-A A +A

JPRS ID: 10233 USSR REPORT LIFE SCIENCES BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Document Type: 
CREST
Collection: 
JPRS
Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): 
CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2
Release Decision: 
RIF
Original Classification: 
U
Document Page Count: 
178
Document Creation Date: 
November 1, 2016
Sequence Number: 
2
Case Number: 
Content Type: 
REPORTS
File: 
AttachmentSize
PDF icon CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2.pdf12.17 MB
Body: 
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ JPRS L./ 10233 4 January 19~2 USSR Re ort p LIFE SCIENCES BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES CFOUO 1/82) , rBIS FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500420002-2 NOTE JP1tS publications contain ir_formation primarily from forei~n newspapers, periodicals and books, but also from news agency - transmissions and brosdcasts. Materials from foreign-language sources are translated; those from English-language sources are transcribed or reprinted, with the original phrasing and other characteristics retained. ~ Headlines, editorial reparts, and material enclosed in brackets - are supplied by JPRS. Processing indicators such as [Text] or [Excerpt] in the first line of each item, or following the last line of a brief, indicate how the original information was processed. Where no processing indicazor is given, the infor- mation k~as summarized or extracted. ~ Unfamiliar names rendered phonetically or transliterated are enclosed in parentheses. Words or names preceded by a ques- tion mark and enclosed in parentheses were not clear in the original `~~t have been supplied as appropriate in context. Other unat::~ibuted parenthetical notes within tt.e body of an item originate with the source. Times within items are as given by source. The contents of this publication in no way repre~ent the poli- cies, views or attitudes of the U.S. Government. , COPYRIGHT LAWS AND REGULATIONS GOVERI~IING OWNERSHIP OF MATERIAj,S REPRODUCED HEREIN REQUIRE THAT DISSEMINATION OF THIS PUBLICATION BE RESTRICTED FOR OFFICIAL USE O~iLY. APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY JPRS L/10233 , 4 January 1982 USSR REPORT ~ - LI~E $CIENCES ~ BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES c,FOUO 1/82) CONTENTS szocx~zsTxY Iiandbook Describes Rapid Microbial Identification Methods......... I - BIONICS ~'~lgorithms of Intellectual Activity 5 Bionic Modeling of Fish Electric Com~munication and Location Systems 9 Cybernetic Approach to Man-Machine Interaction Ar.alyzed........... 24 ~IOTECHNOLOGY Respiration and Oxygen Patternts of Dolphins............s.......... 35 ENVIRONMENT , Animal Ecology Assists in Betiav:tor Control 39 MEDICAL DEMOGRAPHY Life I~cpectancy: Analysis and ~Iodeling . ~ 45 - The Environment ~nd Health 47 - PHYSIOLOGY Aviation Medicine 51 Regulating Mechanisms of Memory 90 - a- [III - USSR - 2].a S&T FOUO] FnR n~'FiCIAI. iJSE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 1~OR (ll~l~l('lAl. 1151~'. ON11' Objective Method for Evaluating Vestibular ~t~.bility From Trend of Nystagmic Indices After Exposure to Cumulative Coriolis Acceleration 94 Problems of Space Biology, Vol 39: Effects of Hyperbaric En~ironment on Man and Ani.mals 103 Book Explores Advanced ~heory of Extracellui.ar Brain Currents..... 107 HUMAN FACTORS Problea~s of Space Biology, Vol 41: Biological Rhythms...,........ 112 Textbook An~lyzes Western Projective Personality Measurement Techniques 119 Decision Making and Air Traffic Control......������~������~��~���� 123 PSYCHIATRY Medicinal Preparations Used in Psychiatry 131 Indivin~a~ Distinctions of Human Memory (Psychophysiological - Study) . lk3 Electrophysiological Correlates of Mutual Relationships _ Existing Between Desynchronizing and Synchronizing Brain Structures During Sleep and Wakefulness~ 146 New Book Sub~ects Brain-~Stress Correlates to Quantitative Analysis 155 PSY'CHOLO(sY - Emotions and Thought...~ 157 ~ F'sychology in Physical Education and Sports....~....���������~��.� 160 ; Development of Psychological Science at tiie Psychology ' 164 - Department of Moscnw University _ Psvchologiral Studies of Intellectual Se1f~Regulation and 171 - Activity b - FOR OFFICI[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFI('lAl, II,SF ONLY BIOCHEM?STRY HANDBOOK DESCRIBES RAPID MICROBIAL IDENTIFICATION METHODS Kishinev USKORENNYYE :yIETODY ENZIMOIND.T,v.ATSII MIKROBOV in Russian 1979 (signed to . press 9 Jan 79) pp 2-4, 170-171 [Annotation, table of contents, and foreword from book "Rapid Enzymatic Methods of Microbial Identification", by Valentin Mikhaylovich Nikitin ard Stepan Vasil'yevich Plugaru, Kishinev State Medical Institute, Nbldavian SSR Ministry of Iiealth~ Izdatel'stvo "Shtiintsa", 1,525 copies, 172 pages] [Text] This mcnograph presents rapid methods of enzymatic identification and, biochemical differentiation of microorganisms. For the first time, a t~icrobiological classification, developed by the authors, of rapid methods for studying the bio- chemical act:ivity of microbes is presented. 2'he book illuminates the theoretical, methodological, and technical problems associated with rapid enzymatic methods of microbial identification, and it examines the influer.ce of ~arious factors on the rate of bacterial enzymatic reactions. , The monograph is intended for a broad range of speci.alists--microbiologists, bi- ologists, biochemists, epidemiclogists, specialists in infectious diseases, and laboratory technicians. Contents Page � Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Classification of Microbiological Methods of Rapid Determination of the Biochemical Properties of Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . 4 Chapter. I. Rapid Enzymatic Methods of Microbial Identification on Media ~ Containing a Fermentable S~abst~ate . . . . . . . . . . . e . . � � � � � � � ~ Drop Methods of Rapid Determination of the Enzymatic Activity of Microbes on Solid Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Tube Micromethods of Rapid Determination of Microbial Enzymatic Activity 12 Capillary Methods ~f Rapid Determination of the Enzymatic Properties - of Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 An Electrophysical Method of Rapid Enzymatic Identification of Microbes on Liquid Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Enzymatic Methods of Microbial Identification on Polycarbohydrate Nutrient Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFI('CAL L?SF. ON[.Y Chant~r II. Rapid ~nzymatic Methods of Microbial Identi�ication ~n Carbo- ; hydrate-less Media Using ~pPcial Test Media Containing a Fermen~able Substra~ke 60 ~ Enzymatic Methods o~ Microbial Identification Using Tabletized ~ Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Enzyma~ic Methods of Microbial Identific:ation Ffitploying Polymer Films ~ - Centaining Casbohydraies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Rapid Enzymatic Methcds of Microbial Identification Using Carbohydr.ate- Impregnated Paper Discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 1. Method~ Employing Carbohydr.~te-Impregnated Paper Dis:s Without a ~H Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2. Methods Emplcying Carbohydrate-Impregnated Paper Discs Wiih a pH Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3. V. M. Nikitin's and S. V. Pl~igaru's Methods Emploging Carbo- _ hydrate-Impregnated Paper Discs With a pH Indicator, Covered by a Protective Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Rapid Enzymatic~ Methods of Microbial Identification Em~loying V. M. Nikitin's and A. P. Kalancha's (1974) Rapid ]Enzymatic Methods of Microbial IdentiFication Using Carbohydrate-Impregnated Paper Floats 99 The 'rest Strip Metho3 for Rapid Detection of Ferm~entation of Organic Acid Salts by Micro4rganisms (Nikitin, Kalancha, Ruseykina, 1978) 109 Chapter III. Influence of Different Factors on the Rate and Results of Determining Biochemical Properties of Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 - Effect of Carbohydrate Concentration in a Paper Disc on the Results and Rate of Determi.ning Microbial Enzymatic Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Z2 Effect of the Type and Concentration ~f pH Indica.tor in Carbohydrate- IznpregnatPd Paper Discs on the Results of Determining Bacterial Enzymatic Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Effect of the Type and Concentration of Polymer in the ProtPCtive FiLn of a Carbohyrlrate-Impregnated Paper Disc on the Results of Determining Microbial Enzymatic Activity r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Effect of t:he Concentr.ation of�the�Microbial�Culture on the Time of ~ Sugar Fermentation on Carbohydx,..te-Impregnated Discs . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 Effect of the Inoculation C~ncentration of a Microbial Culture on the Time of Carbohydrate Fermentation in the Carbohydrate-Impregnated - Paper Float Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 - Effect of the Growth Phase and Age of a Microbial Culture an the Time of Sugar Fermentation on Carbohydrate-Impregnated Paper Discs 134 Effect of Incubation Temperature ~n the Results and Rate of I~etermining the Enzymatic Activity of Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Effect of the Composition and Quality of the.Nutrient Medium on Rapid - Determination of the Enzymatic Properties of Microbes Using Carbohydrate- :'mpregnated Paper Discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Effect of the Nutrient Content�of the Lir~uirl.Phase on Rapid Determination cf Microbial Enzymatic Properties Using Car.�bohydrate Floats 153 Effect of Carbohydrate-Impregnated Paper Disc Storage Time on Quality 158 ~ Bibliograpny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 2 FOK OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500024442-2 F(1R l)FN1('IA1, l(tiH: nNi.Y Foreword The biochpmical activity of microorganisms can be studied by determining their capabilit-y for breaking down various chemical compourids (organic, inorganic, and synthetic) by me~ns of specific exo- and endoenzymes released by them. Such deter- m:.nations play an important role in identification of such microorganisms in the laboratory, and they are broadly employed as a means for descri.bing the pathogenic - properties of ;nicroorganisms. Moreover industrial microbiology uses methods to determine the spectrum of enzymes and their activity in its search for micro- ~ organism~ that actively produce specific enzymes which are used in directed catalysis with the purpose of obtaining useful biological products and various bacterial cultures, which are in. turn used to break down various wastes and toxic ch~micals. Meciical nucrobiologxsts interested in identifying pathogenic microorganisms and determining the properties of differAnt populations of bac*_eria study their bio- -.j chemical activity, inasmuch as this activity is the basis of bactErial classifications, and it is always used to establish the generic m~mbership of disease agents, an~ as a means for their specific and typological differentiation. The longest and ~st laborious stage of microbiological analysis performed in the course of laboratory diagnosis uf a given infectious disease is that of studying the biochemical properties of pathogenic microbes (especially when 8-10 and more specific enzymes produced by the disease agen~ must be revealed). It takes 24-48 hours and longer to analyze 5-7 enzymes by the commonly accepted, universal serial differentiation technique, used to study the