basis of the catalogs provision is made for production of the products
for a defined period by different plants making structural elements and the ap-
plication of the structural elements in one building or�structure in~ependently
of the place of manufact~~re.
Section 4. Tying the Standard Designs to a Specific Construction Site
The construction of the majority of nonindustrial and industrial buildings in
the Soviet Union, as was stated above, is by standard designs.
The choice of the standard design is made by the charts in the construction
catalog (SK) published by the TsITP. In the standard design chart the initial
data of the developed building are presented, the area of application (climatic
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- district), the temperatures at which it is possible for the building to func-
tion, the basic conditions of app~ication (seismics, unstable ground or perma-
frost, and so on), the technical-economic indices and tha layout of the design
are~referenced to them.
Inasmuch as the standaru design cannot fully take into account the local con-
struction conditions (the relief, the groundwater level, aggressiveness of the
- groundwater, depth of freezing of the ground, and so on), and reworking it is
forbidden, the local design organizations undertake "tying" of the buildings.
The tying of the standard design presupposes operations connected with ensuring
its greatest correspondence to the local construction conditions.
After selecting the standard design and obtaining the documents for it, the so-
called tying operations are performed consisting of the following:
giting of the building on the master plan with determination of the basic
planned elevations (the angular elevations of the building and entrance to it)
and absolute elevation of the finished floor of the first story;
precise determination of the depth of the foundation and its dimensions depend-
ing on the hydrogeological data for the selected site and depth of freezing of
the ground. When necessary additional structural calculations and solutions are
developed for the foundation;
precise determination of the solutions for the lower story or basement in accor-
dance with the relief of the construction site;
consideration of local climatic conditions influencing the variation in wall
thickness, heat insulating layers of the enclosing structures, the number and
type of heating devices;
the development of connections to the existing or planned water supply, sewage,
electrical supply, heat supply and gasification networks;
reglacement of certain structural elements in the standard design by others pro-
duced by local construction enterpr~ses.
When the number of changes in the standard design is insigni�icant, the exact
determinations are introduced directly on the corresponding sheets of. the speci-
fications.
Sometimes when tying standard designs quite complex ~hanges come up (replacement
of the prefabricated foundation by colu~ar or piling, and so on); in these
cases additional drawings and calculations are developed.
After completion of the tying of the design all of the design materials are
transmitted to the organization responsible for construction.
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Section 5. Technical-Economic Tndices of Desi~n Solutions
In the case of mass construction of buildings or structures, the economicalness
of the adopted layout and structural solutions has great significance. The pre-
requisites for reducing the cost of construction of nonindustrial and industrial
buildings and structures must be established in the design stage.
Indices which are regulated by the norms exist for determi.ning the economical-
ness of standard designs. These include the space and floor-planning indices,
the annual operating expense indices, the labor and material consumption in-
dices, estimate indices, the ind:ices of the degree of unitization of the pre-
fabricated elements, and so on.
The space and floor-planaing indices inclvde the following calculation units in-
fluencing the economicalness of the solution:
For housing--one apartment, 1 m2 of living space and 1 m2 of public
, area; for corridor apartment houses--one place, 1 m~ of living area and 1 m2 qf
public area; for hotels--one hotel space, 1 m2 of living area and 1 m2 of usable
area; for public eating enterprises--one place in the dining room; for institu-
tions of learning--one place for a student; for domestic services enterprises
and stores--one workplace; for libraries--1,000 books; for hospitals--one place
for a patient; for industrial enterprises--the unit of install.ed production ca-
pacity, 1 m2 of developed production area, 1 m2 of developed usable area.
The space and floor-planning indices are measured by the ratio of the total con-
struction volume to the basic calculated unit:
Housing--one apartment, 1 m2 of living space with respect to a standard floor,
~ with respect to a section, with respect to a house; public buildings--one plac2
and 1 m2 of working area; industrial buildings--1 m2 of developed usable area.
The indices of annual operating expenditures are presented only with respect to
housing and corridor apartment houses, and they consist of minor repairs; commu-
nal expenditures (heating, electric lighting, sewage, water supply, gas), expen-
ditures on maintaining stairs, elevators and areas for public use.
The estimated construction cost indices consist of the following:
estimated cost of the building: a) per unit capacity; b) per m2 of working
area; c) per m3 of the building; ~
the cost of general c~nstruction operations;
the cost of equipment, furniture, inventory per calculated unit;
the cost of amenities per calculated unit.
The cost of labor and materials consumption indices characterize the degree of
industrialness of construction, and they are measured by the ratio of the cost
of labor and materials consumption to the basic calculated unit of the pro~ect:
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i
1 m2 of living space and 1 m3 of the housing building; 1 m2 of developed usable
area and 1 m3 of the volume of industrial buildings; 1 m3,of the volume of pub- ,
lic buildings.
The indices of the consumption of the basic construction materials are as fol~- ~
lows--steel and cement in kg, lumber in m3, insulation in m3, brick in thou- �
- sands of bricks, pre�abricated reinforced-concrete and concrete Elements in
thousands of pieces of provisional brick--are presented in the standard designs
per m2 of living area, m2 of working area, m3 of building, and so on. ~
j
The consumption of the basic construction materials and mass of the building re- :
duced to its total construction volume or to 1 m2 of living or working area of '
the building, are less, the better the architectural-design and structural solu- I
tion of the building. ~
The index characterizing the progressiveness of structural solutions is small '
mass of the building per m2 of total or usable area. The mass of the building
is calculated by the consolidated indices of its structural elements.
The progr~ssiveness of the str..ctural solution of the building characterizes two
more indices: the level of prefabrication and level of unitization of the pre-
fabricated elements. These indices include the number of installation elements
per project and per m2 of total or usable area of it; the number of standard
sizes for the building, the number of types of products.
With consolidation of the installation elements, their number is reduced, which
has a positive influence on the organization of the production and installation
of the prefabricated elements.
The determination of the most efficient version of a design solution is made by
comparing the technical-economic indices of the developed versions with a stand-
~ ard. The standard is a design which is progressive from the social, technical
and economic points of view. ~
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Chapter II. Course Design Phases in Examples of Nonindustrial and Industrial
Buildings
Section 6. Drawing up Sketches and Preliminary Calculations of the Designed
Project
During training, the student must dra~ tp course designs of nonindustrial and
industrial buildings. Drawing up a course design offers the possibility
of teaching the student how to use the technical literature, standard designs,
construction norms and regulations and other reference materials; how to study
the basic procedures for space and floor-planning layouts of nonindustrial and
. industrial buildings with the development of structural solutions; to instill
skills in graphical representation of the design material and also the perfor-
mance of technical-economic and heat engineering calculatians; to write the ex-
planatory note to the design.
As the initial materials for drawing up the course design, the studelit re-
ceives the design assignment which includes the following data: the place of
- construction; the layout of the design; the procedure for execution of it; the
layout aild the dimensions of the facilities; construction materials and ele-
ments; sarAitation engineering equipment; the construction site and buildings lo-
cated on it; requirements with Lespect to graphical layout of the drawings,
their scales and also the number uf sheets of drawings and pages of explanation.
While studying the assignment the student must become familiar with the materi-
als required to work on the design. By sketches from analogous designs and
notes from the corresponding literature it is necessary to develop all possible
versions oi the architectural design and structural solutions of the bui~~3ing.
Only then can the student clearly conceive of the functional interrelation of
the facilities which will serve as the basis for the layout of the entire build-
ing with respect to functional zones, groups and floors. Carefully studying the
assignment and selecting the required initial material, the student can proceed
with drawing up the conceptual design of the building:
The rough drawings must reveal the general space-floor planning and structural
solution of the building. The sketches are made in pencil, freehand, on a small
scale (1:400). The small scale offers the possibility of encompassir.g the main
part of the planned layout and more quickly estimating its positive and negative
aspects. In every building it is necessary to isolate the main rooms
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auditoriums, offices, apartments, compartments, and so on) and provide for their
functional interrelation with the auxiliary rooms (vestibules, corridors, en-
tries, and so on) and also the interrelation of the auxiliary spaces to each
other.
The preliminary layouts of the building must consist of sketches of the floor
plans story by story, on which the architectural design layout procedure is
noted, for example, whether the building wi11 be symmetric or asymmetric, rect-
angular, with or without projections, and the number of stories of the building
is determined.
As a result of working on the general procedures for the space and floor-plan-
ning solution of the building the student must come up with two or three ver-
sions. These versions are compared aad analyzed, and after consulting with the
teacher, the most efficient and economical version of the designed building is
selected.
The configuration of the building and its dimensions (width, length and height)
must be approximately planned in the selected version, the structural-design
layout must be established considering modular coordination; the arrangement of
the rooms and spaces and groups of them must be adopted considering the func-
tional zoning, their location by floors; the general architectural-compositional
concept of the building must be planned.
After approval of the design and structural layouts the student proceeds with
further development of the drawings. The plans for the floors, ceilings, foun-
dations and other elements of the building and a detailed section of the wall
are drawn up,the most characteristic architectural-structural units and parts
of the building are planned. When drawing up the conceptual drawings, the con-
figuration and dimensions of the building in plan are more precisely defined,
the dimensions between the layout center lines of the bearing supports are es-
tablished, the distribution and placement of the rooms and spaces in plan and by
stories are fixed, and the layouts of individual rooms and spaces (vestibules,
stairs, and so on) are developed.
In all phases of the design work it is necessary to consider the problems af
economics of the architectural-design and structural solutions. The solution
_ which combines the requirements of expressive architecture, simpl.e and efficient
space and floor planning, expedient application of construction materials and
structural elements is considered economical. Preliminary technical-economic
calculations are performed in the conceptual design phase: the living or work-
_ ing area of individual rooms, the total or usable area of the building, the co-
efficients K1, K2 and so on are approximately calculated.
Section I. Development of the Master Plan
The design of the master plan of an industrial enterpris~e or complex of nonin-
dustrial buildings is one of the most important steps in developing a course de-
sign.
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The master plan is a horizontal projection of the site on which the designed
building is located. ~he master plan gives an idea of the arrangement and the
- functional or production relations of the designed building t~ other buildings
and structures, their orientation with respect to points of the compass, bring-
_ ing in the service lines, and so on.
When developing the master plan it is n2cessary to be guided by SNiP II-M.1-71
and SNiP II-6-75. Inasmuch as the master plans ~f industrial enterprises and
nonindustrial buildings differ from each other, let us consider their design
principles separately.
General Principles of Laying Out Master Plans for Nonindustrial Buildings. In
the designs for laying out and developing cities and settlements for the cre-
ation of a mutually coordinated design structure, zoning of the territory by use
must be provided with isolation of the following functional zones:
development--for housing districts, microdistricts, public centers (administra-
tive, scientific, training, and so on), and public green areas;
industrial--for locating industrial enterprises and facilities connected witli
them;
- communal-storage--for the location of bases, warehouses, garages, streetcar
yards, trolley bus and motorbus yards, and so on;
external transportation--for transport units and structures (passenger and
freight stations, ports, piers, and so on).
Within the territory of a rural populated area it is necessary to isolate devel-
opment and production zones.
In the course design for training purposes it is expedient to consider the
placement of the designed nonindustrial building within the layout of the micro-
district or part of it. Therefore the student must become familiar with the ba-
sic principles of microdistrict design before proceeding with the developme~t of
the master plan.
The placement of the buildings withi.n the territory of the microdistrict is
based on the functional zoning diagram considering the density of coverage, the
servicing radius by public buildings and structures of the population (for more
details see Section 14.21). The functional zoning diagram indicates the loca-
tion of public buildings, the microdistrict park, the territory occupied by
- housing.
When drawing up this layout it is necessary to be guided by the following prin-
ciples:
it is desirable to place the m:i.crodistrict park in the central part o� the mi-
crodistrict. The park must be united with respect to area or broken down into
several parts;
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,
the sites for schools and kindergartens are placed near the microdistrict
park. The location of chiidren's institutions is established considering their
servicing r3dii. The location of sites for children's institutions near main
streets is undesirable;
it is expe~ient to lay out stores in the form of detached cooperating ~
buildings near main streets considering municipal transportation stops;
it is recommended that communal businesses (garages, workshops for repairing
household appliances, service stations, and so on) be placed in a separate zone
isolated to the maximum from the children's institutions;
the network ~f streets, thoroughfares and sidewalks must be designed as a united
system providing for fast, safe pedestrian and transport traffic within the mi-
crodistrict.
The sanitation and fire-safety breaks between buildings play an important role
in the placement of buildings. For normal insulation and ventilation of the fa-
cilities, the distances between residential buildings accordi.ng tc SNiP II-L.1-71
and also between residential and public buildings must be adopted in accordance
with the data in Table 1.
Table 1. Minimum Sanitary Spacing Between Re:idential and Public Buildings
Spacing ti` ~en
Building Buildings
With Following
Numbers of Stories
Standardized Spacing 2-4 S 9 16
Between the long sides of the buildings 20 30 48 80
Between the long sides and the ends of the buildings 12 15 24 45
and also between the ends of the buiLdings with
living spac~ewindo~.~s
Between the ends of buildings without living space High fire-safety
windows break nerms (see
Table 2)
Between tower-type buildings with location of them 36 60
on one center line
The fire-safety breaks between residential buildings, public buildin~s, and aux-
iliary buildings oF industrial enterprises must be adopted according t~ Table 2,
and between production and agricultural buildings and structures, in accordance
with SNiP for the design of master plans of industrial enterprises and the de-
sign of master plans for agricultural enterprises.
Sasic Principles of Master Planning Industrial Enterprises. On the basis of
analyzing the master plans of modern industrial cities in the USSR it is possi-
ble to arrive at the conclusion that the industrial zones and complexes (see
Sections 29, 30) are important elements of the structure of these cities and oc-
cupy S to 20 percent of their entire territory.
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Table 2. Fire-Safety Breaks Between Regidential and Auxiliary Buildings
Spacing, m, With Degree of
Degree of Fireproofness Fireproofness of Building
of Building I, II III IV, V
I, II 6 8 10
III 8 8 10
IV, V 10 10 15
Note: The classification of buildings by the degree of fireproofness must be
assumed by the fire-safety norms for the design of buildings and struc-
tures.
The master plan, being the most important part of the complex design, organizes
the designs of the structural elements of the industrial complex or enterprise
and relates its internal structure to the layout of the adjacent area. There-
fore,the efficient solution of a master plan comes from efficient, economical or-
ganization of the production process, transportation and normal operating condi-
t:ions at a group of enterprises or the gi~yen enterprise and also the require-
ments of convenience of the mutual relation of industrial and developed terri-
tories.
As modern practice indicates, it is necessary to place the basic structures,
roadways, service lines and amenities both of a group of enterprises and a sepa-
_ rate enterprise (see Sections 30, 31) and also the ad~acent region, observing
the conditions of specialization, cooperation and combination of production, in-
_ dustrialization of construction, efficient and economical use of territory, the
engineering networks, the power engineering and production resources of the re-
- gion.
Generalizing the design experience and the operating data on the modern level, a
number of specialists [18] have formulated the basic principles of master plan-
ning industrial enterprises:
the pla~ement of the enterprises in the industrial complex is based on coopera-
tion of them with other enterprises with respect to basic and auxiliary produc-
tion, transportation, engineering networks, structures and cultural-general ser-
vices for the workers;
ensurance of optimal placement of different nature and capacity of production at
the plant site and also the possibility of v~rying the volumes and forms of pro-
duction output at existing plants and creating conditions for expansion of the
enterprises;
increasing the capacity of the enterprises and consolidation of the production
units;
specialization of enterprises with respect to reproduction of a narrow nomencla-
ture of products;
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observation or efficient zoning of the territory of the enterprises in all ;
phases of its development;
placement of buildings and structures with minimum separation, in blocked (see ~
Section 32) structures insofar as possible, providing for compactness and high
esthetic level of coverage, amenities for the territory, minimum length of engi- ~
neering networks, roads and railroads;
complex solution of the routing and methods of laying out all forms of service
lines;
application of advanced forms of industrial transportation not intersectir,~g with
- basic people flows insofar as possible.
Let us consider the design of ferrous metallurgical plants as an example.
Ferrous metallurgy is among the most important b ranches of heavy industry. When
designi.ng metallurgical plants one of the basic goals is development of an effi-
- cient master plan. The master plan layouts for the enterprises of ferrous met-
allurgy are varied, and their solutions depend to a significant degree on the
production volume.
The location of steel-making shops is oblique to the blast furnace and rolling-
mill shops. The steel-making shops are usually arranged in parallel or series.
These layouts are entirely justified for the initial design solutions. However,
the appearance of new shops on the site of an enterprise increases its territory
and alters the master plan significantly. An example layout of a master plan of
a metallurgical combine designed in the USSR is presented in Figure S.
, t . . ~ Ir` !
. -~c -~s ~ I
i
d�' ~ 6 ~ 11~~~ i ,
0
~ ~t i~ 1
s~;,~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1
(
`,`\�`r ` , O~~`J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~4 1
. �Qb - ~ ~
~ ~ ~~r .
~ 1 +
.
. . , ,
_ . . .
Figure 5. Version of the master plan solution for a metallurgical combine.
Production: 1--by-product coke; 2--blast furnace; 3--steelmaking;
4--rolling mills; 5--repair shops.
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As a rule, two master plan layouts for ferrous metallurgical enterprises have
been adopted in foreign countries.
In the first layout which is most widespread in the United States, the coke-oven
batteries, blast furnaces, steel-making and rolling-mill shops are arranged in a
single line or in stages. The shop layout offers the possibility of expanding
it without disturbing the developed flows of materials. The arrangement of the
shops in a single line leads to more efficient solution of the master plan and
promotes better territorial zoning. However, this solution requires a long
site.
In the second layout which is widespread in western European countries and Ja- .
pan, as a rule, parallel arrangement of the blast-furnace, steel-making an3
rolling-mill shops is used where frequently sites that are close to square or
triangular are used to build the plants.
In the USSR the Gipromez [State All-Union Institute for the Planning of Metal-
lurgical Plants] has develaped design proposals for ~ new type of inerallurgi-
cal plant based on the requirements of technical progress in ferrous metallurgy.
A theoretically new solution for the master p1,an of a modern metallurgical plant
which takes into account the increased architectural-design requirements (Fig-
ure 6) has been created in the design proposal; problems relating to all of the
shops and services providing for normal implementation of new production pro-
cesses, basically continuous-action and with maximum removal of equipment to
open areas, with blocking of the shops offering the possibility of construction
of the entire industrial enterprise without limiting the number of blocks, have
been comprehensively resolved.
. . . , , .
6 5 ~ � 6 4 3 201' ~S )
~ ~ � ~ I
13 . ~ ~
0~~ ~
r.~ ' ' i~
� . . . �H
~b . .
Figure 6. Versions of the master plan solution (a, b) of a metallurgical plant:
1--by-product coke plant; 2--blast furnaces; 3--converter division;
4--the same, continuous casting of steel; 5--continuous wide-sheet
hot rolling mill; 6--rolling and pipe mills; 7--the same, slag process--
ing; 8--purification works; 9--repair and instalTation shop; 10--main
substation; 11--water management; 12--the same, storage; 13--plant
administration; 14--central laboratory; 15--sintering plant; 16--
conveyors; 17--tramway; 18--pelletizing plant; 19--pellet section;
20--rotary presses.
After studying the basic principles of master planning industrial enterprises or
nonindustrial buildings, the student can proceed with the development and
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drawing up of a section of the master p7.an on the-sheets. The drawing up of a !
master plan begins with plotting the contours t~nd levels of the site which char- '
acterize its relief on the adopted scale (1:1,000, 1:2,000 and so on) and place- ~
ment of the designed building on it. '
i
The scale is the ratio of the size of the building and its elements on the draw- !
ing to the actual full-scale dimensions. Then other buildings and structures ~
which have a functional or production relation to it are located on the site
plan, the spacing between which is adopted in accordance with the sanitary and ,
fire-safety narms. In addition, the amenities arid green spaces, the dimensions ~
of sidewalks and thoroughfares are indicated on the master plan. After drawing
all the buildings and structures, a legend is compiled for the master plan. The ~
_ required technical-economic indices are calculated. As a rule, the master plan '
drawing is poched in one or two shades. It is permissible to color the master ;
- plan elements.
Section 8. Development of Plan Views and Sections
When eaecuting the course design, the student must develop various plan views of ;
" the foundations, floors, the floors and ceilings between stories and at the at-
tic level floors, overnead or roof. ~
One of the most important fo rms of the designs of a building is the floor plans.
The floor plan is the horizontal projection of the building on the level some-
what above the base for the window openings.
The floor plans determine the dimensions and the shape of the entire building,
the dimensions and shapes oF individual rooms, their area and interrelation, the
location of doors and windows. The plans reflect the structural layout of the
building: the locatioz~ of outside walls, partitions, columns, stairways and
other structural elements.
The sanitary engineering equipment is indicated on the floor plans of residen-
tial buildings: baths, lavatories, toilets and other equipment and devices. In
buildings with furnace heating, the dimensions and location of the furnaces and
also the smoke and ventilation ducts are indicated. The dimensions of the col-
umns, the thickness of the outside and inside walls, the dimensions of stair-
wells (stairways, landings), and so on are determined by the floor plan.
The dimensions and the location of the production equipment--machine tools, ma-
terials-handling equipment, tanks, bo.ilers, and so on--are indicated on the
plans of production buildings. Transport routes and crane tracks are indicated.
The location and layout of the equipment are coordinated with the space-floor
planning and structural solution for the building.
_ If the building is a one-story building and of simple shape, one plan view is
drawn up. In the case of a multistory building that is complicated in plan
view, several plan views are made differing from each other, for example, the
plan for the first story and the plan for the standard story. In some cases
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(when the floor plans are identical), part of the first story, for example, a
- detail of the entry is indicated.
After detailed development of the sketches and performance of the heat engineer-`
ing calculation for determination of the outside wall thickness (see Section 12)
it is possible to proceed with drawing up the basic drawings, plan views, sec-
tions and elevations of the building.
It is recommended that TM, M, F or B pencils be used to draw the plans; the con-
tours, center lines and dimension lines are plotted using T, 2T and H pencils in
the following order:
plotting the grid of center lines constituting the layout center lines;
tie-in~of bearing and enclosing structural elements of the building to the lay-
out center lines;
layout of the rooms considering their interrelation;
' placement of doors in the roouLS with ensurance of the greatest convenience of
use;
placement of window openings considering the lighting of the room;
placement of the sanitary engineering and process equipment;
layout of stairwells, ventilation ducts and chambers. Figure 7 shows the se-
quence of graphical representation of the plan view of a residential section.
After minor graphical changes, the labels are put on the layout center lines.
The labels for these center lines are placed on the left side and bottom of the
plan. The center lines located along the building are labeled from bottom to
top using capital letters from the Russian alphabet; the horizontal center lines
are labeled from left to right using Arabic numerals (see Figure 7). If the lay-
out of the center lines from the top does not coincide with the bottom, then the
layout center lines are run from the top of the p1an, and in the case of an
asymmetric plan the center lines are placed on all four sides. Usually three
dimension lines are indicated on the drawing:
the dimensions of the window and outside door openings and partitions are indi-
cated on the first dimension line;
the dimensions between the center lines of the bearing structure (outside walls,
- inside bearing walls or coluums) are placed on the second line;
the overall dimensions between the edge center lines of the outside walls of the
building are indicated on the third dimension line.
The first dimension line is placed at a distance of 10-15 mm from the outside
outline of the walls. This line must not intersect the pro~ecting parts of the
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building. It is necessary to take a distance of 6-10 mm between the dimension
lines.
~ b
~ ~
C � I �
�A � .
1 2 3 4 � , d
c d
~
~
~g
-~4-~.
3ooo}3eoo #3000#~3600 #~ooo
~mo
Figure 7. Sequence of graphical representation of the plan view of a residen-
tial section: a--plotting the cea~ter line grid; b--plotting the wall
and partition thicknesses; c--development of the layout o� the sec-
tion; d--final inking of the plan.
The dimensions of individual rooms are indicated inside the building with re-
spect to depth and width with indication of different thickness of partitions,
inside main walls; the dimensions of door openings in the partitions and walls
are indicated. The areas of the individual rooms are indicated on the floor
plans (Figure 8a).
The floor plans of residential and public buildings are usually drawn on 1:50
and 1:100 scale, and the plans for production buildings, on 1:200 or 1:400
scale. If necessary another scale can be adopted.
In the course and diploma designs, it is permissible to draw up combination
plans, for example, the plan view of the foundations and the plan view of
floors, the plan for the first story and the plan for the standard story,
the overhead and roof plans.
The foundation, floor, overhead . and roof plans are drawn on a 1:200,
1:400 scale.
The sections of the buildings (Figure 8b) are of two types: architectural to
reveal the internal form of the rooms (interiors) and structural to reveal the
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structural design of the building. Usually structural sections are used in
course designs. Depending on the position of the cutting plane the sections are
longitudinal and transverse. The section is made so that the window and door
openings and the structurally complex parts of the building (stairwells, eleva-
tor shafts, lifts, galleries, skylights for light and ventilation, and so on)
will fall in it.
a }--1630 -}1090t1290 �}1090 ~ 1800 -}1090{�1290 #1~9U 1630
I I r,�- I I I ~
C
O O
~ � ~ 3390 ~ ~2250 0 1250 33gp �
~ ~ ~a-y~ A-~r $o ~ ~
~ ke � fl
~ -3150 p e~ ~ '4 8 ~ g
~]S ,Q-16 ~ A-16 ~ 1,75 ~
#-900~--2640 2640 --~900-}-
~ ~
nm 4s~so 20� 4~0 80 ivo
_ 1 '4~ 11,18 17,18 A-~
.1--_
A
1
28~0 2050 ~16ZI1 2050 I6W
6000 600p
1000
1 q 3
6 Section
~~'S`~ ~
~
~ ~ 00
~ . ~ ~o ~ ~ ~
~
. ~o " " ~
r~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
S~o p~~
4000 qppp
A C
Figure 8. Graphical execution of a floor plan (a) and section of a building (b).
Before beginning to draw the sections it is necessary to select the most charac-
teristic location for the section, establish the heights of the rooms, de-
velop the structural design of the floors to determine their composition and
- thickness, find the story heights, make the heat engineering calculations of the
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attic floor or integrated roof, develop the structural design of the roof or
werhead, determine the structural design of the foundations and the elevation
of the foundation footing, precisely determine the elevations of the stair land-
ings and draw up the section. It is recommended that the sections be drawn up
according to the following procedure: plot the basic layout center lines; tie
the foundations and walls to the center lines; show the floors, covering or
roof; draw the window and door openings; design the stairs.
~ao vertical dimension lines and one vertical numerical elevation line are shown
on the sections. The numerical elevation line of the levels is plotted closest
to the building: ground, first floor (taken as �0.000), bottom and t~op of open-
ings, top of cornice and hip of the roof.
The elevations of the wall openings, the pitch of the roof, and so on are placed
on the next dimension line. Then comes the overall dimension line from ground
level to the top of the cornice. Below ground level the elevations are indi-
cated with a minus sign.
- Ztao dimension lines are placed under the section. The first between the center
lines of the bearing structures, and the second, between the center lines of.
outside walls. The labeling of the center lines on the section must correspond
to the labeling on the plan view. The story height, the dimensions of the open-
ings in the inside walls and partitions with tying to the floor and ceiling lev-
els and the floor thickness are indicated inside the sections. In addition, the
foundation dimensions, the thickness of various walls and dimensions from the
center lines of these walls to their faces must be indicated on the secti~ns.
The dimensions of the stair flights and landings are indicated horizontally on
the sections of the flights of stairs, and the distance between landings from
floor to floor is indicated vertically.
Section 9. Development of Facades
The outside appearance of a building is closely connected with the inside lay-
out, spatial and structural design. In addition, the city planning conditions
influence its architecture (the location, natural climatic and architectural
surroundings, compositional significance in the group).
When developing facades, in order to ensure harmonic relationship to all of its
parts and achieve the most artistic expression, it is necessary to know a number
of compositional procedures and means.
Before proceeding with the development of the facade of the building it is nec-
essary to become familiar with the principles of architectural composition.
The basis of the architectural composition of a building is its spatial struc-
ture, that is, the harmonic relation of the insid~ space and outside appearance
of the building. The means of architectural composition are designed to ach ieve
the greatest artistic expression of both the individual buildings and group of
buildings.
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Each type of building is characterized by its spatial structure. Residential
buildings consist of residential cells--different sizes of apartments. The or-
ganization of a large space, an auditorium, market or other type of large room
is characteristic of public buildings. Production buildings consist of large-
- bay facilities (shops designed for process equipment).
The most important compositional means in building architecture is tectonics.
The tectonics in, the architecture of a building reveal the uniqueness of its
structural system and spatial structure. The structural shapes making up the
building are transformed as a result of creativity into an integrated architec-
tural-artistic structural system. The structural and artistic features of the
construction are organically combined in the tectonics of a structure. The ba-
sic structural elements of a building (walls, openings, columns and floors) dic-
tate its outside appearance, and depending on the purpose of the building, its
location in the environment and also the compositional concept, one tectonic ex-
pression of the building or another is created.
The means of archttectural-artistic expression of a building include contrast--
the sizes and shapes of the bui].ding elements, the nature of their arrangement,
difference in the degree of illumination, color intensity, and so on. A
brightly illuminated part of the building contrasts sharply with a deep shadow
on it; a blank wall contrasts sharply with a wall full of openings, and vertical
elements contrast with horizontal elements.'
The breakdown of the surface of an architectural body into individual volumetric
elements on a plann~d architectural scale has great significance in the composi-
tion of a building. By architectural scale we mean the degree of breakdown of
the composition, the size of its from *~ith respect to the overall building.
Breakdown into small elements is not characteristic of large monumental build-
ings; at the same time large-scale breakdown is not characteristic of small
buildings.
When designing buildings and combining them into architectural groups frequently
such artistic means as rhythm are used. By rhythm in architecture we mean the
law of repetition (alternation) of different elements of the building with equal
intervals in the overall composition of the arch itectural structure. The uni-
form alternation of one or several elements with equal intervals is called met-
ric (Figure 9a). The rhythmic order of repetition is characterized by regular
augmentation or diminishing of elements or intervals (Figure 9b).
The proportions of a building are an important means of its artistic expression.
Proportions are a defined system of relations of parts and shapes of an archi-
tectural structure. Determining the proportions of an architectural structure
and its relation to the group in which it is one of the elements, it is neces-
sary to discover the relations of the parts and the whole characteristic of it,
for example, find the proportions with designation of the dimensions of the
rooms and the building in plan and section.
Using certain means of architectural composition, it is necessary to remember
the economic expediency of their application. An excess number of details on a
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facade or large blank areas lower the architectural-artistic impression of the
building. The creative use of ineans of architectural-artistic expressive compo-
sition permits the creation of architectural structures and groups of nonrepeti-
tive appearance.
a;III1I1IIi~l I III I I
~?C10~??[~???
Figure 9. Diagram of the pl.acement of the elements of buildings and structures
in the architectural composition: a--metric series; b--rhythmic se-
ries. ~
Studying the methods of architectural composition, it is possible to develop a
facade for the building. It must be remembered that facade development is the
~ most creative process, and the solution of this problem to a great extent deter-
mines not only the external appearance of the building, but also the skill of
the student in embodying the assignment in the design. The facade must be drawn
- up together with drawing up the plan views and sections of the building. The
necessary horizontal dimensions are carried over from the plan views to the fa-
cade: the overall length of the building, the dimensions of projections and re-
cesses, the dimensians of the window and outside door openings, the overhang and
dimensions of ledges, the outlines of loggias, balconies and bay windows. The
sizes of the shadows on the facade are determined by the plan view of the build-
ing.
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All of the necessary vertical dimensions are determined by the section on the
facade: the building height, socle and parapet dimensions, the window and door
elevations, overhang, cornice and rooftop elevation, and so on. The section of
a building gives a representation of the depth of shadows on the facade.
The developed facade of the building is, drawn up, washed and inked. During the
development of the facade, in connection with the compositional concept, the lo-
cation and dimensioas of the windows, doors and other architectural details of a
building can be changed. These changes are introduced on the plan and section
drawings.
The facades and architectural details are made with mandatory construction of
shadows [10], with washing with India ink (not chemical) or single-shade water
color.
Before poch~ing, the entire facade is colored or coated lightly with ink; after
this layer has dried, inl:ing is compl.eted. First of all the planes of the fa-
cade farthest from the viewer are covered with a light sha~e ~one or two layers).
Then the shadows are covered with a light shade and the ~sindow and door openings
with a medium shade, after which the accenting at the rF;quired pcints of the
shadows, openings and similar details is started. Wher~ doing this it is neces-
sary to remember that the next layer is applied only aiter the preceding layer
has completely dried. The shadows on the lighted part o~ building from
overhangs, walls, columns, projections, a row of standing buildings, and so on
are called falling shadows, and the shadows on the unlighted part are called na-
tural shadows. When poch~ing the facade it is necessary to know that the falling
shadows must be darker than natural shadows, and the shadows from ties, capitals
and casements are deeper than the walls from projections of a wall, balconies,
overhangs, and so on.
Section 10. Execution of Drawings of Architectural and Structural Details and
Units of a Building
When developing a course design it is necessary to draw several units and de-
tails most characteristic of the designed building. The selection of the de-
tails and units of the building is made after developing the basic drawings.
The units and details are developed on a scale ensuring clear, detailed repre-
sentation of them. The basic scale for structural units is 1:20 (1:50), and for
small details 1:10.
When drawing up the units and details special attention must be given to the
presence of the required legends, numbers, specifications and the quality of
their execution. Every unit and detail must have a designation--label and short
title. When executing the drawings of units and details it is recommended that
albums of standard details and structural elements be consulted.
Various architectural and structural details and units of buildings can be se-
lected for detailed development:
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the structural elements of the floors between stories, the attic and basement
floors with development of the contact juncttons between the floors and the ~
outside walls and inside supports; .
the elements of sloping roof and trusses in the case of attic floors or the
structural design of a flat roof with details of the gutters, enclosure, and so ;
on;
architectural-structural details of stairways with development of the basic con-
tact junctions and handrails;
large partitions, their dimensions and details;
architectural-structural solutions for balconies, loggias and main entrance;
- structural solution of suspended ceilings if they are present in the designed
building.
- For frame and frame-panel buildings the contact junctions of the columns w3th
the floor beams and panels, the units for fastening the wall panels to the frame
elements are indicated.
