JPRS ID: 9940 JAPAN REPORT

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• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 10197
16 December 1981
USSR Report
.
AGRICULTURE
(FOUO 9/81)
Fg~$ FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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NOTE
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JPRS L/10197
16 December 1981
USSR REPORT
AGRICULTURE
( FOUO 9/ 81)
CONTENTS
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Advice for Abundant Winter Crop From Nonchernozem Zone
(AGROTEKHNICHESKIYE SOVETY, Sep 81) 1
AGRO-ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION
Personnel Rec�liirements for Inter-Enterpriae Animal Susbandry
Complexes
(V. A. Kovalev; MEZHROZYAYSTVENNO-ZHIVOTNOVODCHESRIYE
OB'YEDINENIYA, 1979) 7
WATER RESOURCES
Potential for Increasing Efficiency of USSR Irrigation
(Amitriy Timofeyevich Zuzik; VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, Aug 81) . 21
_ a _ 'III - USSR - 7 FOUO]
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REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
ADVICE FOR ABUNDANT WINTER CROP FROM NONCHERNOZEM 20NE
Moscow AGROTEKHNICHESKIYE SOVETY in Russian No 17,Sep 81
/Article: "Nonchernozem Zone: Fcr a High Harveat of Winter Crops_'?
%Text/ The decisions of the 26th CPSU Congreas point to the need for an increase
in the fertility of soil and in the y i.:ld of agricultural crops and for the further
growth of the production of grain, fodder and other plant products.
Farms in the noitchernozem zone of the Russian Federation must make a signif icant
contr.ibution to the fulf illment of these decisians. Its soil and meteorological
conditions make it poasible to obtain high harvesta of winter rye and wheat. Usu-
ally, in fall the rainfall there is suff icient for a good development of plants
before wintering. By spring the moisture reserves in the root layer reach the
field water capacicy indicators and in combination with the precipitation of spring
and the f irst ha].r of summer (150 to 200 mm) guarantee no less than 40 to 60 quin-
tals of grain per hectare.
Thus, the yield of winter crops ia formed from the moiature reserves creAted dur-
ing the fall-winter and early spring period. Furthermore, they ripen earlier than
spring crops and farma can utilize harveating madhinery and drying equipment more
productively.
The biological.characteristics of win ter crops make it possible to grow them in
many regions of the nonchernozem zone. For example, winter wheat grows well on
fertile soddy-podzolic soil. When promptly sown in fall, it developa the root
system intensively and clusters well. It is aufficiently frost-reaistant and win-
terhardy. It withstanda a prolonged drought in aummer.
Winter rye is less demanding of growth conditions. It talerates an increased
acidity (pH 5 to 5.3), is frost-resistant and winterhardy, develops a strong root
system, tolerates a summer drought well and assimilates not easily accessible nut-
rients. The rapid growth and development during the fall and spring period en-
able rye, when the plant density is normal, to suppress weeds.
Agrotechnology
Placement. Wheat is more productive on subacid cultivated loanry soil well dreased
with organic fertilizers. It grows poorly on drained peat boga and on sandy and
poorly cultivated sandy loam soil.
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Winter rye is cultivated on soil differing in its mechanical compositian, including
sandy and sandy loam soil.
_ After the performance of drainage and amelioratian operations winter crops can oc-
cupy the leading place on reclaimed land.
The selection of a predecessor in crop rotation is one of the main conditions for
a high yield. Clean fallow is considered the best. Legume-grass mixtures, clover
of the first year of use, early potatoea, perennial grass after one cutting, early
silage crops and peas for grain are also good. On light soil rye is also culti-
vated after green-manured fallow.
When grain crops are harvested at an early date, it is possible to permit the sow-
ing of wheat and rye after winter crops on well-cultivated and fertilized soil.
In northern and eastern oblasts winter crops can be placed after barley of the ear-
ly ripening Sever 1 variety.
Soil cultivation. ltao types of clean �allow--black and early--are used in the non-
chernozem zone. Black fallow is cultivated according to the type of fall plowing.
In early spring for moisture retention soil is harrowed and in summer, in order to
destroy weeds, it is cultivated in layers three or four times. Organic fert3lizers
are applied and turned under 1 to 1k months before sowing.
The cultivation of early fallow is begun in spring. Organic fertilizers (30 to 40
tons per hectare) are appl3ed and it is plowed, harrowed and cultivated in laqers.
The last presowing cultivation is at the depth of 5 to 6 cm.
For the cultivation of fallow occupied by vetch- and pea-oats mixtures, as well as
pulse crops (if there are no perennial weeda), disk or share scuffling at the
depth of 10 to 12 cm with a similtaneoua packing with ring-grouser rolls is used.
After preliminary scuffling plowing at the depth of 20 to 22 cm is carried out on
plots infested with rootstock and suckering weeda. Basic soil cultivation is com-
pleted 2 or 3 weeks before sowing.
After the harvesting of perennial grasa and other predecessors heavy disk harrows
are immediately put into operation. They are followed by combined plowing units
consisting of a plow, leveler and aection of the ZIQt-6A roll.
Units of the RVK-3 type are used for preaowing soil cultivation. The uniformity
and compaction of the surface soil layer are especially important during the cul-
tivation of winter wheat, because in microdepressions it thins out severely or
dies. Presowing soil cultivation is carr3ed out simultaneously with sawing or 1
day before it.
Fertilization. The application of fertilizera according to a certain system en-
ables winter crops to develop well beginning in fall. They winter better, grow
well in spring, form stema and ears and produce a high harvest.
In order to determine the necessary amount of fertilizers for the.planned yield,
the data on the removal of nutrients with the grain and straw harvest and the co-
efficients of their utilization from soil and the appliad fertilizers are used.
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The greatest removal of nutrients with the harvest per 10 quintals of grain with
due regard for straw is as follows: nitrogen--25 to 35 kg; phosphorus--12 to 15
kg; potassium--26 to 30 kg.
Organic fertilizers, a full dose of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers, are ap-
plied to basic soil cultivation. Part of the phosphorus fertilizers (15 to 20 kg
of granulated superphosphate or nitroammophoska per hectare) are applied to rows
during, sowing. Nitrogen fertilizers are applied in two stages: 30 to 45 kg of
active substance per hectare, to presowing cultivation and the remaining part, in
the form of spring and summer topdreseing. Annrtonia water is applied during plow-
ing or cultivation at the depth of 10 to 12 cm. �
On acid soil lime is applied to the previous crop or immediately after its harvest-
ing (before basic soil cultivation). Dosage is established depending on the mech-
anical composition and thickness of the arable laqer and soil acidity.
Preparation of seeds f or sowing. The wintering and yield of winter crops depend
on the quality of seeds. Seeds should meet the requirements of the state sowing
standard. Their germination rate should be no leas thaa 90 percent and purity, not
below 97 percent and they should contain up to 200 seeds of other plants, including
no more than 50 weeds, per kg.
Seeds of regionalized varieties of the first and second category--better from the
carryover stock--are used, because they ensuze an increase of 2.5 to 5 quintals in
the harvest. If they are not available, freshly harvested seeds are f irst sub-
jected to air and thermal heating for 4 or 5 days, or are dried in floor dryers
with active ventilation at the temperature of 45 to 50 degreea, while moiature is
lowered to 14 or 15 percent.
In the control of covered and loose smut, fusarial wilt and helminthosporiosis
seeds are treated with the following toxic chemicals (kg of preparation per ton):
granosan.wfth a dye, 1 to 2; TMTD, 1.5 to 2; pentathiuram, 1.5 to 2. The treat-
ment is carried out in the special machines PZ-10, PS-10 and Mobitoks with a sus-
pension of the preparation or through moiotening, using 10 liters of the liquid
per ton of seeds. Against pests aeeda are treated with 12-percezt hexachlorane-
cyclohexane dust in terms of 15 to 20 kg of the preparation per ton of seeds.
Time of sowing. It is determined depending on the region's temperature conditions,
length of the fall vegetation period, soil moisture and other natural factors.
Deviation from the optimum time can lead to a aignif icant decrease in the yield.
Winter crops winter best at the tillering phase, when three or four shoots are
formed in rye and two or three, in wheat. Planta attain such a stage in develop-
ment when the total average daily air temperature from the day of sowing until the
temperature passes +5 is 480+60 degrees. �
On the basis of acientif ic research the following approximate time of sowing win-
ter rye (winter wheat is sown 3 to 5 days earlier) was establiahed for various
regions of the RSFSR nonchernozem zone:
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northern region: the Komi ASSR, the Karel'skaya ASSR, Arkhangel'sicaya Oblast and
the north of Permskaya, Kirovskaya and Vologodskaqa Oblasts--from 20-31 July to
10-15 August;
northeastern region: Permskaya and K:.rovskaya Oblasto, the Udmurtskaya ASSR gnd
the Mariyskaya ASSR--from 5 to 25 August;
northwestern region: Leningrad, Pskovslcaya. Novgorodekaya and Vologodskaya Ob-
lasts--from 5 to 25 August;
western region: Kaliningradskaya Oblast--from 20-25 August to 5-10 September;
central and southern regions: Moscow, Smolenskaya, Tul'skaya, Kaluzhskaya, Rya-
zanskaya and Vladimirskaya.Oblasts, the gouth irest of Ralininskaya Oblast and the
south of Gor'kovskaya Oblast--from 15-25 August to 5 September; Ivanovskaya, Ros-
tromskaya and Yaroslavskaya Oblaets, the left bank of Gor'kovskaya Oblast and the
north-east of Kaliniask.aya Oblast--from 10-15 to 20-25 August; the Mordovskaqa
ASSR--from 10 August to 1 September; the Tatar ASSR and the Chuvaehskaya ASSR--
from 5-10 to 20-25 August.