biochemical propertieG ' of microbes. This length oi time ~or determi.ning ~he biochemical traits of microbes fails to satisfy the demands of microbiological practice and the epidemiological service today. New methods of rapid determination af the biochemical properties and enzymatic activity of mi~roorganisms have been developed, and existing methods have been improved in the last 20-30 years in *he Soviet Union (Adamov, 1964-1972; Andreyeva, 1960; Andreyeva, et al., 1976; BlinkiYZ, 1963; Blokhina, 1977; Kalina, 19%3-1976; Kiktenko, 1953-1966; Kichenko, 1948; Nikitin, 1964-�1978; Plugaru, 1970- 1g77; Ravich-Birger, 1955-1970, and others) and abroad (Closs, 1971; Matsen, 1970; Schwartz, 1968; Z'hiry, 1974). Owing to L�heir quickness, and the negligible out~ay of labor and materials, rapid enzymatic methods for detsrnuning t.he p.resence of microbes and identifying them has significant advantages over Hiss's commonly accepted classical serial differentiation technique, and chemical meth~ds. They are distinguished by high specificity, simplicity c;f execution, and high informa- tion content; moreover they may be used to study fern~entation of substances with _ chemical nature that is unknown or insufficiently revealed. A large number of diverse rapid micro- and macromethods of determining the enzymatic activity of microbes have been developed and praposed. But most of them have not enjoyed broad application in bacteriological laboratories. Z'his can be explained _ by a number of reasons: imperfections in many rapid methods that seriously limit their use; lack or Pxtreme scarcity of a number of chemicals and preparations necessary for quick enzymatic identification of microorqani.sms, aiid absence of a = scientific classification of these methods, and of the required scientific references . and manuals. 3 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 M'i)K Uh'MIt:IAI. UJL: UIVLY A real necessity has arisen for testing a r_umber of the most promising rapid and economical methods of fast enzymatic identification of microbes; information ob- t.ained from experiments with these methods would permit us to select one (and ~ possibly two), and recommend it for introduction into microbiological practice. This monograph will promote broader and fuller use of the possibilities of rapid enzymatic methods of bacterial identification, and further developmer~t of the theory and improvement of the microbiological methods of rapid detection of the biochemical properties of microorganisms. ~ COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Shtiintsa", 1979 11004 CSO: 1840/191 ~ 4 FOR OFFICIAL U~E ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500024442-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY BIONICS UDC; 153.001.57+621.391 - ALGORITHMS OF INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY Tashkent ALGORITMY INTELLEKTUAL~NOY DEYATEL'NOSTI in Russian 19:9 ($igned to press 20 Dec 79) pp 2-6, 132 ~ [Annotation, foreword, introduction and table of contents from book "Algorithms of Intellectual Activity , b; Adyldzhan Akhmedovich Usmanov and Anatoliy Viktorovich Napalkov, Uzbek Scientific-Produc*ion "Cybernetics" Association,. Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Izdatel'stvo "Fan", 100 copies, 132 pages] [Text] This monograph is the result of ~oint research of specialists in the area - of algorithmic analysis of brain function and theoretical cybernetics. It des- cribes the methods for the study of higher nervous activity in ~nan.and some models ~ related ~o analysis of thinking while playin~ chess. Analysis is made of the learning process; an algorithmic description is given of man's orit~nting and exploring jresearch] abilities undex difficult environmental conditions. Analysis is made of the process of decision making in new situations that are not known to man. There is discussion of the means of using algorithmic descriptions of intellectual activity to solv~~ practical problems. This book is intended for a wide circle of scientists, students, school children ~ and all those concerned with problems of development of cybernetics and creation ; of artificial intelligence. Illustrations 7; bibliography lists 185 items. Foreword ~ Development of cyberneti~s opened up vast new opportunities to study brain function. The period that has elapsed since the publication of the works of N. Wiener re- i vealed that most efforts to analyze the mechanisms of intellecttial activity on the basis of existing methods of formal description did not lead to perceptible , res~~lts. Until recently, ti~ere has been a rift bet~een neurophysiological studies j re?ated mainly to accumulation of facts and development of theory in t~ie field of = cybernetics. The rich opportunities for der~?onstration of the mechanisms of brain : function, which were created on the basis of development of cybernetics and computer i technology, have remained unused. For this reason, the ideas of V. K. Kabulov ; concerning the algorithnic direction in c:ybernetics are considered to be ~xtremply relevant . The problem of app?ying theory of ir.formation processes to the study of Y,rain function is of special importance. Thinking i~ an example of the most contplex and refined information prucessing. Many studies are presently being pursued in this direction. Many questions are the subject of seriuus discussion, 5 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY This book reflects one of the directions whose goal is to provide an integral ~ description ~f the mechanisms of higher nervous activity on the basis of the method of algorithmic anal.ysis. The material is arranged in accordance with the principle of advancing from simple processes and means of their formal description to more complicated ones. This mode of presentation also conforms with the history of formation of theory of information processes. First, there is discussion of the general conception of information-related activity as a phenomenon of construc- - tion, transformation and transmission of images, then there is analysis of different mechanisms of brain function. T~.e methods, which are based on use of cybernetic theory, are compared to the results of psychological and neurophysiological studies. Introduction The main function of the brain is to process informatian. There are amazing properties in information and its processing. While they do not exist by themselves, in a"ptzre form," they are always expressed by some ph~sical or chemical systems, they move from one system to another, retaining their main "content" (remaining unchanging). Thus, it is well-known that messages can be transmitted over radio waves, expressed in the fo.rm of sunic oscillations, written on paper, etc. The essence of information cannot be reduced to any of its physical "carriers.~' The same properties were found in a study of information processing, in particular, in development and use of computers. The program as a description of information activity cannot be reduced to the physical arrangement of a computer. The same computer, as a physical system, can be used for different: information-related activity, for example, the capacity to play chess or contr.ol melting of steel. These properties create great difficulties in the study Qf information processes~ if they are expressed in living organis~s. They have the capacity to emerge in the form of various physical and chemical manifestations, altering their ~~extertial imsge . " Information processes are organized in the form of social structures and construc~ tions, which do not have an unequivocal conformity to the structure that ex- presses their basis. For this reason, isolat~on of physicochemical elements p],ay~ ing an informative role does not make it possible to analyze integra7. in~ox~tna,t3on activ_ty as such. When a resear_cher tries to study information act~v~,ty on the basis of isolation of physical or chemical elements that express it, ~or exazqpJ.e, he determiaes the structural formula for insulin, effect of reni,n on blood pressure, or examines bioelectrical phenomena in neurons of the brain~ he ineyitabl.y - overlool~s integral information processes. On1y physicochemica~ phencmena are the ~ ob~ect of his observation. In the past, the above-mentioned di�ficulties were underesti;mated, ~ox t~.~;s reason, as has been recently shown, a substantia7, gap developed in the system of man's knowlPdge about phenomena in nature. Assurance that sc~ence has su~~~;~ cient information about information processes in living organisms turned ok~ to be a great and dangerous illusion. The extent of the miscalculations made ir. science is determined by the great significance of infox'mation processes i:n differeat arEas of man~s life. In our times, it became apparent that, wh~.1e science had a power~u~, ax'mlamentax'ium of resources in the area of investigat~.on o~ chemical and physical. ph~nqme.na~ 6 rOR OFFICIAL US~ ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY in nature, including the feasibility of formal description of processes (for example, in the form of structural formulas and systems of chemical equations), it has far from modern resources for the study of information activity of living systems and, in particular, the study of brain function. There, studies are essentially on a primitive le~~el, and they do not rise above the simple collection of facts. On the one hand, it has become apparent that the previous attempts at studying informa- tion activity on tr,e basis of analysis of physicochemical processes were doomed ta failure. On the oth~r hand, efforts made to artificially construct information ~ systems within the framework of "artificial intelligence" were in the nature of an intuiti~e search, similar to some extent to the search for the means of synthesiz- ing compler. c:hemicals during the alchemy peri~d. Of course, they could not laad - to results that would become the foundation for investigation and comprehension of mechanisms of brain function. For this t�eason, in our times a new and pressing ~ nroblem emerged, that of organizing research of information processPS as such, on the basis of isolaring them from the obscuring physicochemical systems. First of all, the question arose of the possibility of isolating and "cultivating" information activity outside Ziving systems. We know that until chem'_cal processes were studi~d in "test tubes" and microorganisms were cultivated on nutrient media it was not possible to study the complex phenomena occur.iing in Iiving organisms under normal co:zditions and in the pr~sence of pathological deviations. This problem became even more acute in the study of information processes since, in addition to the task of isolating the essential main process from complex systems, the problem emerged of separating them from the effecting physicochemieal basis. Then it was necessary to express rhe isolated information processes in dynamic systems, where they could ~e "preserved" for a long time and studied. In this connection, a need arose for special symbols and rules of construction of informa- tion structures and their elements. Just as it was necessary to start with the reproduction in test tubes of the - most elementary reactions in the field of chemistry, in the study af information processes one had to artificially renraduce, at the first stages, the -nost elementary information structures and their ~orrelations. Then it became possible to reproduce in models and to study the properties of complex information systems. After the foundation of abstract theory of information processes was l~id in this manner, it was possible to analyze c:~ its basis the complex, complicated infoi-ma- tion systems existing in nature, for ~xample, the thinking of a designer, investi- gator, information processes at the basis of control of development ef an organism and biocenoses, pathogenic information system$ reGponsible for development ~f diseases. The correlation between the~ry of infor:nation processes and mathematics is very important. Apparently, the formal means ~f describing information processes cannot be reduced to any of its existing parts. They resemble most the means of abstract description (systems of formulas) that ar.