In buildings made of local building materials (brick, sID.all blocks, tuff and
wood) the units and parts of the wooden floor, the support of the wooden beams
on the outside walls, the outside walls on the foundations, and so on are of in-
terest.
The number of architectural-structural units and parts sub~ect to development is
established by instructions.
Architectural details are executed on a 1:20, 1:50 scale. The individual ele-
ments of a building (overhangs, the entry detail, window frames) and treatment
of them are indicated on the drawings. For better perception, color can be in-
troduced. The architectural details are washed with water color or nonchemical
ink.
Examples of structural units and parts and architectural details are shown in
Figure 10.
�
Section 11. Selection of the Sanitary-Engineering, Stock and Service Equipment
of the Designed Project
When developing a course design it is necessary to solve the problem of sanitary-
engineering, stock and service equipment of the building.
The sanitary-engineering equipment of the building includes the heating and ven-
tilation system units, water and heat supply, sewage and gas supply. These sys-
tems can be centralized from cou~on municipal and settlement networks servicing
industrial enterprises, public buildings and multistory residential buildings or
local (autonomous) servicing, as a ru1e, low-rise buildings (one-two-story resi-
dential buildings, corridor apartment houses, seasonally inhabited housing).
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'c -
30-~Q~ b 0 2 ~
a,rY,r � 3 3 4 R
1 a~ .:i~; 4 r' g 1 ~
~ g
. - ''1%t ~ ' ~ 1 200~'
3 2 ~ ` ' ~ ' 6 a ~~00 - ;
' -~a=20~100~ .
6
d . 0 3~ 5 3 e ,
.
~
. ~ .
. s' ~ ~ `
' s .
o : ' � ~
~ \
~ \
\
~ 3 ~ 5 T, .
~ ~ ~i
~
~ 300 ~ 3 �
Figure 10. Examples of structural units and parts, architectural details. a--
Support of the end of a wooden beam on a rock wall: 1--two layers
of roofing felt on resin; 2--preservative treatment; 3-�-anchor
SOxS mm; 4--finish with mortar; b--structural solution of horizon-
tal ,joints of outside wall panels with rain barrier: 1--insert made
of porous rubber; 2--outside wall panel; 3--cement; 4--mounting gas-
ket (2 per panel); 5--floor panel; 6--insert made of mineral tiles
SO mm thick wrapped in asphalt roofing paper; 7--caulking with mor-
tar; c--flat metal-free column ~oint: 1--aligning concrete projec-
tion; 2--pool welding of reinforcing projections; 3--type-300 mor-
tar; 4--joint recesses; 5--longitudinal reinforcing rods; 6--trans-
verse reinforcing grids; d--structural design of the supporting unit
for a truss on a column in a standardized frame: 1--column; 2--
truss; 3--embedded parts; 4--top plate; 5--welded joinLs; 3--entry
detail.
In the designed building it is necessary to place the various sanitary-engineer-
ing units (washrooms, bathrooms, showers, water closets, pissoirs, gas and
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electric stoves, heaters and furnaces, and so on)--see Figures ll,and 12. be-
pending on the room sizes, tiie arrangement of the various units, their types and
dimensions can be different (see Section 17).
On the floor plans it is necessary to indicate the location of the ventilation
ducts, modules and chambers, and the type of venti].atioa is indicated in an ex-
planatory note (with natural draft, with mechanical stimulation, exhaust or in-
take-exhaust).
The source of heat is indicated in the assignment. The student must select the
heating system corresponding m~ost completely to the designed building, establish
the point of entry of the heat line, the type or form of heating units.
a ~ b ~ ~ ~
~ ~t~~~ ~ a ~ ~
~oa-5o0 ~ ~
~ ~
O : o
700 ~ 370 ~
~ `-1r -~r
~
~ 640
~ 6~ ~
d e
~ ~ ~ _j`
i ~ 0 , ~ ~
~ ~ b ~ i ~ i i
~ ~ ~
L" _~t- -a~-
~ 1 ~
- ~ h 1~ ~ ~C O a0
~ ~ ~
_ ~ 1500 1Y00 ~ 600
1700
Figure 11. Overall dimensions of washroom and toilet equipment. a--Washbasin;
b--water closet; c--bidet; d--bathtub; e--sr~ower base.
When developing a building design it is necessary to determine the sewage char-
acteristics and the locations where the units will be installed. On the plan
for the first floor the location of the sewage outlet is indicated. When build-
ing a waterless toilet in a one- or two-story building it is necessary to ob-
serve a number of special requirements: the waterless toilet must be placed on
an outside wall so that the cesspool hole will be as far as possible from the
windows of the living quarters. The room with the toilet must be separated from
the hallway by an anteroom.
When selecting the water supply system it is first necessary to establish the
purpose and type, the point of entry into the building, the type and sizes of
fittings and the location of fire hydrants. If provision is made for hot water,
36
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the method of heating it must be indicated in the explanatory note (water-heat-
ing columns, boilers or from a central boilerroom).
When developing the gas supply system, the point of entry into the building must
be noted on the design, and the devices for using the gas must be indicated (gas
stoves, furnaces, water heaters, and so on).
The service equipment of the building includes the electric networks, elevators,
garbage chutes, materials-handling equipment and other machinery.
Basic Sizes of Stoves, mm
a ~ D men-
s q
I
, ~ ~Stove ~ ~ ~
~ Wi,dth ~ ~
~ -
~ ~05o toso
k-~-~ Length de L soo
I3ei tit H eso
b
~ ~ ~ ~
1. -1-1
n ~ . ~ ~ o o - ~ `T'
LJ . J-soo-~ ~ ~ ~
- }~0~ ~ ~-eao-~ 1600~1 ~~oo-~
c d e
~ ~ 1 I~
~ ~
H)
~ . ? C~
~
Figure 12. Types and sizes of kitchen equipment. a--Basic sizes of gas stoves;
b--the same for electric stoves; c--the same for sinks; d--the same
for refrigerators; e--the same for built-in furniture--counters and
cupboards.
If an elevator is designed in the building, its location is indicated on the
plan views. The explanatory note describes the type of elevator (passenger,
freig~t-passenger, freight), its capacity, and the location of the machineroom.
An elevator is a periodic-action lifting device. The basic technical specifica-
tions of an elevator are its load capacity, speed and places. The most wide-
spread are elevators with a load capacity of 320, 500 and 1,000 kg with a speed
37
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from 0.5 to 4 m/sec and his!:er. The dimensions of passenger, freight-passenger
and freight elevator~ are illustrated in Figure 13. The number of elevators in
residential ~uildings is taken according to Table 3; in other types of buildings
the number is taken by cal~ulation or by SNiP II-L.1-71.
Table 3. Maximum Required Number of Passenger Elevators and Their Basic Parame-
ters According to GOST 22011-76 in Residential Buil.dings With Differ-
ent Numbers of Floors
Number of Load Ca-
Floors in Number pacity in Maximum Number of People Living on Floor
Residential of Ele- kg; Speed of Each Section of an Apartment House or
Buildings vators in m/sec on a Floor of a Corridor Apartment House
To 9 1 320; 0.71 40
10-12 2 320; 1.00 40
320; 1.00
13-16 2 320; 1.00 30
500; 1.00
13-16 3 320; 1.00 40
320; 1.00
500; 1.00
17-25 In residential buildings 17-25 floors high inclusively, the num-
ber and parameters of the elevato rs are determined by calculation
a ~-i55 b ~gp c ~'-~e5
o * ~
.qo ~ ~m ~ ~
~ ~ ~
. ~
d
? ? ~ ~ ? ~ ~
~ ~
~-181,rr182-~ ~-~s2-~`~z
xa ~o -~f ssa --~F
~ ~ ~ ~
~ � ~m =
F ?a ~ ~ C7 [~0 "
~ -~_l_
~
ze2 e 4230 -,}-~et b: 2~z
Figure 13. Types and sizes of elevators. a--320-kg passenger elevator; b--500-
kg freight and passenger elevator; c--1,000-kg freight elevator; d--
versions of elevator blocking.
38
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The garba.qe chute is a vertical tube for the removal of garbage. The garbage
dropped from the upper floors is collected in the bin installed in the garbage
collection room. The garbage collection room is built on the f;.rst floor or
basement and must be provided with convenient access for the garbage-hauling
transportation. The garbage collecting room and the garbage chute must be pro-
vided with exhaust ventilation through the garbage chute (see Figure 14).
The selection and placement of the materials-handling equipment is discussed in
Section 39.
' s d 6 ,
6 - ~ -I - �1 .
. ~ o
a
a ~oa ~ ~
' i �i,~a
3 ~--~aoo -~,E ~F-aaoo -f
z eoo
~ c o00 ~
~
Figure 14. Diagram of the garbage chute in a residential building. a--Struc-
ture of the garbage chute: 1--garbage collecting bin; 2--supporting
frame taking the load of the garbage chute; 3--garbage chute; 4--in-
terfloor receiving station; 5--exhaust line; 6--deflector; b--ver-
sions of installation in a stairwell.
When designing public and industrial buildings, the placement of the stock equip-
ment is indicated on the plan views of the floors: racks in the clothes closets;
chairs in the auditoriums; seats in a restaurant or dining room; sales equipment
in stores. Depending on the purpose of the building or room, the corresponding
stock equipment is selected. The dimensions of the stock equipment are col-
lected in various handbooks.
Before drawing up the drawings, the student, using sketches, diagrams and rough
drawings plans the location of the individual design elements: plan views, sec-
tions, elevations, units, and so on on sheets considering the required places
for extension lines, dimension lines and explanatory na~es. The sheets must
have a border, the lines of which on three sides must be 5 mm from the edges,
and on th2 left side, 20 mm. The spaces between drawings on the sheet must be
35-45 mm. It is necessary to begin drawing with the plan views; the sketches of
the sections and elevations are finished up simultaneously. The final inking of
the drawings is done only after complete coordination of all of the projections
with each other.
39
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Section 12. Writing the Notes to the Designed Pro,ject
The explanatory note to a design contains its description and substantiation,
and it is presented together with the graphical part (Figure 15a, b). The ma-
terials for the explanatory note must be accumulated throughout the entire time
of working on the design. Simultaneously with executing the graphical portion,
the student proceeds with writing the explanatory note. The explanatory note
must be set up as follows: The text is written on standard writing paper sheets
(210 x 297 mm); 30-40-mm margins are left on the left side of the sheet for fas-
tening together and the instructor's comments; the pages are stitched together
and numbered; the contents of the note are written in black ink. All of the de-
- cisions made are briefly and clearly substantiated in technically literate lan-
guage. If necessary the explanatory note is supplemented by diagrams, drawings
of the versions of the solutions, details and units. Heat engineering and, if
necessary, light engineering calculat3ons are also presented in the note, and
~ the technical-economic indices are calculated.
_ The explanatory note must include the following sections:
1) a brief discussion of the assignment;
2) a brief discussion of the production or functional process;
3) master plan;
4) space and floor planning solutions;
S) structural solution;
6) calculation of the equipment of the services facilities;
~ 7) solution of the building facade;
8) heat engineering and light engineering calculations;
9) service, sanitary-engineering and stock equipment;
10) finishing and specialized operations;
11) technical-economic indices;
i2) references used.
In the section "Brief discussion of the assignment" the following are indicated:
the construction location with respect to administrative division; the location
of the construction site; the description of the building or structure (volume,
carrying capacity, number of places, number of apartments, capacity of the en-
terprise, and so on); structural elements of the building.
The section on "Brief discussion of the production or functional process" in-
cludes the following information in addition to a description of these processes:
40
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the class of structure; the adopted degrees of fireproofness and service life of
_ the enclosing structures according to SNiP II-A.3-62; protection category with
respect to degree of fire-safety according to SNiP II-M.2-72; group of sanita-
tion characteristics of the basic processes according to SNiP II-92-76; working
conditions (number of shifts and information about the nuarber of workers).
In the "Master plan" sectio~ the following are indicated: the dimensions and
shape of the site; the location of the designed building on the site; its ori-
entation with respect to points of the compass with description oi the insula-
tion of the basic rooms; production or functional relation of the d~~signed
building to the existing bui7.dings; spacings between them in accordance with
fire-safety and sanitation norms according to SNiP II-A.5-70, SNiP II-L.1-71,
SNiP II-L.2-32, SNiP II-M.l-71 and other chapters; the basic elements of the
amenities and landscaping of the site; the technical-economic indices of the
master plan. The following basic technical-economic indices are presented with
respect to nonindustrial buildings: the density of coverage of the site with
buildings which for residential blocks must be about 20-25 percent of the total
area; the area for the thoroughfares, sidewalks and yards between blocks which
take up about 25 percent of the total area for residential blocks; the land-
_ scaping with rest areas making up 50 to SS percent of the total area.
The following indices are determined by the master plan of an industrial enter-
prise: the area of the territory, hectares; the area occupied by buildings and
structures, hectares; the area occupied by open storage areas, hectares; the
density of coverage (ratio of the area occupied by buildings, structures and
open storage areas to the area of the territory), percentage; the area occupied
hy landscaping, hectares; area and extent of railroads and railless roadways, m2
ond running meters; area of paved parts of the territory, m2; length of above-
giound and underground service networks, running meters; use coefficient of the
territory (ratio of the area occupied by buildings and structures, open storage
areas, railroads and railless roadways, sidewalks and blind areas to the area of
the territory).
In the "Space and floor planning solutions" section the following description
and substantiation are presented: the configuration of the building in plan and
the basic dimensions (on center lines); structural diagram of the buildings;
, longitudinal and transverse spacing of bearing structures (walls, columns), num-
ber of floors and their height; crane equipment and other data on intrashop
transportation; the presence of basement, service corridors and levels; the
presence of service equipment (elevators, escalators, garbage chutes); the
_ evacuation problems (location of exits, stairwells, emergency stairways).
In the "Structural solution" section the substantiation and choice of structural
designs are presented: determination of the depth of the foundation under the
outside and inside walls according to SNiP II-15-74; description of wall mate-
rial, wall thickness and waterproofing measures, details (cofferdams, cornices,
parapets); for large-panel and frame-panel buildings their structural elements
(columns, trusses, floor and roofing slabs) are described; measures to provide
for general stability of the building; choice of types of windows, doors, parti-
tions, stairs and gates; description of the roof design (sloping ar integrated,
_ 41
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44
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ventilated or nonventilated), roofing material and determination of pitches; de-
termination of the location of expansion joints (when they are present in the
building) in the frame, walls and in the coverings.
The equipment of the service facilities is calculated as follows: the composi- '
tion of the service facilities is determined as a function of the sanitary char-
- acteristics of the production processes according to SNiP II-92-76 and SN 245-71;
the required amount of coat room and sanitary-engineering equipment (lockers for i
clothing, water closets, pissoires and washbasins, shower networks, hand and ~
foot baths, Glothes-changing benches, and so on) is established; the required ;
area and equipment for the coat rooms are calculated by the payroll list, the j
sanitary-engineering equipment, by the number of workers on the largest shift; `
the problem of the placement of service facilities (built-in, annexed, sepa-
rately standing) is solved; the layout of the administrative-management faci].i- ;
ties located in the general services and administrative building is determ~Lned. ~
To facilitate the calculations, they can be made in the form of a table, the ap-
proximate form of which is presented below (see Table 4).
Table 4. Calculation of the Service Facility Equipment
Number of Equipment Units ;
- Number of Workers Lockers in ;
Total Maximum Coat Rooms Shower Wash- Water ~
Production Payroll Shift Double Single Stalls basins Closets
Process Group M F M F M F M F M F M F M F
Total '
Note: Service facility equipment must be calculated with the coefficient K=
1.15 (considering variation in the number of workers--trainees, students).
The "Solution of the building facade" section must reflect the outside architec-
tural appearance of the designed project and its space and floor plan structure.
The architectural-artistic means used to design the facade must be described:
tectonics, rhythm, contrast, proportions, and so on. The outside appearance of
the building must reflect its purpose.
When designing industrial and nonindustrial buildings, heat engineering calcula-
tions are performed to determine the dimensions of the enclosure. These calcu-
lations are presented in the "Heat engineering and light engineering calcula-
tions" section. The thickness of the outside enclosures is determined from the
condition of resistance to heat transfer which consists in the fact that the ac-
tual resistance of the outside walls to heat transfer Rp must not be less than
the required R~eq. For this purpose first R~eq is determined, and then the en-
closing walls are designed which will have equal R~ with respect to magnitude.
The following procedure is recommended for this calculation:
a) plot the calculation diagram;
46
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b) assemble the initial data for the calculation according to SNiP II-A.6-72 and
SNiP II-3-79;
c) determine the required heat transfer resistance (calculated winter tempera-
ture is taken considering the thermal inertia D of the enclosing structures):
D~ 1.5 (without inertia); 1.5 < D~ 4(low inertia); 4< D~ 7(medium inertia);
D > 7 (high inertia);
d) derive the equation for the resistance to heat transfer of the designed en-
closure and equate it to the value found for R~eq. Determine the thickness of
the heat insulating layer from the derived equation;
e) determine the massiveness of the enclosing walls.
- Example of Heat Engineering Calculation of an Outside Wall. It is required that
the thickness of the outside wall of a panel-type residential building erected
in Mosco~a be determined. The wall material is claydite concrete with a specific
weight of 1,000 kg/m3. The panels are plastered with a layer of decorative con-
crete 2 cm thick, and they are coated on the inside with a layer of plaster 1 cm
thick mad~ of lime-cement mortar. The ca].culation diagram is a schematic sec-
tion through the wall containing all the layers, the numbering of the layers and
their thickness (Figure 16a).
a 1 2 3 6
, Cement
~.'i~ 3 ~ ~
2
~O' / ~
. ; ~fl
~::Q: Concrete
10~ ~ ~
~ Figure 16. Calculation diagram for the enclo$ing structures of buildings. a--
Panel-type wall: 1--1ime-cement plaster 1 cm thick; 2--defined
thickness of claydite concrete; 3--decorative concrete 2 cm thick;
b--roofing panels: 1--reinforced-concrete slab 2.5 cm thick; 2--
defined heat insulating layer made of foam concrete; 3--covering
made of cement 3 cm thick; 4--three-layer ruberoid roofing.
Solution. The data required for the calculation SNiP II-3-79 are as follows:
the calculated inside air temperature tg = 18; calcul.ated outside air tempera-
_ ture: for massive enclosures tg =-25� C, for light enclosures tg =-32� C;
_ n= l; ~tH = 6; ag = 8.7 kw/(m2-K). The climate is "normal humidity"; conse-
_ quently, the value of ~ is taken by column B of Appendix 3 of SNiP II-3-79.
_ The resistance to heat transfer of the outside enclosures must be no less than
the required R~eq defined by the formula:
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ROeq = n(tB - t~)/~tHaB (m2-K)kw,
where n is the coeff icient depending on the position of the outside surface of
the structure; tg is the calculated inside air temperature, �C; tH is the calcu~
lated winter outside temperature, �C, taken as a function of massiveness of the
enclosure; ~tH is the normalized temperature gradient between the inside air
temperature and the temperature of the inside surface of the enclosing struc-
ture, �C; ag is the heat transfer coefficient of the inside surface of the en-
closing structure, kw/(m2-K).
Let us first calculate an enclosure of "low inertia"
Rpeq = 1(18 + 31)/(6 � 8.7) = 0.957 (m~-K)/kw.
Let us derive a general expression far the resistance to heat transfer R~ and
_ equate it to the value found for R~e4, then determine the thickness of the insu-
_ lating layer
- R~ _ (1/ag) + R1 + R2 + + Rn + (1/ag) (m2-K)/kw,
where ag is the heat transfer coefficient of the outside surface of the enclos-
ing structure. For the outside wall ag = 23.2 kw/(m2-K); R is the thermal re-
sistance of the individual layers of the enclosing structure;
R = d/a (m2-K)/kw,
where 8 is the thickness of a uniform enclosing structure for an individual
layer of a multilayer structure, m; a is the coefficient of thermal conductiv-
ity of the material taken by column "A" or "B" of the function of the humidity
of the climate. Then:
Rp = 1/8.7 + 9.01/0.928 + 82/0.348 + 0.02/1.45 + 1/23.2 = 0.957;
0.154 + 0.001 + d2/0.348 + 0.013 + 0.058 = 0.957;
0.155 + d2/0.348 + 0.071 = 0.957;
0.225 + d2/0.348 = 0.957,
from which
82 = (0.957 - 0.225)0.348 = 0.254 m.
The degree of inertia of the enclosing structure is established by the thermal
inertia characteristic determined by the formula
D = R1S1 + R2S2 + + RnSn,
where S1, S2, Sn are the coefficients of thermal assimilation of the mate-
rial of the individual layers of the enclosing structurP in 24 hours.
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S = 0.51 a~ (kw/(m2-K),
where Cw is the sgecific heat capacity of the material in kilojoules/(kg-K);
C~ _ (CD + O.Olw)/(1 + O.Olw),
where C~ is the specific heat capacity of the dry material; w is the specific
humidity, percent; YW is the specific weight of the material in the dry state; w
is the specific moisture of the material wA or wg, percent.
All of the enumerated values are taken according to Appendix 3 of SNiP II-3-79.
In our calculation
_ D= 0.001 � 10.03 + 0.5 � 4.58 + 0.013 � 14.5 = 0.01 + 2.29 + 0.188 = 2.488 < 4.
Thus, the enclosure of "low inertia" and the calculated outside air temperature
for the given enclosure are taken correctly.
On the basis of the calculation results the total thickness of the wa11 must be:
0.01 + 0.254 + 0.02 = 0.284 m~ 28 cm.
Example of Heat Engineering Calculation of Roofing. Let us determine only the
thickness of the foam concrete insulation. The enclosing part of the roofing
(Sverdlovsk) consists of four layers indicated in the calculation diagram (Fig-
ure 16b).
Solution. The data required for the calculation from SNiP are as follows.
The calculated inside air temperature tg = 16� C; the calculated outside air
temperature for light enclosures t~ _-38� C, for massive enclosures tg =-31� C;
n= 1; OtH = 7� C, ag = 8.7 kw/(m2-K); aH = 23.2 kw/(m2-K).
The construction site is in a dry area; therefore the values of a will be taken
- by column "A" of Appendix 3 of SNiP II-3-79. We shall first assume that the en-
closure has low inertia.
The resistance to heat transfer of the roofing is:
Rpeq = 1(16 + 38)/(7 � 8.7) = 0.886 (m2-K)/kw.
Let us derive the general expression for the resistance to heat transfer R~,
equate it to the value found for R~eq and determine the thickness of the thermal
insulation layer d2:
R~ = 1/8.7 + 0.025/1.39 + d2/0.19 + 0.03/0.75 + 0.01/0.17 + 0.058;
0.154 + 0.018 + d2/0.19 + 0.04 + 0.05 + 0.058 = 0.886;
0.3.2 + d2/0.19 = 0.886, ,
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from which '
S2 = (0.886 - 0.32)0.19 = 0.05 m.
After calculating the coefficient of heat assimilation of the layers of roofing
materials let us determine the degree of massiveness:
D = 0.018 � 14.5 + (0.05/0.19)2.6 + 0.04 � 9.05 + 0.05 � 4.7 + 0.058 = 0.26 +
0.676 + 0.362 + 0.235 = 1.53 < 4.
The enclosure has low inertia; therefore the calculated outside air temperature
is taken correctly.
Let us sum the results of the calculations, determining the thickness of the
roofing:
0.025 + 0.05 + 0.03 + 0.01 = 0.115 m~ 12 cm.
Natural lighting of the buildings is characterized by the natural lighting fac-
tor e indicating what part of the outeide illumination Eg lights the inside of
the buildings Eg:
e = EB/EH 100~6.
_ During the design process the natural illumination of the facility is calculated
which consists in determining the coefficients of natural illumination of the
designed facilities and comparing them with the normalized values. The grapho-
analytical method of calculation by A. M. Danilyuk which is analy2ed in this
publication (see Section 44) is the most acceptable.
In the "Service, sanitary-engineering and stock equipment" section there is a
brief description of the decisions made with respect to heating, ventilation,
water lines, sewage, power supply, weak-current devices, elevators, garbage
chutes, and so on.
A brief description of the finishing and specialized operations is presented in
the "Finishing and specialized operations" section.
In the "Technical-economic indices" section a description of the space and floor-
- planning solution of the designed building and the calculation for nonindustrial
buildings are presented.
1. The area of coverage, that is, the area of the horizontal cross section of
the building on the first floor level within the boundaries of the outer perime-
ter of the building.
2. Living or working area of the spaces. The living area is calculated as the
sum of the areas of the living quarters in the apartment-type houses, rooms in
hotels, bedrooms in sanatoriums and rest homes, respectively. The working area
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of public buildings is defined as the sum of the areas of all rooms in the
building with the exception of hallways, lobbies, and passages and also rooms
designed for locating the service networks and equipment (the service facili-
ties).
3. The auxiliary or utility area for residential buildings is defined as the
sum of all spaces except the living quarters, stairwells and common corridors in
the corridor-type buildings. For public buildings the utility area is calcu-
lated as the sum of all spaces except the working spaces and stairwells.
4. The total area for residential buildings is calculated as the sum of the
areas of all floors (ground, including service, basement) and also the areas of
the mezzanines and passages to other buildings.
For industrial buildings the total area is calculated which is defined as the
sum of the areas of all floors (measured within the boundaries of the inside
_ surfaces of the outside walls), galleries, all tiers of stacks, landings, mezza-
nines and ramps, with the exception of areas of openings and shafts, the areas
above suspende3 ceilings and the areas of the service corridor no more than
1.8 m high (inside) designed only for laying, inspecting and repairing service
lines, lighting and other devices; areas for servicing crane tracks and plat-
forms for the operators servicing the cranes. When performing the calculation
it is necessary to take the area of the horizontal projection as the area of in-
clined galleries.
The volume of industrial and nonindustrial buildings, with the exception of cal-
culating total areas, is determined in the same way. The volume of attic-type
buildings is determined by multiplying the covered area measured above the socle
by the height from the floor of the first story to the top of the attic floor.
The volume of atticless buildings is determined by multiplying the area of the
transverse vertical section measured by the outside contour (including skylights
and other superstructures) times the length of the buildino.
The basic calcu].ation units of the different types of buildings are discussed in
Section S.
A list of the references used in course or diploma design has been compiled with
indication of author, title of the bo4k, place and year of publication.
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Part ~ao. Nonindustrial Building Design
Chapter III. Residential Buildings
Section 13. General Design Principles of Residential Buildings
:tesidential buildings are the most massive form of buildings designed for hous-
ing alI categories of families, with different numbers of people and sex-age
groups.
With respect to the functional attribute, residential buildings can be apart-
ments, corridor apartment houses and boarding schools;
with respect to number of stories, residential buildings can be low-rise (1-2
stories), medium-rise (3-5 stories), medium-high-rise (6-9 stories) and high-
rise (10 stories and higher);
with respect to building materials used, they are reinforced concrete, concrete,
rock, wood, and so on;
with respect to space and floor planning, they are single-apartment, blocked,
sectional, corridor and gallery, and so on (Figure 17);
wit`~ respect to structural design, they are framed buildings, unframed and
mixed, and so on;
with respect to amenities in the apartments, there are apartments with complete
service equipment (elevator, garbage chute, water supply, sewage, gas, heat, and
so on), and apartments with incomplete service facilities (water line, furnace
heating, waterless toilet, gas).
The basic type of residential buil.ding is an apartment building with different
numbers of stories. It is designed for permanent housing. Corridor apartment
houses are designed for temporary housing. Seasonal housing is used for sea-
~ sonal work.
Apartment houses for permanent housing are divided into two basic types:
buildings with plots next to the apartmznts, basically these are low-rise build-
ings (1-2 stories) used in farm and settlement construction;
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houses without apartment plots--high-rise buildings of the city type permitting
economical use of city territory, efficient solution of transport connections,
_ service line networks, and so on. ~
= The corridor apartment houses are usually designed for builders, students, land
reclamatior: workers, and so on.
Seasonal housing is also classified by purpose: housing on the herding routes,
houses at f ield camps, and so on.
One of the most important prerequisites of creating full-valued housing is con-
_ sideration of the climatic conditions of the construci.iu~~ site. According to
SNiP II-L.1-71, the territory of the Soviet Union is divided into four climatic
zones by climatic attributes (Figure 18): I--cold, Il--moderate, III--warm,
IV--hot.
a b c v r r?
~ ?
d e
~
~
- Figure 17. Diagrams of floor plans for different types of buildings. a--Single
apartment; b--blocked; c--sectional; d--corridor; e--gallery.
Each of the four basic climatic zones is divided in turn into subzones. The
first zone includes five subzones: ]'A, IB, IC, ID, IE; the second includes four:
IIA, IIB, IIC, IID; the third includes three: IIIA, IIIB, IIIC; the fourth,
four: IVA, IVB, IVC, IVD.
The division of the climatic zones into subzones offers the possibility of more
, exact consideration of the climatic characteristics of the construction area.
For creation of comfortable conditions in an apartment in hot climates, cross
ventilation is necessary, that is, the rooms of the apartment must open onto op-
posite sides of the h~lilding. In addition, in hot climates open galleries,
stairs and passages are widely used, which introduce their peculiarities into
- the layout of housing in the south.
The comfortableness of housing is also determined by insulation, that is, the
direct irradiation of the living facilities of the apartment by the sun. Natu-
ral illumination of the rooms in an apartment depends on the construction-cli-
matic zone, outside lighting, the amount of direct and reflected sunlight inci-
dent in the room, the building configuration, and so on. Therefore in the
north, where there is little sunlight, it is expedient to construct the building
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in a simple rectangular shape; in the south, on the contrary, the bodies of the
buildings can be more complicated, with large pro3ections, deep loggias and the
like elements which shade the main spaces.
_ Depending on the position of the longitudinal axis of the buil.ding, meridional
and latitudinal arrangement of the buildings on the site plan are distinguished
(Figure 19). The meridional arrangement is most acceptable in climatic zones I
and II, for this arrangement of the buildings ensures the longest insa.lation of
_ both sides of the building. In climatic zones III and IV meridional arrangement
of the buildings is inadmissible, for the hottest rays of the afternoon sun will
penetrate deeply into the apartments and this will create fierce overheating of
them. The latitudinal orientation of the buildings is the most acceptable for
these zones.
' A ~0~ 6(l ffi td t68' BO 75 A 65�
1
1
~ . l
~ w'S d3f ~
q ~V'
~ ~
\ '
:r . '
a.' B q %
C
I � ~ , .
~ ~ _ ' I$ ~ ~
ti : : . ' � ~
v ~J ~ ~i ~
~ ,
� 4
~ ~'y ' ~ f
~
~ r � ~
; . ~ ~ ~ pY"+~oi .3KOW~? ~c+~ IU ~ :
. Y" r~ ~ T Pa Y
ZV , .t'iw4"r
~ IC D :
. . h, ~c.d, "K'"G' � ' C
� K.,,.~ ,M,,,w,.,,t.p~ ~ ~
I I in~
~ I~ ~ E ' ID`~~
IV ':o~w ~ 'C II
B ~y, ~.,.a.,.,~, ?I.
N~~
.IIB� ~ ~
Legend
1N" ' I~ ~.r Boundaries of cli-
yI~ matic subregions
' goundaries of union
~ ~ re '
Figure 18. Schematic construction-climatic zoning of the territory of the USSR.
In order to create the most favorable conditions of insolation of an apartment
by the construction norms optimal sides of their orientation with respect to
points of the compass are defined (Figure 20).
The apartment is taken as the residentia]. unit of insolation norm; therefore if
the apartment rooms open to one side of the building, the apartment cannot be
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, r
oriented to the north side of the horizon within the limits of 310-SO� (sector
A) in all climatic zones and also in the limits of the sector of the horizon
200-290� in climatic zones III and IV (sector B).
R.
.et'~� 1
- ~ ,
�rI ~i A~" �i:'
~ '�!1
i~~ , ;tf
,i ~
,r~?.~ ..i �
~C.. 1r~r ;1,'f
1 ~ ,S }���5 1~7! � ~1, �
~ � .1>}t I i. ~~~i ~
Figure 19. Arrangement of buil.dings on the site. a--Latitudinal; b--meridional;
1--public center; 2--microdistrict garden.
e
~A
310 ,
50~
~e
Z~ ~e
6
180
Figure 20. Diagram of the orientation of living spaces.
In corridor apartment houses it is permissible to orient the living quarters to
the sector of the horizon within the limits of 310-50� (sector A) in all cli-
matic zones and also in the sector from 200 to 290� (sector B) in climatic zones
III and IV; the total area of such rooms must not exceed 40 percent of the total
living area of the corridor apartment house.
The floor plan of residential buildings is often influenced by other natural cli-
matic conditions. When constructing bui].dings under the conditions of climatic
zone I and partially II, it is necessary to give special attention to retaining
heat in the building. When laying out the plan views of the building it is nec-
essary to strive for minimum perimeter of the outside walls and mandatory con-
struction of a vestibule for entering the building. It is recommended that tri-
ple glazing be used. In the Far North, severe climatic conditions influence not
only the floor plan of the apartment and the building, but also the coverage as
a whole. In order to protect people from the severe climate, compact residen-
tial massifs are designed with closed passageways which connect the residential
buildings to the public center. There are designs for settlements and cities
with artificial covering and the creat3on of an artificial climate.
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Section 14. Brief Information E:.bout Laying Out Cities and Populated Areas ;
Cities, settlements and rural populated areas are subdivided into groups in ac-
cordance with Table 5 by SNiP II-60-75 depending on the number of population.
Table 5. Division of ~ities, Settlements and Rural Populated Areas Into Groups
Settlements With a Rural Populated Areas
Cities With a Population, Population, thou- With a Population,
Groups thousands of people sands of people thousands of people
Larg- ~ More than 1,000
est More than 500 to 1,000
Large More than 250 to 500 More than 10 More than 5
Big More than 100 to 250 More than 5 to 10 More than 2 to 5
Medium More than 50 to 100 More tnan 3 to 5 More tha~ 1 to 2
Small To 50 To 3 More than 0.5
To 1
To 0.5
Note: Cities and populated areas are classified in one group or another in ac-
cordance with the planned number of population.
In order to create favorable living conditions in a city or settlement, the lay-
out and coverage of the territory must be conveniently planned consider3ng ori-
entation of the residential buildings, the transport links between residential
districts and microdistricts, com~ercial centers, the place of work, leisure,
and so on.