Seeding rates. They depend on climatic and .soil conditions, the degree of soil
moisture and temperature in fall and early ap.ring, soil fertility and cultivation
and the bushiness of plants (table). Approximate Seeding Ratea
Million of Germinated Seeds Per Hectare
gegions RZe Wheat
Northern 6.0-6.5
Eastern
5.5-6.0 6.0-7.0
Western
5.0-5.5 5.5-6.5
Central
4.0-5.0 5.5-6.0
Southern
5.0-5.5
When the sowing time is optimal and the entire agrotechnological complex is ful-
filled, the recommended ratea can be 10 to 15 percent lower and under dry weather
conditions, especially when rye is placed on sandy and oandy loam soil, as well
as during a late sowing period, 8 to 10 percent higher.
Sowing methods. In all the oblasts and republics of the RSFSR nonchernozem zone
crossed and narrow-r.ow methods ensure the highest yield of winter crops. Seeda
are uniformly distributed over the entire area, plants utilize nutrients and moist-
ure more efficiently and suppress the development of weeda more intensively. The
farms that promptly prepare soil and sow at the optimum t3me use theae sowing
methods successfully.
Depth of aeed placement. An insuff icient depth leads to a decrease in field ger-
mination and aometimes the tillering node becomes exposed. When the depth is ex-
cessive, shoota appear much later and are weakened and thinned out.
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On heavy soil the depth of rye seed placement should be 2 to 3 cm and on sandy and
sandy loam soil, 4 to 5 cm.
Thp depth of winter wheat seed placement should not exceed 5 to 6 cm.
`
Care of crops. During the fall period the main task is to obtain good sprouts and
to avoid their damage by pests. If seeds are placed excessivelq deeply and soil is
too loose, it must be packed immediatPly.
Before the appearance of sprouts of winter crops weeds must be mowed on adjoining
plots, because pests and diseases develop on them. They can damage sprouts. In
the control of scentless uayweed, cornflower and looae eilky bent treatment with
- simazine in the dose of 250 grams of active substance per hectare gives good re-
sults. fi'he herbicide is applied immediately after the sowing of winter crops and
before the beginning of plant tillering, for which the boom sprayers POU, ON-400,
ON-400-1 and others are used.
In case of average snd severe weediness of crope ia spring treatment with herbi-
cides is carr3.ed out at the phase of tillering of winter crops. The following
are used on plots where spring weeds appear (kg of the preparation per hectare):
1.5 to 2.5--2,4-D amine salt preparation; 0.7 to 1.2--2,4-D butyl ether (butapon);
1.3 to 2 2M-4Kh, 80-percent soluble powder. In order to destroy weeds resistant
to these herbicides (scentless mayweed, knotwEed and hemp nettle), they are sprayed
with dialen (1.4 to 3 kg of the preparatioa per hectare) and diamet-D (2.5 to 3.9)
br are treated with granulated 10-pErcent butyl ether 2,4-D (10 to 12 kg) in a mix-
ture with granulated amnonium nitratp during early spring topdressing. When the
Swedish or Hessian fly appears, crops are dusted with 12-percent hexachloranecyc-
lohexane in terms of 15 to 20 kg of the preparation per hectgre.
In addition to chemical crop protection agents, spring care includes early Xop-
dressing of plants with nitrogen fertilizera and harrowing. All cropa, including
weakly developed and weakened, as well as those where viable sprouts have a normal
plant stand, are topdressed. Topdressing is applied at the earliest time, using
= 30 to 45 kg of active substance of nitrogen fertilizers per hectare. Inaddition
to this, root dressing with a complete mineral fertilizer by means of grain manure
seeders is used. Nitrogen fertilizers are poured into a grain box and phosphorua
fertilizers, into a fertilizer box. Fertilizers are placed at the depth of 4 to 6
cm.
The increase in the harvest from the root method of application is 2 to 3 quintals
higher as compared with the broadcast method. The efficiency of this method in-
creases in the zone's southern and southeastern regions, where the upper soil layer
dries up rapidly, as well as on farms using intensive-type varieties.
The harrowing of winter crops in early spring is an important means of saving mois-
ture. Along with this it contributes to the penetration of air to the roota of
winter crops and to the destruction of snow mold and aclerotinia and improves mic-
robiological activity. During harrowing poorly developed weeds are also destroyed
and fertilizers applied in spring for topdreasing are utilized better.
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The lodging of crops does considerable damage to the winter field. Losses from it
can reach 20 to 50 percent. At the same time, the qua.lity of grain deteriorates
considerably, labor productivity decreases and the expenditures an harvesting in-
crease. The resistance of crops to lodging increases if the chlorxholine chloside
prF:paration is applied to wheat and campozan, to winter rye. The average increase
in grain from their application is 5 to 6 quintals per hectare. Chlorocholine
chloride is sprayed at the end of tillering and at the beginning of shootiag (2 to
4 kg of active substance per hectare) and campozan, in the middle of the shooting
of plants (4 liters). The application of campozan should not be combined with
herbicides.
Varieties. The following regionalized intensive-type varieties of winter wheat.are
recommended for the nonchernozem zone: A1'bidum 114, Zarya, I1'ichevka, Mironov-
skaya 808, Mironovskaya Yubileynaya, U1'yanovka and Uaiversal.
Of winter rye: Belta, Bambo, Voskhod 1, Vyatka 2, Gibrid 173, Kombayninyay, Rrup-
nozernaya; Leningradskaya Tetra, Orlovskiy Gibrid, Saratovskaya 4, Ural�skaya,
Khar'kovskaya 60, Chulpan and others. The majoxity of theae varieties are resist-
ant to lodging.
When new varieties are selected, their ripening periods are taken into considera-
tion. For the convenience oL'harvesting it is desirable to have two or three'va-
rieties wit:z various periods on a farm.
Harvesting. The selection of the harvesting method depends on the condition of
crops and on weazher conditions. Nonlodged short-stem overripe and thinned out
crops are harvested by dixect combining when the grain mDisture3s no more than 20
:0 22 percent. Heavily weeded,lodged, high-stem crops, which do not ripen uni-
formly or with an additional plant stand, are swathed during the waxy ripeness of
grain of a moiature of 30 to 35 percent.. Swaths are picked and thrashed when full
ripeness is reached. On lodged crops harvesting units are put into operation in a
lateral direction. A correct combination of direct combining and swath harveating
makes it possible to harvest in a more organized way, without losaes and in any
weather. The experience of advanced farms in the zone, as well as of farmers in Ipatovskiy
Rayon in Stavropol'skiy Kray, shows that the eff iciency of utilization of equipment
in the harvesting of grain crops greatly increases with its quality preparation,
use of advsnced flow technology, large-group operation of combines, prompt techni-
cal servicing and effecti.ve socialist competition.
Workers of the nonchernozem zone! To obtain high and etable winter grain harvests
make use of the achievements of science and of the experience of advanced farms.
This will make it possible to greatly increase the groas output of grain from the
wintEr f ield.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Kolos", 1981
11,439
CSO: 1824/029
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AGRO-ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION
; PERSONNEL RSQUIR8MENTS FOR INTSR-SNTExPRISE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY COMPIMS
Moscow MEZHICHOZYAYSTVENNO-ZHIVOTNOVODCHESRIYS OB''Y8DINBPIIYA in Ruesian 1979 pp 246-262
. [Article by V. A. Kovalev, deputy chief of the Matn Adminiatration for Personnel
of the RSFSR Ministry of Agriculture: "Personnel IInder Inter-Enterprise Cooperation"
and table of contents from the book "Inter-Enterprise Animal Husbandry Associations"]
[Text] Coincidental with gtrengthening the lagietical base af agriculture,
accelerating technical re-equipping and converting production over to an industrial
basis, the multi-branch character of many kolklaozes and sovkhozes has begun to
restrain the process of acientific-technical re-equipping and to slow down the
intansification of agriculture.
Further development of the productive forces requiros a basically new approach for
organizing agricultural production, more flexible agricultural apecialization and
the combining of farm efforts for the purpose of making more extensive use of the
achievements of acientific-technical progress.
Numerous examplea could be cited ehowing how production specialization and
concentration have exerted a poaitiva effect on tha work of large-acale mechanizad
farms, canplexes and other specialized enterpriaea and on tbeir economic indicatora.
Labor expenditurea for the production of a unit of output at auch facilitisa tse
lower by a factor of 2.5-3 and production coets hy a factor of 1.5-2 than the
figures for non-specialized farme.