~ used in chemistry. At . the same time, since mathematics is part of information activity, there is the prospect of constructing a single, integral system of modern mathematical means of formal descriptic-n. Contents Page Foreword 3 Introduction 4 7 FOR OFFICIAL USE O1VLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500020002-2 FOa ~FF'ICIAL USE (?NLY Chapter 1. Elements of Theory of Intellectual Act~,yzty 7 1. The ro7.e of cybernetics in the study of lt~v~,ng organ~sms $ _ 2. Means o~ using cybernetics 23 - Chapter 2. Development of Theory of Information Processes 35 1. Construction of abstract system 35 : 2. Means o~ investigating information mechanisms 42 3. Modern approaches to the use of cybernetics in studies of bra~.n ~ function 65 Chapter. 3. Algorithms of Orienting and Exploratory Activity 77 1. Formulation of the ta.sk. Specif~.cs of orient~ng and ~xploratory activity � 2. Results o~ Experimental research 83 _ Chapter 4. Algoritluns of Decision Ma~king in New Situat3.ons 99 1. Mechanisms of decision raaking 99 2. Methods of investigation 101 3. Discussion of results 107 4; c~lgorithms of making plans and decfsion making in specialist work 118 Libliography 122 COPYRIGHT: Izdatel~stvo "Fan" UzSSR, 1979 10,657 CSO: 184~1999 8 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY BIONIC MODELING OF FISH ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION AND LOCATION SYSTEMS Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 1, Jan 81 pp 99-110 [Article by V. M. Ol'shanskiy, A. A. Or1Q~~, and Dr Biol Sci V. R. Protasov] [Text] The methods of creating bionic models differ from methods usually employed in biological research to model any processes or phenomena. Every biological object is typified, on one hand, by universality in relation to the functions it performs and, on the other hand, unique features inherent only to a livinq organism. Using technical devices to directly copy biological structures per- forming certain functions fails to produce optimum solutions. Therefore when bui~ding a bionic model, it would be best to use only the general phenomenological characteristics typifying a particular asgect of the activity or function of a living organism, applying in this case the sum total of presently available knowledge and technical devices. Information on Electric Fish About 300 of the 20,000 presently existing fish specips possess special electricity generating tissues and are capable of generating elect7:ic fields. Among thFSe, only the electric eels, electric catfish, electric skates, and American stargazers have distinctly pronounced electric organs with which they create intense electric fields ~bout themselves, used in attack or defense. The electric or.gans of the skate, for example, generate discharges having an amplitude of up to 50 w and a current intensity of up to 50 amp in sea water. The energy of such a discharge may be estimated as 1 mj per gram of electric organs. 7.'he frequency of discharges in response to stimulation attains 150 Hz, each discharge lasting 3-5 msec. The rest of the species make up a second group of so-called weakly electric fish, which generate relatively weak electric fields with amplitudes on the order of . 5-10 w in water. Weakly electric fish are divided in terms of the sort of discharges generated in~o wave and pulsating species. Puisating species include all Mormyriformes (except for gymnarchids) and the bulk of the gymnotids. The duration of discharges pro- duced by pulsating species is much shorter than the time interval between discharges; in this case the fish may vary the discharge frequency within broad limits. For - most pulsating species, this range is 1-60 pulses/sec. Wave species generate 9 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONT~Y ~ APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500020002-2 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI,Y quasisinusoidal discharges of practically constant frequency. Z'hese frequencies are species-specific , and they fall within the 50-2,000 Hz ranqe. - Fields generated around fish differ from electric fields around dipole sources ~ (Figure 1) mainly due to nonuniform distribu~:ion of a fish's electric skin resistance. The electric organs of fish consist of specialized cells (electric plates) trans- formed, as a rule, out of muscle fibers and, in some species, out of nerve fibers. A typical feature of these cclls is functional differentiation of cell membranes, taking the form of innervation of just one side. At the moment of stimulation, the potential difference across an electric plate attains 40-120 mv. Electric plates in electric organs are stacked into col~ns, which are in turn connected in parallei. Owing to this the emf and current produced by the whole electric organ significantly exceed the corresponding outputs of a single electric plate. Z'he orientation of these columns in electric organs located in the fish body predeteraiines the polarity of the discharge and the current direction. - f � ~ o / - ~ i ~ ? I , / 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ , / ~ ~ 1 0 . ~ + ~ O''. ~ 250 ~ ~ d ~'ol ~ t J ~ \ j ~ 1 1 1000 b4~ / ~ ~ ~ ; ~ 4~001 ~ . 'l ~ ~ 1 % f ~ Z~ ~ ~ i~~,~/~ ~ ~ ~ . .~r---- p_o._o o o~~~ ~~C *C ~3, pl~ ~.O d +t Q 1 ~ ~ ~~O`` ~t � ~ ? f' I ~~~w 2500 ~ 1 j ~ + ~ o ( ~ 1000 ; 1 ~ ~ 1 ` y 600 2b0 ` t OI ~r ~ 100 _ ~ ~ ~ r i 1 { ~ , 4~` c~7~ / ~ ~rt~~I' ~ Figure 1. Electric Field of a 22 cm Long Apteronotu8 in Water With Specific Resistance Equal to 3.2 kohm�cm (From Knudsen, E. I., '�Spatial Aspects of the Electric Fields Generated by Weakly Electric Fish," JOURN.. COMP. PHYSIOL., Vol 99, 1975, pp 103-118): Field potentials are indicated horizontally in uv on the equipotential lines corresponding to them. Field intensities are indicated vertically in uw/cm near the vectors associated with them. Al1 weakly electric and many strongly electric species have electroreceptors exhi.bit- inS high electric sensitivity. Z'hey evolved fxom fisla lateral line organs, and they are situated in the skin, communicating to the body surface through pores. ~ 10 FOR OFFICIAL USr ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500024442-2 FOR OFFICtAL USE ONLY Ttieir density is usually greatest in the anterior parts of the body and the head. In terms of their physiological properfi.ie~, elactroreceptors are divided into two basic types--tonic and phasal. Tonic electroreceptors adapt slowly, and they are sensitive to low frequency electric fields in the 0.5-20 Sz range. Receptors of this type have also been found among both freshwater and marine electric fish, as well as among some nonelectric species. Phasal electroreceptors have b~en found only in freshwater weakly electric sgecies and in the electric eel. These quickly adapting high frequency receptors exhi.bit their greatest sensitivity in the - 60-2,000 Hz range--that is, in the frequency range of electric organ discharges. The joint operation of electric organs and electroreceptors of weakly electric fish supports electrolocation and electrocommunication functions. Because tonic electroreceptors are insensitive to the discharges of electric organs, their basic purpcse is apparently associated with so-called passive location and orientation-- tha~ is, with registration of external electric fields of biotic and abiotic origin. - The ways fish use their bioelectric fields in their vital activities are diagramed below (Diagram 1). Diagram 1 Fish Bioelectric Fields Power Applications Signals - For For For For For Maintenance Attack Defense Location Communication of School Inteqrity Interspecific ~ Defensive and Intraspecific Feeding Territorial Int~r- Group sexual Modeling Electrocommunication Systems The principal carrier frequencies of the discharges of the electric organs of weakly electric fish are species-specific as a rule, and therefore we can hypothesize that electric fields are used by fish mainly for intraspecific com�nunication. Experi- ments have demonstrated the existence of electroco~t?unication in a large number of weakly electric fish, anci that such communication has dominant significana~'a in sexual and territorial mutual relationships. The range of electrocomatro,nication detected by R. Bauer in experiments with a 15 cm long C~i2athonemus peteraii is 11 ~ FOR OEFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500020002-2 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 30 cm, which agrees with the th.~oretical estimate of this value for most weakly electric species. Inv~estigation of fish electrocommunication requires thorough physicotechnical analysis of close electromagnetic low frequency commnunication in conducting media. ~ Without clear physicotechnical premises, we cannot perform conepetent experiments, theoretically predict the possibilities of fish electrocommunication systems, re- veal the mechanisms of their operation, adequately describe the paratneters of electrocommunication systems, and assess their optiunum paramPters from different points of view. Moreover it would doubtlessly be interesting to develop electro- conductive communication devices of direct practical significance. From a fiistori- - cal standpoint, most pioneering efforts in thi$ direction were started under the influence of ideas suggested in the biological literature. Examining the problems associated with short-range underwater electrocommunication, ' we should distinguish the following physicotechnieal aspects: propagation of electromagnetic fields in oonducting media; effectiveness of trans- mitting and receiving antennas, and matching antennas to the apparatus; factors restricting transmission and reception possibilities; desi~n of the system as a whole--selection of the operating frequency a~nd type of modulation, estimation of the range and dependability of communication in relation to given overall dimensions of the apparatus and its power supply possibilities, and so on. Let us examine these problems briefly. Propaqation In most technical situations, the required ranges of communication significantly exceed the necessary depths of communication. It would be advantageous in this - case to select the working frequency of communication such that the electromagnet:~c _ signals would propagate as a so-called "surface wave", which may be arbitraxily imagined as a signal propagating upward from its source to the water surface, then through air along the surface and, finally, downward through water to the receiver. _ The nature of propagation is basically defined as the product of two terms: 1 , ~ and e o , where r--range of cornmunication, z+h--total depth of communication~, 8--magnitude of _ skin layer in water. Approximations describing propac~atian of an electromagnetic field in practically all real comanunication situations have been published.* * Bannister, P. R., "Quasi-Static Fields of Dipole Antennas at the Earth's Surface," RADIO SCI., Vol 1, No 11, 1966, pp 1321-133Q; Kraichman, M. B., "Handbook of Electromagnetic Propagation in Conducting Media," NAVMAT, 1970. 