The territory of a city is broken down into microdistricts which by their orga-
nization provide a complete system of cultural and general services, sports and
leisure (Figure 21a). The microdistricts are separated from each other by green
spaces. Several microdistricts form a residential district, and residential
districts, the city.
Within a microdistrict there are residential buildings and public institutions
(kindergartens, schools, stores, receiving stations for general services).
- The size of the microdistrict tesritory depends on the number of population and
it is defined by SNiP II-60-75. The placement of the institutions in the micro-
district must promote improved services to the population and must fall within
the radius of pedestrian access (servicing radius). The servicing radius is the
length of the pedestrian path from the most remote housing to the serv3ce in-
stallations or to a municipal transportation stop (Figure 21b).
Such facilities as mother-and-child rooms and workshops can be placed in a resi-
dential building or one of the residential buildings for a group. The schools,
the produce stores and also the ~ity transportation stops can be no more than
500 m from the residential building, and kindergartens no more than 300 m.
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~ . Q O O.: . t:::':' n
U
- :tyq~~ v^~�
;�t
~ ~~Z
Jk'
~
Y~~ � a �T I ' D .
~
Figure 21. Organization of urban territory. a--Microdistricts: 1--residential
- blocks; 2--trade centers; 3--gardens and parks; 4--roads; b--place-
ment of public institutions in the microdistrict and ser~ice radii:
1--public center of the microdistrict; 2--prima.ry servicing blocks;
3--school; 4-kindergartens.
J ~ ,
4
'2
3 ~�.,t'
_,-r::~ :
~
.'I'+ ,
- J'.;;~
, 3 ~
~ r-
~
Figure 22. Housing facility densiry (gross) of the microdistrict. 1--Residen-
tial territory; 2--microdistrict garden and sports nucleus; 3--area
for schools; 4--the same for kindergartens; 5--the same for trade
and municipal institutions.
Urban transit system is excluded inside the microdistrict, which creates condi-
tions by which the population (especially old people and children) are spared
- the necessary for crossing busy thoroughfares. Only trucks hauling goods to the
, stores, departmPnt stores, dining rooms and other service institutions are per-
mitted within the boundaries of the microdistrict.
The basic requirement imposed on planning consists in isolation of the residen-
= tial territory from harmful effects of city transportation. The landscaping of
the microdistrict plays an important role in creating comfortable living condi-
tions. Landscaping permits prevention of overheating of the soil and buildings,
it protects the residential buildings from noise, wind and air pollution. The
- landscaping of the micradistrict is an integrated system consisting of district
_ and microdistrict gardens and landscaping of the yards (Figure 21b). The
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landscaping of the microdistrict must occupy no less than 40-45 percent of the
entire territory.
Economicalness of the amenities of the microdistrict depends on expedient use of
the territory and it is determined by the "housing facility density" concept--
the amount of living space in square meters per hectare of microdistrict terri-
tory.
The gross housing facility density was taken accor%iing to SNiP II-60-75. The
gross housing territory includes the housing territory and sections of the
children's institutions, schools, municipal buildings, microdistrict garden,
physical culture areas and schools in the microdistrict (Fi~ure 22). The gross
density is determined by the ratio of the living space in m to the territory of
the microdistrict in hectares.
The sanitary-hygienic living conditions are characterized by the density of cov-
erage expressed in percentage of the residential territory. The coverage den-
sity is the ratio of the territory covered by buildings (the built-ug area) in
m2 to the habitable territory in m2; the ratio obtained is expressed in percent-
ages.
Section 15. Structural Diagrams of Residential Buildings
The layout of the residential building depends to a great extent on its struc-
tural diagram, the building materials used and the methods of construction. The
choice of one structural diagram or another depends on the number of floors in
the building, the space and floor space layout, the presence of building materi-
als and a base for the construction industry.
When selecting the structural diagram of a residential building, its number of
stories has great signif icance. When building low-rise buildings basically in
rural areas, brick, shell rock, wood, and so on are used. In recent years two-
story buildings have been built from large rocks and panels (reinforced con-
crete, wood), ensuring a high degree of prefabrication of the low-rise residen-
tial structures.
For the construction of one- and two-apartment and blocked houses, low-rise two-
to four-story section houses, the following structural layouts are used: with
transverse bearing walls (Figure 23a), longitudinal and mixed (application of
longitudinal and transverse bearing walls jointly), frame, panel and frame-panel
(Figure 23a-d).
In the case of transverse bearing walls, the outside longitudinal walls are only
heat insulating and can be self-supporting and hanging. The self-supporting
walls bear their own weight and the weight of the panels above. The lower pan-
- els transfer the load directly to the foundation. The hanging panels can be
supported directly on the floor panel or hung on bearing walls or fastened to
the frame columns. For the layout with an incomplete frame (without the outside
row of columns) bearing panels are used which transfer loads not only from the
panels above, but also from the floors.
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a b ~ 2 3
~ ~ ~ 1~ ~
~ ,
~ ~
~ ~
c d ~ 2 3
-
' ~ ~
~
' I ~
~ ~
1 2 1 3
e
~
- - ~
Figure 23. Basic structural diagrams of low-rise residential buildings. a--
With transverse bearing walls; b--with transverse frame; c--with
longitudinal bearing walls; d--with longitudinal frame; e--mixed
diagram with inside supports; 1--columns; 2--
slabs.
Floor slab Floor slab
~ a b
Truss ~
Tru s
1~' ~
I?~:
all panel
Column Wall panel Column
Floor slab
c
Trus
Wall panel
Column
Figure 24. Frame system of low-rise residential houses. a--Layout with longi-
tudinal frame; b--layout with transverse frame; c--layout with mixed
f rame .
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In the ~ase of two-row blocking of residential houses it is most expedient to
use a structural layout with longitudinal arrangement of the beams (Figure 23c,
d). ,
In houses with frame structural designs the bearing system is the system of col-
umns and beams. In this system the beams can be arranged both along and across
the building depending on the structure of the building and the dimensions of
the transverse and longitudinal spans.
in building high-rise residential buildings, the following basic systems are
used: with longitudinal bearing walls, with transverse bearing walls and the
mixed system.
The structural diagrams of high-rise residential buildings can be resolved in
various structural systems: frame, unframed and mixed.
The frame system consists of columns, beams, trusses and other framing elements
taking all of the loads and ensuring spatial rigidity of the building. The
wall panels in the building only perform enclosing functions.
Three schemes are distinguished in the frame system: the scheme with longitudi-
nal pillar-collar beam frame (Figure 24a); the scheme with transverse pillar-
collar beam frame (Figure 24b); the scheme with mixed frame (Figure 24c).
The unframed system is characterized by the fact that the majority of structural
elements combine the functions of bearing and enclosing elements. The spatial
rigidity and stability of the building are ensured by the interconnection of the
walls and floor slabs. The unframed system with longitudinal layout of the
bearing walls (Figure 25a) is convenient for laying out the sections and apart-
ments, for it does not limit their dimensions with respect to the length of the
_ building and permits free placement of both the partitions between rooms and be-
tween apartments.
In the case of transverse bearing walls (Figure 25b) the possibility appears for
efficient use of various properties of building materials, for the building ele-
ments are divided into bearing and heat insulating. In this system the outside
walls are made of light structures with high heat insulating properties. The
~ thickness ot~ the trans~~erse bearing walls of the building is identical.
The combined structural system presupposes arrangement of bearing elements in
two directions as a result of which the thickness of the bearing walls can be
minimal (Figure 25c). Rigid fastening of the transverse and longitudinal bear-
ing walls limits the layout possibilities of the given system.
The volumetric-modular housing construction is finding broader and broader ap-
plication. The advanced nature of the volumetric-modular house construction
consists in the following: maximum factory preparation of the modules, the ap-
plication of large elements, reduction of the times required for erection of
the buildings, improvement of the compositional possibilities of the housing
construction.
60
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a b
, : t: ~
:r~.y� ~:a~.:
. j�:�8: tj�-'
:1:
c : ~':K'~` d ,',::''A'' .~f::~;::.~.' �
, ~,;o:::
:i.'e,~ ~,t� :r~'.j:. ~'i:
Figure 25. Unframed system of high-rise housing. a--System with longitudinal
bearing walls; b--the same with transverse walls; c--mixed system;
d--system with room panels.
~ b ~ ~
~ .;1990
Figure 29. Basic types and dimensions of sanitary facilities. a--Separate; b--
combined.
' The main spaces or basic rooms of an apartment are joined by the foyer, halls
and anterooms. Their dimensions are determined from the conditions of conveni-
ent use. Minimum width of a foyer is no less than 1.4 m. The widths of the
corridors and anterooms leading to the living rooms must be no less than 1.1 m,
and the width of the corridors and anterooms leading into the auxiliary rooms--
kitchen and sanitary facilities--0.85 m. The height af the passages and ante-
rooms can be 2.1 m. Usually mezzanines are built above them which serve to
store household and domestic objects.
The basic quality of the layout of an apartment is clear-cut differentiation of
the facilities with respect to purpose and convenient interrelation of the liv-
ing and auxiliary spaces.
Recently apartments on two levels have become widespread. On the first level of
such apartments are the entrance, the living room, kitchen sanitary facility and
other auxiliary facilities; on the second floor are the bedrooms and bathroom
with a laundry on the first floor. If there is no laundry, the bathroom is lo-
cated on the firs't floor.
For apartments on two levels the location of the stairs inside the apartment has
great significance (Figure 30). For high unitization of the floor slabs it is
expedient to locate single-flight stairs along the slabs of these floors or
along the beams (Figure 31a). When placing the stairs perpendicular to the
slabs or beams the latter must be supported on an additional support (wall or
collar beam) (Figure 31b, c). The most frequently used double-flight stairs
complicate the structural layout, for this requires the application of addi-
tional standard sizes of slabs or beams (Figure 31d).
As a rule, the stairs inside the apartment are made of wood or other light mate-
rials. Convenience of using this stairway is determined by the ratio of the di-
mensions of the risers and treads (Figure 30). The sum of the dimensions of two
risers (b) and treads (a) must be 2a + b= 60-64 cm (the average stride of a
man). The greatest slope of the stairs must be 1:1.25. The story height in
65
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residential buildings from floor to floor is taken as 2.8 m. If the story
height is divided by 15 risers, the height of each riser will be 280 : 15 =
18.7 cm. With a slope of 1:1.25, the size of the treat will be 18.7 x 1.25 =
23.4 cm. Hence, by the 2a + b= 60-64 cm rule we obtain 18.7 x 2+ 23.4 = ,
60.8 cm which is the average stride of a man.
' a ~ ~ ~ .
8 ~ ~
1~1~a-# =Lila L=90+13a -~I' L-90
� ~L-2a ~
~ ~ $ a-2 ,4
$ t
~ ~ t ~ ~ . ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~
~ n
.~-L=90+17a-~ . ~-L;90~8a-+E � ~--L�90+8a~ ~
. f 328
.k-~1.�IB0~6a-~
~ $ ~ ~ ~ ~
,~-Ii90�11a-~ ~ ~-L 180+6a-~t ~
~80~e~' .~--L~80~ita
6 �
~-1.-fl0~le-~ .~-L=90~8a-,t L ~
I
. ~ ~ ~ ~
~4-� - ~ ~ . .
.~-Ir90~6~~ ~L~ ~1rA0�la} ~~L+~90t~ '
Figure 30. Types and sizes of stairs inside apartments. a--Single-flight with
straight and turning steps; b--the same, two-flight; L--length of
flight; a--tread width; b--riser height.
Walls or collar beams
a b ~ d
i i
~
~ , . Walls or collar beama
Figure 31. Diagrams of the arrangement of stairs inside apartments (a-d) as a
function of the floor design.
For families of different composition (with respect to number, age, sex and re-
lations) apartments are designed differently both with respect to number of
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rooms and with the same number of rooms, differently with respect to sizes of
the common and living spaces (type A and B apartments, see SNiP II-L.1-71).
The basic types are one-room, two-room, three-room, four-room and five-room
apartments.
The single-room apartment is designed for one person or two-person families
(Figure 32a). The limited number of spaces in a single-room apartment imposes
the conditions of maximum use of them. Therefore when laying out such an apart-
ment it i.s necessary to provide for the largest possible closets, built-in cup-
boards and mezzanines. This permits relieving the living room and kitchen of
part of the furniture and the use of th~em for their direct purpose. The kitchen
in a one-roos apartment must be designed with large area and the dining table
placed in it, which offers the possibility of freer use of the living room area.
the living part of a two-room apartment consists of the living room and one bed-
- room 8-12 m2 (Figure 32b). The living room area must be no less than 15 m2.
When a family of three occupies the apartment, a sleeping space is organized in
the living room. In small two-room apartments type 2A, a combined sanitary fa-
cility is possible. In the type 2B apartment the sanitary facilities are sepa-
rate.
.,r d
~ ~ ~ nA 9ea ~ ,~~c e;s
~ ~ a11 ~ ~9 4~
~492
7-
- ~ � I ~ ~
~ ~zv ~
b ~oo ~~soo k ~ , e~ r~
~ No . ~ ~ i
~ 40 ~u ~ Z ~ ~Faooo~36ao-~ooO~
~ ~ ~ " ~ ' ~ ,o,s
a~
~ ~
. ~ ~
C #3o0ot3000~'- Gl 56t~1 ~ r~60 ~ 1~p3
~ ~
~ 3191 ~I I I I
35~; ' ~ -~i'3600 +FJOOO~h300Q~ 6000 6ppp
e~:
~ ~ ~
~M-6ooo ~-,~3000~3600
Figure 32. Apartment layouts. a--One-room; b--two-room; c--three-room; d--
four-room; e--five-room.
Beginning with the three-room apartment, clear-cut division of the apartment
into two basic zones is possible: daytime use and leisure. The noisiest parts
67
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of the apartment--the living room and kitchen--are placed next to the exit. The
- bedrooms are located in the depths of the apartment (Figure 32c). Separate san-
itary facilities--bathroom and toilet--are located so that they will be conveni-
ent to use from any part of the apartment. In the majority of cases the living
room in a three-room apartment is relievad of sleeping space and is basically
u5ed for activities, games, receiving guests, and so on.
Three-room apartments are oriented, as a rule, in two directions and have free
orientation and cross ventilation.
A four-room apartment is designed for a family of five or six. The first bed-
room for two people in this type of apartment is 12 m2, the second bedroom is
10 m2 and the third 8 m2. The bathroo~ms in the four-room apartments are ar-
ranged next to the group of bedrooms (Figure 32d).
Five-room apartments are designed for families of seven or eight (Figure 32e).
'~he bedrooms in these types of apartments are 8-12 m2. At the present time
ti~~~re is a trend toward having two toilets in five-room apartments. One is next
to the bedroom group and the other, next to the entrance.
The development of six-room apartments for construction in republics in which a
high percentage of the families are eight or more is planned for the future.
In order to increase the living convenience, a modern apartmer~t is equipped with
movable (table, chest, and so on) and built-in furniture, sliding doors and par-
titions. The built-in furntture installed in recesses or built in the form of
partitioning closets is placed between rooms. This type of use of the furniture
promotes more expedient use of the apartment areas and spaces. The depth of the
built-in closets must be no less than 0.6 m. The wall closets can be completely
or partially recessed; in addition, they can protrude fully beyond the wall di-
mensions (Figure 33a).
The partitioning closets are one of the most modern forms of furniture. The
purpose of the sections and compartments ~n the partitioning closets can be very
different depending on the purpose of the space, that is, which way the closet
partition doors open. With respect to nature of servicing, the closet parti-
tions are divided into one-sided, opening into one room (Figure 33a), two-sided,
serving two rooms (Figure 33b). Sometimes three- and four-sided closet parti-
tions are used (Figure 33c).
Sliding partitions (Figure 33d) have a significant influence on the apartment
layout. Replanning of the apartment is possible with their help. The closet
partitions and sliding partitions permit the creation of flexible, functionally
laid-out housing.
Section 17. Low-Rise Residential Buildings
The construction of low-rise housing has become widespread in small cities,
workers' and farm settlements. The possibility of using simple light structural
elements, local building materials, ~implified engineering equipment systems in
68
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these buildings predetermines broad construction of them in the enumerated popu-
lated areas.
a' _ b
.
. ~ ~
~
~}-aoo ~eoo * soo o00 ~ ~ eoo eoo * eoo 600
c ~ ~
t
~ ~
~
~--soa soo -#~coo ,k-eoo-~ ~ ~-aoo ~ eoo ~ eoo � ~-eao #
d '
~~I~~9!!~I
z+oo
Figure 33. Closet partitions (a-c) and siiding partitions (d).
The low-rise housing is divided into several types: single-apartment, two-
apartment, blocked.
As a rule, these buildings have personal plots of ground. In rural populated
areas the sizes of the plots directly adjacent to the apartment must be (includ-
ing the area covered by the building): in the case of one- or two-apartment
buildings 1,000 m2; in the case of blocked buildings 600 m2.
The presence of a plot of ground next to the apartment imposes a characteristic
feature on the layout of the apartment. The apartments of a low-rise building
have two entrances: one on the street side and the other from the plot of
ground.
With respect to space and floor planning these buildings have one- or two-level
apartment (attic and two-story).
The single-apartment buildings with the apartments on one level are the most
convenient in layout respects. It is possible to place all types of apartments
with two to six rooms in them. A large light front along all four ~aalls of the
building permits the apartments to be laid out in various versions (Figure 34).
In attic or two-story buildings it is expedient to design the four- to six-room
apartments on two levels.
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In attic houses separate rooms are located in the attic (Figure 35a). Here the
height in the lower part of the room must be no less than 1.6 m. In such houses
the area of the upper floor is less than the area of the lower floor. For more
complete use of the attic space the ceiling of the upper rooms is made with
clipped corners.

7 ~Z N
- c" , c~ on
i , pK oK ~-M - to '1
N - Cn ON. 2 1
H-G
? w
_ ~ N 1 I Cn 1- ~n 2 1
T K.~
~ Cn 6n M'~ � Cn ~ pH
~ ~ ~
~
6n Cn Cn M: C M.C ~ 1~~ 1= 6n Cn
Cn ~ ~ ~0
. I T ' ~
K-C ON tn Gn 01S ON Cn ,Cn
~ ~ ~
Figure 34. Layout of single-story, single-apartment residential houses. 1--
Kitchen equipment; 2--sanitary facility; OK--living room; Cn--bed-
room; K--kitchen; K-C--kitchen-dining room (the legend also applies
to Figures 35-38, 40).
One type of single-apartment house is a two-story residential house with apart-
ment on two levels.
On the f irst floor of such apartments there is an entry, a living room, kitchen,
toilet and other auxiliary facilities. The bedrooms are located on the second
floor. In ap~rtments built on two levels the bathroom is located on the first
floor, and a toilet with lavatory, on the second floor.
Two-apartment houses are in the form of a block consisting of two separate apart-
ments joined by a single roof. This type of house has a number of advantages
over the single-apartment dwelling, and it has a smaller perimeter of the out-
side walls, lower heating and insulating cost and cheaper cost of the apartment.
In the two-apartment houses it ia necessary to provide for blocking of the ser-
vice equipment of the two apa,rtments. This permits not only a reduction in the
service lines, but also insulation of the apartments against outside noise. For
better insulation of the apartments the entries to the house and to the verandas
are on opposite sides (Figure 35b).
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~
.lst story Attic
r ~ Section 1-~. Elevation
~ ? ~ E ~ ,
~ N Cn ~ Q~
~~tn-lts6o~-~30~ ~--s3eo .~--wt~o
a lst~ tory 2d story '
~ K c~ c~ ~Section 1-1 Elevation
$ � CD ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~i � ~ � ~ ~
~
~~+00130001-~00 ~--oooo ~ ~~+ook3ooo k~oo ~
Figure 35. Attic-type residential houses (a) and two-story hous~s with apart-
ments on two levels (b)
~ ~ ~
_ ~ ~
N-C OH
2 ~
K K-C
1 ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
Cn ~ '
OK OK OH Cn
2
K Z
K-C ~ . IS-C
2 t
,
~ ~ 0
~ ~ ~
2
Cn Cn OK Cn ~ Oli
2 f .
K ~H H-C r-
Cn H-C
~ . 1
0 ~
, ~ ,
Figure 36. Block apartmenes in single-story blocked houses.
71
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The blocked houaes are multiapartment houses, and in them each apartment has
separate entrances.
A block is an indivisible space-floor planning element consisting of various
layouts of apartments. In construction and design practice in the Soviet Union,
as a rule9 single-apartment blocks--block apartments are used (Figure 36).
The density of coverage with blocked houses is quite high, and the separation of
the apartments creates high comfort conditions for living in them. The blocked
houses are made single-story, attic and two-story. In two-story houses the
apartments can be both on two levels (Figure 37) and floor by floor.
OH. Cn OK Cn
_ Z 2 ~
H-G
~ Cn N-C Ln
~ '
1 2
_ H Cn Ot( Cn
qi Cn ~
-2 p
~ n ~ Cn
_ . _
OK Cn Cn Cn ~ Cn Cn
2 H-C
H-C 2
-
s . -
Figure 37. Block apartments in blocked houses with apartments on two levels.
Four-apartment, six-apartment and eight-apartment blocked houses are built.
Four-apartment houses are most fr~quently encountered. The apartments in the
four-apartment blocked houses are arranged in one or two rows, and they can also
have cross layout (Figure 38).
The blocked houses permit the creation of the most varied combinations of
blocks. The number of blocks in a house depends on different conditions: the
degree of fireproofness of the structural designs, the relief, the dimensions of
the construction lot, and so on.
The most widespread method of blocking is "linear," providing for contact of the
rectangular block apartments with each other (Figure 39a, b). All of the
72
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apartments in a building with this type of blocking have through ventilation,
and the building itself can be used without limiting orientation.
~
~
~ ~
` ~ H M ~ ~
Cn o o tn
Cn � ~ ~
pl H H qS ~
-~4~
~
#-450 4$0-}- 450-~- 450-}
Figure 38. Cross-layout blocked residential house.
_ For more complete separation of one apartment from another, better insulation
and city planning maneuverability, the blocks are shifted in one direction or
another. This system of blocking has the form of a"saw" or "comb" (Figure 39c,
d) .
If it is necessary to have a large administrative room for the building, the
residential block is blocked alternately with the administrative block (Figure
39e). This procedure permits the administrative facilities to be located in the
block with the building which is especially frequently used in northern regions.
Usually the administrative annexes serve as a lobby for entering the apartment.
a b ' .
~C10~ ~o ~~0~0 ~ d~ 0
oa~~ . ~ 0 ~
f . ~ p~ h e ~
adad - ad ao- r~p
. .
Figure 39. Apartment blocking diagrams. a--Single-row; b--two-row; c--saw-
tooth; d--shifted in two directions; e--blocking by the administra-
tive annexes; f--blocking with L-shaped apartment blocks forming
courtyards; g--the same with the formation of an inside courtyard
for several apartments; h--the same for one apartment.
In regions with a hot climate blocking is realized using blocks of auxiliary
rooms of the apartment (kitchen, sanitary facility, closets). This form of
blocking permits the kitchen to be a separate room. Shifting of the blocks
73
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makes it possible to obtain an isolated site for each apartment (Figure 39f) or
isolated internal courtyard for two families.
?
OK Cn OH Cn H OK ~ H aH
� H C ~ :t-
2 1 1 Cn Cn
~ ~ U
7
Cn ~ Cn K 1 ~ 1
' ~ N-G ~H K-C
pli pIS Z 2
. ' Cn Cn Cn Cn
n` u
Figure 40. Layouts of blocked houses with floor-by-floor arrangement of the
apartments.
In regions with warm and hot climates, blocked buildings with internal court-
yards are used. ~ao types of such blocking are distinguished: the first--the
inside yard services several apartments (Figure 39g)--and the second--a closed
yard inside one apartment (Figure 39h).
For connection to a plot, in the majority cases a second entrance to the apart-
ment is required on the plot side, for the site is split in half by the build-
ing, and it is possible to get into the plot of ground behind the building only
from the apartment.
The two-story blocked houses with story-by-story arrangement of the apartments
designed in cases where it is necessary to obtain one-room, two-room and three-
room apartments. The apartments with story-by-story arrangement in blocked
buildings have separate entrances (Figure 40).
These apartments permit small and medium-sized families (from two to five peo-
ple) to live in two-story blocked buildings. Each apartment has a plot of
ground next to the apartment which for the first floor is located on one side of
the building and for th~ second floor on the other. As was pointed earlier, the
apartments on the first floor usually have entrances: one from the street and
one from the yard.
The negative aspect of these buildings is insufficient isolation of the dwell-
ing--the windows of one apartment look out on the yard of the other apartment;
the necessity foY building additional passageways and accesses to the yards for
the second-floor apartments.
- The cost of blocked buildings is 25 percent less than the cost of single-apart-
ment houses and 10 percent less than tha cost of two-apartment houses.
74
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_ _ _ _
. a b
~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
d ~ . . ,
Figure 41. Basic methods of coverage with low-rise buildings with plots next to
the apartment. a--S:Cngle-apartment along the street; b--the same in
checkerboard arrangement; c, d--the same, two-apartment; e--cul-de-
sac arrangement of the buil.dings; f--the same, along an internal
loop access.
In the ma.jority of cases the living conditions in such apartments are good.
They have cross ventilation and free orientation; in addition, the simplicity of
the structural designs permit the blocked building to be considered the most
prospective for l~w-rise housing.
A characteristic feature of low-rise housing is the presence of the plots of
ground next to the apartments. The schemes for organizing these yards and the
arrangement of the buildings on them are illustrated in Figure 41.
Section 18. High-Rise Residential Buildings (Sectional, Corridor, Gallery-Type)
The high-rise residential bui].ding is the basic type of building in the cities
and large settlements of the Soviet Union.
High-rise residential buildings, depending on the layout, are divided into mul-
tisectional, single-sectional (point), corridor and gallery. In addition to
these three basic types, high-rise buildings of mixed structure are used: cor-
ridor-sectional, gallery-sectional. A distinguishing feature of the sect3onal
building is the floor-by-floor grouping of apartments around vertical services
(stairways, elevators). The stairways and elevators service several apartments,
entrance to which is gained from the landings. It is possible to isolate the
single-sectional bui].dings from the group of sectional buildings. This type of
building is convenient in that the majority of apartments have corner ventila-
tion and good isolation. In such buildings it is easy to use various layouts of
apartments, for the buildinga have light from a11 four sides.
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In the corridor and gallery buildings the entrances to the apartments are ar-
ranged from floor-by-floor corridors and galleries. The apartments in such
buildings are located on one side of the gallery, one side of thQ corridor or
_ both sides of the corridor. The one-sided location of the apartments ensures
cross ventilation.
Depending on the number of stories, the architectural planning solution of the
apartments and structural design of the buildings differ. 1~,io- to four-story
buildings do not h~ve an elevator or garbage chute; the stairs serve as the
vertical communicat.ions joining floors. In 6-9-story buildings inclusively a
garbage chute and one elevator per section are mandatory. In buildings taller
than 10 stories, it is mandatory to install two elevators, and in residential
buildings higher than 16 floors the number of elevators is calculated.
The choice of the number of floors depends on many factors: the size of the
city or settlement; the material-technical base; the construction district, and
so on. With an increase in the number of stories, the density of the housing
facilities increases, the area of coverage decreases, the expenditures on ser-
vice networks and amenities for the territory are reduced. On the other hand,
for buildings highEr than six stories it is necessary to build elevators and a .
garbage chute, which increases the construction cost and the operating expendi-
tures on the building. Therefore when selecting the number of floors it is nec-
essary to compare the data obtained from increasing the density of coverage and
increasing the cost of construction of individual buildings.
Two- to four-story buildings are used primarily in farm and workers' settlements
and small cities. As a result of their simple structural solutions, quite high
level of amenities and good economic indices these buildings permit efficient
use of the built-up territory.
Medium-rise and medium-high-rise buildings are used in large and largest cities
with intensive coverage. They permit economical use of the urban development
territory, they lower the cost of public transportation and amenities.
As has been pointed out, the basic element of all types of buildings is the
apartment. In addition, high-rise buildings include vertical (stairs and eleva-
tors) and horizontal (corridors, galleries) communication. In order to increase
- the living comfort in high-rise buil,dings service and auxiliary facilities are
provided. The layout of these facilities depends on the type of building, the
amenities of the apartments and building as a whole, and the location in the
built-up part of the microdistrict, and so on. Usually these facilities are lo-
cated in the basement of the building or in a service corridor. For engineering
servicing of a building provision is made for the following facilities: a heat-
ing station, electric panel, garbage collecting room. All of these facilities
are also located in the basement.
In the majority of high-rise residential buildings the distribution station is
the stairwell. This solution is economical and quite convenient. Usually the
entry is located under the intermediate stair landing (Figure 42a). Tl:e height
of the entry must be no less than 2 m. The entry serves to maintain a comfort-
able temperature in the stairwell and lobby.
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When it is necessary to place the entry under the stairwell an entrance is built
which not only is the distribution station, but it also is used for post office
boxes, stowing bicycles, perambulators, and sometimes for leisure (Figure 42b).
One of the principal elements of a high-rise building is the stairway which pro~
vides vertical communications in the building. The basic dimensions of the ,
stairs, their location and number depend on the architectural layout and struc-
tural solution of the building and the number of floors. In modern residential
buildings basically three types of stairs are used: single-flight, two-flight
and three-flight (Figure 43a, b). As a rule, the stairs have natural lighting.
The slope of the flights of stairs is taken at a 1:2 ratio which corresponds to
a step width of 30 cm and height of 15 cm. The number of steps in the flight
must be no less than 3 and no more than 18. The width of the stair landings is
taken no less than the width of the flight and no less than 1.2 m.
~ ~800~600~~00
a b ~ ~
o -
- a ~ ,
~
~ ~
~
a~ ~
. U.O ~ 0 '
H r-i ~ ~ ~ ~
~
~ ''o~�oo-
0 8 � ~ Wo ~wo
' . ~ ~ -~~mo
~
~ .
- ~?+oo~i~oo ~ooo
Figure 42. Versions of the solution of entrances to high-rise buildings. a--
Directly through the stairwell; b--through an entry located along-
side the stairs; c--the same having a cross passageway.
When designing stairs the data indicated in Table 6 must be used as a guideline.
Table 6. Least Permissible Width of Flights of Stairs and Their Greatest S1opEs
Greatest
Least Width Inclination
Purpose of Flights of Flights, m of Flights
- Evacuation stairs, including single-flight
stairs, leading to the residential floors of
the buildings:
a) two-story 1.05 1:1.50
b) three-stox~y or more 1.05 1�1.75
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Table 6 (continued)
Greatest
Least Width IncllnaCi.on
Purpose of Flights of Flights, ra of Flights_
Flights of stairs leading to basements, service
corridors and attics and also flights of stairs
within the apartments 0.90 1:1.25
Notes: l. The width of a flight of stairs is determined by the distance from
the wall to the railing. 2. In the stairways inside the apartment the
tread width of turning steps midway their length must be no less than
the tread width of nonturning steps in the flight, and on the narrow end
of the step, no less than O.C8 m. 3. There must be a free clearance no
less than 0.1 m wide between the flights of stairs. 4. The width of
the flights of stairs in corridor apartment houses must be no less than
1.2 m.
Table 7. Maximum Permissible Distances From the Apartment or Room Entrance in
a Corridor Apartment House From an Outside Exit or Stairwell
Greatest Distance From Apartment or Room
Entrance in Corridor Apartment House
Degree of Fireproofness To Stairwell or To Exits to Blind
of Building Outside Exit, m Corridor or Gallery, m
I 40 25
II 40 25
III 30 20
IV 25 15
V 20 10
The elevators belong to the vertical communications in high-rise residential
buildings. The elevators are installed in buildings higher than five stories,
and also when the top story is 14 m above the aidewalk level, independently of
the number of stories. Usually the elevators are located near the stairs, and
in this way a stair-elevator unit is created. In high-rise residential build-
ings, as a rule, 320- and 500-kg elevators are used.
The garbage chute (see Section 11) is insCalled to remove garbage from apart-
ments in five-story buildings and higher.
The sectional buildings have become the most widespread in residential construc-
tion. They consist of a number of section modules and differ from each other
with respect to number of stories, extent, the layout of the apartments, orien-
tation, and so on.
The basic types of section modules are as follows: row, end, corner and rota-
tional (Figure 45a-d).
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A -
~ ~ ~ ---f
~
~ ~
~1100~ 5100 ~200 ~ }1200#--
3300 -~`1T00 ~
~6
r r
~ L ~
~1200 2100 -~F1200 # #~1200 5100 --#1200 #
Section 1-1
Figure 43. Types of stas~s. a--Single-flight; b--double-flight.
a 6 '
Partition Corridor
made of .
glasa
blocks ~ ~
~ Air
over-
pressur
0
0
r .
8
Corridor ~
~800 t7oo 220u ~ t5o0 # z4G0 ~1200 * t700 ~
Figure 44. Diagrams of smoke-free stairwells. a--With passage through the
vestibule and through an open space; b--with artificial air over-
pressure and self-closing doors.
The row section models, as a rule, have simple, rectangular shape. Their lay-
outs can be the moat varied.
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a 1-2-2 b 3-4
~ 3021 30 2 I 5 39
152,3i ~ 1
~
~ ~
-i~-~-- ~ .
~3~
1~4~p03600 #~3600 ~ ~ t
-t
1-2-3-3
~ t- 6000 ~2400~400~ d 1- 4
~ 3 ~ ~ -
- $ ~ �
, Q ~ ~ 31,
9 ~ ~
~ - ~ 7451
~ f
~ 1~ ~ 3600 i~3000 {3000~3000 +2400
I 15000
_ ~06~3600 b000 .
16800 ,
Figure 45. Layouts of basic types of secti.on modules. a--Row; b--end; c--cor-
ner; d--rotating.
_ The rotating section modules, ~ust as the row modules (Figure 45a) have two out-
side walls. The rotating sections (Figure 45b) differ from the row sections by
configuration. In the rotating section one of the walls of the end apartment is
set at an angle. The insert from the rotating section permits the orientation
of the building to be changed. These sections serve to improve the city plan-
ning maneuverability of the sectional residential houses and the architectural-
artistic impression of the facades. The apartments of the rotating section mod-
- ules are oriented just as in the row section modules.