Specialization and concentration of agricultural production baaed upon inter-
enterprise cooperation and agroinduatrial intagration have recently been devalopad
extensively. The creation of inter-enterprise and production aesociations is making
it possible to eolve an important administrative problem the establiabment of
cost acoounting relationships for all adminiatrative lrnrels: brigade - department
(branch) - farm - asaociation. This eneurea flaxibility for the organa of
administration and raisea their reaponsibility.
The lowest administrative level in an inter-entarprise organization or asaociation
is a production brigade and the highest the adminietrative organization of the
enterprise or association, headed by a council. The activities of the principal
subunits (servicea) aad ofticials are regulated by atatutes.desling with the
structural aubunits and by officiai inatructions for vorkera attached to the
administrative organization.
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The administration of an inter-enterpriae organization is carried out by a meeting
of authorized representatives of participating farms aad a council elected by them
for the inter-enterprise organization and daily management by the director
~ (chairman) of the inter-enterprise organization, who simultaneously sexves as the
chainoan of the council of this association. This applies to an equal degree to
both kolkhozes and sovkhozes performing the functions of an inter-enterprise
organization. There is ona difference however. At kalkhozes and aovkhozes which
perform these functions, the meeting of repreaentativea and the council provide
direction only for that por.tion of production that is inter-enterprise in nature
(complex for the maturing of young etock, complex for the fattening of livestock and
so forth).
The highly specialized nature of production is making it posaible to carry out
intenae specialization and concentration of agricultural production and it is
resulting in use of the branch principle of administration. lUnder a depa:aaental
structure, the role played by specialists is raiaed. In addition to technological
functions, they must also perform the functions of production organizers. Plannin,g,
accounting, supply, marketing and municipal and everyday services are all centralized
to the maximwn possible degree at such enterprises and subunits which perform these
functions become large elements of the highest level of administration. '
One feature of an inter-enterpriae organization is that it is organfzed at a base
and using the resources of farma participants in cooFeration. Thus, in the
administrative structure of an inter-enterprise organization and in addition to the
workers assigned to the organs of administrative control, collective organs are
created: a meeting of authorized representatives, a council of the inter-enterprise
organization and an auditing committee.
From each participating farm, regardless of its size or degree of participation, an
equal number of representatives are elected or assigned, tor a period of 3 years, to
the highest administrative organ of an inter-enterpriae organization the meeting
of'authorized representatives.
The meeting of suthorized representatives con~?enes no less often than once annually.
During this meeting the regulations for tho intor-enterprise organization are
approved and the members of the council and the auditing cotmaittee are elected for a
period of 3 yeara. The council of the inter-eaterpriae organization approves its
production structure and establiehed the number of administrative staff peraonnel.
The annual reports concerning production-financial Zctivitiea and the draft economic
plans for social development are examined. These reporta and draft plans are
submitted by the council for approval during the meeting of authorized representativea
of the shareholder-farms. The council exercises operational control over the
production-economic activities of the association.
Within the production association, a leading role is played by a collective organ
the council of the association. The structure of the council includes a chairmstn
(general director) of the association and his deputies kolkhoz chairmen, sovkhoz
directors and the leaders of other state and cooperative enterprises and associationa
belonging to the association. Specialists from the association's adminiatrative
organization and enterprises included in.its structure, leading production figures
and ttie representatives of public organizations all participate in the work of the
council.
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41
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Diagram of a production association administration
' 1.
Association council
.18�
2.
General director; director of the leading
19.
farms
20.
3.
Deputy farm director
21.
4.
Director of legal services
22�
5.
Technical council
23�
6.
Mrector of dispatcher services
24.
7.
Chief economiat/head of economic services
25.
8.
Chief accoimtant/head of accounting
26.
servicea
Z7�
9.
Chief agronomist/head of agronomy servicea
28.
10.
Chief animal apecialist/head of animal
29.
se rvices
30.
11.
Deputy general director af the leading
31.
production farm
32�
12.
Chief veterinarian/director of veterinary
33.
~
services.
34.
13.
Chief engi.ueer/director of engineering
35.
services
36.
14.
Chief power engineer/director of pawer
37.
servicea.
38.
15.
Chief construci:ion engineer/director of
39.
construction
40.
16.
Deputy director of commoercial services
41.
17.
(liefs of vegetable farming aectiona
Chiefs of animal huabandry sectiona
Sovkhoz director
(liiefs of aubunita
Chief economist
Chief accountant
(hiefa of vegetable farming sections
Chiefs of animal husbaadry aections
Head veterinarian
Head of inechanization section.
Chief pawer engineer
Aead of construction section
Procurement specialist
Sovkhoz director
Chief economist
Chief accountant
Chief of vegetable farming section
Chief of animal husbandry aection
Chief veterinarian
Chief of the mechanization section
Chief pawer engineer
Head of the conetruction section
Procurement specialist
Dual subordinatiost
Fmctional subordination
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FoR uFr'iciai. usE oa:"r
Meeting of authorized representatives
Council of an inter-enterprise organi,zation
IManaAer of an inter-enterpriae organization I
IDispatcherl
I Deputy director for productionf
Department heads for principa 1
p:oduction
1 2 3
IChfef bookkeeperl
i Chief economis t I
Heada of auxiliary
servicea 11 121 1 3
Model.diagram for administration in an inter-enterprise organization of an
association
The association's council directs the production-financial activities of :11 of the
enterprises and organizations subordinate to it. The implementation of tha decisions
handed down by the council ia carried out by the asaociation's administrative
organization headed by a general director, who bears peraonal responsibility for
the status of affairs and V-ie activitiea of the association.
The manager of the leading enterprise must be the chairman (general director) of the
aseociation. In aasociations having a detached administrative organizatifln, the
chairman of an association is elected by the council of the association.
Ttte functions of the association's adminiatrative organization at the leading
enterprise include: planning, logistical aupport, centralized distribution of funds,
reporting.to the higher organe of administration and external coarmunications. The
administrative organization of the leading enterprise is also responsible for
introducing the achievements of science and leading practice into operations at all
of the farma of the association.
With the creation of the associationa, a considerable increase has taken place in
the volume of information available on the work of an association, ita subordinate
farms and their subunits. Thus the organization of dispatcher services is deemed
advisable. They can enaure the collection of information on the statua of
production and on plans for impending work, the transmisaion of urgent orders and
control over the fulfillment of plans, schedules, tasks and so forth.
Prior to the organization of the associationa, each sovkhoz manager and specialiat
carried out all of the principal administrative functions,�solved the long-range and
operational problems associated with production, supply, marketing and construction
and resolved problems concerned with municipal and everyday services and other
ma.tters. This lowered the effectiveneas of admitiistrative work, it resulted in
unnecessary parallelism and duplication and it lowered operational responsibility.
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TABLB 1
Number of Administrative and Production Personnel at a Milk Production Complex
Canplex for 2,000 head
Management
14
Production personnel
43
Service personnel
31
Inc luding:
Department for technical aervices and repair
11
Sanitacy lines
10
Pumping atation
3
Creamery
5
Dining hall
2
Total for the complex
88
The centralization of adminiatrative work and the carrying out of this work by
specialized services made it possible to regulate the labor of workers and to
prov ide then with more free time for solving long-range problema and for paerforming
economic analyais. Prior Co centralization of the commercial aervice, the'chief
specialiats at sovkhozes spent 8-10 percent of their time carrying out supply-
marketing operations and during certain tense periods up to 18-20 percent. Under
cen tralized management, the chief specialista almost never concern themselves with
supply or marketing.
Tab lea 1, 2 and 3 furnish figures on the number of administrative and production
personnel at complexes for milk production, for the raiaing and fattening of young
large-horned cattle stock ane for swine raieing complexes. In the tables cited, it
is noted that the engineering-technical workera and other workers carry out an
entire volume of work and have responaibilities, including obaervance of the norms
of effective legislation and the established duration of the working day.
At the present time, with inter-enterprise cooperation being employed on a more
_ extensive scale, great importance ia being attached to the work of forming an
. administ7ative organization and to the training and retraining of skilled personnel
for complexes engaged in the production of goods on an industrial basis and other
agricultural enterprises of the new type. When aolving the task concerned with
supplying personnel for these enterprises, emphasis s'nould be placed upon the fact
tha t the problems concerned with thA training and retraining of specialista and
personnel in the mass profeasions anould be solved taking into account the acales
for the development of inter-enterpriae cooperation and agroinduatrial integration.
The inter-enterprise organizationa and associationa must be managed by highly
ski lled specialists who have mastered the latest methoda for organizing and
con trolling production. At the same time, the pereonnel muat understand the
obj ective need for the measures carried out, they muat knowledgeably and creatively
solve their apecific tasks and they must constantly master aciantific-technical
achievements and the modern adminiatrative methoda, in the interest of enauring that
organization and administration in the inter-enterprise organizations and
associatfons are developed on a strictly scientific basis. Those managera and
� .11 ,
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run Urr4~,Lrw uoc VLVLt
TABLB 2
~ Number of Administrative and Production Personnel
at a Complex for
the
Raising and Fattening of Young Large-Horned Cattle
.