12 - FaR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFI('IAL t1SF. ONLY In bio~ogical and so:~e technical applicat~~ns, meanwhile, the surface wave assump- , tion (the assumption that the total depth of the source and receiver is much less than the range of communication) is unacceptabl,e. In these cases the simplest approxi.mati~n is used in tYle estimates as a rule--equations for the field of a dipole source in a boundless, uniform conducting medium. In a conducting medium (in distinction from dielectric medi:a), the polar diagrams of a dipole source may be plotted only on the condition that the orientation of the receiving antenna is determined. The receiver's polar diagram may also be plotted only on the condition that the coordinates of the reception point relative to the source and the magnitude of the skin layer at the operating frequencies in water are given. At ranges from the source commensurate with the magnitude of the skin layer in water, elliptical polarization of the electric field's intensity vector is significant, and the polar diagram does not possess a zero point, no matter what the orientation of the receiving dipole antenna in the polarization plane. Assessment of Antenna Effectiveness An electric dipole source can be fully described by the dipole moment IZ. If we represent IZ as _ Ic-~ Ipl .t-ya~N. 2~ where P--power, z--total impedance, and Z--e~fective antenna length, coefficient _ ae = Z2/(Ize~) may be used as a measure of the effectiveness of an electric dipole antenna: Of two ia.entically situated and identically oriented antennas of equal power, that having the greater ae will emit the greater signal at any distaat point. If the class of antennas is giuen, we can optimize them--that is, we can find the - antenna with the greatest ae. For example in the class of dipole antennas with a fixed total length L, those antennas having electrodes with longitudinal dimensions on the order of 1/3L are optimum. ~ ae may be increased by glacing an insert made from insulating or fully conducting material between the el~ctrodes. Tnis raises the effective length of the antenna. ae may be used to assess the effectivenESS of dipole antex~nas in terms of not only emission but also reception: The greater ae is, the greatEr is the signal to noise ratio. However, this is valid only if two conditions are observed: - the length of the receiving antenna is much less than the range of communication; The sensitivity of the receiver depends on the antenna's thermal noise, and not _ some other factors (for example the level of atmospheric disturbances). 13 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 ~ H'OR nFH'1('lAl. ll~i~: 11N1.Y - There are many practical situations in which the~e con@~tions are not satisfie3. Such situations require development of ways to suppress o�stside interference; therefore it would be suitable to use multi-electrode antennas, which would require subsequ~ent correlation processing of th e recorded potentials (recall that the number of electroreceptors in fish is very large). Multi-el~ctrode antennas require a funda- mentally new approach to assessment of the effectiveness of rece~ving antennas. Developing such an approach is a prESSing prok;iem of engineering and bionics. The Electromagnetic Background Z'he electromagnetic background in water is the product of sources of different origins (Diagram 2). Each component in the diagram may domi.nate under certain con- ditions. However, at the frequencies used for underwater electrocommunication, fields produced by thunderstorms (atmospheric disturbances) are dominant as a rule. A large niunber of papers devoted to them not only cite experimental data but also thoroughly a:~alyze the origin and propagation of atmospheric disturbances.* A knowledge of the theory of atmQSpheric disturbances pernu.ts us to approximate experimentally measured levels and spectrums at other depths, explain the temporal and spatial features of the background, and predict the unique features of the given region. It is i.mportant to study the electromagnetic background both from the standpoint of practical engineering problems and from the standpoint of biological problems (electro-ecological in particular). Investigation of fields of biologi- cal origin is an important part of the study of electromagnetic fields in water. The Design of Concrete Electrocommunication Systems In contrast to the situation with most known communication systems (radio, acoustic, optical?, the desi.gn and parameters of underwater electrocomnunication devices - depend to a significant extent on tha concrete applicatian, and, as a rule, if communication is to be maintained with a different object, a new device of a differ- ent sort would have to be developed. nesigning such devices entails determining , the coirnnunication fr~quency (f), signal intensi.ty (E~) at the reception point re- quired f~r communication, and transmitt~�r power (P); the most suitable types and designs of antennas are revealed, and their ae are computed. If the particular communication problem is fundaYnentally soluble, the dependability of communication may be assessed with a consideration for the possible mutual orientations of the transmitting and receiving antennas. The computations are usually made in several stages, in each of which the values of the parameters and the desiqns a.r.P ^.a~rowed down more specifically. We will go through t`~e motions of making a tentative assessment of the operating frequency of communication as an illustration of the whole computation process. Because there is an exp~nential term in the equations for propagation in a con- ducting medium, elect:~magnetic communication is impossible at frequencies at which * M3Xwe11~ E. L.~ "AtmOSpheY'1.C NOl.s2 From 20 HZ t0 30 kHZ~" JOURN. RES. NBS~ VO1 2~ I1o 6, 1957. 14 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY , APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ' FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI.Y I Diagram 2 Sources of Electric Fields in an Aquatic Envirorunent I. Abiotic Sources Telluric and Diffusion Convection Fields of Thunder- Induction Sea Swell Suspension storm Origin (At- = Currents Currents Currents Currents mospheric Distur-� bances) _ II. ' Biot.i~ Sources Strongly Weakly Lone Nonelectric Schools of Accumulations Electric Electric Fish and Some Nonelectric of Zoo- and - Fish Fi~h and Other Aquatic Fish Phytoplankton Their Schools Organisms III. - Anthropogenic Sources High-Power Electric Power Electric Fish Electric Superlo~a Radio Sets, Transmission Traps Reconnaissance Frequency ~tadar Sets, Lines Electro- Direction com�nunication Finders and Electro- navigation Systems the de~th of the skin layer in the medium is significantly lower than the range o~ communication (or, in the case of a surface wave, lower than the tatal depth of the source and receiver). ' On the other hand the low information content typicai of cotmnunication at low fre- quencies and the usually observed decr~ase in the level of the electromagnetic - 15 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FnR nFf~i('lAi. li,~H: (1N1.V background in water in response to growth in frequency indicate to us that it would be unsuitable to use frequencies.so low that the depth of th~ slein Iayer in the - medium would significantly exceed the range of commuxiicat~.on (or, corrPSpondingly, thP total depth of the source and rec~iver). Consequently it would be suitable to ;~elect the operating frequency such thafi. the maximum communication range would be er;uivalent to several (three to five for example) skin layers in water. Correspondingly, in the case of a surface wave the operating frequency must be such that the total depth of the receiving and transmitting apparatus would be equivalent to two or three skin layers. Thus if commands must be transmitted from a vessel t~ fishing gear located up to 400 meters below the surface in ocean water, the specific electroconductivity of which is 4 ohm'1 m-1, then, considering that a skin layer of 100 meters corresponds here to a frequency of 18 Hz, we can reco~nd this frequency as the one to be used. In addition to these considerations, when selecting the operating frequency of - communication we also accot~nt for the nature of the signa]. (for example, speech), the need for suppressing the industrial frequency (50 or 60 Hz) and its harmonics, and the possibilities and convenience of practical realization of the device. - Thus if we are dealir.~- with weakly electric fish commun~cating in fresh water (the specific electroconductivity of which is about 10-i ohm-1 m'1) at ranges on the order of several meters, frequencies on the or:der of hundreds o� N~iz would be the most advantageous. F~ut the known frequency rttnge used by weakly electric fish does not exceed units of kH z, which is app~.rently associated wa.th the difficulties of achieving high frequencies in biological structures. We computed the parameters for several concrete systems on the basis of these considerations. They included ~~:~ipboard device to control apparatus mounted on a trawl (Figure 2), ' a system permitting com�nunication among SCUBA divers (Figure 3), and "shore-to- water" and "water-to-air" communication systems. Z'he computation results were checked out by natural experi.ments conducted in the Sea of Japan. The parameters of the systems are presented below. For the shipboard device controlling apparatus mounted on a trawl: communication range--1 km,.depth--up to 400 meters, operating frequencies--10-16 Hz, dipole moment--10,000 amp�m. For electrocommunicdtion between SCUBA divers: communicati~n range--70 meters, depth--up to 50 meters, operating frequenci.es--300 Hz to 2 kHz, dipole r.ioment-- 2 amp�m. For"water-tu-air" co~nunication: commun.ication range--200 meters, transmitter - depth--50 meters, altitude of reception point--70 meters, communication frequency-- 300 Hz, dipole moment--7.5 amp�m. For "shore-to-water" communication: commu:aication range--2 km, communication depth--50 meters, working frequencies--16 Hz to 2 kHz, dij''ole moment--1,000 amp�m. These devices are now being introduced for practical use. ~ 16 - FOR OFFIGIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FnR O~'FI('IAI, l1fiF (1Ni,Y 0 000 1 . - lQBTyNN / ~ ' Ha6enb-Tpoc (2~ 6yHCHpyeMaN sneMTpoA ~ 3A8MTPOQd I~IPY.LiINNM f~) (5) Figure 2. Shipboard Device Controlliny Apparatus Mounted on a Trawl K,ey : 1. Transmitter 4. Electrodes 2. Cable 5. Receiver 3. Towed electrode 2- - - - - - - - - - - _ ~ - - _ - - - - - _ - - 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .1. - - - - - - - - - - ' t~Z' - _ - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - Figure 3. Electrocommunication Bztween SCUBA Divers: 1--apparatus, ~ 2--leg-mounted electrode, 3--shoulder-mounted electrode 17 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Discussing the prospects and limitations of bionic modeling of fish electro- co~nunication systems, we should point out the following basic differences between ~ these systems a.nd the undenuater electrocoiranunication devices known to3ay. Biological electrocommunication involves 3istances commensurate with the di.mension~ of the object imTolved. At the location of a receiving partner, the electric field is significantly nonuniform, and it is picked up by a large quantity of electroreceptors located all over the body of the fish. In a technical application, meanwhile, communication entails distances significantly exceeding the dimensions