The er.c and ~~rner section modules, in contrast to row, have three outside walls
(Figur~: ~+~c, d). The layout of the apartments in the end and corner section
modules can be the same as ii~ row sections. Sometimes in the apartments located
on the end walls the number of rooms can be increased as a result of the perime-
ter of the outside walls. The corner sections are used in buildings of complex
configuration (U- and L-shapes, and so on). The corner sectic?ns are resolved t~y
the same parameters as row and end section modules.
The layout of t:he sections differs and depends on the number of apartments in a
section, the number of floors, t.he technical equipment, and so on. Most fre-
quently two-, thre~.- and four-apartment sections are used in residential con-
struction. Six- and eight-apartment sections are used in medium-high-rise
buildings.
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a 3-4 b ~ 3-3
~ 2025 7,28 7,82 1192 12J7 9,93
4 ~ ~ 3~ ~
- ~ ~Z ~
,r O
~ 42 418
~ 14,26 1012 7,90 ~74 11,y3 3KJ0 374~
~ 'I945
3600 ~00~,~00 ~3000 }3600 }3300 ~2700 ~2700 +3300 ~
Figure 46. Layouts of two-apartment sections. a--Asymmetric (with partially
limited orientation); b--symmetric {with unlimited orientation).
The standard sections are designated b~ type and number of apartments: the two-
apartment section 3-4, the :.hree-apartment section 2-3-3 and the four-apartment
section 1-2-3-3 (see Figures 45, 46). The number of numbers indicates the num-
ber of apartments in the section, and the numbers themselves indicate the number
of rooms in the apartment.
Depending on the layout the sections can have meridional or latitudinal orienta-
tion with respect to points of the ~ompass. Meridional sections have limited
orientation, and latitudinal sections are designed with partially limited and
free orientations.
T'he t~o-apartment sections are designed with free nrtentation (Figure 46a),
cross ventilation and good isolation of the apartments. The enumerated positive
aspects permit application of two-apartment sections in areas of a hot climate
where cross ventilation of the apartments is mandatory. In cold and warm cli-
- mates application of these sections is economically disadvantageous, for a
staircase on the floor serves a total of two apartments, and the cross ventila-
tion of the apartments in these zones is unnecessary. The location of the liv-
ing spaces uniformly on both sides of a section provides latitudinal free orien-
tation of the building (Figure 46b). In cases where the greater part or all of
the l~ving spaces are located on one side of a section, the building changes the
_ partially limited orientation (see Figure 46a).
The layout of the apartments is greatly influenced by the location of the kitch-
ens and the sanitary facilities. "rossible versi~~ns of their arrangement are
shown in Figure 47. Separate placement of the l~,:i.tchens and sanitary facilities
leads to an increase in t}:a number and length of supports in the building.
In the two-3partment sections it is expedient to design apartments of large area,
inasmuch as with small apartments the width of the building is diminished which
leads to increased cost of the living space.
81
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a
r
~ Sanitary facility
~ Kitchen
Figure 47. Arrangement of kitchens and sanitary facilities in two-apartment
sections. a--Adjacent on the outside wall; b--separately on the
stairwell walls; c--on the walls separating sections.
The three-apartment sections are more economical than two-apartment sections in-
asmuch as the cost of the stairs is distributed over a larger number of apart-
ments. The mrzjority of three-apartment sections has partially limited orienta-
tion; two apartments have two-sided orientation and one, of smaller area, one-
way orientation. The layout of the apartments can be symmetric with partially
limited orientation (Figure 48a), asymmetric with partially limited orientation
(Figure 48b), and asymmetric with limited orientation (Figure 48c). The three-
apartment sections with partially limited orientation have become most wide-
- spread in construction practice. The basic ways of arranging the kitchens and
sanitary facilities in the three-apartment sections are illustrated in Figure 49.
By orientation conditions the four-apartment sections can be subdivided into
sections of partially limited orientation (Figure SOa) and sections of limited
orientation (Figure SOb). The compactness and economicalness of the apartments
in the four-apartment sections have given rise to broad application of them in
mass housing construction. The kitchens and sanitary facilities in the sections
can be placed together (Figure 51a) or separately (Figure 51b). The deficien-
cies of the four-apartment sections can include absence of cross ventilation and
low city planning versatility.
In addition to the above-enumerated sections six- and eight-apartment sections
are used in high-rise buildings. These sections permit more efficient loading
of the stairs and elevators and lower their cost. The multiapartment sections
are primarily used in 16-story and higher buildings.
In addition to the sections of rectangular con�iguration sections with complex
plan are used in hc>using c:onstruction (three-ray, cross, and so on, Figure 52).
The threE,-ray secti:ons (F:igure 52a), the so-called three-leaves, permit ensur-
ance of good isolat:ion, cross and corner venti?ation of all apartments in the
three- and four-ap~~rtmenr sections and four apartments in the six-apartment sec-
tions.
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a 1-2-~. b 1-2-3
- ~ , � ~4 , 5 17,18 Q76 7,95
~ ~ , . ~ . 2~
.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
3~29 5
- n 191 1 9 2002 11,91 ~ 1 V82 7,95 11i0 1201
~`3600~-~600~3800~-3800-~ ~300U~3800-~360p�~3ppp,~3000~
~
1-2-3 ~
~ ~$10 6,81 12,11 14,2,8
~ ,~110 ' ~ ~
~ .
~i9
~ 57?4
~ 1155 795 8j2 1~i0.
- ~J�~~^~f~ ~'f
Figure 48. Layouts of three-apartment sections. a--Symmetric (with partially
limited orientation); b--asymmetric (with partially limited orien-
tation); c--the same (with limited orientation).
a b ~
w
i Sar~itary facil:Lr.y
~ Kitchen ~
Figure 49. Location of kitchens and sanitary facilities in three-a~artment sec-
tions. a--With entrance to the apart.ment on the stairwell walls;
b--with entrance to the apartment and in depth on the walls separat-
ing the sections; c--adjacent on insicie wall and stairwell walls.
83
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1-1-1-2 ~S 1-2-3-3 ~
"r Q12 61Y 1, ~ 8p011]0 20,3
~i � ~ ~ .
~ ~
R ~ g
~ > >s,o9 $
,
~~t~k~t~t� ~~I'~~~'~~~
_ ;
,
~
Figure 50. Layouts of four-apartment sections. a--Symmetric (with limited ori-
entation); b--the same (with partially limited orientation).
a ~ _ b. .
~
~ ~ d
~ Sanitary~facility
~ ~ Kitchen ,
Figure 51. Arrangement of the kitchen and sanitary facilities in a four-apart-
ment section. a--Ad~acent at the entrance to the apartment; b--the
same in depth of the apartment; c--separate at the entrance to the
apartment, sanitary facilities in depth of the apartment; d--the
same in the center of the apartment.
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~ ~ 1 3 4 4
3 1 7 2
1 7 1 2 2 2
' 3 ~ 2~~ 2 2 ~ 4 2~ 12 4
'4 4
6 . .
4
~I Y3 3 ~ I 32
1 .
~ 2 1 4 ' 4 ~ 4
~ 4
2j p 3
2 3
Figure 52. Diagrams of sections with complex layout and different number of
apartments. a--Three-leaved; b--crisscross.
a �
~ ~ ~ C .
b ,
~ ~
.
d - ~
e
Figure 53. Confif;uration of si~agle-secti~on buildings. a--Rectangular; b--T-
type; c--~hree-leaved; d--cri;sscross; e--block-pai�r; f--compl~~x.
The crisscross sections (Figure 52b) permit cross and corner ventilation of all
apartments in a four-apartment section, four apartments in a six-apartment sec-
tion and six apartments in an eight-apartment section. A deficiency of the
crisscross sections is reduced isolation of the corner apart~aent.
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Along with multisectional buildings in construction practice single-section
(point) buildings are used. The advantage of single-section buildings include
optimal isolation and ventilation conditions, comparatively small sizes in plan
view, one vertical communication assembly, and city planning versatility. The
configuration of single-section buildings can be rectangular, T-shaped, three-
leaved, crisscross, stepped, block-pair, complex, and so on (Figure 53a-f). The
economicalness of the layout of a single-section building depends to a great ex-
tent on the specific cost of the vertical communications (elevators, stairs) and
operating expenditures. The most economical are buildings with a compact layout
in the form of a square or circle. Such layouts give the most advantageous re-
lation between the perimeter of the outside walls and the floor area. The sin-
gle-section buildings are constructed on small lots which are cleared during ur-
ban renewal. The groups of point buiidings are constructed in the public center
of a microdistrict or a city, creating a compositional contrast with the low-
rise buildings of the public center.
Corridor buildings are designed for small families and singles. The basic com-
- munication unit in buildings of th~.s type is the corridor. As a rule, the
_ apartments are located on both sides of the corridor, and more rarely, on one
side. The cost of construction and operating expenditures in the corridor
buildings is appreciably lower than in section buildings. This is achieved as
the result of the fact that one corridor is used for a large number of apart-
ments, reduction of the number of stairs, elevators, garbage chutes, increase in
the width of the building as the result of locating the apartments on both sides
of the corridor, simplicity of structural designs, and so on. In the case of
central arrangement the corridors are lighted on one or b~th ends. The length
of Che corridor when lighting on one end must not exceed 20 m, and when lighting
; on two ends, 40 m. For more significant length of the corridors, light breaks
must be constructed in them, the distance between which must not be more than
20 m, and there must be no more than 30 m between the light break and the light-
ing of the end.
The common corridor between two stairs or between the end and the stazrway must
have a width of 1.4 m with a length to 40 m and 1.6 m with a length ~f more than
40 m. The width of the exits f rom the common corridors to the stairwells must
be no less than the width of the flight stairs leading to these exits.
The dooi-s to the outside exits f rom the st,airwells and also the do~~rs of the
exits from common corrido:rs must open in the direction of the exit from the
building. The apartments in corridor buildings, as a rule, are sms~ll--one- and
two-room apartments. The versio~zs of the layouts for corridor buildings and
their apartments are illustrated in Figure: 54.
Gallery biiildings are primarily used in areas witli hot climate. In areas with
cold clim~ite closed galleries are provided. Galltsries are constructed on one
side of th.e building; they service one or several stairways and ele�vators (Fig-
ure 55).
Just as co.rridor buildings, gallery buildings are distinguished by t~igh economi-
calness, gaod sanitary-hygienic qualities of the a~artments, cross v~entilation
and optima~: orientation of the apartments.
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a b
c
d
~ . .
9�~ .
OK K U pK N
e
~ 7 ~
N K
8K Cn ~ OH Cn OK Cn
Figure 54. Layouts of corridor buildings and apartment plans for them. Con-
figuration of the buildings: a--rectangular; b--with shift to in-
crease lighting and ventilation of the c.orridors; c--three-leaved.
Types of apartments: d--one-room; e--two-room; OK--living room;
Cn--bedroom; K--kitchen.
For insulation of the apartments from outside noise on the gallery side they have
, an entry, kitchen, sanitary facility, bath and closets. The living spaces are
on the opposite side. Stairs and galleries can be taken outside the building or
built into it.
Section 19. Corridor Apartment Houses and Dormitories
Corridor apartment houses are designed for temporary living of singles and
childless families. They are designed for students, builders, geodetic experts,
land reclamation people, and so on. The corridor apartment houses include liv-
ing quarters, auxiliary facilities and cultural-general services and medical fa-
cilities. The living quarters of corridor apartment houses are designed for two
or three people.
The corridor apartment houses are divided into specialiaed corridor apartment
h~uses and homes. The specialized corridor apartment houses inclurle dormitories
fc~r students in the general-education schools, professional-e~ngineering schools,
pupils at the children's t~omes, for the aged and invalids.
The homes are designed fot builders, students, postgraduates, and so on.
The homes are divid~d into two groups with respect to degree of cultural and
general services:
a) coi-ridor apartment houses with minimum service facilities (for indu,;trial and
office~ workers) and minimum sanitary-engineering equipment in the rooms;
b) improved-comfort corridor apartment houses (for students and postgraduates)
with expanded service facilities and expansion of the equipment in the rooms.
87
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a b
. ~
, ~ d
c
e
~ '
K
d( K ~ N ' .
~
~
K K H
N Cn K ~
Cn Qll Cn OK
ON Co OH Cn Cn OK
Figure 55. Layouts of gallery ana gallery-sectional buildings. a--Gallery
buildings with stairs outside the dimensions of the building; b--the
same with stairs included in the dimensions of the building; c--gal-
lery-sectional with stairs outside the dimensions of the building;
d--three-leaved with stairs included. in the building dimensions.
Types of apartments: e--one-roo~,; f--two-room; g--three-room (OK,
Cn, K, see Figure 54).
The corridor apartment houses can have different capacities: The capacity of
stationary corridor apartment houses is from 50 to 1~J0 people; in rural areas
the stationary corridor apartment houses can be smaller.
The basic space and floor planning unit in a corridor apartment house is. the
living unit which is designed for 10 to 12 p~eople. The 13vtng unit includes one
or two rooms for two, three or four people, ;sanitary facilities, built-in cup-
boards for linens and clothing, bath or showEar, kitchen.(Figure 56). The compo-
sition of the auxiliary facilit:tes is determj'.ned by the degree of comfort of the
corridor apartment house.
The area of the rooms i~ determined calculating 6 m2 per person. The rooms in a
corridor apartment house must be without pa~sages and no less than 2.2 m wide.
It is necessary to provide an exit from each room into the corridor direct?..y or
through an anteroom. The doors of the rooms in a corridor apartment house must
open inward and have seals in the frames. The rooms of corridor apartment
houses are equipped with built-i:n cupboards each 0.6 x 0.6 m for storing
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Y~
houseclothing and footwear. The number of compartments in the built-in closets
must be equal to the number of people living in the room.
0
O ~ ~
~ 1
. ~r~ ~ .
y , ~ ~.r~...
~
~ 25 6
13~5 13,5
6
,
. 12,30 1230 �
11,90
24,6
8~ 35,3 . ~
44,45
� Sp
~
'~y
Figure 56. Layouts of :Livin$ quarters (a); rooms f~~r 2-3 people in cc~rridor
apai�tment houses.
The living quarters, the cultural-general service facilities and corridors must
have direct natural lighting. The closets, the r~~oms for drying clothes and
footwear, showers, sewered toilets with one or two caater closets can have arti-
ficial l:tghting. Secondary light is permissible i~or the room for cleaning and
ironing clothes, and other auxiliary facilities.
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The kitchens in the corridor apartment houses are equipped with kitchen stuves,
sinks, cupboard-tables and hanging shelves. The kitchen equipment is installed
calculating one burner of a gas stove or solid-fuel stove per five people, one
burner of an electric stove per three people, one sink per cupboard-table per
eight people, one compartment of a wall or free-standing cupboard 0.3 x 0.3 m
per person. In the corridor apartment houses for students at the professional-
technical schools there must be one burner, one sink and one cupboard-table per
10 people.
The rooms for cleaning and ironing clothes must be equipped with sinks, ironing
bcards and built-in cupboards for the laundry accessories.
The service facilities in the corridor apartment houses are located on every
_ floor. Their layout on the different floors depends on the specialization of
the corridor apartment h~uses. The mandatory facilities include entrance halls
or lobbies, kitchens, activities room, a leisure room, laundry, various closets,
a room for cleaning and ironing clothes, a facility for drying clothing and
footwear, and an isolation room. In large corridor apartment houses the aux-
iliary facilities can i~zclude a snack bar, general services reception areas, a
library with reading roc~m, and so on.
Section 20. Design Examples and Their Technical-Economic Indices
One of the main problems solved when designing residential buildings is improve-
ment of the living comfort. Therefore future construction of residential build-
ings will develop in the direction of bringing certain forms of public services
as close as possib~.e to the user. One such example is the "Lebed Microdis-
trict (Moscow) in which four 16-story buildings are joined by a stylobate (a
one-story part of the building extending beyond the main body of the building),
where the garages are located in the underground section, and public and service
facilities in the above-ground part. It has a central lobby with coatroom,
vending machines, order office, a facility for storing seasonal clothing, ar~d a
room for storing perambulators (Figure 57a, b). Landscaped areas for leisure
are located on the stylobate.
In the Severnoye Chertanovo Residential District in Moscow provision is also
~a.de foi- finding the optimal service system and improving living cc~mfort. For
this di:ctrict a social se~rvice system has been developed for the pupulation, the
basic component of which :is concentrated in the large service enterprises within
the district. At the same~ time, the lobl~ies of th~~ residentia.l buildings have
domestic services receptic~n areas, order desks, a loan and lea:~ing office, auto-
inatic vendin,~, raa~~hines for primary necessitles. In each build:ing there are gen-
~~ral domestic f~ac:ilities: self-service laundries, perambulator storage, closets
for storing se~.sonal clothing and sports equipment.
This system makes it possible to consolidate the pui~lic service networks and
- bring them clos~e to the residents.
=
In addition to e:xpansion and bringinf; the service s}~stem closer, the future
designs of residential buildings provision will be nade for improving the
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operational characteristics of the apartment. One of the solutions improving
the comfort of an apartment is flexible layout. The princ~ple of such layout
consists in creating a free plan in the apartment which permits the creation of
various layout s,olutions within the same dimensions.
~ . � -
% : ~ � � ~ _
~ j ~ . ~ ~ , ~Seasohal
Peram- Lobby ~ ~clothing
bulato S~ ~ ' ;storage
storage � ,
� � ~ obby ~
I� �
~ ~ ~
~
~ . .
. ~ ~
_ . ~ ~
, . . .
. .
Game room Perambulator storage
6 4185
Children's
.room
~ Lobby
~8,0
~6 ~ ~ ~
~ ~
rati~ i
- ~~.t~~ ~ e~i,~
~e~` ~ Le1
roo~s~re
s
Figure 57. Designs of residential buildings. a--With reduced number of service
facilities; b--with expanded number of service facilities.
In the future the majority of families will live in apartments with the number
af rooms equal to the number of inembers of the famzly, and the norm ~or living
space and common area ir. the apartment will be increased. This will free the
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living room of the sleeping space function and join it to the kitchen and entry,
which, in turn, will offer the possibility of obtaining a large room, and ordi-
narily using the living room, kitchen and entry for their direct purposes sepa-
rately (Figure 58a, b).
a
~
s D
~
i~ ~ ' ~
~tv~ VI .
a
~6 '
~o~ o
? ? ?
r~ ~ .
Z 5
s 3
_ - ~
Figu:re 58. F:toor plan:s for apa~rtments with room conversion. a--Combination of
adjacent rooms; b--~varying the floor plan of the apartment as a
function of the family cc~mposition.
The modern structural de;~igns of residential houses create prerequisites for the
development and introduction of flexible apartment floor planning into the hous-
ing construction. In such apartments, sliding partitions or the installation of
closet partitions will allow the number of rooms to be varied depending on the
composition of the family (Figure 58b).
For determination of the economicalness and efficiency of the archi:tectural de-
sign and structural solutions of the buildings various coefficient:; are used.
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- The space-floor planning coefficients K1 and K2 which have been used in our
country since 1927 are used in design practice. At the present time these coef-
ficients are insufficient for developing the solution to ail of the problems
arising during technical-economic evaluation of a design. Therefore other plan-
ning indices characterizing the effectiveness of the design aolutiona are
finding application in design practice. The coefficient of compactness of the
plan K3 is the ratio of the perimeter of the outside walls to the com~on area.
The smaller K3, that is, the specific perimeter of the outside walls, the lower
the expenditures on erecting them. Families with square or rectangular shape of
plan have the smallest coefficient K3. Here, the wider the building, the
smaller the perimeter of the outside walls obtained for equal area of coverage.
In the existing standard designs for housing K3 fluctuates within the limits of
of 0.16 to 0.25.
The structural factor K4 characterizes the degree of saturation of the building
plan with vertical structures (outside and inside walls, partitions and columns),
and it is defined as the ratio of the structural area occupied by the vertical
structures in plan view to the area of coverage of the building. The value of
the structural factor depends on the floor plan solution, the structural design
and the material of the vertical structures. The coefficient K4 fluctuates
within the limits of 0.1 to 0.2. The smaller the value of this coefficient, the
more economical tt~e design solution.
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Chapter IV. Public Buildings
Section 21. General Princi~les of the Design of Public Buildings
Public buildings and structures are designed for social, general services, cul-
tural and communal services to the population.
The architecture of public buildings, their location and relation to the overall
built-up area play an important role in the creation of the architectural layout
of a city. The most signif icant public buildings (administrative, cultural-edu-
cational and commerce) are located in the general municipal center, on the cen-
tral squares and thoroughfares. The city planning significance of large public
buildings is intensified when combining them into complexes. In order to iso-
late public buildings from the overall development it is necessary to approach
the architectural expression of these buildings.
The basis for classifying public buildings is the division of them into classes.
With respect to the set of certain attributes, buildings and structures of each
type are divided into four classes. The class I public buildings include build-
ings and structures on which increased requirements are imposed, and class IV
buildings include those on which minimum requirements are imposed (sanitary-
hygienic, service life, fireproofness, and o ther requirements). Depending on
the significance, public buildings are basically classified as class II, III and
IV. Class I includes the unique public buildings.
With respect to degree of firegroofness public buildings are divided into five
degrees. The degree of fireproofness is characterized by the combustibility
group and fireproofness limit of the basic structural elements. The degree of
fireproofness of public buildings is taken as follows:
For class I buildings no less than degree II
For class II buildings no less than degree III
For classes III and IV buildings degree of fireproofness not standardized
For the case of the occurrence of a fire in the building, provisibn must be made
- for the possibility of safe evacuation of people through the emergency exits.
No less than two evacuation exits are provided for each building.
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The distance from the doors of the most remote rooms in public building~ to the
oatside exit or stairwell is taken according to SNiP II-L.2-72 by the data pre-
sented in Table 8.
Table 8. Distance From the Doors of the Most Remote Rooms to the Outside Exit
or Stairwell, m ~
Degree of Fireproofness of the Building
I, II III IV V
Exit from rooms located between
stairwells or outside exits:
In kindergartens 20 15 12 10
In hospitals 30 25 20 15
In other public buildings 40 30 25 20
Exit from rooms to a blind
corridor:
_ In kindergartens 20 15 12 10
In other public buildings 25 15 12 10
The service life of the basic structural elements must be no less than degree I
for class I buildings, degree II for class II and degree IV for class III build-
ings. The service life of the basic structural elements for class IV buildings
is not standardized.
The func�ional interrelation of the rooms and the functional process taking
place in the buildings must be used as the basis for the design solutions of
public buildings.
The variety and complexity of functional processes occurring in public buildings
are reflected in the interrelation and sequence of the arrangem~nt of the rooms.
In accordance with this scheme, certain rooms must be connected directly, others
through corridors, stairs, escalators and elevators.
When developing the plan for a building it is necessary to establish the layout
of the rooms, their shape and size as a function of their purpose. The rooms
and public buildings are divided into the following groups with respect to pur-
pose:
basic rooms in ~which basic functional processes are realized (the auditoriums of
movies and theaters; classrooms in schools and technical high schools; vending
rooms of stores and degartment stores, and so on);
auxiliary facilities (kitchens, sanitary facilities, lobbies, coatrooms, and so
on);
communication links and facilities--stairways, elevators, escalators, ramps,
corridors and galleries.
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The layout of the rooms is established considering the sequence of functional
grocesses occurring in the building and giving rise to one.people.flow or an-
other in it.
During the process of creating the layout of the inside space of a building i~
is necessary to ensure correspondence of all of the areas and heights of the
rooms to the design norms and also to provide for satisfaction of the sanitary-
hygienic and fire-safety requirements. These requirements include proper orien-
tation of the rooms with respect to points of the compass, insulation, natural
illumination, a defined degree of fireproofness of both individual structural
elements and the building as a whole.
The quality of the architectural layout depends to a significant degree un how
clearly the ma.in element is distinguished in the spatial structure of the build-
ing and to what degree all of the remaining elements of the layout are tied to
the main one as a united whole. Beginning with these conditions, the spatial
structure of public buildings is divided into three basic systems: cellular,
large hall systems and the combined system.
The cellular system is used in buildings in which comparatively small rooms of
identical area are necessary. This systeun can be solved by the corridor, cor-
ridor-free and suite scheme (Figure 59a-c).
a _ . b
~ f I 1~
I I I I I I I I I
- c I
T
I I ~
,
l.__._1_
!
Figure 59. Layouts of public buildings. a--Corridor; b--suite; c--corridor-
free.
In the case of application of the corridor scheme the rooms are arranged along
one or both sides of a corridor connected to stairwells (see Figure 59a). The
corridor layout is used in schools and administrative buildings and polyclinics.
In the suite layout the rooms are arranged one after the other and are connected
by doorways. The suite system is used in museums, palaces and other buildings
(Figure 59b).
The corridor-free layout is constructed in the form of a compact layout w�ith en-
trance to all the rooms from a coaunon small hall (Figure 59c).
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The large h~all system is used in buildings where rooms with large areas are re-
quired. Several large roows are grouped togPther (theaters, sports arenas, ex-
hibition pavilions, and so on). Tl~zis syst.em is used for the 3asign of build3ngs
with large halls in which th~re are internal supports (department stores, res-
taurants and other auxiliary institutions and enterprises in planning respects).
The combined system is based on combiuing the cellular and the large hall sys-
tems (such rooms as large halls are grouped with smaller rooms).
A11 three systems promote the creation of a regular grouping of the internal
spaczs of the building.
The space and floor-planning solution of build3ngs depends to a great extent on
the adopted struetural diagram.
When constructing low-rise and medium-rise public buildings, large panels, mod-
ules and bricks are used. The structural systems are the same as in residential
buildings. In public buildings the frame system has become most widespread. It
ensures stability of the building, free planning of the inside space, reduction
of structural elements, and so on.
Frame buildings are resolved with respect to the frame-connector and connector
systems using standar3ized structural elements (columns, collar beams, fl.oor
panels, stiffening cores) (Figure 60a, b).
In addition to the general requirements which must be satis~ied by any public
build~ng, the requirements of economicalness are imposed on it. The space-floor
planning and operational technical-economic indices exist for this purpose.
The space-floor plar~ning indices include the following indices: the total
structural volume, working area, usable area and coefficients K1 and K2.
~ The total structural volume of a building in m3 consj.sts of the basic heated
volume of ~he building and the unheated volume--basement, attic, and so on. ,
The working area of public buildings is defined as the sum of the areas for the
basic purpose, service and auxiliary purposes, with the exception of stairwells,
corridors, vesti~ules, passages and also the engineering facilities in which the
power and sanitary-er,gineering equipment is located (boilerrooms witn auxil3ary
facilities, boilers, ventilation chambers, the elevator machinerooms, and so
on). The corridor areas used as recreation or waiting rooms and also as
lounges in movies, hospitals, sanatoriums, and so on must be included in the
_ working area. The engineering facility areas, the composition of which depends
on the purpose of the building, the capacity and the volume (broadcast centers,
_ panel and auxiliary facilities for sets and scenes, movie equipment, and so on)
, are included in the working area.
The total area of public buildings is defined as the sum of the working area of
the buildings, the area of the corridors, the vestibules, passages and also the
areas designated for engineering purposes.
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;
t
a
2
1
2
6 ~
Z Z
3
r1.
r 4 . '
J,. . .
'i~
~ , i
'
. `
Figure 60. Basic structural diagrams of public buildings. a--Frame with cross-
frames; b--frame-connector; 1--columns; 2--collar beams;_3--flat
connecting element; 4--three-dimensional connecting element.
The efficiency of the space-floor plan solution to the building is reve~led by
the coefficients K1 and K2. The coefficieat K1 indicates the ratio of the work-
ing area to the usable area. The coefficient K2 reveals the ratio of the volume
~f the buildings to the total ar8a. .
~ Section 22. Classification of Public Buildings
With respect to functional purpose public buildings and structures are classi-
fied as the following types:
training-educational institutions--kindergartens, general education schools,
professional-technical schools, technical secondary schools, institutes, and so
on;
trade and public eating facilitiea--trade centers, department stores, stores,
markets, drugetores, restaurants, dining rooms, coffee shops;
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general services enterprises--workshops, chemical cleaning, studios for various
purposes, barbershops, baths, laundries, and so on;
cultural-education inst itutions--librariES, museums, movie theaters, circuses,
palaces and Pioneer Houses, and so on;
public health insrallations, physical culture and social security--hospitals,
dispensaries, polyclinic s, sanatoriums, health resorts, sports facilities, Pio-
neer camps, and homes for the elderly and invalid;
communications enterprises and installations--post offices, telegraph o':fices,
telephone offices and radiobroadcast centers;
administrative and public organizational installations--ministries and depart-
ments, councils of people's deputies, public procurator offices, courts, ar-
chives, registry offices, and agencies charged with keeping order;
- transportation enterprises--railroad, highway, river, marine ports and airports,
motor transport offices, steamship directorates, Aeroflot agenci~:s, and so on.
All of the public installations and organizations in the city planning structure
are divided into four groups with respect to degree of service to the population:
first group--pri.mary serv3ce installations (self-service laundries, repair shops
and children's rooms);
second group--daily-use installations (institutes, technical high schools,
schools, kindergartens, produce stores, order desks, reception stations, dinj~~;;
rooms, libraries);
third group--periodic-us e:installations (restaurants, stadiums, trade centers,
post off ice, telegraph office, palaces and Pioneer Houses);
fourth group--sporadic-use installations (administrative installations and orga-
nizations, theaters, museums, health resorts, sanatoriums, registry offices and
archives).
The composition and the system of cultural-general services buildings are influ-
enced by the size of the microdistrict. Depending on its size there can be
various cor~binations of public service groups. Some functions of certain groups
can be. combined.
Depending on the norma.tive radii of accessibility of an installation (the length
of the pedestrian walk to it) the cultural-general services are administered in
a municipal system by a three-stage system (the primary housing group, microdis-
trict, district). It offers the possibility of creating large housing complexes.
The first service stage is the primary servicing with a radii of 150-200 m, the
normative number of people in the service area is 1,500 to 2,500. This block
will include primary necessity installat3ons and ente.rprises: the receiving
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stations of laundries and workshops for repair and sewing of footwear, snack
- vending machines, and so on.
T'he second service phase with a radius of no more than 300 to 500 m includes the
cultural and general services installations joined at the trade center of the
microdistrict designed for daily servicing of 9,000 to 25,000 people (produce
stores, schools, kindergartens, dining rooms, and so on).
The third service phase is the service center. of the district or large microdis- ;
trict including installations and enterprises of periodic and sporadic use (the-
aters, museums, post office, telegraph office, and so on).
The enterprises and installa~ions for servicing the population are designed in
accordance with SNiP II-60-75 depending on the specific conditions. The con-
solidation of the ser~~ice enterprises and cooperation uf them lead to eccnomic
and operating ac~vantages--a reduction in conatruction cost, reduction in service
personnel staffs. For this purpose the trade enterpri~es and installations are
combined into trade centers.
Section 23. Basic Floor Plans of Public Buildings
- For each type of public building, depending oa its purpose, capacity and service
life, a particular floor plan is adopted.
The primary element in the public education system is the kindergartens. Kinder-
. gartens are divided up as follows with respect to nature and time of operation:
day-cara, designed for the children to be present from 0900 to 1400 hours;
round-the-clock, in which the children are present 6 days out of the week;
mixed, where some groups are present only in the daytime and others, round the
clock.
The kindergarten buildings must be designed universal for day-care and round-
the-clock presence of children. The capacity of the kir:dergartens must be no
less than as follows: 140 places for cities, 90 places for urban-type s~ttle-
ments, 25 places for rural populated ar~as.
'The service radius for these institutions ie as follows: 400-500 m for kinder-
gartens, 300-400 m for day nurseries, and 300-500 m for day nursery and kinder-
garten combined.
- The buildings for preschools consist of three basic groups of facilities:
children, com~on for all groups, administrative-management.
The children's facilities include cloakrooms and reception roomsy game rooms and
dining rooms, sleeping porches, toilets, snack bars and bedrooms.
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The facilities coum~on to all children's groups include the music and physical
culture activities ha?1 and game room, the isolation room for sick children and
medical office.
The admiu,istrative-management facilities include the feeding unit, cleaning fa-
cilities, the director's office, personnel office and other management facili-
ties.
The basis for the space and floor plan layout of the buildings for kindergartens
and day nurseries is the interrelation between the enumerated groups of facili-
ties (Figure 61). With respect to the planning attribute the buildinge are sub-
divided inta the centraliz~d buildings with internal communications between in-
dividual groups of fac3lities (Figure 62a); blocked with communications between
individual groups of facilities through a heated passage (Figur~ 62b); pavilion
with communications between the groupe of facilities through a yard or unheated
passages (Figure 62c).
- -
~2 CyWH~bHdH N ~
fABJ~NJIbMaA B~ .`.6
Er.trance 1 ( ~ ~ Entrance
t0 N30l1fi- 6E?168- - ~j ~,p t~ bM(.
ro sa~ naA n6M~ar to kin~
nur ery t~n
~ IIPN9MH8A l/ 7~ ~d9er4 I.O Pa~ A 'O .
~ bb 11 ~
8~ ~12~ ~
Game O
~ Group lounge
~ �
~8) ~9) (13) ~ _ (14)
Figure 61. Diagram of the functional communications of facilities for day nur-
series and kindergartens.
Key: 1. Isolation room 8. Snack bar
2. Drying and ironing room 9. Toilet
3. Linen room 10. Director's office
4. Distribution room 11. Medical aid station
5. Storeroom 12. Coatroom
6. Music room 13. Washroom
7. Reception room 14. Toilet
The space and floor planning solutiona of kindergartens and day nurseries must
be taken considering the climatic conditions, the structural and other possible
conditions and also considering the peculiarities of the functional purpose of
the buildings. When locating kindergartens and day nurseries in a two-story
building, facilities are placed on the first floor for nursery-age children, the
medical office, isolation room, director's office and management facilities.
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The administrative and other auxiliary facilities can be placed in the basement
under t~ie condition of provision of a separate entrance from the outside. ~
~ ~ ~ ~
. ~
- Figure 62. Layout ~f, buildings for kindergartens and day nurseries. a--Cen-
tralized; b--block~d; c--pavilion.
The set of facilities for one group of chi].dren makes up a cell. The facilities
for each group cell must be isolatad from the facilities of other group cells;
internal communications between each cell and the medical facilities, the music
room and gymnastics exerci,s~~ room and also the administrative-manage~ent facili-
ti.es mcst be provided. The following direct communications must be provided in
the nursery-age group cells--game and dining room with the reception room,
sleeping porch or bedroom, toilet and snack bar; in the preschool-age group
cells, group lounge with cloak~oom, sleeping porch or bedroom, toilet and snack
bar.