10,000 Head
Fgttening
Site
(raising and
30,000
20,000
10,000
.
fattening)
head
head
head
Management and specialists
16
10
8
6
.Produc tion personnel, directly engaged
73
41
17
28
in servicing the animals
Service personnel
29
14
6
10
� Including:
Sanitary lines �
11
-
-
-
Other personnel
18
-
-
-
Total for complex with replacements
118
65
31
44
Including workers
97
51
23
34
Of these workers, those directly
engaged in servicing the animals
73.
41
17
28
apecialists who have not thoroughly mastered the theory and practice of inter-
enterprise and agroindustrial cooperation will be unable to organize and direct
the fulfillment of tasks asaociated with further specialization and concentration or
agricultural production.
At the present time, there are almnst 800,000 specialista with higher or secondary
educations working in agriculture in Russia. Each year, more than 19,000 graduates
of V1TZ's and 55,000 graduates of technical schoola are being assigend to work at
kolkhozes and sovkhozes. Today there is an average of 19 specialista at a kolkhoz
and 35 a t a sovkhoz. The increase in the number of specialists hae made it possible
to strengthen the structure of managerial personnel at the kolkhozes and sovkhozes.
Jointly with the party and aoviet organizationa, the agricultural orgsns are giving
special attention to the selection and placement of personnel at the associationa
and complexes. Highly skilled workers, individuals who have proven themselvea to be
good production organizers and who possese a great amount of work experience at
kolkhozes and sovkhozes are being assigned to serve as managers and chief
specialists. .
The chief specialists of an aseociation are mainly production organizers and
technologists. They must possess a thorough knowledge of the progreasive technclogy,
the economics of production, the latest scientific achievements and leading
practice and they muat constantly improve their professional�training.
The specialists of farms and administrative organs at inter-entenprise organizations
and associations are able to devote a great amount of attention to the principal
branches, to obtain a thorough understanding of the production epecifics, to manage
the branchea in a more skilled manner and to improve the production technology.
� 12
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TABIE 3
Number of Administrative and Production Personnel at Industrial Complexes
for the Raising and Fattening of Swine
Complex
108,000
54,000
12,000
Swine
Swine
Swine
Anaually
Annually
Annually
Management
6
5
1
Specia lists of servicea
27
14
4
Production personnel dir8ctly engaged in the
160
80
28
servicing of animals
Service personnel of a complex: department for
42
24
8
processing of farmyard manure and purificstion
of waste water
Water supply department
16
10
3
Group for the technical servicing and repair
68
30
4
of equipment
Sanitary service and artificial insemination
12
5

station
Slaughtering-sanitary station
4
4
1
Veterinary bacteriological laboratory
5
-
-
Boiler unit
35
35
16
Total for the complex, with replacements
374
207
65
Including workers
301
166
59
Of workers, those engaged directly in the
160
80
28
servicing of animals
Early on in the organization of inter-enterprise organizationa and association,
difficulties arose in connection with the training of managers and specialists in
the new administrative forms and the new production technology. No ixperience was
available in this regard. Instruction was furnished in other branches of the
national economy and foreign experience was employed. Little by little the inter-
enterpriae organizations and asaociations accumulated their own experience. Ueing
_ existing associations such as Leto and Novyy Svet in Leningrad Oblast, enterprises
and inter-enterprise associations in Moscow, Tul'skaya, Vladimirskaya, Penzenakaya
and Voronezhskaya Oblasts and also complexes for the production of goods on an
industrial basis, training was arganized for the pereonnel of newly created inter-
enterprise organizations and asaociations.
Prior to being assigned to work at a complex, the speciali8ts had to undergo a
probationary training period at existing complexes or retraining in VUZ departments
or in schools for improving the skilla of workera. Such retraining was carried out
taking into account the particular specialization at the inter-enterprise
organization or association.
During the course of retraining, considerable attention was given to studying
scientific labor organization, the problems concerned with planning and analyzing
agricultural production, the lateat technologies and also scientific achievements
and leading practice. In the conduct of the exercises, exteneive uae was made of
scientists, managers and apecialiste from the inter-enterprise organiZations and
associations. 13
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During the past few years, basic training was bsgun for specialists assigned to
inter-enterprise organizations and associstions, directly at higher and secondary
specialized sducational institutes. xhere are presently 55 higher educational
inatitutes and four of their branches engaged in training highly skilled
specialists for Russian agriculture. They are furnishing training in 34 profesgl.ong
and 4k zpecializations. Since 1973, the zootechnical departme:.ta have been
converted into zooengineering departments, with the zooengineers presently being
trained in ik specializations milk production on an industrial basis, meat
production on an industrial basis and so forth. In addition to biological knowledge,
a zooengineer is provided with the required technical training and organizational
skills.
In the training programs for a majority of the technological and economic disciplines
at higher and secondary educational institutes, aectione have been introduced for
the production of agricultural products on an industrial basis and under conditions
involving production specialization and concentration and the organizational-
economic and engineering training of future specialists has been atrengthened. For
a number of years now the agronomic faculties and departments have been training
agronomists for feed production for animal husbandry complexee, scientific-technical
training for all of the agronomic specialties has besn atrengthened and a new
course has been introduced for the operation of a machine-tractor pool under
conditions involving production specialization and concentration. The training of
specialists in the automation of agricultural production has commenced.
Norms for the Servicing of Livesto.:k at Milk Production Ccmplexes
for 800 and 2,000 Head
Number of Head Per Operator
Milki.ng of cows 135* 47~
Tending of cows 270
Artificial insemination 800
* Yelochka milking unit
ADM-8 milking unit
Norms for the Servicing of Livestock at Complexes for the Raising and
' Fattening of Young Large-Iiorned Cattle Stock
Raising of calves
~ Fa ttening of young stock
Number of Head Per Operator
180
720
Strong changes have been introduced into the organization of practical work by
students at higher educational institutes s,nd technical schools. Towards this end,
extensive use is being made of agroindustrial enterprises and associations and also
complexes for the production of field crop husbandry and animal husbandry products
on an industrial basis. Fine buainesa-like relationships have been establiahed at
the MosCOw Agricultvaral Academy imeni K.A. Timirya?av and at technical schools
throughout the oblast with the Moakovskiy Sovkhoz-Combine, where vegetables are
being grown under glass on an area of 56 hectaree, with the Shchapovo Dairy
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Complex which has more than 2,000 milking cows, with the imeni 50-Letiya SSSR
Swine Raising Sovkhoz-Combine which fattens 100,000 swine annually, with the
Voronovo Complex for the fattening of young large-horned cattle stock and also with
_ large-scale inter-enterpriae organization8.
Norms for the Servicing of Livestock at Animal Husbandry Complexes
for the Production of Pork
Nuraber of Head Per Operator
Tending of boars 70
Artificial insemination 125
Tending of unmated and pregnant aows during the 280
lst period of pregnancy
Tending of sows during 2d period of pregnancy 800
Tending of young weaning pigs 3800-4200
Tending of animals during fattening 1800
During the creation of inter-enterprise organizations and associations and in the
construction of complexes, a requirement arises for specialists in such profeseiona
as sanitary engineering, control-measurecpent inatruments, automation, heat
engineering, purification installations and so forth. Specialists in these and other
professions who were not trained at agricultural educational institutes are assigned
to work at associations and complexes from educational institutea of other branches
of the national economy.
A most important condition for highly efficient work at inter-enterprise and
agroindustrial organizations and associations is that of assigning specialists to
the middle and lower echelons of production. An agronomist, zootechnician or other
agricultural specialist is an organizer and technologist for his branch. The
specialists are obligated to ensure constant scientific-technical progresa and to
raise the efficiency of the branch of agricultural production assigned to their
care.
In raising the role playr-.i by apecialists, great importance ie attached to the
efficisnt organization of their activities in conformity with their official dutiea
and also to the carrying out of periodic certification. Certification, preparation
for the certification committee, a personal report on their creative work and
participation in the introduction of scientific labor organization and in social
life these are all factors which stimulate the work of a specialist, promote
improvements in the managerial style and methode employed for an assigned sector of
work and raise the need for improving the necessary skille.
A most important sector of personnel work at inter-enterprise organizations and
associations is that of assigning specialists to the managerial structure of
departments (sectors) and sections, brigades and farms. For it ia here that the
bread, meat, milk, potatoes and vegetables are produced. Thie managerial echelon
in agriculture must be staffed with competent apecialists, individuals who are
good organizers, possess administrative akills, can work with people and are
capable of organizing agricultural production on a modern acientific level.
In October 1977, the CC CPSU and the USSR Council of Ministers adopted the decree
entitled "Additional Measures for Stimulating the Converaion of Agricultural
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Specialists Over To Work As Managera of Sectione, Brigadea, Farma and Other Subunita
of the Midd2e Echelon of Production at Kolkhozea and Sovkhozea." This decree is
eliminating an entire series of factora which in the past has delayed the conversion
of specialists over to work as middle echelon managers. These positiona are
classified as being in the ITR [engineering and technical personnelj category.
, Individuals who convert over to work in the middle echelon retain their specialist
wages and at the same time they become entitled to receive the bonuses established
_ for workers for above-normal output. The publication of this decree was warunly
' received by the agricultural specialists, uany of whom have expressed a desire to
convert over to work in the middle echelon. Prior to being assigned to the
.position of manager of a brigade or farm, the specialiata undergo training at
schools for agricultural administration. -
- The creation of large scale sociglist agricultural entarpriaea and the
collectivization of labor during the course of inter-enterprise cooperation and
agroindustrial integration have raiaed the nesd for rational specialization and
division of labor. The profound changes that have taken place in the rural areas,
associated with the industrialization of production, have brought about the
appearance of many new professions in agriculture.