of the object involved,. the field near the receiving partner is quasiuniform, and the signal is picked up by dipale antennas. Fuller uti_lization of the spatial structure of a signal and interferenr.e, and transition to dipole antennas from ~ multi-electrode receivers woulci be promising from the standpoin~ of solving the most important problems of underwater electrocommunication, such as raising the information content of communication, raising the signal to noise ratio, improving electromagnetic compatibility, and improving interaction with other systems , (electric lncation and orientation systems). ~ On the other hand, in distinction from the situation in the biological world, ~ technical applications permit the use of components with specific electroconduc- tivity significantly exceeding the specific electroconductivity of water---components = made of superconducting metals. Such components make it possible to employ con- - cepts that are inapplicable to living nature--that is, ones outside the scope of bionic ros~deling. Modeling Electrolocation Systems Active electrolocation is defined as registering changes in the electric field produce3 by weakly electric fish dse to distortion of this field by objects characterized by conductivity di.fferent from the conductivity of ~the surrounding medium. Almost all known weakly electric fish of both wave and pulsating species have an electrolocation capability. It should be noted in this ca,se that the two basic taxonomic groups of weakly electric fish--African Mormyriformes and South American gymnotids--reside in the turbid waters of rivers and streams. The capability for detectxng and discriminating between objects by means of an electric field is a remarkable adaptation of a livixig organism to an environment in which conventional visual erientation is difficult and often impossible. This is precisely why a fish's electx~olocation system~ which to some extent substitutes , for the animal's vision, represents a new sensory system--"electrovision". The electrolocation function was first discovered in 1958 by G. Lissmann and K. Meychin in a representative of the African Nbrmyriformes, Gt~r~max~hus p2Zot2ezt8. Using a conditioned reflex technia~~~, the scientists revealed that the fish are capable of d~_ inguishing between metal.lic and dielectric objects enclosed in porous cases, and distinguishing between fresh and salt water contained in these cases. It wa:~ also demonstrated that the distri.bution of the potential of the electric fie13 on the surface of the fish's skin, created by electric organ dis- charges, becoiles distorted when objects having electrocond~ctivity different from that of water come near the fish body. It was hypothesized that channel-like structures located in the skin--mormyromasts--are responsible for picking up 18 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 - t'i~x: (~1�'1'tt'FAF ! ~41~ ei`~'i ~ thus~ ~1.LS~v~ti~us, ai~cl thus that thc:y ar~ electroreceptors--a new class of sensory units discovered among repres~ntatives of the animal world. Numerous studies sub- sequ~ntly performed*in this direction were devoted to the physiology and morpholoqy of elec~roreceptors and electric organs, as well as to the principles and mechanisms of their joint work. t 3 3 ; . ' ~ ' ~ 5 ~ ~ ~ 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 8 4 Figure 4. Active Electrolocation: 1--central nervous system~ 2--electric organ command (triggering) center, 3--electroreceptors, 4--electric organ, S--object of detection, 6--electric field - flux lines Figure 4 provides a c,eneral diagramatic approximation of active electrolocat~on. The field generated by the electric organ and distortions within it are picked up by phasal electroreceptors located in the fish's skin (the density of electro- receptors in ~~ome species attains 80 per square millimeter). Then information is successively transmitted by a system of nerve tracts to different divisions of the central nervous system. In addition to processing signals structurally associated with the lateral lobes of the medulla oblongata, the central nervous system monitors the work of the command center controlling the electric organ. There are intra- ' central associations directly associated with the elECtrolocation function . One of them manifests itself as avoidance of jamming signals by changing the fundamental carrier frequency of the electric organ's discharges. - Electroreceptor sys::ems participating in active location must react in the best way possible not to the electric field itself but to changes within it, thus manifesting a capability for so-called rela~ive sensitivity. Z"he general functional character- istics of any electroreceptor are: ~ passive conduction of electric c~irrent through the tissues of the electroreceptor to the ~urface of the receptor cell; *Bennett, M. V. L., "Electric Organs. Electroreception," in Hoar, W. S., and Randall, ~ D. J. (Editors), "Fish Physiology," New York, 1971; Protasov, V. R., "Bioelektri- cheskiye polya v zhizni ryb "[Bioelectric Fields in the Lif~ of Fish], Moscow, 1972; Heiligenberg, W., "Principles of Electrolocation and Jammi.ng Avo~dance in Electric Fish," Berlin-Heidelberg-New Xork, Springer-Verlag, 1977. 19 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ~NLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500024442-2 F(1R l1FI~'I('lAl. 1?~~. ONl.\' the activity of the receptor cell itself~, e.cpressing itself as generation of a � reception potential and synaptic transmission af a stimulus tc~ nerve endings; the capability for encoding signals in a form convenient for subsequent transmission by an afferent fiber. - An adequate stimulus acting upon a receptor would consist of a potential difference - between the opening of the receptor pore on the skin surface and the basal metnbrane of the receptor cell. T'he mechanism of action of the receptor is as follows: Current geiierated either r~ an outside source or by the electric organ itself first _ passes.through th~~ highly conductive tissues of the channel, and then through the apic~l nonconductive membrane of the receptor cell, which acts as a high frequency filter, and through the basal membrane. If the voltage drop across it reaches the absolute threshold, the cell generates a regenerative receptor potential, which is responsible for activation of the nerve fiber innervating the cell. This activity carries information on gradual changes in the electric current p.assing through the receptor, and it is responsible for one.of the types of codes carried by the fi.ber. Mention should be made of the great diversity of information encoding methods (four or five basic types are conditionally distinc~uished) correlating approx~mate'ly with this type of electroreceptor. The advantages of a particular type of encoding used by fish are to a great extent hypothetical, though they are discussed in ~ ~etail in many papers. Incidentally, the large number of functional types of electroreceptor units is obviously associated with the need for differentiating their properties so as to permit their use in electrolocation and electrocommunica- tion. In this case even r~ceptor units intended solely for location are character- ized by different adaptat:.on times in relation to a varying stiunulus, which indi- cates that they are predisposed for detecting either motionless or moving objects. Some phasal electroreceptors (the T-units of gymnotids) exhibit so-called phasal sensitivity--that is, they respond differetitly to sti:nuli, producing either an . ohmic or a capacitive load of the same impedance. 7.'his is believed to ve associated ~ with the capability fish have for identifying plant and animal objects which, as we know, have significant capacitive properties. - Electrosensory inf~rmation undergoes primary processing in the lateral lobes of the medulla oblongata, when si.qnals from a tremendous number of receptors covering the entire surface of the animal's body experience temporal and spatial integra- tion. Just at the level of the lateral lobes, a fish's sensitivity to objec~s rises by about one order of magnitude in comparison with tYie sensitivity of a single electroreceptor, which agrees with data from conditioned reflex experiments performed to determine the threshold sensitivity of fish. We can condition~lly distinguish two directions in contemp~rary research on fish ` electrolocation systems. The first concerns itself with the spatial aspects of electrolocation and deals with the follow~ng problems: investigation and numerical modeling of the geometry of fields generated by electric organs, and fields associated with introduced objects; study of the spatial orientation of the electroreceptors with the purpose of re- vealing how important it is to assessment of the dimensions of an object and the range to it, and to precise determiiiation of the object's conductive properties. 20 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2447/02/09: CIA-RDP82-44850R444544424442-2 FOR nFFI('IA1. 11.CF 11N1,Y _ The second direction is associated with the temporal aspects of electrolocation. - It deals with the following problems: clarification of the way t.he rate or frequency of eleetric organ discharge affects whether or not the electrolocation system is optimtm~; investigation of the ways and means of functional differentiation of electro- receptor uni~s perniitting their simultaneous participation in electrolocation, ~ using a single processing center in this case; study of the electrolocation capability of fish in the presence of noise. - ~ne advances that have bPen made in both directions provide a sufficiently full impr..ssion of the general peripheral phenomenology of fish electrolocation systems, and thus allow us to construct its ~ionic model. It is also obvious that further study of the mechanisms and principles of inforn~.ation processing in the central nervous system will make it possi.ble to significantly update this model. In its physical interpretatxon, the problem of modeling fish electrolocation systems boils down to building an electrolocation system which can detect an object on the basis of the amount of distortion it creates in the primary electric field, and to seeking optimum circuits for the emitting and receiving cievices. For practical purposes this problem should be divided into two. 2'he fixst con- cerr.s close-range electrolocation, or "electrovision", which permits detailed identification oi the object, to include its structure, shape, and dimensions. - Certain advances have already been made in this direction in our country by A. I. Bondarchilc (Minsk Radiotechnical Institute), but the resolution of his system is satisfactory only when the array of ineasuring electrodes is located right aext to the object. The second problem, which will be examined below, con- sists of building a model capable of detecting objects at greater range. The first step in this problem is to try ta formalize the basic principle of electrolocation, so as to permit sensitive assessment of the object size which the m4dt1 could de- - tect and the ranges within which it can function. Simple mathematical expressions may be obtained, for example, for the case of a metal ball located within the field of a dipole emitter (Figure 5). If the = distance d from the emitter to the object is much greater than the length Z of the ~ dxpole and the diameter 2a of the ball being detected, a dipole approximation may - be used to describe the field of the emitter, and near the object the field itself may be assumed to be uniform. If, moreover, the