The entrances to each group cell and exits from it to the yard must be the short-
est possible. This arises from the necessity for providing fa~t evacuation of
the children from the building in case of fire.
In the case of kinder~artens and day nurseries it is necessary to organize sec-
tions ~ahich are divided into zones: general children's areas, green spaces, and
administrative-management.
The public education system includes general education schools and boarding
schools. ~n example nomenclature of the universal buildings for general educa-
tion schools (Table 9) has been c,ompiled for designing schoolbuildings in SNiP
II-L.2-71.
The composition of the general educati.on schools and boarding schools depends on
the purpose and capacity of the buildings while observing the basic requirements:
for classes in the in~omplete middle school, classrooms must be attached for
each class;
for training in the middle school, specialized training offices must be orga-
nized;
the quality of the study rooms and laboratories must be determined by their car-
rying capacity (when operating the school in two shifts).
The schoolbuildings are designed considering the combination of rooms into sec-
tions and groups:
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~ the training sections (separate.ly for the classes of the incomplete middle
school and the middle school classes) made up of four (but no more than six)
classes of study halls with recreational facili~ies and sanitary facilit~es;
the groups of sports training facilities for mass cultural and sports work;
the groups of general school training and training-educational facilities;
the facilities for general school purposes (dining rooms, snack bars, adminis-
trative-management and medical services, and so on).
Table 9. Arrangement, Number of Places and Sizes of Yards for General Education
Schools and Boarding Schools
Sizes
of
Yards,
Arrangement Institution Number of Places Capacity of Schools ha
Microdistrict Primary, in- Calculating 100% Primary for 4 classes:
(settlement, complete mid- coverage of 40 sr~.idents 0.3
rural popu- dle and mid- cliildren by in- 80 students 0.5
lated area) dle schools complete mi,:dle Incomplete middle for
education and 8 classes:
75% by middle 192 students 1,2
educ~tion 320 students 1,7
Boarding By design assign- Middle:
schools ment (consider- For 10 classes,
ing the norms 392 students 2.0
for a middle For 12 classes,
Rchool) 46!~ students ~.0
- For 16 ~lasses,
624 students 2,0
For 20 classes,
784 students 2,2
For 30 classes,
1,176 students 2,8
For 40 classes,
1,568 students 3.0
For 50 classes,
1,960 students 4.0
For 280 students 2.0
For 340 students 2.2
For 560 students 2.5
Notes: 1. For reconstruct~on conditions the dimensions of the yard can be de-
creased, but by no more than 20 percent. 2. In climatic subdistricts
� IA, IB, ID the dimensions of the yards can be decreased, but by no more
than 40 percent. 3. The sanatorium-forestry schools and specialized
schools are designed according to the design assignment.
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The arrangement of the groups and aections must be subordinate to the functional
communicatione of the facilities (Figure 63). Here it is necessary to provide
for isolation of groups of facilities from each other, for example, the study
zooms should be isolated from sporte and activities halls, dining rooms and
workshops.
The basic floor plan unit in a scttool is the classroom. The classroom area
(50 m2) is designed for 40 students (1.25 m2 per student). The classrooms are
divided into longitudinal 6 x 9 m with one-sided illumination (Figure 64a),
transverse 6 x 9.6 m(Figure 64b) and square 7.2 x 7.2 m(Figure 64c) with one-
sided illumination and additional illumination through the recreation area (fa-
cilities for leisure, extracurricular activities, and $o on).
m
Snack
N r ~ ~
a~
~ 1 ecreatio bar ecreatio ~1 ~ ~
~~-1 e.y~ N n e
c e s~ ~,A K e 6 N w e r si O U
u ,--I
a ~
d~ x
5 ~
' ~ ~P"`' ~ ~ Library ~ ~
" Entrance
u~ ,-i ~
y~-+ .
~ hall MoAnyaNT ~
_ ~ w Coatroo " ~
06w�c.a. o
p Opf8MN3~LLMN ~
� - ~v;
Figure 63. Diagram of the functional communications of the schoolbuilding rooms.
Key: 1. Sanitary facilities 5. Director
2. Classrooms 6. Office
3. Teachers' room 7. Medical aid station
4. Offices 8. Public organizations
a b c .
g ~ ~ 8 ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~
~a ~a ~
~ ~ , ~
~ ~ ~~o ~
~ ~o
Figure 64. Type of classrooms. a--Longitudinal; b--transverse; c--square.
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The space and floor plan layout of modern echoolbuildings can be centralized,
blocked aad pavilion.
The centralized composition is characterized by compactness, integralness of the
space and the floor-planning solution (Figure 65a). The buildings designed by
this layout can be freely located on the shaded sites. It is expedient to use
such solutions for schools of inedium capacity (to 960 ~tudents).
For blocked layout the schoolbuilding consists of individual buildings connected
to each other by heated passages (Figure 65b). I~ is usually used for large-
capacity schools and permits separatiott of the students into flows.
a b
0 ~
S
~
c
/
/
~
. /
Figure 65. Space and floor-planning layout of schoolbuildings. a--Cez~tralized;
b--blocked; c--pavilion.
The pavilion layout is resolved :in the form of separate buildings (teaching, ac-
tivities, sleeping in the case of boarding schools) (Figur�e 65c). This layout
permits construction of the sch~~olbuilding in areas with complex relief and
seismics.
A yard in front of the school niuat be organized for every schoolbuilding. The
planning and organization of the yard play an important role in the training
process. Part of the trainiag exercises are conducted in the yard (botany,
geography, work, and so on). The yard usually is divided into zones: training-
_ experimental (vegetable garden, meteorological area, and so on); sports (sports
center, gymnastics camp); management, game and recreation area (sandbox, benches,
cooling pond, and so on). The number of zones and their areas depend on the
capacity of the schoolbuilding, available territory and other conditions.
Proper organization of the network of commercial enterprises improves the daily
living conditions of the workers. Stores make up the b~sic type of retail
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enterprise. With respect to purpose, number of workplaces and turnover of
goods, stores are divided into large, medium and small. Thes~ are aleo distin-
guished ae follows:
with respect to trade profile--nonspecialized (produce, industrial, mixed); spe- '
cialized (clothing, footwear, and so on); narrowly specialized (bread, child-
ren's clothing, knitted fabrice); combiaed (groceries and provieions, fruit and
vegetables); combined and universal (a wide aseortment of industrial and produce
goods);
with respect to forms of trade--selling with the help of sales clerks, self-
service method, orders;
with respect to space and floor planning, separately standing and built-ia or
annexed.
_ 1 ~
En ineerin ~0h1E~""A A"" Auxiliar �
g g 70~~~0~ N%~aM@HNA facilities
facilities P
1 ,,;g (2) a
i0 c0 N - :
m
~~~ro � N u ~
~ u = . ~ >
' ~ Sales room c"d a~i ~
a~
v of a store ~ ~ `
oa~i ~ .
a~
U 1~.1 b �
. ' '
_ ' -
Figure 66. Functional relatione of commercial enterprise facilities.
Key: 1. Facilities for receiving and storing goods
2. Order receiving and delivery
The space and floor-planning solutions of buildings for stores must ensure con-
venience for the buyers, the poesibility of organizing commerce by advanced
methods, the application of all-around mechanization means for handling goods
and materials (Figure 66).
With respect to functional purpose tha facil.ities making up stores and depart-
ment stores are divided into four groupe:
trade facilities--the sales rooms, receiving and delivering orders, intermediate
products, and so on;
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facilities for receiving, storing and preparing goods for sale--receiving, un-
loading, storage, and so on;
administrative and general services facilities--the director's office, public
organizations offices, toilets, showers, and so on;
auxiliary facilities--storage of packaging, stockroom, washrooms, garbage rooms;
engineering facilities--ventilation chambers, electric panel, heating unit.
The space and floor plan structure of the buildings of trade enterprises must be
develqped considering the functional interrelation of the facilities of these
enterprises:
the sales rooms must be connected with the facilities for preparing the goods
for sale and storage facilities. The sales rooms must be located so that if
necessary they can be isolated from the other groups of facilities;
the entrance to the administrative and general services, auxiliary and engineer-
ing facilities must be designed separately, without passage through the sales
rooms and facilities for storage and preparation of goods for sale;
the receiving rooms must be located on the administrative caurt side and as
close as possible to the facilities for storing goods.
It is possible to distinguish four floor plan schemes for the commercial and
auxiliary facilities in a store building: end, deep, frontal and combined (Fig-
ure 67a-d). The advanced procedure in design and production practice is coop-
eration of various commercial enterprises with separately standing build3.ngs.
The stores are located on streets, thoroughfares and squares, near public trans-
portation stops, on the traffic patterns of the basic flows of the population.
The placement of the stores must exclude intersection of the flows of customers
with intense motor vehicle traffic.
The territories of commercial enterprises consist of the following zones: for
customers, unloading goods, garbage collection.
The public feeding enterprises muet be efficiently located within the structure
of the city, the housing district or microdistrict. WiCh respect to purpose
they are divided into microdistrict (small cafes, dining rooms and kitchens);
district--a broad network of snack bars, cafes, dining rooms and restaurants;
municipal--large cafes and restaurants.
With respect to nature of the product, the public feeding enterprises are di-
vided into procurement, production of intermediate products designed for dining
rooms, restaurants and public sale in specialized stores handling intermediate
products and cookeries; preprepared food p�roducts and stores selling products in
the form of ready-to-eat dishes.
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$ b c
Sales
room Sales room
Sales
_ ~ .1?
room
?
d
Sales room
, , .s
Figure b7. Space-floor plan layouts of store buildings. a--End; b--in depth;
c--frontsl; d--combined.
In accordance with the production process all of the facilities of the public
eating enterprises are divided into facilities for guests, production, sCorage,
administrative-general services and engineering.
The space and floor-planning structure of the buildings of the public eating en-
terprises depends on the specific naCure of the enterprise, the nature of the
production process and its capacity. The basic layout is mutual arrangement o�
different groups oF facilities and numbers of stories of the buildings (Figure
68).
With respect to layaut the indicated buildings can have three basic arrange-
ments:
a) centric; its essence lies in the fact that the production facilities are lo-
cated in the center of the room, and the facilities for guests wiCh distribution
around them. This layout offers the possibility of increasing the sales front
and separating the facilities for guests into a number of rooms (Figure 69a);
b) in depth; this layout is characterized by division of zones along the short
side of the plan; ~ust as in the frontal system the production process is effi-
cien (Figure 69b);
c) corner; in which all of the production fac3.lities are grcuped in one corner
of the building, and the facilities for guests are ad3acent to it on two sides.
This layout is efficient when locating buildings at an angle (Figure 69c).
The site for public feeding enterprises is divided into the following zones:
for guests and administrative for bringing raw materials into the enterprise.
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_
Administrative ~ ~
o ~ . fa il �ie ~ ~
a~ c~ v
F, :d Prepre- Stora e ~ cud
pared g r~ v.,
~ ~
~
a~
~ ~ � . a~
~ ~ o Dining ~room ' ' ~
HG! H ~ .
Gi
~
Figure 68. Functional communications diagram of the facilities of pu~blic feed-
ing enterprises.
a b c
Dining
~ ' ,
Dining room
roo~ Dining
~ room ?
- e,
Figure 69. Space and floor-planning layout of the buildings of a public feeding
enterprise. a--Centric; b--in depth; c--corner.
The most widespread form of auditorium bui7.dings is the movie theaters which are
classified by the following attributes: with respect to nature of operation--
year-round and seasonal; with respect to number ~f auditoriums--single audito-
rium, double auditorium, three or more; with respect to capacity--200, 400, 600,
800, 1,000, 1,200 an~i 1,600 places; with respect to equipment for showing films--
with ordinary screen, wide screen, wide format, panoramic.
In a movie theater it is possible to isolate Che following groups: viewing (the
entrance hall with ticket offices, foyer, toilets, auditoriums); movie equipment
(movie equipment room, rewind room, sanitary facilities, storage battery room,
acid room and electric panel); administrative-management (ticket offices, man-
ager's off ice, billboards, carpenter's shop); auxiliary-engineering (ventila-
tion, electric panel).
The layout and area of each group of facilities are developed in accordance with
the capacity of the auditoriums of the theater. The interrelation and location
of the individual groups of rooms in movie theaters are i1lusCrated in Figure 70.
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_
I ~
A~-~ I
~torium ~
\ /
\ /
\ /
/ / ~
~ ~ x ~
~ ~ Foyer ' ~
~ ~ c~d
C!~ Cl~.G
V
~ 2 ~ 'P~ ~ Y~rri ~i ~
~ ~ �
~ 3~ K~tw Ca ~d T M' S~
-
Figure 70. Functional communications layout of movie theatere.
Key: 1. Movie equipment room 4. Sanitary facilities
2. Administrator ' S. Manager
3. Ticket off ice
_ a L1111111J 6 -
rrz
~r--~---ti . . . . ~ .
Tr-
.
= _ . .
t - = 1
= - I
.
. ~""T
Figure 71. Diagrams of the space and floor-planning layout of movie theaters.
a--End; b--frontal.
Movie theater buildings can be designed w3.th respect to two layouts: end and
frontal. In the end layout the lobby, the distribution rooms and auditor3.um are
placed along one axis in series corresponding to the movement of the viewers
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(Figure 71a). In the frontal system the distribution rooms or foyer is located
along the principal facade (Figure 7J.b).
There must be frEe access around the movie theater building, and in the case of
large movie theaters it is necessary to provide parking for automob~?les.
Section 24. Design of Entrances and ~acuation Lsobl~ms
All public buildings, independently ot their purpose, have general layout e~.e-
ments. These include the entrance halls, coatrooms, vertical and horizontal
communications (corridors, anterooms, stairs, elevators, escalators, and so on),
the location and the di.mensions of which are different depending on the type of
public building, capacity, and the space-floor plan design.
The lobby is the part of the entrance including the vestibule, coatrooms and
auxiliary facilities.
The entrance hall is designed for keeping heat in the,lobby. With respect to
' floor plan it can be built in, that is, be part of the building space or an-
nexed. The depth of the vestibule depends on the width of the doors used and
must be no less than 1.5 times the door width. In,public buildings with a con-
- tinucus flow of customers (department stores, large stores, and so on) a heat
curtain is created in the entry by using heating elements. The direction of the
people fl.ow in the entries must be as straight line as possible without sharp
or steep turns (Figure 72a).
b
? `0 ~I Cc~s~troo
a e `s , , , M~HHH
,
; ,_H�.:.; ; Lobby
ea - "
�*'curta~.a3�
~
- . . II~JI
. En y '
-
C p. 3
1
k~~
H ~
NI#HMHI
NNf HMNfNN
� ~ ~
Figure 72. Examples of entries, lobbies and coatrooms. a--Double entries; b--
lobby; c--coatrooms: 1.--single-rack; 2--two-rack; 3--island.
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The lobby is the principal distribution area in a public building, from which
the vertical and horizontal communications radiate leading to the basic and aux-
iliary facilities (Figure 72b). The space and floor-planning solution of the
l.obby is determined by the functional purpose of the building, its capacity, and
so or_. There can be several lobbies in the largest public buildings: the ma~n
lobby and auxiliary lobbies, for exampl.e, in a theater, the main one for the
spectators and auxiliary for artists and administration. As a rule, the lobby
is lighted with natural light.
The coatrooms are usually placed in the lobby or alongside it, in a special room
somewhat to the side of the basic flows of customers. Depending on the loca-
tion, the coatroom can be one-sided, two-sided,and island type (Figure 72c).
The area of_ the coatroom behind the barrier is taken reckoning 0.07 to 0.1 m2
per place. The depth of the coatroom must not exceed 6 m.
The basic horizontal co~nunications in public buildings are corridors which join
the rooms of one floor and have exits to vertical communications.
The width of the corridors and other horizontal communications, depending on the
type of building, can be different. Minimun corridor width for mass movement in
public buildingb is taken as 1.5 m. Tn medical treatment and preventive facili-
ties the corridor width is taken no less than 2.2 m, and in institutions of
_ learning, no less than 1.8 m.
The vertical communications in public buildings and structures include stairs,
ramps, escalators and elevators.
Depending on the purpose stairs can be the main stairs designed for basic flows
- and secondary, in case of emergency evacuation. The main stairs usually are
_ connected with the lobby an~ lead to the basic faci].ities of the building. The
flight width of the main stairs is no less than 1.35 m on a floor with more than
- 200 people and also in movies, clubs and hospitals. In the rest of the build-
ings, independently of the type of building or number of people on the floor,
1.2 m. The width of the stair landings must be no less than the flight width
and no less than 1.2 m, and in hospitals, no less than 1.5 m.
- In some cases the stairs are replaced by ramps.which are in the form of an 3.n-
clined plane wiChout steps. The slope of the ramps must not exceed 1:6. As a
result of the low slope ramps take up more space than stairs, and therefore they
are less economical.
With respect to purpose in public buildings elevators are used for lifting peo-
ple and freight. The basic types of elevators in public buildings are freight-
passenger elevators and freight elevators.
When it is necessary to move significant flows from one floor to the next (in
large department stores, auditoriums) escalators are used. Escalators are a
moving stairway and are classified as a continuous-moving lift. One escalator
1 m wide can move up to 150 passengers per minute independently of the height of
rise.
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Section 25. Examples of Design�5ol~ticns a~d Their ~e~hAical-~conomic Indices
The economicalness of design ,,olutions of publxc buildings is determined by the
following indices: the capacity or carrying capacity of the building, the
space-floor planning and structural solution, the organization of the production
or functional process, level of engiaeering equipment, and so on.
One of the most effective methods of decreasing capital and operating expenses
ie consolidation and cooperation of public buildings. Thus, increasing the ca-
pacity of a movie from 400 to 1,200 lowers the operating expenditures by 36 per-
cent; for cooperation of co~nercial enterprises and institutions in public cen-
ters the estimated cost of construction is reduced by 10-25 percent by compari-
son with the cost of separately standing bui].dings. Kindergartens and day nur-
series are the most widespread in the cooperation of buildings. This is ex-
- plained by the fact that for approximately the same expenditures per place, the

- usabl.e area of the building increases, the operating expenses and the mainte-
nance of service personnel reduced. Increasing the capacity of day nurseries
and kindergartens from 140 to 180 places permits the construction cost per place
to be reduced by 15 percent. More economical solutions to the day nurseries and
kindergartena can be achieved by using portable partitions, built-in, combined
and folding furniture.
A large cost effectiveness is derived from the application of large multipurpose
rooms (~'igure 73a) (a large hall-type room can be used as an auditorium, for
sports, showing movies, and.so on) and also the design of these rooms wi.th flex-
ible floor plan, that is, the possib3.lity of changing the layout of the facili-
ties by using sliding partitions.
Certain trends in the development of entertainment buildings and structures are
reflected by the movie theaters. These trends consist in finding solution,s
which will more.completely correspond Co the modern requirements for servj.ce
comfort. In the movies proviaion is made for the expansion of the foyer ~with
snack bar, air conditioning, the installation of modern movie equipment, and so
on. A new type of cooperative building has been developed for a movie tYzeater
with restaurant and club facilities which permits operation of the building not
only when showing films or having concerts, but also for other activities. Se-
ries of standard two-auditorium movie theaters with different sizes of halls
have been developed, which permit selection of the hall for showing various
films (Figure 73b). In such theaters the capacity of the auditorium has been
increased by 15 to 20 percent.
~ Increasing the capacity of stores and diniag rooms is possible by improving the
organization of the production process, namely, introduction of tha self-service
system. The conversion to self-service in commercial enterprises reduces the
total space requirements by 20 to 30 percent. The introduction of Che self-
service system permits the expenditures on maintaining the commercial enter-
prises and public eating facilities to be reduced, the service system to be im-
proved and the expenditures of time by the population on the general services to
be reduced significantly.
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_ a _ _ _
_ , , / / 1
I ~ I .
~ .
( ~ I ~ . I ~
- I I ~ ~ I I
- - - - - ~
~ � ~ ~ ~
~5
e
~
O ~
I
_ ~ �
.
.
' , .
~ '
. ~
Figure 73. Examples of advanced solutions for the public buildings. a--Multi-
purpose; b--single-pur.pose.
On consolidation or cooperation in public buildings it is necessary to remember
that theae measures are connected with the service system for the population,
and increasing the service radii above the recommended radii is undesirable.
The ~hoice of the optimal space and floor plan designe considering all of tne
technical-economic indices is made on the baSis of a comparison of versions of
the design solutions with respect to buildings with identical functional pur-
pose and approxi.mately equal capacity. For more complete con.sideration of the
economics of the design solutions for public buildings the coefficiez~t R3 aad K4
calculated ~ust as in the designs for residential buildings are introduced.
Section 26. Elements of Construct3on Heat Engineering and Construction Acoustics
The enclosing structures (outside walls, roofs, floors, and so on) of buildings
and structures must reliably protect the facilities from the cold, heat, solar
radiation, atmospheric precipitation, wind, noise and other unfavorable effects.
The study of the effect of phyaical processes on the enclosing structures is the
_ sub,ject of a science--construction phys3cs--whic~ consists of three divisions:
heat engineering, light engineering and acouatics.
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The science that studies the conditione of formation of climate and the climatic
conditions of various parts of the country is called climatology. The branch of
climatology that studies climatic factors considered when designing buildings
and developins~ the plans f~r populated areas is called constructiun climatology
_ (SNiP II-A.6-,72).
The outside enclosing stiructures of buildii~gs must satisfy the following heat
engineering requirements:
have good heat-shielding. properties for protecting the facilities from 1ow
and high temperatures and other atmoepheric effects;
the temperature on the inside surfase should not be too low ia order to avoid
the formation of condensate on it;
during operation and maiatenance it is necessary to maintain norma.l humidity in-
asmuch as wet enclosures lower the heat-shielding properties and service life;
air permeability must be above the admissible limit for which air exchange wi11
cool the facility.
All of these problems are considered in construction heat engineering. Inasmuch
as in a course pro~ect it is necessary to perform heat engineering calculations,
the principles for these cal.culations are presented in Section 12.
One of the important hygienic problems in buildings is the problem of sound 3n-
sulation. When developing the prob].ems of sound engineering of buildings, any
sound penetrating the facility from the outside is called noise. From the hy-
gienic point of view, by noise we mean the sound which has an unfavorable effect
on the life and activity of man and irritates his nervous system.
With respect to the conditions of the occurrence and propagation, noise is d3s-
_ tinguished as air and impact noise.
Air noise occurs and is transmitted through the air environment. Impact noise
arises and is propagated through the structural elementa of the building. As a
result of vibrations the structural elemants can emit air noisey the cause of
the occurrence of which is impact noise.
The struggle with noise is one of the necessary problems when designing and con-
structing buildings. It is poesible to propose the following measures: with
respect to restriction of internal noi~g: the application of low-noise and
noiseless equipment, improvement of existing machines and machinery; maximum lo-
calization of the noise directly at the sources; absorption of the noise that
does occur by sound-absorbing finish~s or baffles and partitions; grouping of
the facilities with respect to the amount of noise incurred.
The external noise can be limited by floor planning, holding up its propagation
throughout the territory; consideration of prevailing winds and conCrol of the
formati~n of the noise field in the built-up territory; construction of noise-
shielding screens by using green strips, relief, engineering structures (fills,
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cuts); the application of improved paving for raads and the removal of main
thoroughfares to noise-safe zones; control of the reduction of intensity of ex-
terual noise sources.
The reduction of noise in a building can be achieve~i by improving the structural
designs. In order to improve the noise-insulating capacity of the walls, parti-
tions and floors without increasing their weights, it is expedient to use various
structural elements with contiauous air interlayeriug without rigid coupling.
Improvement of the noise-insulating qualities in the presence of a continuous
air interlayer takes place as a result of the fact that air, similarly to a
shock absorber which elastically receives the vibrations of one wall, transmits
them to the second wall in an attenuated state. The values of the average noise-
iusulating capacity of air interlayers of different thickness are presented in
Table 10.
In order to save space in the facilities, the air gap usually is no more than
60 cm.
Table 10. Sound-Insulating Capacity of Air InCerlayers
T'hickness of the
air interlayer, cm 3 4.0 5.0 6.0 7 8.0 9 10
Noise-insulating
capacity, db 1 3.5 4.5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7
w ` ~ ~ _
v
a i u ~ ~ ~ � ~ II~ ~ a~i � a ^ 8~.. -
�~I N G v~ q b
1~ H v ~ ~ ~
r~-1 3-+ N~ O ~ 47 't7 I~~i
~ O 4~1 a 4
v~ w a ~t ~ N
a b b v ~
rl ~ 1y q ~
,-`~i au ~ ~o ~ a a'r'v~~~~~ti~g5~~~~~~RX~~f
o m~~ a~ .c ~~v~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Frequency, Hz
z uv~~v
, Frequency, Hz
Figure 74. Determination of the sound-ineulation indices of enclosing struc-
tures. a--Normative curves for the sound-insulating capacity
against sir noise or the reduced difference in sound pressure lev-
els: I--obtained under laboratory conditions; II-robtained under
natural conditions; III--normative curve III of the reduced impact
noise leve]. under the floor.
In order to ensure good sound insulation without increasing the weight of the
wall or partition, it is expedieat to use layered structures consisting of sev-
eral layers of materials differing sharply from each other with resp~ct to their
density and rigidity (gypsum concrete, gypsum, mineral felt, and so on). The
sound-insulating indices of the enclosing structures are determined by comparing
the obtained curves with the normative curves I and II (Figure 74a).
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The floors between stories must be soundproofed not oaly against air noise, but
also impact noise. The elastic foundation of the floor absorbs noise vibrations
that arise during walking and impacts. The vibration energy is expended on com-
prass{ng the elastic foundation and, consequently, is transmitted to the bear~ng
part of the floor in a significantly attenuated state. Therefore iC is necessary
to provide floors over a continuous elastic foundation or fill, with strip or
individual interlayers.
The sound-insulatiag index of the floors with respect to impact noise is deter-
mined by comparing the curves of the reduced impact noise with the normative
curve III (Figure 74b).
When performing the operations it is necessary to provide for strict quality
contr.ol of the performance of all sound-insulatiug measures. It is poss3.bl.e to
ac~ieve more efficient shielding of buildings and apartments against noise only
as a result of all-around implementation of sound-insulating measures.
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Part Three. Industrial Building Design
Chapter V. Distribution of Industry and the Organization of Industrial Terr3tory
Section 27. General Principles of Induetrial Building Design
It is expedient to consider the problems of the distribution of industry after
familiarization with the general information and principles of production build-
ing design.
'Production buildings of the industrial enterprises frequently called industrial
buildings are designed for organization of the process of the manufacture of one
type of industrial product or another using the corresponding praduction equip-
ment and adopted technology. When developiag the production building design,
the solutions to its space and floor plan composition and the selection of the
structural design, it is necessary to consider the technological, technical,
economic and architectural-artistic requirements and also to ensure the possi-
bility of erecting the designed buildiag by advanced industrxal met~ods.
The economicalness of the design of a production building depends not only on
the one-time capital expenditures on constructior,, but also the expenses con-
nected with operation and maintenance of the building, which is taken into ac-
count in all design stages. Therefore when developiug the design salut3ons of
production buildings it ia necessary to be concerned with the creation of nor-
mal conditions for realizing the advanced technological process and also the
greatest conveniences and best internal conditions for the workers.
The creation of a modern architectural-artistic appearance of an industrial
building is a responsible creative process, during the course of which the ar-
' chitectural-artistic probleme must be organically tied to the engineering-design
problems.
The interior design of production facilities (in particular, the color finish of
the surfaces, and so on), the materials-handling and process equipment and also
solutions connected with the scientific organizat3on of labor and sanitary-
hygienic conditions of the shops and enterprises as a whole have very important
significance. These include timely and complete removal of production hazards,
the creation of an optimal temperature-humidity regime, ensurance of the re-
quired illumination levels in the working zones, the presence of spec3.ally
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equipped general services facilities, the composition of which is:defined by
SNiP II-92-76 ("Auxiliary Buildings and Facilities of Industrial Enterprises"),
the control of production noise, measures to improve the healthfulness of the
production environment and amenities of industrial territories and also measures
for the buildiag of sports areas and the required camponents of the all-around
cultural and general services system for the workers.
The production buildings of industrial enterprises differ significantly from
residential and public buildings both with respect to external appear.ance and.
with.respect to structural design, which arises from the production-technologi-
cal requirements. Relatively large rooms with respect to area, the presence of
devices and structural elements for fastening and moving overhead or supported
cranes, superstructures on the roofs in the form of skylights and ventilation
openings and a number of other peculiarities (for example, iucreased humidity,
significant heat generation, high noise level, and so on) are characteristic of
these buildings.
.
~ _ : ~
:,ii:
i~
-
N~
~~~~~rrM~~~_NM~ ~
- ~ M~~~
~
~ ~
. ~ ~ �
6 ,
. ~
~
- ~
- ~ ~ T -
~~j
~
M~~~~~ ~
Figure 75. One-story, multibay industrial buildings. a--With skylights and
ventilation openings; b--without skylights.
The number of floors has a highly significant inf].uence on the architectural-
design solution of production buildings. T~ao basic types of production build-
ings are distl.nguished: one-story and multistory. The one-story buildings pre-
dominate in industrial construction. It is expedient to build one-story build-
ings if heavy production equipment is uaed which requires significant bays and
causes the corresponding dynamic loads in the presence of large dimension~ and
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heavy weight of the production output iu the production facilities, the basic
production process of which takes p].ace horizontally.
One-story production buildings are designed both with skylights (Figure 75a) and
without skylights (Figure 75b). They can be single-bay and multibay. The laC-
ter are used significantly more frequently. ~
The one-story production buildings are usually frame buildings. The fxame ele-
ments are made of prefabricated reinforced concrete or steel depending on the
ma.gnitude and nature of the crane load, the basic space and floor plan parame-
ters and the internal conditions of the shop facilities, being guided by the re-
quirements of the "Technical Regulations for Economical Consumption of Building
Materials" (TP 101-76).
The problem of the expediency of us3ag reinfoxced concrete, metal or other struc-
tural elements must be solved considering the efficiency of their use and the
corresponding production bases and material resources in the construction area.
At the present time a prefabricated reinforced-concrete frame is more frequently
used. Transverse frames of this type are a system of columns (posts) secured in
the foundations and collars in the form of beams or trusses (Figure 76a, b).
The spatial rigidity of the buildings in the tra~sverse direction is created by
the transverse framing, and in the longitudinal direction, by the columns, the
_ supporting structures of the roof and the crane heams (in buildings w~.th sup-
ported cranes) and also vertical and horizontal couplings.
The columns of thP building frame are located in plan at the points of intersec-
- tion of mutually perpendicular longitudinal and transverse center lines form3ng
the column grid. In single-story production buildings most frequently an
18 x 12 or 24 x 12 m column grid i~ used. On the drawings the layout ~enter
, lines are labeled on the long side of the building with numbers (from left to
right) and on the short side (the end of the building) by Russian capital let-
ters (Figure 77).
The basic space and floor plan parameters of a building are the transverse span,
longitudinal span and height. The transverse span is the distance between cen-
ter lizes determining the breakdown of the buildings into floor-planning ele-
ments or the location of the vertical supporting structures of the buildings
(walls and individual supports) (Figure 76). The span is usually taken as 6 or
12 m; if necessary it can be larger, but it must necessarily be a multiple of
6 m.
The longitudinal span is the distance betwaen the center lines of the bearing
, walls or individual supports in the direct3or~ corresponding to the span nf the
basic bearing structures of the roof (beams, trusses) or floor (in multistory
buildi.ngs) (Figure 76). The spans of one-story production buildings are usually
taken within the limits from 12 to 36 m, but in long-span buildings, longer
spans can be used. The size of the longitudinal spans must be a multiple of 6 m;
in some ~ases it is permissible to use spans that are a multiple of 3 m.
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,
. ~
S 6
. ~
4
3
/
. ~
~ .i .
' = c,,,;,r ~'e,yye
' ~0
~SA~~ ~ ~ a ~~~a
le~e,~~9
o~ ~ � S4 ~ee
- e1 8,~~ et~ ~ . e~ e
~~�~1 ~Q'1' e~'Q � ~f ~ ~
r8 �d1
~ 6
A . ~
' I
i G
12
.
~ D
, ~ ~
~ .
. m
m '
e~s. p
Aa
~
b
el~e~'t~dr~ee ~ Shop.
~tS ~~~1~ Span . height
between
transverse ements
Figure 76. One-story, multibay franae industrial building bu31t from prefabri-
cated rei.nforced concrete. a--With supported cranes; b--with over-
head-track hoists; 1--column toundations; 2--wall column; 3--middle
column; 4--roof girder; 5--raftar trues; 6-12--roofing slabs; 7--
wall panel; 8--crane girder; 9--vertical couplings; 10--foundation
girder; 11--blind area. .
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The height ie ~he diatance from the floor level (from the �0.000 mark) to the
bottom of the bearing structure of the roof on Che support (Figure 76). The
height of the facilities fluctuates within significant limits (but no less than
3 m), and it must be a multiple of 0.6 m.
- ~
~ .
L ~
K ~ i ~ t ~
J .
~ ,
I .
~ ' , : ~ ,t i ,it
~r--~ t , ~
E ~ ~ ~
~
.
- i ~ ~ ~ ~ =o
.
C
~
n
A
QS � -
6-}=-~-~-6-~6~6--�~ " " ' " 6-~-SK8-~6 " " 6 .
114
1 2 3 4 6 ~ 11 tt b 11 1S tb r 72 Z~ 21 25 '
Figure 77. One-story industrial building with center lines and their labels.
The requirements of modern groduction processes has given rise to consolidation
of the overall dimensions of one-story production buildings and their basic
space and floor plan parameters, which, in turn, has required alterations and
improvement of the structural diagrams and structural designs of the buildings
and conversion in a number of cases from two-dimensional systems to three-dimen-
sional systems.
The mul~tistory production buildings (Figure 78a, b) are built more rarely, pri-
marily for housing enterprises that produce comparatively lightweight products.
They are the most widespread in the chemical, electronic, electrotechnical,
radio-technical, light and food braaches of indusCry and in other production fa-
cilities, the process in which takes place vertically. It is expedienC to erect
them also under conditious of dense city coverage and when rebuilding industrial
enterprises.