The basic training for highly skilled workers ie carried out in agricultural professional-technical institutes. It is in these educational institutes that it is
possible to provide a graduate with a volume of knowledge that will enable him to
participate immediately in production, to master new equipment and technologies and
to improve his professional expertise.
The conversion of animal husbandry over to an industrial basis and ita specialization
raised a requirement for training operators for the raising and fattening of large-
horned cattle, swine and sheep at animal husbandry complexes; masters of machine
milking; operators for the preparation and dosing of feed and so forth. The
supplying of the farms with complicated and powerful equipment brought about
specialization in technical servicing and repair operations. A requirement developed
for training expert trouble-shootera for the technical maintenance of the vehicle
and tractor pool, ;epair-mechanics and so forth. In connection with the development
- of agroindustrial and inter-enterpriae associationa, akilled workers were required
- for enterpriaes engaged in the processing and atorage of agricultural producta and
for subsidiary trades.
The central figure in agricultural production continues to be a versatile machine
operator, the training of which is carried out taking into account the development
of specialized subunits and farms.
- Whereas 10 years ago the institutes trained workers mainly for three profeasions,
at the present time the SPTU lagricultural profesaional-technical inatitute] is
annually training workers in ten professions. In additiori to tho training of
woekers within the system of agricultural professional technical institutes, they
are also undergoing training directly in the inter-enterprise organizations and
associations. Here special importance is attached to probationary training perioda
conducted directly at the working poaitions.
The great and profound changes that have taken place in agriculture have raised a
need for augmenting the ranks of workers in the masa profesaiona. With each psasing
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year, more and more young men and women are commencing work in agriculture on
farms, in brigades and at animal husbandry complexes.
The profeasional orientation of youth comanences in tbe junior grades, it is
continued in student production brigades and labor and recreation campa and it ie
carried out with maxiinum consideration being g:ven to the personnel requirements of
the sovkhozes and kolkhozes.
~ The initiative displayed by graduates of schools in Kostromskaya Oblast, who
' expressed a desire to work in the rural areas met with a warm response. Thua, in
1978, more than one half of the students in Serebryano-Prudskiy Rayon in Moscow
Oblast remained to work on faras in the rayon.
In recent yeara the personnel staff at the Serebryanyye Prudy Sovkhoz has been
supplemented to a considerable degree by graduates from a local school. A great
amount of work is being carried out at the sovkhoz in this regard. At joint
meetings of the sovkhoz and school party organizationa, discussiona are held on
problems concerned with improving education. The leadera, apecialiste and leading
production workers are constant participants in school gatherings and evening
meetings. They inform the students regarding the farm and the proapects for its
development. The sovkhoz is doing everything possible to ensure that the students,
while still attending school, participate in the work of the sovkhoz. In this
manner they will be able to test themaelves in the carrying out of genuine labor and
experience joy in having done ao. For example, 20 senior class atudents worked here
on combines during the summer of 1978. At the sovkhoz there is a labor and
recreation camp for the atudenta where, in addition to relaxing, they aYe also able
to accustom themselves to useful labor by performing work at animal huabandry
farms or out on the fields. Bach year one half of the graduates remains on the farm,
becomes qualified and improves their expertise.
Experience has shown that it is not enough to merely appeal to the youth. Paternal
concern for them is also required. And in those areas where this fact is recognized,
success usually follows. '
At the Mir Sovkhoz in Moscow Oblaet, the farm managers issue all kinds of incentivea
to the youth new equipment is made available, concern is ahown for raising their
knowledge and they are provided with comfortable apartments. Z~aenty four
individuals are presently undergoing training at the expense of the sovkhoz, while
12 other workers are working on correspondence courses from educational ineti�tutes.
There are 232 young workers workinR at the sovkhoz at the preaent time, or 30
percent of the overall number of sovkhoz workera.
A patriotic movement has been launched at a secondary school in Ruzskiy Rayon
after receiving one's certificate attesting to secondary education, to proceed to
work on a project in the nonchernozem zone. At the present time, youth brigades and
teams consisting of graduates of echools have been created at kolkhozes and
sovkhozes. Approximately 3,500 graduates of rural schools in Moscow Oblast have
vowed to devote their lives to agriculture.
In 1917, there were 203 student production brigades in Moscow Oblast with 27,400
students working in them, in Kalininakaya Oblast the figures were 185 and 11,000
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L'V11 vLalvrlt1L N~:L vaC-
respectively, in Ryazanskaya Oblast 248 and 22,300 and in Smolenskaya Oblast
114 brig$des and 9,900 students. According to the results of an all-russian
socialist competition, during 1977 Kalininskaya Oblast occupied third place for the
best work by student production brigades. The students of rural schools in
Lukhovitskiy Rayon in Moscow Oblast earned the challenge red banner of the RSFSR
Council of Ministers and the AUCCTU.
During an all-union competition for masters of machine milking, held in July 1978 in
the city of Kostroma, Natasha Pavlenko, a student at the Serkovskaya Secondary
School in Shchelkovskiy Rayon in Mascow Oblast won first place among students in the
central region. Olya Petrenka, of the Guzyatinskaya Secondary School in Bologovakiy
Rayon in Kalininskaya Oblast, distinguished herself during a competition for young
horticulturists she won third place for the RSFSR.
The principal form of training for personnel assigned to inter-enterpriae
organizations, asaociations kolkhozea and sovkhozes ia that of agricultural
professional technical inatitutes. Each year, approximately 4,000 young men and women are accepted at agricultural
professional technical institutes in Moscow OblBat, in Ryazanskaya Oblast 5,200,
Smolenskaya Oblast 3,400 and in Kalininskaya Oblast 4,300. However, at the
present time the agricultural professional technical institutes are unable to
satisfy fully the requirements of agricultural production for skilled personnel.
Thus a large number of personnel are undergoing Craining within the system of coursQ
training conducted directly on the farms. In 1977, more than 100,000 workers were
trained in this manner.for kolkhozes and sovkhozes in the nonchernozem zone,
irlcluding approximately 60,000 machine operators.
- In addition to training new personnel, improvements are also being-carried out
annually in the qualifications and classifications of machine operators, animal
husbandrymen and field crop husbandry workers. Aa a result, the number of lat and
2d class tractor operators in Moscow Oblast as a whole amounted to 58 percent.
Forty five percent of the machine milking operatore bear the title of master of
animal husbandry lst or 2d class.
The holding of competitions by profeasions is promoting improvements in professional
expertise and the retention of youth in the rural areas. It is during a competition
that the best experts come to light, i.ndividuals who truly love their work and are
able to carry it out in the best possible manner.
Many celebrated masters of their profeasiona are working at complexes, inter-
enterprise organizationa and associations. xn addition to achieving high indicators
for themselves, they are also furnishing asaistance to younger workers in mastering
their prafessions, acquiring expertise and achieving high reeults. These are
tutors of youth patient and wise teachers.
"Tutors" stated Comrade L.I. Brezhnev during a speech delivered before the 17th
Komsomol Congress, "these are personnel workers who possess a high level of
expertise, who are rich with life's experiences and who, I might add, are talented
teachers. By virtue of their own good will,. they inatill a love for work in youth,
they aid them in developing expertiae and they acquaint them with the heroic
traditions of our glorioua working class."
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C
The list of fine tutors includes: Hero of Socialiat Labor and brigade leader of an
all-round brigade at the Kolkhoz imeni Uritskiy in SmolenslcF-A Oblast A.B. Sergeyeva,
Hero of Socialist Labor and brigade leader of the Zaokskiy Sovkhoz in Moscow Oblaet
G.T. Rybakova, team leader at the Serebryanyye Prudy Sovkhoz I.S. Averin, a milk
maid at the Bol'she-Alekseyevskoye State Breeding Plant A.G. Pastukh, chairman of
the Rossiya Kolkhoz in Istrinskiy Rayon T.I. Baryshev and many others.
The inter-enterprise organizations, kolkhozea and sovkhozes are carrying out a great
amount of work in connection with improving the working and living conditions of
kolkhoz members and sovkhoze workers and transforming the villagea and hamlets into
well organized settteinents. As a result, the standard of living of rural workers
is improving at a rapid rate. A considerable expansion has taken place in the
scale of housing and cultural-domestic conatruction. The level of civic improvements
in dwellings and cultural-domestic installations hae been raiaed. Improvements have
been achiaved in domestic services for the rural population. Combines have been
created in all of the rayons and at a majority of the kolkhozes and sovkhozes
domestic services buildings or all-round receiving pointe.
The experience and lessons learned during the ataffing of inter-enterprise
organizations and associations with personnel undersc3re rhe fact that the new forms
for organizing production are imposing higher demands with regard to the selection,
placement and improving the skills not only of manage~ial workers and specialists
but also of personnel in the mass professiona. A great amount of work lies ahead.