object is located orl the axis of the emitting dipole, then the intensity of the distorting field at the location - of the emitting antenna is 11 a' . Ei = 'Lrcol ' d6 ' . In order to register the maximum difference of potentials, the measuring electrodes must obviously be located as far apart as possible. But because the entire 21 F~I2 OFF[CIAL U~E ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 1~(1R nFl~i('IA1. llltil~: ONI.Y electrolocation model must obviously be contained within the same carrier and occupy a limited volume, the maxi.mum spread between the measuring electrodes would - have to be limited to the length Z of the emitting dipole. In this case the maximum potential difference bearing information about the ~bjeat is QaI~ . pl = ~ 2~1d~ ' ' Thus if prior to introduc*_ion of the object the potential difference at the emitting electrodes was U(assuming no change in current), then after the objec~ is introduced, we observe an ,increment in the potential difference across the electrodes, U1, which depends on the dimensions of the object and the distance to it. It is easy to see that the term -aal~ 2na,d� has electric resistance as its unit, and th.e inclusion of an object in the circuit of the emitting electrode changes the external load R, defined by the value of interelectxode resistance, by the amount a~l~ f dR = 2n~1 ' d� ' Simi.lar expressions may be obtained for any soli8 having a shape different from spherical. C az 1~ d e ~B I A � E;I ~ Figure 5. Emitting ElECtrodes A and B, Separated by Distance L, are Contained in the Circuit of a Generator With an emf of E: I--current in the emitting circuit; a spherical object of detection with radius a and its center at point C is separated from the emitting dipole by distance d; 0--angle between dipole axis and a radius-vector extended from the center of the dipole to point C; al, a2--specific electroconductivity of the medium ar~d the object 22 FOR OFFICiAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY In addition to a useful component bearing information on the object, dR would also include all sorts of noise-producing fluctuations in electric resistance. Z'hey include: F~uctuations in interelectrode resistance occurring due to temperature changes _ in the mediinn, changes in salinity, and so on; noise-caused changes in electrode resistznce assor.iated with instability of the double elec~ric layer and fluctuations of electric potential; noise produced by the motion of water masses, particul~rly by waves on the water ~ surface. ; The expression for U may thus be rewritten as: , ~ a,l~ 1 , Vi = ~ ( 2nald' + dR I / ' i ' ~ where dR' represents the total noise-caused fluctuations of impedance. In this , case the maximum possible electrolocation range would be defined by the ratio dR/dR', and it would not be.affected by an increase in the power of the system, ~ as is the case in electrocommunication. In order to plan and tentatively assess i the possibilities of an electrolocation system, we would need to know the values ~ of all known noise parameters, and account for them. I One of the first systems based on this principle is a highly simple electrolocation system* intended for installation aboard small vessels and yachts. Such a system is capable of detecting underwater obstacles within a range equi.valent to 1.5-3 vessel lengths, and determining the direction of their movement. Research aimed at improving this electrolocation system involves theoretical and experiment~l determination of all noise components. From the design aspect, this means seeking optimum electrode systems characterized by minimum impedance fluctua- ' zions. - As far as the prospects of bionic modeling of fish electric systems in general are ~ concerned, electrocommunication models are now the nearest to immediate practical - use in this vast area, and the most enticing direction is that of creating '�electro- vision", which would have great significance iiot only to engineering but also to biology, cybernetics, and medicine. * See Swain, W. H., "An Electric Field Aid to Underwater Navigation" in "IEEE Int. r Conf. on Engineering in Ocean Environment. Panana, Florida," Vol 1, 1970, pp 122-124. CO1'YRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1981 . 11004 - CSO: 1840/161 .c~~`~ 23 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FUR Oh'~'1~'IAL U~~: UlVLY . ; CYBERNETIC APPROACH TO MAN-MACHINE INTERACTION ANI+yYZED Moscow MYSHLENIYE CHETAVEKA I PERERABOTKA INFORMATSII EVM in Russian 1980 (signed to press 20 Jun 80) pp 2-16, 288 [~lnnotation, table of contents, and introductory article by Academician A. I. Berg, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences B. V. Bivyukov, and Doctor of Psychological Sciences N. I. Zhinkin from book "Human Thinking and Computer Information Pro- cessing", by Samuil Iosifovich Shapiro, Izdatel'stvo "Sovetskoye radio", 8,000 copies, 288 pages] [Text] Z'his monograph is devoted to human thinking and its relationship to com- puter programming, and to joint work with a computer in mutually advantageous dialogue. Another aspect of the book has to do with computer simulation of indivi- dual fragments of the thinking process with the purpose of identifying its laws. - Zfiis book is intended for psychdlogists, educators, mathematicians, cyberneticists, and specialists in artificial intelligence. Contents Page Man and Computer: Simulation of Thinking and Man-Machine Dialogue 3 ~ From the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1. Problems in Thinking Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 , 1. Man and Computer in a Control System (19). 2. Problem Solution by Man and Computer (22). 3. Models in Mathematics and _ and Applied Sciences (24). 4. The Logical Operator Nbdel (LOM). Research Tasks ;27). 5. The Single-Channel Nature of Conscious- ness (29). 6. Logical-Psychological Coordinates (LPC) (36). 7. LPC in Learning (39). ~ . 2. Logical-Psychological Coordinates in Human Decisions and Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 1. The "Revolving Barrel" Problem. LPC's for Excluding , Repetitions and Minimizing Distance to Gual (41). 2. Informa- tion Coding by Man and Computer. The "Tianoi Tower" Problem (53) . 3. The "Path Game" Problem (671 . 4. Mechanisms of Concept Recognition by Man and Computer (77). 5. Man Evaluates a Situation (83). 24 FOR OFFlC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY _ 3. Man and Computer in Goal Tree Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 93 1. The Derivability Problem. LPC's in Goal Tree Problems (93). 2. Limitation of the Goal Tree by Logical Coordinates (98). 3. 2'he "13th Labor of Heracles" Problem (Continuation) (113). 4. Solution of Logical Problems by Man (120). 5. Optimizing Computer Programs by Means of Psychological Coordina~es (125). ~ 4. Man and Computer in Dial~ogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 135 1. The Permutations Problem. Initiation of Dialogue. Individual Psychological Features of Man (135). 2. The - "Visible Squares" Maze Problem. The Dialogue Continues (148). 3. The "Alliance" of Computer and Man in Solution of Topological Problems (153). 4. Z"he Computer "Uses" _ Man's Psychological Coordinates (163). 5. Problems Asso- ciated With Filling in Numbers in Arithmetic Operations (168) . 5. Assessment Functions in Human Thinking and Computer Programs 181 . 1. The "Game-8" Problem (181). 2. Comparison of the Methods and Results of Solution Organization by Man and Computer (188). 3. Ordering Numerical Arrays by Man and Computer (194). The Theoretical Information Model of the Ordering Problem (TIM) (202). An Experiment With Man, Computer, and TIt~ (209). 6. Z'he Computer in the Psychological Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 1. "Voting" Programs (223). 2. Taxonomic Programs (226). , 3. Taxonomy in Different Metric Spaces (238). 4. Taxonomic Programs in the Psychological Experiment (245). Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Man and Computer: Simulation of Thinking and Man-Machine Dialogue As we know, the main objective of cybernetics is to study the mechanisms by which intricate dynamic systems are controlled--information-logical mechanisms primarily. In two ways, this objective is inseparably associated with th? "human factor". First, man's participation is a distinguishing trait of a broad spectrum of such systems ' (in engineering and technology, in economics, in communications, in military affairs, and so on) (sometimes referred to as "htmianistic" systems) ; this trait of intricate systems ~ is closely associated with the modern scientific-revolution, typified by growth in ; the importance of intellectual labor in all spheres of culture, in the broad inter- pretation of this word. Second, control of intricate dynamic systems, optimization ~ of which is the principal aim of cybernetics, has the goal of raising the effective- ' ness of k:uman activity. Considering that the scale and rate of processes and systems that must be controlled are ranging ever-further beyond the "natural" possibilities ~ of human intelligence, automation of a number of intellectual procedures on the basis - ~ of the ideas and resources of cybernetics (as well as mathematics and logic) is be- coming an acute necessity. , 25 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFIC[AL U5E UNLY The problem of broadening the possibilities for cognitive and practical control activity by creating "cybernetic amplifiers" of the human brain requires that wE conduct intense inte3rated research at tne interface of cybernetics, psychology, and logic. 2'his is a grandiose problem, apparently much more so in its complexity than that of describing physics in mathematical terms--a problem which has been addressed since the times of Kepler and Newton. Z'he reason for this lies in the fact that solution of this problem depends on progress in cybernetic simula- . tion of perception and thinking, and on advances in psychological analysis of those phenomena which characterize man's internal world. This is so because we would - first need to understand the nature of these processes and phenomena, their course, and their properties before we can repr~duce certain manifestations of these processes and phenomena with modern computers. At the dawn of cybernetics, it seemed to some scientists that simple application � of mathematical methods and the resources of cybernetics to the area of intelligence would insure success in discovering the "secrets of thinking". The work of the brain began to be interpreted as operation of a giant computer, and it seemed that this nc~tion, which was theoretically grounded by the concepts of information and algor~thms, model and feedback, and so on, was in and of itself a guarant~e of success. But one of the founders of cybernetics, Claude Shannon, himself warned in 1956, in connection with the "information fad", that the premises of information theory would not be intrinsically productive in psychology.l They might turn out to be productive, but if this is to be so, then we would need to meticulously study the appropriate factual material, interpreting it from a new point of view. It is now fully recognized that a knowledge of mathematics and logic and use of the hardware of cybernetics cannot compensate for insufficient knowledge of the essence of the processes to which the new theoretical and technical resources are applied. Nbreover these resources are still a long way from taking full account of the "human factor": The "cybernetic paradox" of our times is that while man has ~ invested the computer