Multistory production buildings, just as one-story buildings, are designed and
constructed prim2rily of prefabricated frames. In multistory buildings the di-
mensione must be multiples of the following numbers: for the longitudinal
spans, 3 m; the transverse spans between columns, 6 m; the height of the build-
ings, 0.6 m, but no less than 3 m. The column grid is usually taken as 6 x 6 or
6 x 9 m; in the buildings recently developed they are 6 x 12 and 6 x 18, and
sometimes 6 x 24 m.
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_
a ^ _ ~ _
c
. ~
x
. , ~
i . ~
Figure 78. Multistory industrial building. a--General view; b--schematic sec-
tion.
Before proceeding with the study of the basic principles of the architectural
design of industrial buildings, including their architectural-spatial and floor
plan solutione (discussed in Chapter IX), it is necessary to consider the prob-
lems of organizing the industrial territories: the distribution of the iadus-
trial districts, complexes and enterprises, their design principles and also the
- development of master plans for the enterprises (see Chapters V and VI).
During the process of drawing up the maeter plan for an industrial enterprise it
is the only time that the production-process relatione can be completely re-
vealed which dictate the positioa of the production buildings and structures on
the site.
The interaction of the production processes occurring in an industrial enter-
prise is the essence of the production flow diagram dictating the requirements
on the layout of the master plan for the enterprise ae a whole and making up the
base on which certain space-�loor plan designs of the plant building~ are devel-
oped.
In our opinion, ma.ny successful solutions in the design of an industrial enter-
prise can be fouaid only with the active participation of an architect.
Section 28. District Planning Concepts
The construction of all of the_pro~ects in cities and settlements is based on
the district planning layouts. '
- The primary goal of district planning consists in economically expedient and
coordinated distribution of all of the construction pro3ects in the pla~ed dis-
trict considering the most effective use of its natural resources and territory
and in accordance with the general goals of creating a material-technical base
for communism.
The district planning designs for individual induetrial, agricultural, health
resort and suburban districts are developed ou the baeis of prospective plans
for the development of the national economy of the country and the pxospective
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distribution of the productive forces of the economic dietriCts of the union aad
autonomous republics, krays and oblasts.
PropASals adopted i.n the scheme for the distribution of production forces 3.n one
territory or another are more precisely defined and developed in the districti
planning designs.
Section 29. Dietribution of Industrial Districts
It is expedient to place the industrial enterprises not separately, but concen-
trate them in large groups located on common territory and forming the.fndustrial
district (Figure 79) which occupy a part of the territory of the city or the
territory ad3acent to it. One or several such groups can be placed in tha ter-
_ ritory of the industrial district. In industrial cities the industrial districts
with the production enterpriaes located in them Cake up as much as 50-60 percent
- of the territory (on the average 25-35 percent with a minimum of 15 percent),
being the basic city planning nucleus.
The industrial districts have a significant influence on the sizes of the cit-
ies, their layout and the living conditions of the cit3zens. Their most impor-
tant feature is cooperation of the basic, auxiliary and service facilities in
the city. When determining the size of the municipal industrial district we be-
gin with the most efficient and economical use of the territory of the city;
therefore the district dimensions are taken se the minimum necessary considering
the highest density of coverage.
Indastrial districts can also be located in territories remote from the existing
cities. For example, the districts whare enterprises are located for the extrac-
tion of ore, coal and oil ar~e of this type. However, the occurrence of such in- .
dustrial dietricts gives rise to the necessity for building new settlements near
- them which often develop subsequently into cities.
When selecting the territory for an industrial district it is necessary to con-
sider the natural climatic and topographic conditions (the relief and slope of
the terraia, the direction, speed and repetitiveness of winds, the humidity,
and so on), the engineering-geological description of the territory (type of
soil, its density, the groundwater level, probability of flooding, the presence
of ravines, swamps, and so on), the possibility of removing and decontaminating
wastewater, the presence of water supplies and power supply networks, provision
with railroad, motor or water transportation. Primary attention muet be given
to environmental protection problems.
The maximum slope of the territory must be considered to be 0.03 to 0.05, mini-
mum slope, 0.003 (in order to provide for atmospheric water runoff).
For the territory of an indueCri~il district it is preferable to have soils of
uniform geological structure with normative pressure on the foundation of no
- less than 1.5 kg/cm2. Yt is desirable that the average amount the surface of
the industr3al territory is above the highest groundwater level be no less than
7 m to eliminate the possibility of flooding of underground structures (base-
ments, tunnels, and so on). In order to exclude the poesibility of surface
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flooding of the industrial sites wiCh floodwaters, the elevations of these sites
must be no more than 0.5 m above tha calculated floodwater level.
~u
.a.....,..,..,....
~ 2 ~
6 ~ 5~! 5 ~ 5
~ ~ ~
tJ J
:YL.I Y.~:+! Y.il:iii:~.yy:: !::lS.'S' :Ih:l/,~f :/.1Y.7:1Y/7~ 7/t Y:17C:T
~Ili~pt7.!7~(J,
aesa~5 a-.tizo:r: :itinimr.w; ~5 ~wmw ~4 irwen ~5 wrowawm ~w ~5 Mw~~prYwCllYiY
t�IYSt'1
t~ ~ y
F: s
k` s 6 ~ 5
E~ ~ N 2 s'~~ 5' 5
J:~~}~~y~,i ~ ';y;;r;.~?;j~::,�?fr~t' :riL':a;vw::'�^ :;:1'�:~'"�~t~,"�.
. 4 ~;..:~~:�s~~ r= "T', e ;~,r. � e 'Le c~
tl'.R~ifi a:a} ~~Y .L::~41�iY(~;~~. if~~}}!:[��i~.l! :~4.:.iL�.�::i.
Pl:.'7t7t.w'!.!Or:RU):'J.'iY:4) tlAGCfI7A�:dA/ rCPYS`SiTw!~DYTI/:CU:R ILX:IN.~ I1C )!`K}.�1ti'C.�'K
/
L~J 8 / ~ F~~~
E
Figure 79. Example composition of a municipal industrf.al district. 1--Indus-
trial enterpriaes with especially harmful production facilities; 2--
the same with less harmful product3.on facilities; 3--cooperative
heat and electric power plant; 4--automobile and truck base; 5--re-
serve territories; 6, 7--section for waste piles; 8, 9--sanitary
protection zone; 10--rayon [district] shunting yard, railroad ap-
proach lines; 11--public center; 12--scientific and engineering cen-
ter; 13--helicopter pad; 14--fire station; 15--plant platforms; 16--
developed territory.
As the calculated level, we take the highest water level with a probability of
recurrence once in 100 yeara for enterpr3ses of large national economic and de-
fense significance and once in 50 years for the remaining enterprises except en-
terprises with short-term operation (to 10-15 years), for which the recurrence
probability is taken as once in 10 yeare.
When choosing the industrial district territory it is necessary to consider that
eaterprises with significant electric power consumption, for examp],e, alum3num
production, electric steelmaking, and so on are expediently located near elec-
tric power supplies (hydroelectric power plants, state regional hydroelectric
power plants) or near power transmission lines.
The industrial districts iti which enterprises are planned with significant water
consumption--the heat and electric power plants, artificial fiber combines and
cellulo~e-paper combines--must be built near large bodies of water. The require-
ments on the water quality in accordance with the nature of production and the
necessity for wastewater discharge must be coneidered simultaneously.
It is permissible to discharge wastewater into a body of water without prelimi-
nary decontamination of iC only under the condition where the water wi1.1 not
lower the quality of the potable aad processed water and will not have harmful.
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.
effects on fishing. In the remaining cases the wastewater must be subjected to
careful purification in accordance wiCh the exiating sanitary norms.
When selecting the industrial district territory, in addition, it is necessary
to consider the requirements imposed by industrial transportation. Within the
territory of the enterprises haviag railroad tracks, it is necessary to avoid
long longitudinal slopes of the tracks, small turning radii and artificial
structures which is possible only with the correspanding relief of the s3te, for
example, when the direction of the contour lines approximately corresponds to
the direction of the railroad tracks.
It is desirable to locate the most freight-coneuming enterprises in areas having
communications with water arteries. Unquestionably, for enterpr.ises requiring
a large amount of wood (woodworking combines), waterways are the most convenient
for delivery of the wood.
The municipal industrial districts with enterprises that generate production
hazards (gas, smoke, soot, dust, unpleasanC odors and noise) musti be located on
the downwind side with respect to the naarest developed part of the city (the
developed part of the city is considered to be the territory designated for
residential and.public buildings aad also green areas--gardens, parke, squares,
boulevards and stadiums), so that the prevailing winds will carry the harmful.
releases away from the developed territory.
_ It is expedient to locate enterprises with the longitudinal axis of the terri-
tory parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds or at an angle to them of
no more than 45� in order to ensure ventilation of the intraplant thoroughfares
and other accesses. . ~

~ The prevailing wind direction is taken by the so-called wind rose which is a di-
agram of the wind distribution with respect to direction and recurrence and some-
times with respect to velocity.
For ~onstruction of a direction and recurrence wind rose (Figure 80), lines are
drawn from a point in the direction of 16 poinCs of the compass, and as many
units are placed on each of these lines as the wind blows for a separate time
interval in this.dizection; the ends of the segments are joined with straight
lines. The wind roses are conatructed for the annual period or for various
times of the year.
When constructing the recurrence and velocity wind rose, not only the recurrence
of the wind, but also its velocity is determined for each direction. Then the
recurrence of each direction is mult3.plied times the corresponding average ve-
locity. The values obtained are expressed in percentages of the total sum and
are plotted on a defined scale along the compass directions.
~ In addition, industrial enterprises must be removed from developed terr3tories
some distance according to the degree of hazard of the enterprise. The strips
between the source of productioa hazarda and the boundary of the developed ter-
ritory are called sanitary protection zones.
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Depending on the type of production, the released hazards and the process condi-
tions, industrial enterprises are divided into five classes: class I includes
enterpriees with especielly harmful production; class V i.ncludes enterprises
with the least harmful production (SN 245-71, Section 8"Sanitary Norms for the
Design of Induetrial Enterprises").
Enr the enterpriaes ia class I it is necessary to cor.struct sanitary-protection
zones 1,000 m Taide; for enCerprises in class II, III, IV and V, 500, 300, 100
and 50 m, respectively. In these zones it is permissible to locate industrial
enterprises with less harmful production facilities and also fire stations,
baths, laundries, garages, warehouses, administrative service buildings, commer-
cial buildings, dining rooms, outpatient clinics, and so on.
In a sanitary-protection zone on the developed side it is recommended that a
green area be provided no less than 50 m wide, and with a zone width of up to
100 m, no less than 20 m wide.
Depending on the nature of production, the degree of release of product3on haz-
ards and the amount of freight turnover it is recommended that the industrial
districts be located as follows with respect to the developed territory.
- - _ . _ .
~Jp~ NNW N NNE NE
~ � NE
W ~
WSW FSE
SW gcu~ a ~ c~ SE
~
(1) �~c (3) ~s ~"wfw~y
� ~45wc
(2 CMnsHwa ~erep Cna6boA ~eTep
\ ~ ~19~'h'I~M/C ~3~V~Q3 M/tr' ~4~
Figure 80. Wind recurrence and strength rose. 1--Storm, m/sec; 2--high
wind, m/sec; 3--medium wind, m/sec, ~calm, m/sec; 4--
light wind, m/sac.
The districts designed for enterprisas which are assigned to class I or II with
respect to the release of production hazards (independently of the freight turn-
over) are located outside Che city limiCs, at a distance from the developed ter-
ritory.
Industrial districts for enterprises belonging to clasaes III and IV with re-
spect to industrial hazards and also to class V but with freight turnover re-
quiring the consfiruction of railroad approach lines and, in addition, enterpr:Lses
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not generati.ng production hazards are.located on the edge of the developed ter-
ritory.
Blocka
� ' Blocks ~
2d panel
~ Pan-
els~ lst panel
. ~ . . .
L�'S:L�.'.'.~ JS:tit:Li~Y.SlIL.:.: f'iitl[i :':I:Y.~::'.~.^M~
~ ~ M11 ~ ~
Figure 81. Si.ngle-panel (a) and double-panel (b) strip arrangement of enter-
prises.
Within the developed territory are enterprises which do not release production
hazards, enterprises belonging to class V and also enterprises with small
freight turnover and not requiring railroad transportation.
The planning of a municipal industrial disCrict must be tied to the planning of
ad,jacent parts of the city, the city street and service network system.
It is recommended that enterprises be located in the territory of an industrial
district by the so-called strip-panel system parallel to the developed terri- �
tory.
With the strip system of planning of the induatrial district the strips are
called panels. The accesses or streets are separated by the panels 3nto blocks.
For enterprises belonging to one claes or similar classes with respect to pro-
duction hazards, the single-panel arrangement of the buildings is used. The
double-panel or multipanel arrangement of the bui].dings is expedient for series
arrangement of the enterprises wh3ch belong to the different classes with re-
spect to production hazards (Eigure 81).
Section 30. Principles of the Formation of Industrial Complexes
The resolutions of the 25th CPSU Congress prnpQSe the expansion of the practice
of constructing industrial enterprises with co~on auxiliary production facili-
ties for the group of enterprises, with service structures and lines.
In accordance with these resolutions the enterprises located in the industrial
dietricts, independently of their departmental ownership, must be combined into
industrial complexes with common auxiliary production facilities, engineering
structures and networks, and under the corresponding conditions, with coopera-
tion of the basic production.
This combination permits the moat efficient use of social labor, material and
money resources both in construction and for the operation and maintenance of
the enterprise.
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According to the SNiP II-M.1-71, the enterprises combined into industrial com-
plexes must be located at diatances as close as possible permissible by the
norms, with the least extent of the lines common to the group of enterprises.
The formation of plots of ground between the et~terprises not used for buildi.ng,
roads, transport and not provided for future expansion of the enCerprises or
pro~ects common to the industriel complex is not permiseible.
The placement of the enterprises must consider and provide for the organization
of external production, transport and other ~communications with the surround3ng
enterprises and the service networks and also the worker's sEttlements.
In the residential districts it is not permissible to have enterprises requiring
*_he construction of railroad approach lines or laying of these lines through the
residential districts or enterprises having freight turnover with traffic inten-
sity of more than 40 vehicles per day in one direction.
In order to keep suitable land for agriculture it is necessary to select the
construction sites in nonagricultural lands.
The placement of the groups or individual enterprises must take into account the
most efficient use of state lands.
The industrial complex is des3.gned for the territory provided by the district
p].anning design, the master plan of tha city, the plan for layout and coverage
of the industrial district, and if these are unavailable, the territory planned
beginning with the technical-economic substant3ations of the construction of
the enterprises included in the industrial complex.
The plann3.ng of the territory for industrial complexes and the enterprise sites,
the mutual arrangement of buildings, structures and transport lines must create
the most favorable conditions for the production p~ocess and labor at the enter-
- prises, efficient and economical use of the sites and the greatest effectiveness
of capital investments.
When solving the master plans of tha 3nduetrial complexes and individual enter-
prises, the principles of the organization of the industrial territories are de-
veloped for which the followiug are provided: functional zoning of the terri-
tory considering the process relations, sanitary-hygienic and fire-safety re-
quirements, freight turnover, types of transportation and construction priori-
ties; ensurance of efficient productioa, transport and service communications at
the enterprises, between them and with the pogulated areas; the creation of pas-
senger and pedestrian walkways providing safe movement of the workers with the
least expenditures of time; the possibility of the expanaion and rebuilding of
the enterprises as a result of using free sections in the industrial site, in-
creasing the number of floors, minimum usa of reserve sections outside the
boundaries of the enterprise considering possible development of the adjacent
developed territory and ensurance of access to the green areas and bodies of wa-
ter; the organization of a united system of cultural-service and oCher forms of
servicing of the workers; the creation of a united architectural ensemble tied
to the architecture of adjacenti enterprises and populated area.
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The territory of the industrial complexes must be divided into the following
zones with respect to functional use: the enterprise sites, public centers,
general objects of auxiliary production, and warehouses (see Item 3.4 of SNiP
II-M.1-71).
As a rule, during the design process it is neceseary to include in the indus-
trial complex the entire gro~ip of nearbq enterprises, independently of the na-
ture of their production and departmental ownership.
Here the industrial complex with respect to the national economic development
plan can be formed from newly built, expanded and rebuilt enterprises. ,
By analogy with the industrial distr3cts, the iadustrial complexes consist.of
rectangular and parallel stripe of panels which are divided into blocks by the
accesses or streeta.
a ~cy b
; c
g d
/ �~o Oo� o
~ ~
j o 0
- ~~~~%////ii ~
f, jj
~`~y/
~
'G ~
Developed territory O o Industrial
complex territory
Figure 82. Solution of induetrial complexes with respect to the developed ter-
ritory. a--Within the developed territory; b, c--at its boundary;
d--renote from it.
At this time a great deal of experience has been accumulated in the design of
industrial complexes within the USSR (versions of the arrangement of industrial
complexes are presented in Figure 82).
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On the order of prelimina.ry familiarization with the technical-economic effec-
tiveness of the design of induatria.l complexes, let us consider an example of
the combination of several plans into an industrial complex.
In one area before combining into a united complex the plants were designed as
isolated enterprises with numerous sma11, detached buildings and structures with
duplicating auxiliary shops and warehouses (Figure 83a). The coverage dens3ty
of such enterpris~es by the terminology adopted in SNiP II-M.1-71 was 0.33-0.5.
The design of the isolated plants led to long service lines and roads, a sig-
nificant number of buildings and standard s3zes of structural elements.
By the adopted version of the iadustrial complex several production facilities
were placed on one site and in one building, that is, an efficient solution was
- obtained providing for location of a11 of the enterprises within the premises of
the process equipment plant which was closest to the designed railroad, shunt3ng
yard and petroleum base and at the same time sufficiently remote from housing.
This solution corresponds to the previously developed production diagrams and
takes into account the characteristics of each plant. More advanced technology
has made it possible to lower the cost of the process equipment by 4-5 percent.
a 6 L.~.~l~
~ O
. ~ ie
f
, ~ 2 ~ \ Y2 ~ 14 ~
~ ~ n
. 3 ~ ~
O Q ~ - -
Figure 83. Master plans. a--Plants before combinirig into an industrial complex;
- b--industrial complexes; 1--process equipment plant; 2--light engi-
neering plant; 3--pneumatic machinery plant; 4--boilerroom; 5--
building materials and waste warehouae; 6~--low loading and unloading
platforw; 7--fuel and lubricants, chemicals and tank storage; 8--
oxygen compressor station; 9--cast housing; 10--wood finishing shop;
11--special design office; 12--engineering building; 13--dining room
(existing); 14--fire-safety reservoir; 15--sanitary-engineering and
forging divisions; 16--boilerroom (existing); 17--electr3cal goods
storage; 18--experimental shop; 19--dining room; 20--general ser-
vices facilities; 21--training building; 22--glass building; 23--
composite building; 24--main building.
~Iany shops and material warehouses have become common to all three plants; shops
w3th harmful releases are placed at the outside walls and are separated from the
others by blind partitiona.
_ The master p].an of an industrial complex is designed as applied to the produc-
tion processas of the associated plante (Figure 83b). Along the north eide of
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the building there are three railroad tracks. The foundry building is located
on the east side of the main buildiag closer to the main casting users. The
co~on boilerroom is placed on the aorth side of the building.
The technical-economic indices reached as a result of combination of enterprises
into industrial complexes are presented in Table 11.
Table 11. Technical-Economic Indices Reached as a Result of the Combination of
Enterprises
Percentage
Obtained
Technical-Economic Indices From Com-
For Isolated For Indus- parison of
Indices Enterprises trial Complex Versions
Total area of the territory, ha 42.30 22.00 48.9(-)
- Coverage area, ha 17.10 13.80 19.3(-)
Coverage density, % 0.40 0.63 57.5(+)
Use factor of the territory 0.61 0.89 45.9(+)
Extent of intraplant roads, 1~ 5.69 2.30 59.6(-)
Extent of railroad approaches, km 1.45 0.70 51.7(-)
Extent of enclosure, km 3.40 1.54 58.4(-)
Note: The and signs denote the increase or decrease in the values of
the indices, respectively.
, This solution has made it possible to reduce the number of standard sizes of the
structural elements from 460 to 120. The saviugs with respect to construetibn
and installation operations amounted to 16 percent of their total cosC. In or-
der to achieve a comprehensively substantiated arrangement of enterprises in the
industrial complex and clear placement of the general complex objects and also
determination of the cost effectiveness of building the enterprises within the
industrial complex and the creation of general complex projects, a master plan
of the complex is laid out.
When developing the master plans of industrial complexes, the all-around archi-
tectural-layout and planning concept must be realized providing for expedient
placement of the indusCrial enterprises on one or several ad~acent sites; effi-
cient layout and organization of the territory with corresponding zoning; pro-
duction cooperation with respec~ to the storage and preparation of raw materi-
als, the repair of equipment and warehouses; the solution of the integrated
transport and service line systems; reexamination of the master plans of the en-
terprise and the creation of general complex projects; blocking of shops within
the boundaries of the enterpriaes; and standardization of construction solu-
tions. In addition, when developing the master plans of the industrial com-
plexes it is necessary to solve service problems (cultural-general services,
medical, anc? so on) and amenities tied to the detailed planning of the city and
also the distribution ~f the proportional participation of the enterprises in
the construction of general complex projects. It is obvious that the greatest
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effectiveness in solving the master plan of the industrial complex can be
reached on formation of it from the newly designed enterprises (Figure 84a, b).
However, in architectural-construction practice more difficult problems are
quite efficiently solved, in particular, with �respect to the creation of the
master plans of industrial complexes from the existing, expanded and rebuilt en-
terprises. In such cases provision can be made for improvement of the location
of the designed enterprises considering the existing coverage, the arrangement
of coverage considering the construction started, the improvement of the master
plans for_.individual designed.enterprises, and cooperation between the auxiliary
services and networks.
The problem of improving industrial complexes with existing coverage is diffi-
cult and less rewarding, but it is extremely important, for the necessity has
arisen long ago for reordering the existiag built-up areas, especially in large
industrial centers.
Design experience shows that iAdustrial complexes encountered in practice are
appropriately divided into two groups: 1) enterprises of different branches of
industry--multibranch industrial complexes; 2) plants or factories for primarily
one or several related branches of ittdustry (for example, the enterprises of the
chemical and petrochemical industry, machinebuilding and instrumentmalcing, the
foods industry, and so on). The industrial complexes of the second gro~.;~ are
called specialized.
Here it must be emphasized that the basis for the classification of industrial
~omplexes ie the different degree af cooperation of the enterprises in them.
_ An analysis of numerous designs of iadustrial complexes made at the Promstroy-
proyekt institute makes it possible to present approximate indices. For exam-
ple, it has been established that for separate placement of the enterprises the
territories making up the industrial complex are diminished as a result of the
reduction in networks, cooperating pro~ects and other measures by 10 percent or
more on the average.
On the modern level of design where the assoc3ation of enterprises into i~~!is-
trial complexes is becoming the most important direction in industriaX construc-
- tion, it is necessary to make full use of the advantages of industrial complexes
and solve not only the problems of cooperation during construction, but creation
of common production facilities of an interbranch nature for groups of enter-
prises under the condition that this wi11 permit timely introduction of the pro-
duction capacity into operation and greatly increase the effectiveness of capi-
tal investments.
In a number of cases it is necessary to reexamine the approved master plans in
connection with altering the composition and capaciCy of the enterprises in-
cluded in the complex or 3.: connection with altering the previously adopted con-
struction times for individual enterprises. Here it is necessary to use the
a.rchitectural planning solution procedures for the development of master plans
of industrial complexes which permit alteration of their composition without
significant negative influences on the technical-economic indices. This can be
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achieved, f~~ example, by using the well-kaown method of zoning the territory of
the industrial complex: zoning the complex premises in accordance with the de-
gree of probability of construction of individual enterprises in the given
times--enterprises with lower probability of construction are placed at the
boundary of the covered territory.
.
_
~ -
~ 9 ~ ~r-
- o0 0 , .l _ ~o~
.._-~o-,
.-~:r
o ~ -
~ L 0 ~
' 1 ~
~
6 ~ 8 e -
0 ~ ~
c=- o .
0
~ ~ 5,6' 3 2
~
Destgned coverage
4pen areas .
[ Future expansion
Figure 84. Master plan of an industrial complex consisting of machinebuilding
and chemical industry enterprises. a--Previously designed bu31t-up
area; b--design proposals; 1--glass plant; 2--household refrigerator
plant; 3--electric motor-building plant; 4-6--associated plants; 7--
plastics plant; 8--foundry; 9--cardboard packaging plant.
On altering the composition of the industrial complex, its layout is taken into
_ account which must correspond completely to the city planning conditions, the
peculiarities of the relief and landscape, the proposed development of the in-
dustrial district in the dietant future and ensurance of invariability of the
routing of basic service and transport lines and also the entire layout concept
for possible partial alterations in the composition of the industrial complex or
changes in the construction conditions.
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.
� - - 6 . .
~
' 3 ~
~~:s ~
. 5 ~
. ~ ~
r~~ Oi~
~f 8
` J [H I~1.1
~ a e ' ~ 2
~ ~
��.Sr ~ j~. :.~~i�:;,`�... .
\ I~~~`~~~\Y , ,,~�..�,F,l;Sf :t :~.�:';.:.:T.
8 ti1 ~iC~.j
j::L.:,i~
' ;�t=
; ~ siJ ,
. , , .~s,
. '{r: ~
~ i;~':t
~~~~h.,
Figure 85. Example of planniug iadustrial complexes consisting of the follow-
iug enterpr3ses: a--machinebuildiag and construction industry; b--
electric motor-building, metalworking, ferrous metallurgy; 1--re-
aarve for developing the industrial complex; 2--administrative-pub-
lic center; 3--construction industry enterprises; 4--reducer plant;
5--gear plant; 6--general complex pro~ects; 7--shaft plant; 8--
foundry; 9--developed residential and public territory; 10--ro1led
_ products plant; 11--reinforced-concrete structural elements plant;
12--general complex engineering support grn~ecLs; 13--spare parts
plant; 14--welded structural element plant.
�
~
~ 2
1 . ~
~
� . 3
~o 0
Coniferous Swampy
~ forest . ~ territory
�o : Small lakes�
Figure 86. Version of the arrangement of an industrial complex with given posi-
tion of the city. 1--City; 2--northern site; 3--southern eite.
Figure 85 shows Yersiona of layoute of industr3al complexes of different produc-
tion profiles. It is very importaat to achieve optimal mutual arrangement of
the industrial complex aad the city. In the induatrial complex depicted ia Fig-
85b, the enterprises are arranged ia groupa by the branch attribute; each group
has its architectural appearance.
The use of computers can be of great aseistance whea selecting the optimal solu-
tioas for the master plana of iaduetrial complexes. In receat years procedurea
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have been developed and experimentally checked out for their use which permit
the following:
with respect to economic indices, the discovery of the moet appropriate terri-
tories for construction in the given district;
selection of the most economical versioa of the location of the pilot etructures
of the induetrial complex and the poiut of ad~acency of the networks and roads
to the corresponding headers and maine considering one-time expenditures and an-
nual operatiug costs.
8 ~ - A .
S _
~ 1 2 3 1 3 4 ~
3 1
2
~ 5 8 ~ 0
� 5 -
' 0
d
. ~ ~
- e
� 4
_ s ~ a
~
3
_ t ~
1 .
Figure 87. Versions of the ~.ayout of an.industrial complex for southern (a-c)
= and northern (d) parte of the premises. a--First preliminary; b--
_ second preliminary; c, d--improved; 1--oil ref inery; 2--heat and
- electric power plant; 3--cement plant; 4--construction induetry
_ base; 5--electrocorundum plant; 6--cellulose and paper plant.
Ao an example let us consider ~ne of the versions of the search for a complex
site within the limite of a designed city, using the presented procedure (Fig-
ure 86).
Initially the southern part of the territory was planned for building in the
vicinity of the large swampy forest, which was dictated by the size of the sani-
tary break. As a result of an analytical search it was established that it 3s
more expedient to use the northern part of the territory for coverage. The site
aelected by computer turned out to 6.5 million ru~les more economical.
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The computer was also used to eatimate the prelimiaary versions of the location
of the enterprises and for automatic layout of the master plan drawings for the
southern and northern parts of the territor~.
As a result of more precise specification of versions of the layouts using a
computer it was established that they are more economical than the previously
planaed ones (Figure 87a-c) and that the layout in the northern part o� the ter-
ritory (Figure 87d) is much more economical than the preceding ones.
The procedures making use of computere give good results and are intended for
designers.
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Chapter VI. Master Plaas of Industrial Enterprises
Section 31. Layout and Coverage of the Industrial Site
The enterprise site, as a rule, is broken down with respect to functioaal use
into preplant, production, auxiliary and atorage zones.
When drawiug up the layout af the plant territory it ie useful to develop sev-
eral.tiereions, analyzing for each of them the degree of compactness and the es-
thetic appearance of the buildings, the length of the railroads and roads, !
length of service networks, relative green area, layout indices, and so on.
When designing the master plans for enterprises, the designers are obligated to
consider that the coastruction and introduction of the enterprises into opera-
tion must be realized by start-up~:complexes or phases.
The industrial enterprise, independently of the type of production or its struc-
ture, consists of a group of basic fac3lities �or production, servicing produc-
tion and servicing the workers.
The basic production facilities include the billeting, processing and assembly
shops.
The production servicing facilitiea coasiet of a group of buildings entering
into the production technical service system (support with transportation,
storage areas, equipmeat repair, power supply) and production control (techaical
training, development, and so on) realized in the adminietrative, engineering
and other buildings.
The workers' se~ices facilities include a group of buildings for sanitary-
hygienic and communal, trainiag-education and cultural-general services pur-
poses.
The basic production buildings designed in accordance with the production pro-
cess, that is, by production phases (for example, the shops of machinebuilding
enterprises), usually include the billeting shops--casting (cast iron, steel and
- nonferrous caeting); forging and forging-pressing; processing-~machining, cold
stamping, heat treatment; assembly--assembly-installation, welding, metal struc-
- tural elements ehop; finishing--paiating, coating, and so on.
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In the industrial enterprises in practice, both for new and relative].y recentlq
built enterprises, usually the shops in the enterprise site are combined into
groups related with respect to purpose, for example, the basic production shops:
billeting, processing, assembly; the auxiliary production shops: tools, pat-
terns, repairs, and so on; the service production shops: power, transportation,
storage, and so on.
During the process of the design, construction, operation and maintenance and
also the rebuilding of industrial enterprises a system has developed v,~ich has
checked out over many years by which the buildings of shops which belon,g in one
group or another with respect to process conditions are expediently arr,~nged
compactly in one zone with min3mum admissible sanitary and fire-safety breaks
between them with the shortest roads and service networks.
The sanitary break between buildings lighted by windows must be no less than the
greatest height to the top of the cornice of the opposite buildings. The fire-
safety breaks between the production buildings and structures are established as
a function of the degree of fireproofness of opposite buildings according to Ta-
ble 4 of SNiP II-M.1-71. The least break is 9 m.
The proper mutual arrangement of the zones and grouping of the buildings provide
a basis for expedient construction of the master plan of the enterprise.
The territorial zoning permits achievemeat of the most eff icient solution of the
planning of the industrial enterprise both by conditions of efficient organiZa-
tion of the production process and by the sanitary-hygienic and fire-safety re-
quirements.
Buildings with production facilities of increased fireproofness muet be located
on the downwind side of the plant premises; it is preferable to locate storage
structures near its outer bouadaries considering the efficient use of the rail-
- road track frontage.
The machine shops of machinebuilding plants, as a rule, are grouped with the
billeting buildings of the shops (casting, �orging shops).
The group of billeting shops of the machinebuilding plants, includiag steel and
cast-iron casting shops, forging shops, is expediently located on the downwind
_ side with respect to the machine shops. Shops of this group require a large
amount of inetal, molding materials, and fuel, and therefore they usually have a
developed network of railroad tracks and transport lines; coasequently, the
group of billeting shops of the machinebuildiag plants is expediently located
closer to the entrances of the railroad tracks to the site. In addition, these
shops consume more power and therefore must be closer to the power structures
(the heat and electric power plant, and so on) of the plant (induatrial com-
plex).
The group of auxiliary shops (tools and repairs-~mechanical repair, casting re-
pair, construction repair, and so on) must be placed approximately at the junc-
ture of the zones of the processing and billeting shops or blocked with the cor-
responding basic production shope.
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It is also possible to put the group o� woodw~orking shops having iucreased f 3re
hazard in a separate zone. Therefore they must be located insofar as poss3ble
on the wiadward eide of the group of hot shops.
The group of power engineering structures includes the thermal power plant, the
fuel storage, distribution stations, outdoor etep-dowa substation, and so on
which are usually located ad~aceat to tha group of billetiag shops near the
railroad track entrance.
The thermal power plant which generates dust, soot and gases is expediently
placed outside the plant boundaries, iu the common-plant or complex service zoae.
The group of workers' service buildings includes such buildings as the dining
room, the plaat polyclinic, school, passageway, GPTU aad other administrative
buildings. These buildings are located, as a rule, along the way to the work-
place, next to the main entrance to the plant, in the main preplant area, where
part of these buildiags are located outaide the enterprise premises.
The main entrance to the enterprise muet be on the main access or workers' ap-
proach side.
If several access points are planaed, they are usually placed at a distaace of
no more than 1.5~km from each other and no more than 800 m from the entrance to
the general services facilitiea. In front of the entrances there.musC:be areas
for those using passages, general services and administrative buildings calcu-
lating no more than 0.15 m~ per person for the largest shift. At the points of
intersection of walkways with the railroads or roads with pedestrian traffic of
more than 300 people per hour it is necessary to provide overhead crosswalks,
tunnels or galleries.
It is not recommended that the entrauces to the general services facilities be
located on the railroad side near the iadustrial building.
It is desirable to locate the cultural and general services facilitiss for the
workers and also the scientific-technical service facilities of the enterprises
within the pul~lic center of the induatrial complex.
The fire station which services a group of enterprises is expediently located at
isolated sites wit.h exits to the gublic roads.
Primary attenti~in must be given to the deasity of coverage of the enterprise
site which must correspond to the indices establiehed in the appendix ~o SNiP
II-M.1-71.