The party, soviet and economic organs and all agricultural workers are striving to
solve their tasks in an organized and creative manner, tasks which are called for
in the overall program prepared by the party for the developanent of socialist
agriculture. Under these conditions, maximum support should be given for the
initiative being diaplayed by the inter-enterpriae organizations and associations;
using their own savings and in addition to expanding production operations, they are
creating a training base for training and improving the skilla of their personnel.
The conversion of agricultural production over to an industrial basis is not just a
technical.natter; the force of traditions and uaual personnel thinlcing must bg
overcome. In connection with the conversion over to new operational methoda, a
broad range of new problems will arise and in addition to organizational and
technological problems there will also be those of a social and psychological
nature.
All agricultural organs, kolkhozes and sovkhozes must concern themselves on a daily
basis and in a purposeful manner with the practical implementation of the CC CPSU
decree entitlad "Further Development of Specialization and Concentrstion of
Agricultural Production Based Upon Inter-enterprise Cooperation and Agroindustrial
Integration." Under present conditions, this is one of the more important tasks.
Specialization and concentration of agricultural production based upon inter-
enterprise cooperation ar;d agroindustrial integration are opening up broad
opportunities for transforming thia branch into a highly developed sector of the
economy and for realizing high quality changea in social relationshipe in the rural
areas. This correaponds to the basic interesta of annicipal and rural workera and
to the tasks of communiat construction.
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rux vrr,.uaew ubzo uiviui
Table of Contents
G.S. Ogryzkin. Methoda for Developing Inter-enterprise Cooperation at 8
Kolkhozes and Sovkhozes in the Nonchernozem Zone
N.M. Kramarenko. A New Stage in Specialization and Concentratior of 29
Agricultural Production �
V.N. Golubkov. 8xperience in thg Creation of Inter-enterprise Associations 49
V.N. Bushkov, I.Ye. Senin. Specialized Farros for the Raising of Flon-Calving 71
Young Cows
�
V.P.
Grebenyuk.
The Domodedovo Variant
89
N.I.
Stepanov.
A Course in Specialization
102
T.D.
Goshadze.
Based Upon Inter-eaterprise Cooperation
127
A.G.
Kuropatkin.
An Association Gathars Force
144
A.A.
Turov, V.S.
Pakhno. Problems of Improving the Organization of
182
Production at
the Bekon Association
A.V. Kiryushkin. The Effect of Modernization 198
I.N. Burobkin, V.I. Kudryashov. Labor Organization at Animal Husbandry 215
Inter-enterprise Organizations and Associationa
V.A. Kovalev: Peraonnel Under Inter-enterprise Cooperation 246
COP'YRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Moskovskiy Rabochiy", 1979
7026
CSO: 8144/0231

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WATER RESOUACES
POTENTIAL FOR INCREASING EFFICIENCY OF USSR IRRIGATION
Moscow VOPROSY EKONOMIKI in Russian No 8, Aug 81 pp 46-54
[Article by Dmitriy Timofeyevich Zuzik, doctor of agricultural sciences, professor
' at the Moscaw State Institute of Water Reclamation: "Reserves for Increasing Effi-
ciency of Irrigation"]
[Text] Irrigation becomes more important each year. The proportion of products ob-
tained from irrigated areas in the overall amount of farming groducts increased to
22-25 percent under the Tenth Five-Year Plan. During the period from 1965 through
1979 alone the irrigated areas increased from 9.9 to 17.0 million hectarea (6 per--t
cent of all the planted area), and the overall amount of capital investments in ir-
~ rigation exceeded 50 billion rubles during this time.
~
! Irrigation has begun to be used not only in the desert and semi-desert regions of
Central Asia, Southern Kazakhstan and the Caucasus, but also in the steppe, forest
~steppe and nonchernozem regions, the so-called new irrigation regions, where nwst
of the agricultural products are produced on non-irrigated land. Non-irrigation
farming will continue in the future to play the main role in this region, but the
impartance of irrigation as a means of increasing the productivity of farming will
increase. During the first yeais of S oviet power less than 10 percent of the 4 mil-
~ lion hectares of irrigated land was in new regions, under the Seventh Five-Year Plan
; (figures for 1965)--almost 30 percent, and by the end of the Tenth Five-Year Plan--
more than 50 percent. The irrigated areas will continue to.increase in the tradi-
; tional regions of irrigation farming, but at less rapid rates.
The level achieved in the production of agricultural products on irrigated land in
all regions of the country does not yet fully justify the expenditures that have .
been made. Large areas of irrigated land.are not used at all in agricultural circu--
lation (in 1979--0.6 million hectares), and many ~areas are not watered (in 1979--0.8
million hectares). Tte water that is at the disposal of the irrigatian systems and
agricultural enterprises and also the fixed capital for irrigation are not being
adequately utilized. A number of decrees of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR
Council of Ministers point out the need to eliminate these ahortcomings and increase.
tiie efficiency of irrigated land. The "Main Directioris for the Economic and Social
Development of the USSR During 1981-1985 and the Period up to 1990" aet the task:
"to achieve an all-around increase in the efficiency :of the utilizat3.on of i.rrigated
and drained land to implement measures for the efficient expenditure of water
for the needs of agriculture and improvement of the condition of irrigated and
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drained land to work more rapidly to reconstruct existing land reclamation sys-
tems and to itaprove their water supply The USSR water reclamation business
has great reserves for efficiently carrying out these assignments in the next few
years.
The incomplete return from irrigated land is related primarily to the unsatisfactory
utilization of water resources that are at the disposal of irrigation systems and
agricultural enterprises. Irrigation norms are aot adequately substantiated and are
not observed; a large quantity of water that comes 3.nto the irrigation systems:is not
used for flooding and 'is uselessly discharged from the systems and lost in filtra-
tion, sugnenting the ground water supply and deteriorating the condition-of irrigat-
ed land and non-irrigated land'adjacent to it. Only about Yialf of the water intend-
ed for irrigation is used toincrease praductivity, and even less of it is used in
cert'ain systems. The reason for this situation consists not only and not so much*in
the technical imperfection of ti;e irrigation systems as in shortcomings in planning,
designing, constructing and operating them. �
In 1966 the system of the USSR Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Management es-
tab lished a 95-percent supply for irrigation, according to which the irrigation sys-
tems should be planned for operation during the most arid years which occur no more
than five times a century or once every 20 years. Thts means tihat during 95 out of
100 years all irrigated land should be provided with water according to the norms .
that are required only in the rare, most arid'years, so the water assigned to the ir-
rigation systems and farms will not be utilized effiCiently during 95 of these years.
This pertains mostly to the steppe, forest steppe and nonchernozem regions where the
irrigation norms for the most arid years greatly exceeds the norms for the less arid
ones.
As autonomcusly financed enterprises that are Ynterested in'efficient utilization of
the wateY and land resources at their disposal, the kolkhozes and sovkhozes, violat-
- ing.trc provision concerning the 95-percent supply, have begun, on their awn initia-
rive.and at their own expense, to increase the irrigated areas (to ad3acent non-
irrigated land) and as a r�esult have obtained a significant quantity of additional
products. In-the Ukraine the irrigated land that is not intended to be irrigated is
� called "accompanying hectares," in the Northern C.;ucasus, Buryatiya and othex re-
gions, they are called areas of "tnitiative" and "mobile" irrigation, and in the
materials o.f the USSR Central Statistical Administration this land is given the
name "irrigations on non-irrigated land." In 1979 the calculated area with irriga-
tions on non-irrigated land reached 1.1 million hectares, about half of which is be-
ing irrigated with mobile equipment. This provides� an important opportunity for ag-
riculture to use irrigations on.that land and thase crops which during one qear or
anotlier or for a period of more than a year require additional moisture and it makes
it possible to obtain a greater effect.
Th e provision concerning the 95-percent calculated supply became invalid with.the in-
troduction in 1979 of the new Construction Norms and Rules of the USSR Gosstroy, ac-
cording to which the calculated supply should be establiahed for each irrigation ob-
3ect on the basis of cechnical and economic comparisons of the various variants of
the calculated provision and the selection of the most-economical of them. A cor-
rect ratio between irrigation water assigned `o the eqstems and irrigated land de-
termines the economic effectiveness of irrigatioo mes:~:res.