with that which is not inherent to his own "information pro- - cessi.ng" apparatus--high speed in successi.ve performance of elementary operations leading to solution of computation problems, a speed beyond the reach of the "natural" human computer, he has not imparted that which is specifically "human" to the computer--wisdom, int~~ligence, thinking, and recognition. Human thought, which has created so many things in the world of sciance--from a model of the gene - to pictures of the boundless universe, itself remains dramatically incomprehensible: Our scientific knowledge of the intimate mechanisms of the mind, of the ?aws of human behavior, and of the essence of the processes by which man solves complex problems and learns, is still extremely incomplete, and in many instances fragmentary, and most importantly, in terms of its determinacy, the language of this knowledge is far from that of that ideal scientific rigorousness which has evolved in mathematics and logic and which expresses itself practically in computer programs.used in the processing of digital an~ symbolic information. Thus it is no surprise that the notion, which r,ame into L ing back in the 1950's, of making computer operations and complexes of operations analogous to corresponding acts of human behavior,continues to be an unreachable goal---even despite the fact that the intensity of efforts in this area is growing. As Bongard validly noted in his i:ime, the reason for this lies in the shortcomings of the idea "of the means for devising programs with which to simulate complex human behavior".2 The reason for this is that modern experiments in computer simulation of intellectual processes and solutian of complex "noncomputa- tional" problems are compelled to borrow from man's "experience" of perception and 26 FOR OIFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY thinking, and reproduce, in computer programs, only some elementary mPthods of - human actions. 'I'he fact remains, however, that cybernetics has graphically demonstrated that it is possible to describe a number of aspects of intellectual and cognitive activity in formal terms. Although there is still much t:~at is unclear and debatable in the prospects and li.mits of such foxmal description, one thing cannot be~doubted: The bounds of "humari" attributes that can be invested into a computer, though they - may not embrace the latter in their "entirety", will continue to expand more and more. Researchers attempting to envision the boundari2s af cybernetic simulation of intellectual procedures sometimes cite the limitations of logical formal description, as follows from Godel's well known theorems suggesting that our rather substantial scientific theories, beginning with the arithmetic of natural nu[nbers, are incomplete, and that it is impossible to prove the consistency of such formal- ized systems by the resources formalized by these systems themselves. Such suggestions must be approached with great caution, since describing the rules of human behavior in complex problem solving in formal terms is not the same thing as describing an arithmetic axiom in formal terms. But inasmuch as some ~ real methods by which people reason can be expressed by the machinery of matkie- matical logic and formal arithmetic, Godel's results are an indirect argument in favor of the impossibility of "infinitely complete" formal desc�ription of perception and thinking--this is true even despite the fact that at the moment no one is able to indicate the "upper boundary" of the corresponding achievements of cybernetics.3 However, sticking with the facts, we would have to assert that mr~re and more forms of human intellectual labor are being transferred to the computer. It would be an obvious mistake to interpret reproductions of certain manifestations of the mind in model form--as computer programs--as transgressions upon the "purity" of ~sychological science, upon the object of psychology, or to interpret this as "substitution", by cybernetics and mathematics, of the psycholoqical methods of studying the phenomena of perception, thinking, memory, and learning. To reason this way would mean viewing "descriptiveness", which is in many ways still inherent to psychological research, as sometimes positive in psychology as a science. In fact, "descriptiveness" and "analytical rigorousness" are not opposites in scientific thought--they are only different stages of development typical of one science or - another. Every science, ever? mathematics, begins with ''simple descriptions" in order that it could subsequently rise to theoretical generali.zations. For many sciences, this ascent turns out to be associated with the use of the machinery of analytical formulas. This is true not only for mathematics but also physics, and not only logic but also psychology. Logic rose to the matliematical level in the ~ latter half of the past century, while psychology is experiencing this metamorphosis today. The analytical method was part and parcel of all aspects of logic: In logic, that which is theoretical is inseparable from that which is described in formal mathematical terms. Not being a deductive science, psychology could t~.~ver become similar to logic in this respect. To it, mathematics will apparently always be a modeling tool, which will consequently presuppose presence of a vast library of empirical knowledge on the behavioral and psychological side of man. 27 EOR ~FFICIAL i'~E ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 1~'UK Uh'N1(;IAL UJ(~: U~1LY The mathematization of psychology is a difficult process, inasmuch as we are dealing with penetration of the ideas and methods of mathematics and cybernetics into areas that are far removed from the ideal of "rigorousness" and "constructiveness" which mathematics and logic have brought into being, and which cybernetics has assi.milated. Bellman was right when he wrote: "Classical mathematics is base.d on methods re- quiring complete universality.... In the course of its evolution, the brain , arrived at methods of operation which are 'correct' only in general terms, ar.3 w;~ich are not at all 'rigorous'."4 Development of "mathematical psychology" would be possible only on the basis of integrated research conducted at the interface of psychological knowledge with cybernetics on one hand and mathematics and logic on the other. This research, it would seem, must be based on a unique compromise: "relaxing" the ideal af - precision with the goal of bringing it closer to the "imprecision" of human , thinking, learnir.~g, and understanding. We know that usage of ioos:=;ly defined (indistinct, fuzzy) concepts and sets plays an important role in man's .~:agnitive activity and in his practical, orientational and controlling activity. If a concept is strictly defined, and if a set is dis- - tinct, then for each object in relation to ~�hich it would make sense to raise the question as to its membership within this set, we could answer this question by an "either-or" approach: The object either belongs to the given set (it falls within the strictly defined concept), or it does not belong. But when we :?eal with in- distinct sets, we can refer not only to (total) membership and (total) nonmembership of an element in a set, but also to different degrees of inembership. Formalization of this interpretation of the relationship between particular objects and fuzzy concepts led to development of the cybernetic theory of fuzzy sets and algorithms;5 in this case, fuzzy algorithms have found their natural place on tne "scale of algorithmicity", being a"transitory form" between structures of the algorithmic type and structures of heuristic nature.6 Although the ideas of "fuz~y ~ogic" hact ~i.:.sen in mathematics before t'~^~~ ?id so in cybernetics (an example is the description given at the beginning of our century of the so-called sieve of Brun4--a generalization of the well-known sieve ' of EratosthenPS--making it possible to select, from the set of natural members, those which are prime or "al~r,ost" prime) and in logic (in particular, in co;~nection with the theories of multivalent and infinite-valent logic, developed in the 1920's), the ideas of precise handling of imprecise ideas on the basis of a special "logic of nonri~orous objects arose mainly in response to the need for modeling complex and ~~humanistic" systems. This ~an be explained by the fact that models containing fuzzy sets and algorithms of the same sort may be used successfully to describe processes and systems, for which the application of the conventional formal terms of mathematics and logic (ones reproducing the world through spatially defined con- cepts and rigid constructs) would not be very effective. In this case, the proper- ties of such systems yield to analysis by fully rigorous methods. Development of "fuzziness" theories is one of the manifestations of the growing effort to apply formal mathematics and logic to man, which is a product of the in- fluence o� cybernetics and the need for simulating intellectual processes.~ But - of course, this is not the only manifestation. Others we can name include the obvious yearning to account for, in "precise knowledge", the contradictory phenomena of htunan thinking (note in this connection that fuzzy concepts indirectly con~ain 28 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 - FOR ON FICIAL USE ONLY ~ within themselves a"(Kucha)" paradox and reliability (the property of thinking that allaws mistakes to be made in the acquisition of results). - * * _ * There is an Eastern fable about three blind men who came across an elephant and tried to determine what it was. The one who grasped the elephant by its tail said that the elephant was a rope. "No, it is like the trunk of a tree," objected the one who held the elephant by its leg. "Both of you are wrong," declared the - third. "An elephant is a snake." He was holding the animal by its trunk.... This fable is not a bad account of the present situation in cybernetic simulation � of cognitive psychological processes. Scientists develop various "intellectual" models, but they are unable to persuasively answer the following questions: How do these models "in fact" relate to the htnnan mind7 How can we prove that these "nonpsychological" programs are adequate, in a certain sense, to that which is being modeled--the mind? Of course, we could simplify the problem by assuming the stance of "cybernetic behaviorism"--by adopting the thesis that man is a certain finite automaton. From a"psychological" standpoint this simplifying thesis takes the form of the "maze hypothesis" of thinking, according to which think:ng entails a search fc~r the path to a goal within a maze of possibil~ities given in some particular form, a search directed by certain criteria; and, as we know, maze problems can be represented in the terms of an automaton without difficulty. Both approaches are simi.lar in that , the work of the brain and the f.unction of ht:man intelligence are interpreted as algorithmic activity. The significantly simplifying nature of these approaches was quickly recognized by cyberneticists and psychologists. At the very first symposium on "mechanization of thinking" (Taddington, England, 1958) the American cyberneticists (M. L. Minskiy) = and (D. M. Mak-Key) said that logical thinking is not exhausted by algorithms. Some Western psychologists contrasted the behaviorist-algorithmic conceptions of thinking with the point of view of Gestalt psychology: ~iere is no such thing as a mechanism of "iriformation processing", a processing mechanism involving discrete steps. Man "sees", "grasps" a situation integrally, and he envisions the path to solution of a problem just as integrally. In terms of modeling cognitive processes, however, we can assume a position inde- pendent of these psychological conceptions--a position that is "psychol4gically neutral", one which is often associated with the "artificial intelligence" direction. ~ The essence of this position is to create computer systems for soZving complex problems without making simulation of "artificial intelligence" a mandatory pre- requisite: The main thing is for the computer programs to produce results that are no worse than th~se obtained by man.8 Such an approach is fully possible, since research efforts in the "artificial i;itelligence" direction are in fact direrted not at simulating the essence of cognitive processes in and of themselves, but rather at automating complex forms of activity, at automatic,n, for which de- script:~.n of the "external" behavior of the individual would be sufficient. 