Examples are presented below for the least coverage density of tihe following
enterprise sites, in percentage:
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Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy:
Iron ore concentration enterprises and
enterprises for the production of pellets
with a capacity in millions of tons per year
5-20 22
Greater than 20 27
Crushing and sorting capacity in millions of
tons per year
2-3 22
Mpre than 3 27
Coke and by-products proceas 30
Ministry of Nonferrous Metallurgy:
Coppermaking 38
With a capacity to 7 million tons a year 33
with respect to copper ore extraction
Ministry of Heavy Ma.chinebuilding:
Rolled products, blast furnace, steelmakiug,
sintering and coking equipment, equipment
for nonferrous metallurgy 50
Electric bridge and gantry cranes 50
Locomotives and railroad rolling stock 50
Ministry of Machine Tool Building Induetry:
Forging and pressing equipment 52
Casting 45
Forgings and stampings 47
Ministry of Instrumentmaking:
Instrumentmaking, automation means and
control systems 50
- Notes: 1. Coverage density of the industrial enterprise site is defined in
percentages of the ratio of the built-up area to the enterprise area
within the fence (or in the absence of a fence withia ite correspondiag
_ provisional boundarie8) with iaclusion of the area occupied by the rail-
road track fan. 2. The covered area or built-up area ia defined as the
sum of the areas occupisd by buildinga and structures of all types, in-
cluding aheds, open process, sanitary-engiaeering, power eng3neeriag and
ather installations, trestles and galleries, the loading and unlvadiag
platforms, underground structures (reservoirs, burial sites, tunnels,
r~ utility corridors for service lines over which buildings and structures
cannot be placed) and also uncovered parkiag lots for motor vehicles,
machines, machinery and uncovered storage areas for various purposes un-
der the condition that the dimene3oas and the equipmex~t of the parking

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lote and storage areas are taken ia accordance with the norms for the
production design of the enterprises.
The built-up area must include reserve sections oa the enterprise aite planned
in accordance with the design ass3gnment for the placement of buildings and
other structures.
The built-up area does not includes areas occupied by the blind areae around
buildings and structures, sidewalks, motor vehicle roads and railroad tracks,
railroad stationa, temporary buildings aad structures, uncovered aports areas,
and so on.
The procedures for layiag out and covering the territory of industrial enter-
prises can be highly varied, for they depend on the requirements of the produc-
tion process, the number of stories of the basic buildings and their dimensions.
As has already been stated, the moet widespread is the so-called panel coverage
by which the production buildinge are located over the entire territory of the
enterprise with respect to a rectangular grid of streets and accesses.
In the given case by a panel we mean a covered etrip bounded on two (predom3-
nantly longitudinal) sides by accesses. This type of panel ie constructed one
- or sometimes two buildings wide.
In the panel system of coverage the placement of the buildings within the panel
must be efficient and organized; it is desirable that the panel width be ident3.-
cal and a multiple of 6 m.
At the machinebuilding plante, the mechanical shops are most frequently located
in the panels closest to the entrance: mechan3cal assembly, tools, repair-
mechanical and other shops for cold workiag of inetals (it is very expedient to
block and consolidate these shops). In tha following panels (on:~.going away from
the entrance) there are usually hot billeting shops (forging, casting, steel
casting, and so on).
Proper layout and coverage of the panels ie the basis for compact, economical
layout of the master plan for the plant as a whole.
Both with reapect to conditions of the architectural solution to the built-up
area and with respect to economical conditions it is neceasary to pay spec3.a1
attention to the layout of the firat panel of the production build3.ngs.
With panel coverage the shape of the plant site has great influence on the eco-
nomicalneas of coverage of the territory and placement of the intraplant rail-
road tracks. Therefore the shape of the plant site must be especially carefully
selected.
If railroad transportation is used within the plant premises, then a trapezoidal
shape of the site is expedient which is formed as the result of the presence of
the railroad track entrance fan; if there is no developed railroad network on
the site or if it is beyond the boundaries of the plant premises, then a rect-
angular shape is more acceptable.
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From design experience it has been established that the most efficient site 3s
in the form of a rectangle with a side ratio of 1:2 (with entry on the long
side). This site has the least length of path for movement of workers to the
shops, for the main entrance and the main thoroughfare are approximately in Che
middle of its loag side.
Of course, when locating the main entraace on the end (which is usual for the
dead-end arrangement of the railroad tracks) th3s ratio of the sides of the
- rectangle ie not optimal, and a shape approaching a square is more efficient.
The sides of the plant site, dependiug on their::t~r-ientation (toward the resi-
dential district, another indusCrial eaterprise or the warehouses) have differ-
ent architectural solution. The moeC important is the side on which the ma3.n
entrance to the plant is located with the preplant area aad public buildings of
the plant; this side is usually turned toward the housing district. Therefore
the architectural solution of the buildi~ge forming this side of the site must
be given special attention.
The lateral sides of the plant site have subordiaate significance inaemuch as
they are oriented for the most part toward adjacent industrial enterprises.
The rear~side of the plant site oriented in the direction of the entrance of
the railroad tracks or warehouses hae secondary architectural significance.
However, in construction practice sometimes it is difficult clearly to delimit
the sides of the premises with respect to architectural significance: for ex-
ample, frequently the main side is oriented toward one populated area or dis-
trict of the city and the lateral or even rear side, toward another.
Section 32. Blocked Shops
As is noted above, improvement of the coverage density of the premises of an in-
dustrial enterprise to the h3ghest degree promotes blocking of the shops 3n
large buildings. This procedure not on].y reduces the area of the enterprise
territory but also greatly decreases the length of the service lines and trans-
port facilities, the length of the outside enclosures of the buildiags. There-
fore the basic production and technical service facilities must be combined ia
larger buildings if this is economically substantiated and arises from the pro-
duction, construction, sanitary-engineering and fire-safety requirements and
also safety conditions.
The transformer substations and distribution stations (6-10.kv), ventil.ation
units, pump stations for pumping incombuatible liquids and gases, intermediate
and flaw storages..must be designed nnt as detached buildings, but placed in the
production buildings.
It is easier to block the shops in the enterprises of the textile and machine-
building industry; in metallurgy and other branches of industry it is signifi-
cantly more complicated.
It is necessary, however, also to note the deficiencies inherent in large-scale
blocked enterprises. The analysis perfonaed by the Promstroyproyekt institute
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demonstrates that with a wide buildiug which cannot be oriented along the con- '
tour lines, the slope of the ground surface must be decreased by approximately
2.5 to 3 times by comparison with the previoua solutioas, that is, it must be
no more than 1 percent. Hence we have one of the significant deficioacies of
blocking--the undesirableness of tha location of industrial buildings of Big-
nificant area on a single directioaal slope.
The location of several production faciliC3.es ~in a small site leads to extra-
ordinary concentration of workers, that is, it congests the people flows at
peak hours and overloads public transportation. At such enterprises it is nec-
essary to pay special attention to the organizgtion of high-speed forms of
traneportation: buses, trolley buses, electric railways, and so on.
In the case of blocking hazardous production facilities it is necessary to con-
sider that together with concentratioa of prcduction the degree of generated
hazards will increase.
As an example of blocking shops Figure 88a, b showe two veraions of the master
plan for a foundry before blocking and after it.
The master plan provides for blocking the baeic production, auxiliarq aad ser-
vice shops.
The foundry is designed with a gray cast iron ehop, forged cast iron shop, steel
casting shop, small-series (repair) casting shop, tool repair shops and scrap
distribution shop with compacter.
The storage areas are provided including warehouses for finished products, cast
iron, molding materials, coke, refractories, cladding sand, chemicals, oils,
binders, carbon dioxide, petroleum products, lumber, materials storage, and so
on; the administrative-general services and office facilities are designed.
The steel casting and casting ehops for gray and forged cast iron are placed in
two-story buildings about 300 m].ong and 54 m wide in which the charging, melt-
ing and pouring divieions, molding, rod and finish divieions are blocked. On
the first floor are some of tha storages, the paint department, the equipmeat
repair workshop and general services facili~ies, and so on.
Almost all of the production and warehousing facilitiea are blocked iu one
building where the small-series castiug shops, molding materials and refractory
storage, finished product and material storages and algo the repair and tool
shops are planned.
Only eight buildings remain on the maeter plan in the blocked version instead
of the previously planned 19, wh3.ch permitted s3gnif icant improvement of the
technical-ecoaomic indices of the master plan (Table 12).
The diagrams of the master plans of two specialized enterprises are presenCed
in Figure 89a, b. Duriag the design process, ~carious versions of the arrange-
ment of the industrial facilities on individual sites and in a blocked balilding
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were considered. As a result, the version prov3.ding for blocking of two pro-
duction facilities in one building was adopted (Figure 90).
. +
r---- -
2 6
3 4
.i--~ .Br.
21 4 �
~ J
~ -
22
t�
6
- ~
~9
~ ~ 2p _
-
i ~
I
1
i~34s5'e'~'~' _ zt . ~ ~y ~ .
a~ t ~ t
Figure 88. Master plan of a foundry. a--Before blocking; b--after blocking;
1--passageway; 2~-auxiliary shop building; 3--small-aeries casting
building; 4, 5--pattern storages; 6--lumber storage; 7--acetylene
station; 8--scrap distribution base; 9--compacting shop; 10--light
petroleum products storage; 11--carbon dioxide storage; ].2--build-
ing materials storage; 13---refractories storage; 14-~main store;
15--binder storage; 16--oil and chemical storage; 17--compressor
station; 18--sand etorage; 19--clay storage; 20--coke and lime ga1-
lery; 21--coke storage; 22--gray cast iron shop; 23--forged cast
iron shop; 24--water pumpir~g station with tanks; 25--transformer
substation; 26--steel casting shop; 27--nonferrous castiag build-
ing; 28--nonferrous casting trimming facility; 29, 30--finished
castiag storage; 31--uncovered areas; 32--plant administrat3on;
33--automatic scalea.
A comparison of the basic indices of the master plan of these two enterprises in
the blocked version with analogous indices of the master plans of enterpriaes
with separate location of them leads to the fol].owing conclusions:
the placement of two enterprises in one building offers the poesibility o�
sharply reduciag the area of tha premises;
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the placement of all basic shops and technical service facilities ia one build-
ing offers the possibility of gettiug by without a plant yard and encloaure of
the premises which improves the sanitary-hygien3c conditions of the enterprise;
the existing outside aervice lines and access roads and also the reat areas for
the workers are used simultaneously by two enterprises;
as a result of reduciag the plant territory and increasing the coverage dens3ty,
the volumes of operations with respect to road construction and the service line
networks are reduced.
Table 12. Technical-Economic Indices by Versions of the Foundry Master Plan
Versions of Master Plan
By Production Considering
Indices Process Design Blocking
Number of buildings 19 8
Area of the enterprise premises, ha 55.20 41.50
Coverage density, % 26.00 32.00
Area of paved roads, ha 3.19 2.40
Length of railroads, km 5.63 4.27
Length of water supply and sewage networks, l~ 19.88 14.20
Length of district heating network, km 9.27 7.00.
, 6
~t
04 sp ~.,8 12 ~ 1J
~ 8
Q ~ 14 ~ 15
p
17
~ 1
~ 18
10
6 8
8 . : ~i
7
Figure 89. Master plans without considering blocking. a--Weaving mi11s; b--gas
discharge tube shop; 1--production building; 2--auxiliary material
storage; 3--storage of raw materials and finished products; 4--dis-
tribution unit; 5--boilerroom; 6--artesian wells; 7--dining room;
8--passageway; 9--admiuistrative building; 10--sports areas; 11--
cooling pond; 12--compressor and cooling stations; 13--filtration
unit; 14--glass storage; 15--finished products warehouse; 16--fuels
and lubricants warehouse; 17--~materials storage; 18--machine huild-
ing.
A comparison of the technical-economic ind3ces by versions of the master plans
of a weaving mi11 and special shop reveal the great advantages of the blocked
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version: the number of buildings was reduced from 11 to 1, the enterprise ter-
ritory was decreased by 6.58 hectares or by 54 percent, the coverage density of
50.2 percent was achieved instead of 29 percent, the length of the serv3ce lines
was decreased, especially the district heating networks, from 1.01 to 0.03 km.
The general site expenditures reduced to the total construction cost bq the
blocked version was reduced by 2.4 times by comparison with the version without
blocking.
-o; .er
0: ; .Y1:
Q:�' ~4: ~ `~.~i~
, .
_ o
a:':~ ~ ~ � ~ ~
-
a
1 i 3
,:: `D'� : b;:~
Figure 90. Master plan of a blocked weaving mill and the gas discharge tube
shop. 1--Weaving mi1].; 2--general services facilities; 3--special
shop; 4--artesian wells.
Section 33. Engineering Preparation and Amenities of the Premises
The engineering preparaCion of the territory provides for preparation of the
territory of an industrial enterprise for building, protection of it from flood-
ing and the provision for atmospheric water drainage.
One of the basic measures with respact to engineering preparation of the sitie is
vertical planning in order to bring the natural relief of the territory into
correspondence with the construction requirements and provide for removal of at-
mospheric water from the industrial site.
When designing the master plan, the graded elevations of the premiaes of the
industrial enterprise are designated cons3dering the following requirements:
retaining the natural relief, soil cover and green areas insofar as poss3ble;
provision for the removal of surface water at a rate excluding erosion; observa-
tion of the zero balance inaofar as possible in the volumes of cuts and fills
within the graded site.
It is permissible to use continuoua vertical grading with a coverage density of
more than 25 percent and also with high saturation of the enterprise s3tes with
rvads and service lines;� in the remaiuing cases it is necessary to use selective
vertical grading with the performance o� grading operations only in the sections
where buildings or structures will be located. This type of grading must also
be used for rocky soil in order to retain trees or green areas.
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The slopes of the site surface must be no less than 0.003 and no more than 0.05
for argillaceous soils, 0.03 for saady so31, 0.01 for loess and fine sand and
0.03 for permafrost.
The floor level of the first story of the buildiugs is taken above the graded
elevation of the adjacent sections of the territory by no less than 150 mm.
Along the outside walls of the buildiugs it is necessary to build blind areas
with a width exceeding the cornice pro~ection bq 200 mm but no less than 500 mm
with a slope of 0.03-0.1 directed away from the walls of the building.
The amenities of industrial enCerprises are some of the basic measures promoting
improvement of the working conditions. The amenities operations include pri-
ma.rily landscaping of the plant premises, the construction of modern paved roads
and sidewalks, enclosures, organization of surface water drainage, and so on.
Green areas on the plant premises protect man from gases and dust and also noise
to a s3.gnificant degree.
In addition, landscaging has esthetic significance, it creates favorable condi-
tions for relaxation of the workers during breaks; therefore the green areas
- must be concentrated in the general services areas, in the vicinity of dining
rooms, health stations, plant administrat3on and rest areas. However, it is
not necessary to landscape intensely used sections of the plant premises (for
example, the railroad fan area and between the forks of the railroad tracks or
' also near uncovered plant storage areas) and areae formed as a result of in-
creased breaks between buildings.
The landscaping muat take up no less than 15 percent of the enterprise grounds.
With a covera~~ density of more than 50 percent it must be no less than 10 per-
cent.
Within the enterprise premises it is possible to use the following forms of
planti.ngs: trees of different varieties, lawns and flower beds for the organi-
zation of so-called parterre plantings, vines aad bushes.
On the main plant thoroughfares, if they are sufficiently broad, it is expedient
to have green areas in the form of strips; the di~tances from the buildings to
the planted areas are taken as a function of the height of the trees and sizes
of their crowns (within the limits from 5 to 10 m) in order to avoid shading of
the facilities. The distances between trees in a row must be taken as 5-7 m.
In addition, the trees must not prevent good visibility for motor transportation
drivers. The shoulders of the thoraughfares of narrow width are better planted
with bushes and lawn. In the sections where heating and gas lines are laid it
is not recommended that trees and bushes be planted.
In addition to the planted areas, the microclimate of the plant premises is fa-
voxably influenced by open bodies of water and fountains which frequently are
used for production and fire-eafety purposes (for example, the cooling ponds).
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The measures for providiag the premises with amenities, as has already been men-
tioned, include the use of improved paved roads and sidewalks. It is especiatly
important to have such paved areas in the viciaity of the transport entrauces to
~ tihe premises ann main thoroughfares.
The width of the sidewalks '~uilt within the eaterprise site or on the premises
~ of a group of enterprises (an industrial complex) must be taken as a multiple of
~ the traffic lanes 0.75 m wide. The miaimum sidewalk width must be no less than
1.5 m. The number of traffic lanes on the sidewalks must be established as a
function of the number of workers employed in the largest shift in the building
' (or group of buildiags), to wh3.ch the sidewalk leads, reckoning 750 people per
traffic lane.
If necessary to remove water, in the absence of sidewalks along the buildiags it
is necessary to build gutters near the b13.nd areas but ao farther than 1 m from
the edge.
The width of the bicycle paths must be no Zess than 1.6 m for single-lane traf-
fic and 2.5 m for two-lane traffic.
When creating the architectural ensemble of the induetrial enterprise various
structures of so-called small forms are used (kioeks, various pavilions, opett
stairways, walls, and so on) along with sculpture. An important role is played
here by the architecture of the euclosure of the plant premises (if it is con-
sidered necessary by the operatis~g coadiCione).
Section 34. Examples of the Layout of Induetrial Eaterprise Master Plans
Let us consider individual examples from the practice of laying out master plans
for the enterprises of ferrous metallurgy and machinebuilding.
Ferrous Metallurgical Plants. As is already known, the primary goal of any
master plan, iacluding the master plan for a metallurgical plant, is all-around
solution of the problems connected with the location of all the buildings,
structures and lines on the plant site, the creation of the best product3on
links consideriag the conditions of the relief, the sanitary-hygienic and fire-
safety requirements and also considering the expaneioa of the plant.
When developing the master plan for a metallurgical plant the basic factors are
the adopted production volume of the basic conversions and the rec}uirements of
the production process expresaed in the master plan which in the final analysis
determine the number of shops, their mutual layout, producfcion linkages and

- lines. The choice of one version or another of the master plan of inetallurgical
enterprises is decisively influenced by the ma3n production liaks, that is, the
transport links, for the metallurgical production process is distinguished by
highly signif icant freight turnover. For example, the daily requirement of raw
material, fuel and various materials of a large metallurgical plant reaches
60,000 tons with intraplant hauling of about 100,000 tons. Consequently, the
freight turnover requirements have a significant influence on the location of
the shops and structures which must provide for direct delivery of bulk fre3ght
to the unloading areas.
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In addition to railroad transportation, other forms of transportation can also
be used: various conveyors, spatial chain conveyors, cable tramways, roller
conveyors and transfer tables, monor~ail, pneumatic and hydraulic transportat3on.
The conveyor systems permit a significant 3.ncrease in use of the enterprise t~r~ '
ritory and at the same time increase the compactness of the master plan by 20 to
30 percent.
When designing the master plan of the metallurgical plant, along with mrindatory
observation of the basic general conditions imposed on the master glans of all ,
industrial en~erprises it is also necessary to consider apecial requirements
giving rise to the organization of the production process flows, the location
of the.shops and structures of the metallurg~cal plant (see Figure 91). ;
~
The blast furnace, coke and by-products process shops, sinteriag plants and
other users of a large quantity of raw materials and fuel in the enterprise s3te
must be located compactly near the entrance ehunting yard which makes it possible
to reduce the path traveled by the freight cars significantly.
The coke and by-products process shop or plant is located parallel to the blast ~
furnace shop. Thus, a combined coke and blast furnace block is formed which !
permits use of conveyors of minimal length to transfer coke and coal from the '
coal yards and storage to the blast furnace shop (coal preparation). �
The steelmaking shops are located at an angle to the center line of the blast
furnace shap at a distance of up to 1 km; cast iron carrier tracks are used for
connecting them.
The rolled products shops are arranged in series, along the path of the produc-
tion process, that is, after the division for stripping the ingots of the steel-
making shop (at a distance of no more than 500 m), which provides for transfer
of the hot ingots to the h~ooming or slabbing pits. The finish rolling mills
are arranged in parallel groups behind the cogg3ng mills. The repair shops are
located as close as possible to the basic shops.
The power engineering and power shops are located in the vicinity of the rol~.ing
shops which use up to 50 percent of all of the electric power at the mi11.
The efficient operation of all elements and units of the enterprise depends to a
significant degree on the compactness of the master plan. For modern metallur-
gical enterprises Che coverage density usually is taken as 28-35 percent. Such
coverage density indices indicate economical use of the territory, minimum length
of the transport lines and ssrvice netw~orks without lossea for the normal activ-
ity of the enterprise and without increasing its operating cost.
The master plan of an enterprise is selected on the basis of analyzing the tech-
nical-economic indices of several design veraions considering the indices of ex-
isting plants.
At the present time the most possible versions of master plans for metallurgical
p3.ants are considered to be the saries and series-parallel systems.
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~ q~ C n
� CTanenna 2
~8~ oL~~ tipoon~at~r_
W ~
crw~ D
~ OiSM CT~II WNXTONN M~T!(1NM~1 w
t9~ W~~~x ~oe~~'~ (ls cl~> ~n 18 ~0.~(19> .
(10) Ao~i�e?:"~nc A~~ P�~""��"- cHna~a .
wnarca 4ex Maww?~e ''yry~:~ '
~IZ Nall"~`~'~'. ~~5~~ 22~ ~21
craNasKe ~A~rno?ne~a- ~
~ ~ ~ oMCNK ~a6PM~ Yronr 23
' (13) 16 ro�N�coxw?.~r,ec- ca
~ npoKaeoptreo
(14 6s,.,saia,{�.
RaW ma- ~
~ terial `"~r'~'~' Fini~hed product ~
~ Billet - Wa~te
Machining ~
Figure 91. Example diagram of the bas3c process flows of a metallurgical plant.
Key: l. Steelmaking production 13. Granulated slag
~ 2. Scrap 14. Slag-processing enterprises
3. Ingots 15. Blast furnace shop
4. Charge materials 16. Coke and by-products process
5. Scrap distribution base 17. Liquid cast iron
6. Rolled products production 18. Casting machine
- 7. Rolled products 19. Pig iron
8. Steelmaking slag 20. Cast iron storage
9. Steelmaking slag pile 21. Ore concentrate
10. Blast furnace slag pile 22. Sintering pZant
11. Blast furnace slag 23. Coking coal
12. Granulation unit 24. Coke breeze
The series sy~tem (Figure 92) is usually used when using elongated sites and
when, as a rui., constructing small plants. According to this layout, the
shops (blast furnace, steelmaking, rolliug) are located along the path of the
production process, that is, each successive shop is a continuation of the pre-
ceding one. With this arrangement of the shops the plant site has a very long
form which leads to an increase in length of the service lines and tracks, an
increase in cost ~nd complication of construction, operation and maintenance of
the enterprise and, as a rule, excludes the possibility of expanding the b].ast
furnace and steelmaking shops. With this solution the blast furnace shop is
placed at an angle to the steelmakiag shop, and the rolliag shop, in ser3es af-
ter the steelmaking shop.
The series-parallel layout (Figure 93) can be used in several versions depending
on the geological and topographic conditions: 1) the coke-blast furnace unit is
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placed with respect to the steelmaking unit in parallel, and the rolling m311s,
with respect to the steelmaking unit, in series; 2) the blast furnace shop is ,
placed at an angle to the steelmaking shop, and the rolling shops, parallel to
the blaet furnace shop. This layout offers the possibility of achieving great
compactness in the location of ~he basic shops.
~ 3 _ _ .
_
4'y`~4 K,~YC4 0
6ti~' ~a a s ~ .
14 5 19
- o ~o~ 09 ~
0
11 L~'~~a o ~ oom ,p
- . 18
Figure 92. Series layout of the solution of the master plan of a metallutgical
plant. 1--Refractory shop; 2--coke batteries; 3--chemical shop; 4--
coke conveyors; 5--coal storage; 6--ore yar~; 7--bucket storage; 8--
blast furnace shop; 9--terr3tory of auxiliary units for the bl.ast
furnace shop; 10--plant railroad stations; 11--plant traction uni.t;
12--circulating water pond for the blast furnace shop; 13--open-
hearth shops; 14--casting machines; 15--cast iron storage; 1.6--
charging yards; 17--repair shops; 18--administration center of the
plant; 19--rolled products shops.
8 9~ 10 11 12 13 N
QC]
Q
~ A
s
.
_ ~ I ~
~
0
1B . 18 . .
21
?
20 17
~`r...~...~~~~~~~~~~~.~``~..1~~..~~~r~~?. 'rr ~
Figure 93. Series-parallel solution to the master plan of a metallv.rgical plant.
1--Blast furnace shops; 2--ore yard; 3--sintering shop; 4--gas puri-
fication; 5--steam-air etation; 6--casting machines; 7--mixer; 8--
w~ter management; 9--open-hearth furnaces; 10--location of the re-
pair shops; 11--slag yard; 12--ingot stripping division; 13--3.ngot
storage; 14--ingot mold yard; 15, 16--rolling shops; 17--locat3.on
for expansion of the steelmaking and rolling shops; 18--scrap dis-
tribution base; 19--stock yard; 20--location for development of the
coke and by-products process and blast furnace shops; 21--coa1 prep-
aration; 22--chemical ehops or divisions of the coke and by-products
process shops; 23--coke batteries.
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Machinebuilding Plants. In the ma~ority of cases the sites for large machine-
building plants are selected rectangular itt shape for organic tying to the
analogous structure of the industrial complex constructed by the panel-block
principle. When designing the automobile, tractor and certain other machine-
building plants most frequently three- or four-panel l~youts are used. The so--
lution is preferable where such shops as the machine assembly and tool shops
are located in the first panel; the casting and forging shops are located in
the second panel; the storage areas and services and auxiliary shops are 10-
cated in the third panel; the power engineering pro~ects, in the fourth panel.
The solution of the master plan for a machinebuilding enterprise is presented in
_ Figure 94. The largest modern industrial enCerprise is located on a rectangular
site 1,500 hectares in area. The enterprise site is separated by a main highway
into northern and southern sections. The basic production, with the exception
of the press building, is located in the southern part of the site where shops
are grouped with the largest number of workers and less harmful production fa-
cilities. The billeting shops (more har.mful production facilities) are located
in the northern part of the site and are more than 2.5 km from the developed
territory. In the master plan ~or the enterprise provieion 3s made for produc-
tion, san3tary and transport zoning.
~
. s ~ ,
~ 9
. D. an - ' ~
_ `3 _ - - - i= _ _ _ .
~
U (
Z t in
. ~
City ! % -
.
Figure 94. Master plan of a large enterprise. 1--Main building; 2--auxiliarq
shop module; 3--auxiliary production facilities of the main build-
ing; 4--power engineering and engineering support zone; 5--railroad
stations; 6--preas building; 7--group of casting shops; 8--group of
forging shops; 9--spare parts production building; 10--finished
product area; 11--dispatch area; 12--engineering center; 13--rolZing
track; 14--plant administration; 15--training center.
Section 35. Industrial Transportation
Industrial transportation is divided into two types: external and intraplant.
The external fransportation (rai1, ra~lless and water) is used to linlc the en-
terprise to the raw material base, tha parts production units (in the case of
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cooperative production), for shipping the finished product to the destinations
of use and shipping the production waste out. Usually it is located beyond the
boundaries of the enterprise premises. The elements of the external railroad
transportation are the station, the sidiag and the shunting yard of the indus-
trial district, which, as a rule, is located outside the limits of the plant
premises.
The intraplant transport paths are located in the territory of the enterprise.
The intraplent transportation is planned on the basis of calculating the capac-
ity of the freight turnover and the nature of the moved freight.
Railroad transportation can be provided with a total freight turnover of the en-
terprises, as a rule, of no less than 10 provisional cars per day and also when
shipping heavy and oversized freight. In addition to railroad and motor trans-
portation for the intraplant movement of goods it is expedient to provide a
continuous transport system (conveyor, hydraulic, pneumatic, monorail, overhead
cable). If the external shipping of raw materials, fuel and products can be
accomplished by railless transportation, which is economically expedient, then
it is not necessary to design railroad tracks, but provide for motor and trailer
shipping and also conveyors, overhead cableways and monorails and pipelines.
The following railroad transportation systems can be used on the plant premises:
dead-end, through, ring and mixed.
The proper location of the plant shunting yard has great significance. In the
case of small and medium plants such yards are usually l.ocated parallel to the
plant tracks (Figure 95a), and more rarel.y in series with ths plant tracks
(Figure 95b) as a result of less economical use of the premises.
The most widespread are the dead-end systems which permit economical use of the
plant premises and also the application of railroad transportation in terri-
tories having slopes in the direction perpendicular to the railroad tracks.
One of the disadvantages of the dead-end system is the low flexibility of maneu-
vering the rolling stock.
The through systems (Figure 95c) are acceptable only for large plants (for exam-
ple, metallurgical). In this case two plant shunting yards can be planned:
for the arrival of freight and for shipping freight.
The circular layouts (Figure 95d) are used relatively rarely as a result of
their disadvantages. They increase the plant territory significantly; with
such schemes the intersectione of people flows with the railroad tracks, and so
on are unavoidable. However, these layouts have their advantages: they permi~
flow movement of goods, the location of the railroad tracks around the edges of
the plant premises.
Mixed systems which are also used in construction practice include individual
elements of the different layouts.
The railroad tracks of industrial enterprises are divided into approach lines
connecting the industrial enterprises with the general network railroad tracks,
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docks, raw material bases and storage areas or other enterprises, and internal
tracks located on the premiaes of the enterprises.
The approach lines of i.ndustrial enterprises are designed accordiag to SNiP
II-39-76 ("General Network 1,520-~n Gauge Railroads").
a b ? L~-
_ o ~ p
~ .d
~ �
00 ~ o
~ Station
Figure 95. Layouts of intrapa.ant railroad tracks. a, b--Dead-end wi.th parallel
(a) location of the shunting yard and series (b) location of the
shunting yard; c--through; d--ring.
s 6
� r----T-~ --I
r-~---r- -1
I ~ ~ ~ ~ i I ~ -
_ trq.~zx I
~ ~ ~1- - - -i-~ , F;~~~,~~
~
~ t- ~
i I ~ ~ I
~ - ~ ~ ( ~ .L
~ - - ~ - - - - ~
~ ~ I
I +.L'_'"J
i
Figure 96. Master plan for an automobile plant. a--Servicing the intraplant
shipping basically by railroad transportation; b--the same, rail-
less forms of transportatic~n.
With respect to purpose, the plant railroad tracks are divided into running,
loading-unloading and shunting. The running tracks are designed for the basic
freight to travel, at significant speede; therefore a minimum number of switches
are provided on the running tracks.
The loading-unloading tracke are designed only for loading and unloading opera-
tions.
The shunting tracks are located, as a rule, in the plant shunting yards with
large freight turnover.
The railroad rolling stock of industrial ettterprises includes cars, diesel loco-
motives and ordinary types of electric locomotives used on the main railroads
and also special types which permit application of the railroad tracks wlth
radii of curvature appreciably lesq than required for ordinary rolling stock.
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The studies performed at the TsNllpromzdaniy demonstrate that the application of
railroad transportation at industrial enCerprises greatly complicates the layout
of the master plan, it requires the allotment of significant territory and the
construction of complex engineering structures at their intersections (see Fig-
ure 95). Usually the intraplant railroad tracks take up as much as 10 percent
of the total area of the enterprise, and when building the plant shunting yards
and the railroad track fans, significantly more territcry; therefore recently
when possible (for example, at the enterprises of ferr~us metallurgy) motor,
conveyor and pipeline transportation are finding more and more application.
The conversion of the intraplant shipping to the indicated railless forms of
transportation has offered the possibility of solving the master plan more com-
pactly (Figure 96a, b): reduction of territory by 30 percent, a decrease in
railroad track length by threefold, and the capital expenditures on transporta-
tion are reduced by 40 percent.
Thus, the basic form of railless transportation of many industrial enterprises
is motor transportation. In this case a network of roads called accesses are
planned on the enterprise premises.
When laying out the master plan the numbex and the dimensior_s of the streets and
accesses and also their designation are determined after establishment of the
number of panels, zones and transport links in accordance with the requirements
of the production process. It is necessary to know the purpose and the required
number of service networks, for this influences the width of the streets.
The streets (thoroughfares) within the territory of the industrial enterprise
are divided into primary and secondary.
A main thoroughfare is usually a transport artery which begins at the main en-
trance of the plant and is designed for moving the bulk of the workers to the
workplaces.
On the premises of average size enterprises frequently one main route is laid
out which is the layout center line of the industrial site and simultaneously
- splits the plant premises into two approximately equal parts: other versions
of laying out the plant thoroughfares are also possible.
The roads of industrial enterprises can be access, connecting the enterprises
to the general network roads, and'_internal, located on the enterprise premises.
The basic technical indicea of roads must satisfy the requirements of SNiP
II-D.5-72 ("Roads. Design Standards").
The roads on the premises of the enterprises are designed as dead-end, ring and
mixed.
When choosing the mixed road system, it is appropriate to consider at least one
ring encompassing the main part of the built-up territory. When selecting the
dead-end road system for turning the vehicles around at the end of the cul-de-
sac, loop drives or areas no less than 12 x 12 m in size are provided where the
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size muet be adopted in accordance with the technical specifications of the
adopted transport means.
Section 36. Technical-Economic Indices of Master Plans
The quality of the master plan design of an industrial enterprise is character-
ized by its technical-economic indices which include the following data: the
area of the territory, hectares; the covered area, hectares; the coverage den-
sity, percentage;* the landscaped area, hectares; the area taken up by ra3lroad
tracks and railless roads, hectares, and their length, 1~; the length of the
underground and above-grouud service networks, km; the length of the enclosure,
km; types of bridges and their areas, hectares.
The presented indices characterize the solution of the master plan from the
economic point of view. The economic indices of the master plan also include
the dimensions of the initial aad subsequent capital investments, including the
- operating expenditures.
GJhen estimating the versions of the master plan the designers must consider not
only the technical and economic requirementa, but also the architectural-esthetic
requirements, that is, solve the overall design problem.
* For the enterprises of each branch of industry the coverage densit3.es have
different values (see Section 31).