. 22
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Table 1. Technical and Economic Indicators for Irrigation Ob3ect in Steppe
~ Region With Various Levels of Calculated Water Supply for Irrigation
Variants of calculated water
Units of � supply for irrigation
- Measurement
~ 95% 75% SOX 25% 5%
for for for for for
driest med- ave- med- wet
, year ium rage iwn year
dry year wet
year year
Resources of irrigation water millions
~ of cubic
i meters 50 50 50 50 50
~
' Annual utilization of irriga-
' tion water during many-year
period " 25.5 35.4 44.5 49.2 50.0
Average weighted irrigation norm
cub ic
meters per 5000
hectare
thousands
of hectares 10.0
3500 2500 1504 1000
Area with irrigation network
Actual irrigated area per yp-ar,
average for many-year period "
Capital investments in construc-
tion of system and agricultural millions
assimilation of land of rubles
Average annual profit "
Time period for recouping
capital investments
~ Calculated expenditures
; (per 1 ruble's worth of
additional output)
14.3 20.0 33.4 50.0
10.0 14.1 18.4 21.7 22.5
40.0 48.6 60.0 86.8 120.0
4.0 5.6 7.4 8.6 9.0
10 9 8 10 13
years
1.11 1.05 0.98 1.11 1,30
rubles/
rub le
,
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In the deserr zone, where only irrigation farming is possible and there are no non-
irrigated plantings in the immediate vicinity, and the irrigation norms depend very
little on natural precipitations and in certain years change almost not at all, the
consumption of water on one and the same irrigated area remains identical, and fre-
quently it depends more on the sources of irrigation water than on the conditiona
for natural moisture. In certain years or periods of the year surplus irrigation
water cannot be used for adjacent desert land. Therefore the areas of irrigation,
when the handling capacity of the main structures remain the same, remain constant
(stable irrigation) and the agricultural enterprises are interested in a fuller an-
nual supply of water only for the irrigated areas they already have. Artificial ir-
rigation in the dese rt zone transforms almost fruitless land into highly productive
agricultural land with repeatedly increased productivity of each irrigated hectare,
and almost all of th e products are the resu lt of irrigation and measures related to
it. It is expedient to distribute irrigated land here in the form of large oases
that suffer less from' the drying effects of the surrounding desert.
The situation is different in the steppe, forest steppe and nonchernozem zones where
artificial irrigation is conducted mainly on areas that were previously used for non-
irrigation f.arming and produce considerable volume of agricultural products even
without artificial irrigation. In these zones the productivity af agrieultural Tand
increases as a result of additional irrigations. The farms in regions of non-irri-
gation farming want the irrigations to be used just as fertilizers are applied and
other agrotechnical measures are conducted, and not always on-strictly allotted sec-
tions, but, as much as possible; on an.y part of the farms where during one year or
another or during one period of the year there arises a need for additional moisture
(mobile irrigaCion). This can be achieved only with a deconcentration of the distri-
bution of irrigated land, whose agricultural praduction can be expediently and effi-
ciently combined with adjacent non-irrigation planting. The main object of the work envisioned in the new Construction Norms and Rules of
the USSR Gosstroy, th at went into effect in 1975, consists in selection and techni-
cal and economic substantiation for each irrigation object the level (percentage)
of calculated irrigation whereby one ach ieves the most expedient combination in the
utilization of water and land resources and effective production of the largest pos-
s ib le quanti*yo uf agricultural products both on permanently irrigated land and other
land of agricultural enterprises that are included in the zone affected by artifi-
cial irrigation.
A technical and economic substantiation is drawn up for each object (farm, area,
~ system, or region) on the basis of data concerning the annual irrigation norms per
one 'hectare for individual crops and the average weighted irrigation norms that are
determined taking into account the makeup of th e crops. In keeping with the estab-
lished grouping of years according to the degree of aridity, the calculated provi-
sion has five gradations: years with 95-percent provision (the most arid years),
75-percent (semi-arid years), 50-percent (average years), 25-percent (semi-wet
years), and S-percent (wet years). A comparison of the technical and economic in-
dicators for these variants will serve as a basis for selecting the most economical
- of them. Presented belaw are calculations th at were made with respect to the irri-
;ation system of th e steppe region (south of the Ukraine) which is allotted 50 mil-
lion cubic meters of irrigation water a year. For an initial comparison and selec-
tion of the most economical variant of the calculated supply they used data
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Table 2. Utilization of Irrigation Water and Land With Irrigation Network With
Varioua LevPls of Calculated Water Supply fox Yrrigation
Unit of Calculated Water Supply
Measure-
ment 95% 75% SOX 25% 5%
Annual resources of irrigation water millions
of cubic 50 50 50 50 50
meters
Average annual utilization of irri-
gation water (during many-year
period)*
" 25.5
Average annual quantity of water
remaining unused
" 24.5
Average annual percentage of uti-
lization of irrigation water
% 51
Overall area of land in zone affected
thousands of
by irrigation
hectares 50
Area of land with irrigation network
" 10.0
Area of land with actual watering
(average annual for many-year
period)
" 10.0
Actual irrigated area in percentage
of area with irrigation network
% 100
Area of land with irrigation network
in percentage of overalt area of
land located in zone affected by
irrigation
" 20
35.4 44.5 49.2 50.0
14.6
5.5
0.8
0.0
71
89
98
100
50
50
50
50
14.3
20.0
33.4
50.0
14.1 18.4 21.7 27.5
98 92 65 45
28.6 40.0 66.4 100
* The degree of utilization of water was determined for a 20-year period. For
each variant a calculation was made for very dry years (1 year), medium dry
years (4 years), average years (10 years), medium wet years (4 years) and wet
years (1 year), using the corresponding irrigation norms.
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concerning capital investments and planned profit obtained as a result of these in-
vestments, which served as a basis for determining the time periods for recouping
capital investments--one of the main indicators of economic effectiveness. The com-
parative effectiveness was determined according to the expenditures that were made.
The indicators of the economic effectiveness of the compared variants depend on the
degree of utilization of irrigation water and land with the irrigation network.
Accounting for the water consumption over a period of many years (in the example un-
der consideration--20 years).makes it possible to estab lish the actual utilization
of water in terms of all the variants for the years with various amounts of natural
moisture and to establish the average annual amounts for the many-year period.
One can see from Table 2 that with a 95-percent calculated supply of water resources,
only 51 percent are used. As the level of the calculated supply decreases the degree
of utilization of the water increases, and the most efficient. application of the wa-
ter is found in the transition from a 95- to a 75- and 50-percent supply, precisely
from 51 percent to 71 percent and 89 percent of the utilization of the existing re-
sources of irrigation water. When determining the economic effectiveness of irrigation with the variants that are
b eing compared, it is important to take into account the sizes of the areas with the
irrigation network and the actual irrigated network during a period of many years.
As th e level of the calculated supply decreases, the areas of irrigated land (more
precisely, land with an irrigation network) increase considerab ly more rapidly than
do the areas which could actually be irrigated. Thus with the reduction of the cal-
culated supply to 25 percent and 5 perce,rt, the proportion of areas with an irriga-
tion network that remain unirrigated increases significantly in individual years,
which negatively affects the effectiveness of capital investments in the construc-
tion of an irrigation network.
Complete annual irrigation of all areas with an irrigation network can not be achiev-
ed except with the 95-percent variant of calculated water supply, and the quantity
of unirrigated land increases as�the percentage of the calculated supply decreases,
-and water irrigation resources are utilized completely only with the five-percent
variant of calculated supply. With the other variants, part of the irrigation water
cannot be used in individual years.
With the 50-percent variant of calculated supply (most effective), out of 50 million
cubic meters of water an average of 5.5 million cub ic meters of water a year or 11
percent remain unutilized. To expend this amount with ordinary methods requires a
considerable increase in the area with an irrigation network, which is tantamount to
changing over to a lower calculated water supply, and this is less economically ef- ,
fective than the 50-percent supply. This is related to the need to construct an ir-.
rigation network on very rarely irrigated land. The aforementioned reserve of water
can be utilized on the basis of an expeziment of the kolkhozes and sovkhozes in ir-
rigating non-irrigated land with out constructing a permanent irrigation network. At
the present time about half o� the aforementioned area for irrigation of non-irri-
gated land is irrigated with mobile equipment.
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'['he plnnned level oE calculated supply, determined on the basis of a comparison of
technical and economic indicators for several variants, as a rule, is lower than the
normative of the 95-percent calculated supply. Moreover, the area of land with a
permanent irrigation network increases. In the example under consideration this
area increases 2-fold--from 10,000 to 20,000 hectares, even without accounting for
irrigation of additional areas with mobile equipment.
A combination of irrigation farming and non-irrigation farming makes it possible to
conduct selective irrigations of the more valuable crops and areas that are most
greatly in need of water during a given period, thus providing for increased effect-
iveness of the utilization of each cubic meter of irrigation water. Ordinarily non-
irrigated Land can even be irrigated with water that is intended for permanently ir-
rigated land wh ich does not require it during the period of the regular irrigation
or requires less th an does the area that lies outside the irrigated sector but is
experiencing a great shortage of moiature. Such selectivity and mobility of irri-
gations within agricultural enterprises is an important meana of increasing the pro-
portion of more intensive crops as compared to the amount of them in the existing
crop rotation. Sometimes the farms (especially when there is a shortage of water)
irrigate only the areas that are planted in the leading crops, and the irrigation
equipment is*moved during the process of the crop rotation along with these crops.
Irrigation�in regions of non-irrigation farming ahould be carried out along with
other agrotechnical measures not on limited sections of stable irrigation, but on
any part of the farm where there is a need for additional moisture.
Mobile irrigation in full volume is a task of the more distant future, but even now
it should be introduced and taken into account when planning, designing, constructing
and operating irrigation systems, and organizing agricultural utilization of irri-
gated land and non-irrigated land adjacent to it. Practice shows that this method
is also effective with the current level of technical equipment for irrigation. Mo-
bile irrigation opens up large possibilities for further utilizatian not only of ir-
rigation water, but also natural precipitation on the territory of each farm through
the use of regulating irrigations, primarily of non-irrigated land.