~
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Chagter VII. Basic Design Principles of the Buildings of Industrial Enterprises
Section 37. Classification of Production Buildings
- When designing the production buildings of industrial enterprises it is neces-
sary to consider that with respect to the production process and internal con-
ditions connected with it, nature and effect of external loads and also bq the
other operating characteristics they are under specific aad, as a rule, less
favorable conditions than nonindustrial buildings.
There are enterprises with special production conditions: with increased hu-
midity, highly significant heat generation (hot shops), with aggressive environ-
ment of the production facility, and so on. Thus, in the textile industry 3n
heated buildings for normal occurrence of the production process iacreased hu-
midity is required, and in such production facilities as the meat combines, the
leather plants, and so on, increased humidity is the result of the production .
process; in many shops of the metallurgical plants (ateelmaking, rolling, cast-
ing, and so on) the production process is accompanied by the release of a large
quantity of heat (to 630-840 and in iadividual cases, to 1,260-2,100 kilo3oules,
and so on).
The production buildings of the induetrial enterprises are classified by their
specific attributes which provide for the purpose and the belonging of these
buildings to one branch (subbranch) of industry or another (which 3s determined
by the production process), the number of floors, the number of bays, the degree
of fireproofness and service life, the nature of the coverage, the method of ar-
ranging internal supports, the water drainage system and form of intrashop
transportation.
Depending on the purpose, the enterprise buildings are divided into product3on
buildings in which the basic, service and certain other enterprises or shops
are located and auxiliary, in which the cultural-general services, administra-
tive-office facilities, dining rooms, laboratories, and so on are located.
The production buildings can be one-story and multistory, single-bay and multi-
- bay, with internal or external water drainage, and they can also be or not be
equipped with materials-handling equipment.
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The buildinge and structures are divided into five groups with respect to degree
of f ireproofness. Their f ireproofnesa is defined by SNiP II-A.5-70 ("Fireproof-
ing Norms for the Design of Buildings at~d Structures," Table 2).
With respect to the functional attribute, coneidering the natienal economic s3g-
nificance, the production buildings are divided ittto four classes. Here the de-
gree of fireproofness of the buildings is taken as follows: for class I build-
ings, no less than fireproofness II; for class II, no less than fireproofness
III; for class III and IV buildings, the fireproofness has not been standard-
dized.
The service life of the structural elements of the production buildings must be
as follows:
for class I buildings, no less than I degree (no less than 100 years);
for class II buildings, no less than II degree (no less than 50 years);
for class III buildings, no less than III degree (no less than 20 years);
for class IV buildings, the service life of the structures has not been stand-
ardized.
Depending on the nature of the coverage of the territory of an industrial enter-
prise, the production buildings can be with continuous and pavilion-type cover-
~ age.
The production buildings with continuous coverage are distinguished by signi..fi-
cant dimensions. They are designed either without skylights wiCh artificial
ventilation and luminescent lighting or with light and ventilation windows and
skylights (see Figure 75 and Figure 97a).
Pavilion-type coverage (Figure 97d) is usually used at enterprises of the chemi-
cal and metallurgical induatry for storage and other buildings; a limited number
of bays or one bay is provided here in order to ensure natural illumination and
ventilation through the side openings and skylights.
With respect to the arrangement of the internal supports the production build-
ings are divided into bay-, cell- and hall-type buildings. In the bay-type
buildings (Figure 97a) the bay size predominates over the column spacing. The
cell-type buildings (Figure 97b) are huild3nga usually with a column network
that is square or close to it. The hall-type buildinge (Figure 97c) are built
if it is necessary to have significant production areas without internal sup-
ports.
On the premises of an industrial site, in addition to the production buildings
provision is also made for other structures, depending on the production pro-
cesses. These structures, in accordance with their purpose, can be provision-
all}� combined into groups: the first group includes the service line structures
(canals, tunnels, the supports for the overhead electric power lines, and sa on);
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the second group includes transport structures (conveyor galleries, trestles,
and so on); the third group includes tank-type structures (silos, gas-holders,
cooling towers, water towers, tanke, and eo on) (Figure 98a-c).
a
u . ,u u
~ .
~ ( e, .
(2) ~4)
c d
� ~ o
o a
o~
o �
,~soM ~ 0
eaoo-.?--- --k- aooo
~aoo
Figure 97. Diagrams of the space-floor plan and structural solutions of one-
story production buildings. a-c--Continuous coverage; a--bay-type;
b--cell-type; c--hall-type; d--pavilion coverage.
Key: 1. Column spacing 4. End section
2. Co.rner.section 5. Side section
3. Midsection 6. Longitudinal span
a c
b
, t,,. i
. :
;
111
: ; � @ ~ :
- - _
_ ^ -
Figure 98. Tank-type structures. a--Silos; b--vertical gas-holders; c--drop
cooling tower.
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Section 38. Flow Diagram for the Production Process
When designing an industrial enterprise it is necessary to solve a number of the
interrelated economic, organizational and technical problems:
economic problems--establishment of the product3on program of the enterprise,
the product nomenclature, the number of products, weight, cast of one product
and the total number with respect to the program, and so on;
organizational problems--the development of the administrative structure o� the
plant, its subdivisions (shops, sections); the distributioa of functions and es-
tablishment of the mutual relations between the subdivisions and the duty per-
sonnel, and so on;
technical problems--the design of the production process for processing the raw
material and intermediate producta; determ3nation of the required work time re-
serve and manpower; the selection and calculation of the amount of basic produc-
tion and auxiliary equipment; determination of the required amount of raw mate-
rial, materials and fuel and also tha required amount and methods of equipping
the enterprise with energy of all types, and so on.
The modern industrial enterpriae and its production buildi~igs and structures
must be designed considering the requirements of the most advanced production
process and the prospects for its development. The content of the production
process of an industrial enterprise is closely connected with the concept of
the so-called master production-process working flow diagram which is used as
the basis for the solution of the master plan of the enterprise, at the same
time as the partial working flow diagram is the base for each specific produc-
tion building.
Developing one design or another for a production building, it is neceseary
first of all to study the production process flow diagram which is a graphical
representation of the mutual functional relations between the production pro-
- cesses taking place at the industrial enterprise and in its shops.
Figure 99 shows a version of the graph3cal repreaentation of the production
process flow diagram of a machinebuilding plant.
Depending on the shop composition, enterprises are distinguished with complete
and incomplete production cycle. The plants with complete production cycle have
an entire set of basic, auxiliary and service shops--the universal plants--and
plants with an incomplete cycle--these are the specialized enterprises which are
distinguished with respect ta type and degree o� specialization.
When designing the machinebuilding plants special attention must be given to the
problems of specialization of production and broad cooperation of the enter-
prises.
The structure of the production process and forms of its organization arise from
a number of factors: for example, such as the variety of products produced at
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the plant, the degree of stability of their nomenclature, the volume of produc-
tion output and the nature of the technology.
On the basie of the structural layouts of the production process it is possible
to establish a clear-cut classification of types of machinebuilding production
facilities and the enterprises themselves considering production spec3.alization.
Depending on the level of specialization of the plant, the nomenclature of the
products simultaneously in operation, uni.t, series and mass production are dis-
tinguished.
The production cycle of an industrial enterprise includes an entire series of
transport operations connected with movement of the ma.chined materials and pro-
duction waste.
When developing the transport system for the designed industrial buildings and
the entire enterprise an important factor is the load inzensity of the flows.
~ ~
~s ~ v ~a
~o ~
3 ~
15
14
Figure 99. Procedure for graphical representation of the production process
flow diagram of a machinebuilding plant. Storage area: 1--large
wood materials; 2--lumber; 3--charge and molding materirsls; 4--too].
steel; 5--metals; 6--chemical materials; 7--intermediate products
and other materials; 8--fuel; 9--combustibles; 10--dry lumber; 1i--
castings; 12--forgings; 13--finished products and dispatch room;
14--waste pile. Billeting shops: 15--lumber; 16--castings; 17--
forgings; 18--iron billeting. Processing shops: 19--lumber drying;
20--primary thermal; 21--woodworking; 22--secondary thermal; 23--me-
chanical; 24--boiler-welding and cold stamping; 25--assembly; 26--
painting; 27--testing. Service facilities: 28--heat and electric
power plant; 29--gas generator station; 30--central boilerroom.
Other shops: 31--pattern; 32--tool; 33--mechanical repair; 34--con-
struction repair; 35--packaging.
In order to ensure an economically expedient production process it is necessary
to exclude the possibility of spatial intersection of the flows of materials and
to provide the shortest length of these flows. During the design process it is
necessary to compare the technical and the technical-economic indices of the
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versions of the production process flow diagrams. For each shop (~ust as for
the entire plant) first efficient production flows are developed, and then the
overall dimensions and location of the machine tools, machines and other pro-
duction equipment are preliminarily determined.
Uninterrupted operation of any industrial enterprise is unthinkable taithout pro-
viding convenient approaches for the workers to their shops and rhythmic de13.v-
ery of goods to the production sections on its premises; in part:Lcular, it is
impossible to permit intersections of people and materials �lo~s nn the same
level (in the case of mass movements), counter and retura directioas of move-
ment of these flows.
The freight intensity of the flows is an important facto~ which must be consid-
ered when developing the traneport system for the designed industrial buildings
and the entire enterprise.
Section 39. Materials-Handling Equipment
During the development of the design for a production building, an economical
solution to the entry shop transportation and expedient selection of the type
of materials-handling equipment acquire important signif icance. This cho3ce is
conditioned by the production processes and means of inechanizing the designed
enterprise, and it depends on the quantity and type of hauled_ gaods, the nature
of the performed materials-handling operations and the machinery used for load-
ing, unloading and moving materials.
In production buildings for moving materials weighing up to 5 tons iaclusively
it is not necessary to use supported bridge cranes; in this case it is recom-
mended that overhead materials-handling equipment be used in the form of various
conveyors or overhead cranes (overhead beam hoists, monorails; Figure 100a);
where it is expedient it is necessary to use pneumatic and hydraulic transporta-
tion. The application of bridge cranes to move materials (Figure 100b, c) 3s
permitted only in a specific branch of industry (for example, in metall.urgy or
heavy machinebuilding) with the correspond3ag loads and operating conditions.
_
~
b ~
a �
~
- Figure 100. Materials-handling equipment of production buildinge. a--Overhead
beam crane; b--supported bridge crane; c--~ib crane; d--suspended
chain conveyor. t
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Electric bridge cranes are mechanisms designed for intrashop movement of goods
in three mutually perpendicular directions. With respect to structural design
they are divided into general-purpose cranes (used for many branchea of 3ndus-
try) and special-purpose cranea (used primarily in metallurgy).
The general-purpose cranes include the electric supported bridge cranes which
consist of a welded bridge, the crane with the displacement machinery and do1~
lies with the mechanism for lifting and moving (see Figure 100b, c).
L ~ L b
� L
- , P~~iue ocN i
'~~1 I
Figure 101. Interrelation between the spans of buildings L and the spans of
supported cranes LK.
Key: 1. Center lines of the crane rails
2. Center lines of the building layout
Depending on the operating conditions, they are divided into five groups:
cranes with light, medium, heavy and very heavy operating conditions and con-
tinuous-action cranes with very heavy operating conditions.
The relation between the epan of the bridge cranes (the distance between verti-
cal center lines of the crane rails LK) and the building span L.(Table ~.3 and
Figure 101) is established according to GOST 534-69.
Table 13. Spans of Bridge Cranes
Building Spans L, m
Bridge Crane Spans LK, ~ 12 18 24 30 36
Cranes with light operating conditions
In the absence of passages along the
crane tracks 10.5 16.5 22.5 28.5 34.5
In the presence ot passages along the
crane tracks 10.0 16.0 22.0 28.0 34.0
Cranes with medium operating conditicns 10.0 16.0 22.0 28.0 34.0
Cranes with heavy operating conditions 10.0 15.5 21.5 27.5 33.5
The load capacity of cranes, their overall dimensions and basic parameters are
determined by the state standards for cranes.
With respect to laad capacity or distance !C (see Figure 101) the bridge cranes
are divided into groups (Table 14).
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It is neceseary to conaider that the application of bridge cranes increases the
weight of the bearing etructure significantly and also forces an increase in the
height of the building which is undesirable.
The special-purpose cranes include charging cranes, hot-metal cranes, extractive
cranes, fittiag cranes, aud so on. They are primarily used in metallurgy.
Depending on the type of transported material, the cranes are equipped with
various types of load grappling devices: hooks, electric magnets, clamshells,
and so on.
Table 14. Groups of Bridge Cranes by Load Capacity and Spacing
Group of Cranes
Indices 1 2 3
Load capacity, tons s50 80-125 >125
mm, for
General-purpose cranes 5300 300-400 >400
_ Special or metallurgical cranes 5300 300-400 >400
At the metallurgical plants for transportation of ingots, loading and unloading
Che metal charge, and so..on, magnetic cranes with an electroma.gnet suspended
from the load hook are used.
In the charging yards of steelmaking shops for loading ore, lime and other bulk
and piece materials and also in the compacting shops for loading chips, clam-
shell cranes are used.
In modern one-story and on the upper story of multistory production buildings
overhead cranes (overhead beam cranes) with up to 5 tons capacity are more and
more frequently used. The basic parameters and the diagrams of the overhead
cranes are shown in Figure 102. The distances from the ends of these cranes to
the central lines of the building established considering the overall dimens3ons
of the columns an3 the structures under the rafters are presented in Table 15.
Such cranes move along the lower flange of the guiding I-beams of the crane
tracks attached to the bottom chord of the bearing structure of the roof (Figure
103).
The overhead cranes (overhead beam cranes) have a great advantage over the sup-
ported electric cranes as a result of thair increased flexibility or universal-
ity. Here, it is possible to change the direction of motion of the overhead
cranes from longitudinal Co transverse, which is important when modifying the
production process.
If the materials-handling machinery services only a narrow operating strip of
the shop, it is expedient to use a monorail whi~h is in the form of a I-beam
attached to the bottom chord of the bearing structure of the roof (beam, truss)
instead of the overhead cranes.
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8 b - lt b
Q�2:3,r5r
a L ~ �
K
t~ & Z~F lll
b b -Lt ~ `---~1y b
, ~
~0�23�rSr ~
tiK ~
`'30 & 36 m
~ C: b ~i ..p
C�kt,~if Q-tL~2t
LM _
_ ~ _ t
Fi~ure 102. Basic parameters and layout diagrams for overhead cranes (a-c).
i-r
~
i ~Z Cr ne A
Crane B .
.
Crane A
~r
~ ~
.1
~ -
� ~
~{r a
- ~
,
=T _ c.i_.___. . Tr
A. I
~
d
L~
~t7
Figure 103. Operating diagram of an overhead crane A along the bay and crane B
across the bay. 1--Guide beam; 2--overhead crane.
In buildings not having bridge cranes, the frame is simplified; as a result of
removing the crane load the column cross section and foundation dimensions are
decreased, and the nomenclature of types o� bearing structures is reduced. The
application of crane beams laid on the column brackets is excluded.
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Table 15. Distances From the Ends of the Cranes to the Layout Center Lines of
the Building (see Figure 102)
Load
guilding - -
Span y, Capacity ~ a w e, M I y I(~, M I o. r
t
12 t; 2; 3.2; 5 9 1,2;'0~9; 0,6 I,b -
18 2; 3,2; b 16 0.9; 0~6 1,5 7,5 - 2~8
' 44 2; 3,2; b 21 0~9; 0,6 1,5 10,5 - 2~6
30 2; 3,2; b 27 0~9; 0~6 1.5 g g 2~8
36 2; 3,2; b 33 0.9: 0,6 l~b 10,5 12 3
Section 40. Characteristic Features of the Standardization and Unitization of
Industrial Buildings
The successful implementation of the grand program for industrial construction
planned by the 25th CPSU Congress can be provided for only by the introduction
of new advanced space-floor plan solutions for production buildings and plant-
_ manufactured structural elements into production, further industrialization of
- construction, reduction of the material consumption and also improvement of ~he
operating characteristics of the production buildings and structures.
The solution of these problems is also promoted by further development of the
standard design. The standardization of certain solutions is continuously con-
nected with unitization. Standardized dimensioned layouts of one-story and
multistory buildings were used for the first time in design practice, and then
unitized standard sections (UTS) and bays (UTP) were developed.
Already in the middle of the 1960's standardized dimensioned layouts were de-
veloped for many branches of industry, which were layouts of standard space-
floor plan solutions of production buildings (Figure 104a-c).
When using dimensioned layouts and UTS, the dimensions of the shops with respect
to height are designated as a function of the size of the equipment and nature
of the production process (Table 16), and the following notation is adopted:
the height from floor level to the bottom of the bearing structures of the roof
H; the height frcm floor level to the head of the crane rail hK; the same to the
top of the column bracket h and from the top of the bracket to the top of the
column hp.
The dimensioned layouts contain data on the planning, the column spacing, spans,
height and number of stories of the buildings, crane loads, and so on.
Recently significant work has been done on the unitization of production bu31d-
ings in the direction of ensuring complete unity of the structural solutions for
different production processes. The coworkers of the TsNlIpromzdaniy have made
a big contribution to the development of unitization. According to their con-
cept, the main goal of unitization in industrial construction is the creation
of a space-floor plan structure of buildings which will provide for the possi-
bility and profitableness of plant production of structural elements and products
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for them and also the possibility of the application of industrial methode of
erecting monolithic reinforced-concrete structural. elements of buildings. They
consider that the principal features of the unitization method in industrial
construction as the ffiost important basie for standardization are the followingt
establishment of a limited number of construction parameters and their combina-
tions in the form of dimensioned layouts for the basic types of mass-construc-
tion buildings;
the development of universal space-floor plan solutions satisfying the produc-
tion requirements of individual groups of uniform pr.oduction facilities and en-
suring variety of architectural-layout solutions to the buildings;
the selection of efficient and economical structural layouts and solutions (types
of frames, elements, and so on) permitting limitation to the least number of
structural elements;
ensurance of conditions for mutual combiaation of space-floor planning and
structural elements of buildings with the least number of standard
products.
a '
Sr 5r 5r 5T 5T ST 5T 5r ~
~24 24 2~ ~ 2~ 2=� C
96 ~ ~
, . . . . . . . ~x
t i
N ~
a a. a a. ~ 6 6
~ 24 1 ~ +
H . ? ? 4~ ? ? i + 4 f i ? ~ O~
?
~ N
? f ? i +
~ i ? ~1 i ? i N ~ ~ F ; � ~ ~ r ~
i ? ? t ? H
N ? ~ i i f ~
~ t0 ~
x ans o
tt u ~~oint n tT. n s--~
l-~
Figure 104. Dim~nsioned layou~s of an industrial building. a--One-story; b--
multistory; c-~-column dimensions.
As has already been stated above, unitization in industrial construction is
based on the Integrated System of Modular Coordination of Dimensions in Con-
struction (YeSMK).
A study is made below of the materials on unitization of one-st~ry and multi-
story production buildings.
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Table 16. Examples of Unitized Column Heights of Buildiags Equipped With Bridge
Cranes (see Figure 104c)
Dimen- Column
ifonal- Spacing, Column Height, m
N, N 8,4 I 9,6 10~8 12,6 I 14,4
hK 6,15 I 6,95 ( 8~15 I 9,G5 ( 11,45
~ I 6,2 I 5,8 I 7 I 8~5 I 10,3
h,M
12 I 4,6 I b,4 ( 6,6 ( 8,1 I 9,9
6 I 9,2 ~ 3,8 I 3~8 I 4.1~ ( 4,l -
h~, u -
12 I 3,8 I 4,2 I 4,2 I 4,5 I 4,5
One-Story Industrial Buildings. In the ma~ority of cases such buildings are
laid out from parallel bays of identical width, height and identical materials-
handling equipment. Theae spatial elements having united structura], parameters
and structural solution h~ve come to be called the "unitized standard sections"
(UTS) for interbranch application. They permit designs of production buildings
of the required dimensions to be created (Figure 105a-c).
As experience has demonstrated, the dimensions of the sections in plan, that is,
the number of transverse and longitudinal spans are established when designing
the buildings based on the given capacity of the enterprise.
As a result of the analysis of specific designs of industrial buildings of a
number of branches of industry the design~ers have defined the optimal dimen-
sions of the sections from which it is possible to lay out productioYi buildings
of the required length and width. Thus, for the machinebuilding enterprises, in
addition to the casting, pressing and forging facilities, the following types of
basic sections of the buildings are recommended (see Figure 105):
dimensions in plan 144 x 72 and 72 x 72 m with column grid of 24 x 12 and
18 x 12 m;
height of craneless bays and with overhead transportation with a capacity to
5 tons, 6 and 7.2 m inclusively;
height of bays with bridge cranes with a capacity to 30 tons, 10.8 and 12.6 m
inclusively.
In addition, sections are provided for the transverse spans: with a load ca-
pacity of the bridge cranes to 30 tons inclusively the dimensions of the sec-
tions in plan are 24 x 72 m and (24 + 24) x 72 m(with a height of 10.8 and
12.6 m); with a load capacity of the bridge cranes to 50 tons incl.usively, the
size of the sections in plan 30 x 72 m(with a height of 16.2 and 18 m).
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a ~ ~ b ~ Grid
, .
~ ~
. a
N4 141 - ~ 144
~ ~
n n ~ !d 72
- C
1
~2 .
. h ~hA
SJ~ ~A* ~
~ ` h ~
Figure 105. Examples of dimensioned layouts of unitized standard sections of
one-story production buildings. a--With column grid of 24 x 12 m;
b--with column grid of 18 x 12 m; c--versions of the layout of
buildings from standard sections of modules: 1--basic sections;
2--auxiliary sections.
For one-story buildings of casting, pressing and forging production facilities,
unitized standard sections are recoffinended with dimensions in plan of 144 x 72
and 72 x 72 m with column grid of 24 x 12 m.
The nomenclature of the sections for the enterprises of the chemical industry by
comparison with the nomenclature of the sections for the enterprises of machine-
building is significantly broader, which is caused by great variety of the pro-
duction processes. The UTS nomenclature for chemical enterprises will contain
48 types of sizes of different width and height of the buildings have two
lengths--60 and 72 m. This framing permits layout of the buildings with quite
_ varied space-floor plan solutions.
The use of the UTS for laying out buildings offers the possibi].ity of best con-
sideration of the actual construction conditions, the use of the shop blocking
procedure in a single buildiag and also realization of the advantages of uniti-
. zation when designing industrial enterpriaes.
The values of the basic space-floor plan parameters of the buildinga, longitu-
dinal and transverse spans and height, are designated according to the "Basic
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Principles of Unitization of the Space-Floor Plan and Structural Solutions of
Industrial Buildings" and on the basis of generalization of modern experience.
During the design process, the bay width (in m) of one-story buildings must in
the ma.jority of cases be designated as a multiple of the consolidated modulus
6M and, as a rule, taken equal to the following: in the absence of bridge
cranes 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36; in the presence of supported electric bridge
cranes 18, 24, 30 and 36.
TYie bay width by the process requirements can be taken as more than 36 m and be
a multiple of 6 m. With manual bridge cranes the bay width is designated as
equal to 9, 12, 18 m.
The column spacings are taken as multiples of 60M (6 m), and during the design
process they are designated as a result of the technical-economic calculations.
The spacing of the edge columns is taken in the majority of cases equal to the
spacing of the rafter elements (6 or 12 m). It is recommended that the spacing
of the middle columns of multibay buildings with 12-m spans and height to 9.6 m
be taken as 6 m, and for spans from 18 to 36 m, 6 or 12 m with height to 10.8 m
inclusively and 12 m for height from 12 to 18 m. It is possible to use spacings
of more than 12 m when this is dictated by necessity and it is technologically
and economically ~ustifiable.
In one-story frame buildings the height (from the f inished floor level to the
- bottom of the bearing structures on the support) must be designated as a multi-
ple of the consolidated moduli: 6M with height to 6 m; 12M with height from 6
to 18 m(Table 17j. A height of more than 18 m must be a multiple of the modu-
lus 1.2 m or the large dimension, a multiple of 0.6 m.
In Table 18 the unitized structural parameters of single-story frame production
buildings are presented.
In the ma.jority of cases buildings with manual bridge cranes are made siagle-
bay.
Multistory Industrial Buildings. On the basis of the unitization, the multi-
story industrial buildings of interbranch application wiCh beam structur.al ele-
ments are divided into two groups depending on the normative loads and the
column grid:
1) buildings with normative loads to 1,000 kg/m2 and column grids of 6 x 6;
9 x 6 and (6 + 3+ 6j x 6; (9 + 3+9) x 6 and 12 x 6 m;
2) buildings with normative loads to 2,500 kg/m2 and column grids of 6 x 6 and
9x6m.
When designing multistory buildings the bay width must be designated as a mul-
tiple of the consolidated moduli: 30M in the range from 6 to 12 m and then ev-
ery 60M; it is permissible to use a bay spacer 3 m wide.
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Table 17. Recommended or Unrecommended Combinations of Unitized Struc-
tural Parameters of Craneless One-Bay and Multibay One-Story Frame
Buildings
Height to ~
Bottom of
Overhead ~h-- L .I~-txn
Structures
on Sup- Ba Width m
port, m 6 I 9 1'! 18 I 24 30 I~
. 3 -I- -I- - - - -
3,6 -f- -1- -I- - - - -
4 ,8 -f- -I- -F- - -
6 ~ 4 -I- -
~ ~ 2 ~ -I-
8.4 - -
10,8 + + -f- ~
12 - - - }
13 ~ 2 - - - - -I- -I-
14 , 4 - - - -
18,6 - - - - -
I6,s - - - - -f- -f.
18 - - - - -f-
The column spacings must be designated as multiples of the consolidated moduli:
6M for height to 4.8 m and 12M for heights of more than 4.8 m. The story height
of auxiliary buildings is taken as 3.3 m, but it is admissible to take at a mul-
tiple of 0.6 m with blocking of them with multistory production buildings.
The space-floor planning structure of multistory frame production bui].dings is
analogous to the structure of one-story buildings which is achieved by blocking
the unitized standard sections (UTS). The standard construction parameters of
the dimensioned layouts of multistory industrial buildings presented in Table 19
give the number of adopted bays, their dimensions, the number of stories, and
they characterize the adopted materials-handling equipment.
Using the UTS ia the design process, it is necessary to keep in mind that they
_ do not in all cases correspond to the requirements of the production process;
therefore in practice it is permissible to develop building designs by standard
sections with variation of the number of bays of the UTS and their length by an
amount that is a multiple of the spacing of the middle rows of columns for mul-
tibay buildings and a spacing of 6 m for single-bay buildings. It is also per-
missible to vary the height of the buildings, being guided by the unitized di-
mensioned layouts.
At the present time when designing production buildings in certain cases use is
made of the possibility of increasing the sizes of the modules (by comparison
with the recommendations in the UTS) in order to decrease the number of expan-
sion joints.
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Table 18. Unitized Construction Parameters of Single-Span and Multispan One-
Story Frame Buildings Equipped With Manual Bridge Cranes With a Ca-
pacity to 20 Tons and Electric Bridge Cranes With a Capacity to 50
Tons IncJ.usively
Height to ~
Bottom of
Overhead ~ ~---L ..h-t~n
Structures Crane Equipment With Capacitiea, tons,
on Sup- in Ba s of Width m .
port, ~l 9�p I iR-P I 18�p I 18 I 21 :iU I 86
6 3.2-5~8 3,2-5,8 b-8 - _ _ ,
6,6 3,2-6~8 3.2-fi,8 b-8 - _ _ _
7.2 3,2-6,8 3,2-5~8 5-8
l2,b--ZO 12,5-20
7~8 3,2-5.8 3,2-5,8 6-8 - - _
12.b-20 12,6-20
8,4 3~2-5.8 3,2-5,8 6-8 - - _
12,b-20 12,8-20 10 10 -
9 - 12.b-20 12,b-20 - - - -
9.6 - 12,b-20 12,6-20 10-20 10-20 - ~
l0,8 - - - 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-20
12 - - - 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-20
30 30-50 30-50 30-50
13~2 - - - 10-20 I(1-20 10-20 l0-20
80 30-b0 30-60 30-60
14, 4~ - 10-20 10-20 20 20
30 30-b0 ~0-50 30-b0
15,6 - - - 30-50 30-50 30-b0
16,8 - - - - 30--b0 30-~50 30-b0
18 - - 30-50 30-b0 30~0
Notes: l. When using electric bridge cranes with a capacity of 5 tons it 3s
recommiended that columns be used which are designed for 10-ton cranes.
2. 9-p, 12-p, 18-p are manual bridge cranes.
Table 19. Unitized Constructioa Parameters of Multistory Frame Buildinge With
Temporary Normative Loads on Beam Floors: 1,000-2,500 kg/m2 for 6-m
Spans; 1,000-2,000 kg/m2 With 9-m Spans
Number k--6xn-,~ J~--6x3 ~--6x3=-,~ k--9xn-,~ ,~-gx2--~'
of
Floors Storv HeiQht, m '
3,6 3,6
_ _ ~
4�8 4,8 .
2 _ _ '
6 6 -
6-4,8 ~ 6-4~g
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Table 19 (continued)
Number
of
Floors .Story Height, m
3,S 4,8-4~8- 4~8--4.8- 3,6 I 4,8-4.8-7,2
7.2 10,8 - -
_ ~
4.8 6-6-7~2 6-fi--10,8 4,1i 6-6-7.2
3 ' 6 - - 6 -
6-4.5 - - 6-4 ~8 -
7.2-6 - - I 7~2-6 ~ - . .
.
3,6 4,8-4,8- 4,8-4~8- 3,6 4~8-4~8-T,2
- 7.2 10.8 ~ - -
4,8 6-6-7,2 6--6-10~8 4,8 6-6-7,2
4 6 ' ~ - - 6
6-4.8 - ~ - 6-4,8 -
' 7~2-6 - I - ' 7~2-6 -
3.6 ~ 4,8-4,8-7,2 4~8-4,8-10~8 3,6 4.8-4,8-7,2
4,8 " 6-fr-7,2 6-6-10.8 4.8 -
5 6 - - 6 -
6-4,8 - - 6-4,8 ~ -
2-6' - - - -
3,6� I ~ .
6 4.8� - - - ' -
_ 6�
6-4,8' .
* The indicated height for two-bay buildings is not provided.
Notes: 1. One number provisionally denotes the height of all stories, two num-
bers, the height of the first story and the upper stories, a third num-
ber, the height of the first, middle and upper stories, respectively.
2. In buildings with identical bays the number of such bays must be no
less than two. 3. The load capacfty of the cranes: overhead 2, 3.2
and 5 tons; bridge 5 and 8 tons for light and medium operating cond3.-
~tions and 12.5 tons for heavy operating conditions. 4. The height of
3.3 m is provided only for administrative and general services build-
inge.
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�41. Basic Rules for Tie-in Columns and Walls to the Center Lines
As has been pointed out, by tie-in we mean the distance fram the modular center
lines (longitudinal, transverse) to the face or geometric axis of a structural
element.
The tie-in of a bearing frame to the center lines of a production b uilding has
decisive significance for reducing the number of standard sizes of prefabricated
bearing and enclosing structures. In order to insure unitization and mutua.l
replaceability of the structural elements the frame is arranged relative to the
- center line with observation of defined tie-in rules.
When designing one-story production buildings, various tie-ins of colwnns, out-
side longitudinal and end walls (Figure 106, a), the columns at the points of
construction of transverse and longitudinal expansion of joints (Figure 106, b)
and at the points of the height drops between the bays of one or mutually perpen-
dicular directions (Figure 106, c) are adopted.
As is obvious from ttie successively depicted schematic drawings (Figure 106, a-c),
the following regulations have been adopted for tie-in to the longitudinal
modular center lines:
'I'he outer faces of the edge columns and the inner surfaces of the walls are
matched with the longitudinal center line ("zero tie-in") in buildings without
bridge cranes and in buildings equipped with bridge cranes with a capacity to
30 tons inclusively, with column spacing of 6 meters and height from floor to
the bottom of the bearing structures of the overhead of less than 16.2 meters;
The outer faces of the edge col~ns and the inner surfaces of the walls are
shifted from the longitudinal center lines by 250 mm in buildings equipped with
bridge cranes with a capacity to SO tons inclusively, with a column spacing of
6 meters and height from floor to the bottom of the bearing structures of the
overhead of 16.2 and 18 meters and also with colimmn spacing of 12 meters and
heigtit from 8.4 to 18 meters; with the corresponding substantiation it is per-
missible to shift the outer faces of the col~ns and the inside surfaces of the
walls 500 mm from the longitudinal center lines;
The columns of the middle rows, with the exception o� the columns adjacent to
the longitudinal expansion joint and col~mns installed at the points of the
height drops of the bays of one direction must be located so that the center
lines of the cross sections of the part of the col~ns of the crane coincide
with the longitudinal and transverse layout center lines.
The longitudinal expansion ,joints in buildings with reinforced concrete fram3.ng
must be realized on two columns with a spacer; in this case the column spacing
must be equal to the column spacing along the middle rows. The expansion joints
and buildings with all-metal and mixed frames (reinforced concrete columns and
steel girders) must, as a rule, be located on one coluirm.
_ The columns adjacent to the longitudinal expansion ~oint and the columns installed
at the point of the height drop of the bays of one direction mus~ be tied-in to
the longitudinal layout center lines, in accordance with the following regula-
tions:
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When the column ~pacing in the middle rows is equal to the col~ spacing of the
edge rows (6 or 12 meters), that is, with an overhead without structural elements
under the rafters, the columns are tied-in to the longitudinal layout center line
in accordance with the rules established for the columa~s of the edge rows;
For column spacing of the middle rows of 12 meters and spacing~of the edge columns
of 6 meters, that is, with an overhead with structural elements under the rafters,
the columns must be installed so that the spacing between the longitudinal layout
center lines and the faces of the coltnnns turned in the direction of the expansion
joint will be 250 mn.
, (5) (6) -
' ( 7)
~ b .
To~uas~ ~ -
w
x ~ I p
~ ~
(3}' I u�
O II 0~~6-- .a 600 60D ' ~ 8` 1.
~1) `~2) (q) Mi - ~ , .
c (9) (10)
~ i
~ ~ i
~ ~
~L~ O
~ ~ a L
Figure 106. Tie-ins adopted in c.ne-story frame buildings for modular
longitudinal and transverse layout center lines.
a-- columns and walls; b-- columns at the locations of the expansion
joints; c-- columns at the locations of the height dro~:s
Key:
1. Spacing 6 or 12 meters
2. Spacing 6 meters for H