In regions where irrigation is carried out against a background of mainly non-irri-
gation farming, artificial irrigations play a dual role. First, they augment mois-
ture supplies in the soil by increasing the intake part of the land's water balance.
The effect o� this is determined by the ratio between expended water and additional
yield--the coefficient of water consumption. Second, with irrigations it is possible
to make up for the "gaps" in the schedule of the plants' water consumption that form
during dry periods, that is, it is possible to regulate water.consumption.
Fluctuations in the yields of agrieultural crops in the steppe, forest steppe and
nonchernozem regions depend mainly on the more or less lengthy dry periods that oc-
cur here, disturbing the normal development of the plants. The negative effects of
droughts are manifested not only in that they decrease the plants' supply of water,
but also in that they reduce the degree of utilization of all precipitation. Thus
frequently favorable moisture conditions provide for good initial development of the
crop and quite favorable prospects for the yield, but a drought that occurs in the
second half of the growing period makes it impossible to obtain a large yield. And
if a drought comes during the first period of the crop's development, the weakened
and frequently thinned plantings cannot subsequently utilize even very abundant
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precipiEation, which leads to a reductinn of the yield. Thus a dry period reduces
the effect of precipitation that falls both before and after this period. Irrigat-
ing planted areas during a drought eliminates the retardation of the plants' develop-
ment and thus improves the utilization of natural precipitation thar falls during
the entire growing period. '
Even a small amount of irrigation during a dry period, for example, 100-300 cubic
meters per one hectare, can prevent a reduction of the yield. The effect of such
an irrigation is conditioned not by the fact that the overall intake of water into
the soil is increased by 5-10 percent, but by the fact that, because of its effect
on the water conditions for the agricultural crops, they utilize more effectively
the 3,000-4,000 cubic meters of natural precipitation. This means that a small irri-
gation norm during the period of the plants' most critical need for water increases
the useful effect of the large quantity of natural precipitation many times over.
In the steppe, forest steppe and nonchernozem regions there are usually from 300 to
500 millimeters of precipitation, which corresponds to an annual volume of 3,000-
5,000 cubic meters of water per one hectare, and on one farm with an area of 10,000
hectares--30-50 million cubic meters. But because the precipitation is not uniform
(throughout the territory of the farm) or regular, the useful utilization of it does
not usually exceed 50 percent. Mobile irrigation, especially regulating irrigations,
improves the effectiveness of natural precipitation. Thus an increase in the degree
of the utilization of natural precipitation of only 20 percent is tantamount to the
farm's obtaining an additional 6-10 million cubic meters of irrigation water, while
expending on this measure a quantity of water that is several times less from the
irrigation system.
Consequently, the use of mobile irrigation makes it possible not only to significant-
ly increa.se the actual irrigated area and the amount of products obtained from it
with the same water resources, but also to greatly increase the degree of utiliza-
tion and productivity of each cubic meter of irrigation water and each millimeter of
- precipi.tation. These additional possibilities of mobile irrigation not only con-
tinue to be important wtien designing new irrigation systems, but also serve as an
important means of increasing the economic effectiveness of the operation of exist-
ing irrigation systems. '
In order to increase the efficiency of irrigation it is very important to improve
the relations between state irrigation systems and agricultural enterprises that
consume water, and also between water management construction organizations and ag-
ricultural organizations and enterprises. At the present time irrigation systems
that are on the budget financing serve kolkhozes and sovkhozes that are autonomously
financed organizations. The administrations of state irrigation systems can perform
operations work and provide service for agricultural enterprises only within rhe
framework established by plans and estimates of expenditures, in which it is impos-
sible to take into account ahead of time the changing conditions of economic activi-
ty. Irrigation system workers are not materially motivated to improve their work.
As distinct from autonomously financed enterprises that are motivated to economize
on material and monetary resources, budget irrigation systems try as hard as they
can to expend all funds allotted to them since residuals at the end of the year are
identified with a failure to fulfill the plan.
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Many shortcomings in the operation of irrigation systems, including wasteful utili-
zation of water, are explained by the lack of material motivation to economize on
"free" water. This pertains to state systems on budget financing that are construc-
ted and operated with state allocations. In intrafarm irrigation Qystems that are
put into operation, as a rule, at the expense of the farms themselves, which inde-
pendently operate them, irrigation is conducted on the basis-of autonomous financing,
which has a positive effect on the economic indicators of irrigation.
The need to change water management arganizations over to autonomous financing in
order to cause them to expend water more economically is constantly increasing be-
cause of the annually increasing shortage of the water balaace in the majority of
basins of the main irrigated regions, particularly in Central Asia and Kazakhstan
where the diversion of part of the flow of Siberian rivers involves the expenditure
of many billions of rubles. Therefore it becomes especially important to take mea-
sures to economize on water. There are large unproductive losses of irrigation
water in both old and new irrigation systems which are considered to be technically
perfected. Extravagant utilization of irrigation water is brought about not so much
by technical imperfection of the systems as by inefficient.utilization of it because
of the lack of payment for water and the lack of material motivation to economize on
it. Therefore the complex of technical measures directed toward reducing losses of
water and improving its application should be combined with measures for economy.
Above all it is necessary to change land reclamation systems over to autonomous
financing.
The experience in operating the Kubai;skaya and Karagshskaya irrigation systems has
shown that with the introduction of autonomous financing the actual irrigation norros
are decreased by 20-30 percent 3ust as a result of reducing useless losses of water,
and without harming the crops. Practice shows that with'the changeover to sutono-
mous financing the agricultural enterprises and administrations of irrigation sys-
tems, on their own initiative and at their own expense, reconstruct systems and in-
stallatiuns, striving to Ltilizc �water more effectively. The attitude towar~ ac-
counting for water also changes. In systems that are maintained on budget finan-
ing, even already installed water meters quickly begin to malfunction, and observa-
tions are made irregularly, as a result of which the supply of water meters does not
exceed 50 percent, while in irrigation systems of the Kirghiz SSR all autonomousTy
financed systems have a 100 percent supply of water meters.
The effects of autonomous financing factors, mutual responsibility and material in-
centives should be extended to the construction of irrigation systems as well. In
order to increase the effectiveness of autonomous financing of interrelations be-
tween construction ozganizations.and agricultural agencies and farms on which irri-
gation is conducted, the latter should be made responsib le at le,ast partially for
the functions of the clients.
When irrigation systems are created on.the land of agricultural enterprises at the
expense of the state budget without financial participation from the farms them-
selves, the latter play a passive role, which impedes objective determinacion of
the farms' actual need for irrigation, the actual possibilities of prompt assimila-
tion of Irrigated land and their effective utilization. Water management organiza-
tions do not depend on the effectiveness of the assimilation of the irrigated land
and frequentty conduct work without the necessary accounting for the interests and
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a"VA V~ r~a..�79L. v~.rL. VL\L\
capab ili ties of the agricultural enterprises. When a farm receives irrigation free
of charge it is difficult to refuse to carx} out even irrigation work which they can
not assimilate. And the higher agricul�tural agencies are.forced to be limited to
eanctioning final plans. This leads to the constructicm of irrigation systems which
are not properly utilized for many subsequent years.
Naw the USSR Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Resources orders, plans, and
constructs new irrigation systems, and the USSR Ministry of Agriculture operates
them. The b uilders are not very concerned ab out haw they will be operated. For
them the main thing is to economize on each hectare. But for the operators--the
agricultural enterprises--this frequently eads up in inconveniences and large losses.
They must eliminate at their own expense the imperfectione causesi by the construction
workers, turning for assistance to seasonal workers, since water management construc-
tion organizations refuse to perform such work. With budget financing of irrigation
systems not only all operations work, but also expenditures on eliminating imperfec-
tions in construction are covered by funds from the state budget, frequently by the
same construction organizations, for more money. This makes the operating agencies
less dtmanding of the construction workers and createa conditions for releasing and
accepting irrigation systems that have imperfections. As a result the plans fre-
quently include measures for reconstructing land reclamation systems that were re-
cently constructed.
Increasing the importance of agricultural enterprises in efficient organizaCion of
irrigation requires the corresponding redistribution of capital investments in"land
reclamation between the USSR Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Management and
the USSR Ministry of Agriculture without increasing the overall amounts of invest-
ments, but increasing the economic substantiation�and effectiveness of the irriga-
tion work that is conducted.
From what has been presented above it follows that water reclamation has great re-
serves whose utilization will make it possible for agriculture to obtain more addi-
tional products as a result of more efficient utilization of irrigation water, in-
creased material incentives for water management operation and construction organi-
zations, and increased productivity of agriculture on the basis of autonomous finan-
cing.
A narrow departmental approach to solving the problems of autonomous financing im-
pedes the establishment of overall material incentives of water management and agri-
cultural enterprises and organizations to inerease the efficiency of irrigat�on and
other land reclamation work that is conducted for agriculture. As VASKhNIL academi-
cian B. Shumakov emphasized: "One cannot forget that land recl-8mation does exist
for itself, it is a branch of agriculture. And, this being the case, the final goal
of all work i s the crop.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Pravda", "Voprosy ekonomiki", 1981
11772
CSO: 1824/16 END
*SEL'SKAYA ZHIZN', 5 December 1980
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