29 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY But this "artificial intel.ligence" approach does have its limits as well. Beyond a certai~ point, a knowled~~e of the properties of the process which we wish to _ automate becomes increasinyly more desirable. But at this point, we encounter the difficulty which was metaphorical?y presented in the fable of the elephant and blind men presented above. 2':ie inconsistency between the enormous amount of facts accumulated in psychology and that modest fraction of these facts which are reflected in cybernetic models is obvious. Nbreo~rer the cognit.ive activity of an indiviaual operating in "cooperation" with modern automatic devices has been poorly studied. In particular, not enough research has been conducted on the psychological aspects of the relationship between human thinking and computer programming. Work in this area is or:ly just beginning. '1'he results obtained in this area thus far make it all the more obvious i.hat we need to answer the complex of questions per- - taining to man-machine control systems. . It is in light of these ronclusions that we sh~uld approach S. I. Shapiro's mono- graph. It analyzes a question of importance to cybernetic s ~~ulation of cognitive mental processes and human behavior--the nature of the qualitative differences existing between human thinking and informa~ion processing by a computer. Z'he author sheds light on the dialectical unity of the process and result of thi~zking; - he analyzes the ambiguous nature of the relationship betwePn me:ital phenomena and their logical, "formal" des~ription. 2'he book quite rightly emphasizes the funda- mental role played by the principle of hierarchical organization in the work of the human nervous system and mind; i�: makes mention of the significance of techniques for ~.~ducing, encoding, and recoding psychological material--all that justifies the need for analyzing human mental activity at different levels. - One of the book's main points of e~hasis is the problems associated with studying thinking from the standpoint of comput~r programming and joint work of man and computer in dialogue mode. These problems are precisely what make it so necessary to develop formal descriptions of the individual aspe~ts and parts of intelleatual processes, and to reveal the laws of human heuristic activity, so that effective computer programs for solving complex problems of one class or another could be written. The book demonstrates how computer simulation imparts concreteness to experimental study of the individual aspects of thinking. In his examination of all of these questions, the author rests on the traditions of dor~estic psychological science, which reject both the one~sidedness of the behavioristic "maze" conceptions of thinking and the extremism of the approach of Gestalt psychology to intelligence, in which mental phenomeiia are viewed as somehow being unyielding to analysis in strict terms. The general aim of the author's analysis may be stated as follows: Creating com- puter programs for solving complex ("noncomputational") problems on the basis of intellectual procedures which, at the given stage of development of psychology, cybernetics, and logic, yield to fox~ma~ description, and concurrently reproducing certain manifestations of thinking in these programs. According to the author's main idea, the "bridge" should be built From both sides: from the human side-- from the logical and psychological processes relative to which we can establish that they "participate" in human problem solution, and from the computer side-- creation of computer models aiding the study of thinking. In this case both approaches--but especially the first--when vie;~~d from their applied aspect, are aimed at raising the effectiveness of the "art" of proqramming. 30 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ~ FOR OFFICiAL USE ONLY Shapiro's book is the first in domestic literature to systematically study the question of "psychological" computer software. Development of such software, the ~ author believes, may be defined as the "zone of immediate programming developmerit". But this "zone" may be very important to psychology: Psychologically substantiated progr.~,�.G can serve as limited computer models of intellectual procedures which, through "coniparison" with human mental actions, could lead us step by step closer to their prototype, and predict the mental process being simulated. "Mutually advantageous" dialogue between man and computer was chosen in the book ~ as the principal method of analyzing the problems noted above. In this case attention is centered on the distribution of functi~ns between the participants of the dialogue, on the basis of the principle of the unity of psychological and mathematical support to the dialogue systems. As we know, psychological experimentation is the ~rincipal means of studying human thinking. Being himself a teacher of mathematics in high school and college, the book's author is, so ta speak, at the "starting point of the development of human thought", and he makes competent use of this method, and of the data that have been accumulated with its help. Relying on an original logical-psychological conception of thin}-ing, as d~scri.bed in his previous book,9 in the present mono- graph the author develops his logical operator model of intelligence further, from the aspect of organizing man-machine dialogue systems. 'I'hus he introduces the con- cept of logical-psycholoqical coordinates, which are a further development of the concept of logical coordinates used in the book "Ot algoritmov--k suzhdeniyam" [From Algorithms to Conclusi~ns]; Shapiro demonstrates the function of logical- psychological coordinates in terms of general heuristics, and he examines their role in human thinking and learning, and the possibilities for their "extension" into computer information prc~Qssing programs. Shapiro centers his research on developing programming approaches hased on informa- tion on the process of logic and creativity, derived from psychological experimenta- tion.l~ The author successfully solves ~he problem of "bringing to the surface" these landmarks of human activity in problematic situations. As Shapiro's work - shows, logical-psychological coordinates are concurrently both a prerequisite for understanding the corresponding mental mechanisms and a means for developing the "psychological software" ~f computer systems. Logical-psychological coordinates are a tool of heuristic activity; however, this tool is associated with algorithmic behavior. This is why the book undertakes the study and formal description of some psychological mechanisms of man's kncwledge assimilation in terms of the al.qorithmic approach. Such description is necessary because if we are to process the obtained data, we would need to build logical information models which are corrected in a computer experiment on the basis of data from a psychological experiment, one revealing the appropriate logical- psychological reference point. In this case a dialogue is established between :nan and computer, in such a fashion as to capitalize on the strong aspects of each of the "partners". As Shapiro's results show, this approach makes it possible to study some questions associated with the relationship between conscious and un- � recognized components of the strategy followed by the individual, with the way in- formation is encoded, and with the way heuristic and algorithmic symbolic struc- ~ tures are used in thinking and neurodynamics. 31 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Th~ concept of logical-psychological coordinates may be a productive basis for further research on the mechanisms of inental aetivity. As we know, control of purposeful hwman behavior is inseparable from speech, which follows the rules of language; in this case the dynamics of speech are "automatic", while the goals of language are comprehended. This process of comprehension involv~s complex inter- action between meaning expression and the objective ("denotative") aspect of ~ linguistic constructs, and discrete and continuous ("analog") structures partici- i pating in mental processes. It would seem that the logical-psychological coordi- nate conception would be capable of making a significant contribution to the study of problems associated with all of this, on the condition that this conception is refined =urther, particularly from the aspect of broadening its psychological foundation. . Shapiro validly notes that the special methods for studying thinkinq must rely on a corresponding theoretical conception of thinking activity. And such a conception is developed by the author, in which case two hypotheses are placed at the basis of this conception--a "gnoseological"-operational model of thinking: The assumption that consciousness has a"single-channel" nature and descriptive intuition has a - "multichannel" nature, and the premise that there is "reciprocity" (incompatibility) in the conscious part of the intellectual operational (associated with the fulfill- ment of operations) and logical-psychological (conceptual) components of the thinking process. What the "single-channel--muitichannel nature" hypothesis means is that several con- currently occurring mental processes cannot simultaneously serve as the focus of consciousness; only one of them is fully realized; the stronger it is and the more active the process of recognition is, the more significant is the complex of pro- cesses proceeding in parallel in the unconscious sphere. The hypothesis of "reci- procity" declares that concrete mental actions ("operators") and the logical- psychological reference points which control them are processes of different types, in which case (according to the premise of the "single-channel" nature of con- sciousness) domination of one of these processes leads to displacement of the other ~ from the center of c~nsciousness. It is impossible for man to clearly recognize both his own mental actions and the loyical-psychological mechanism controlling them simultaneously. ~ As Shapiro shows, the operational-"gnoseological" model of thinking he proposes is supported by concrete psychological facts, and it is consistent with the con- clusions of logic and cybernetics. Z'hus the "reciprocity" hypothesis places a psychalogical foundation beneath the logical-somatic model of human information processing,ll while the hypothesis of the single-channel nature of consciousness sheds additional light on a numbex of inechanisms of perception, thinking, an~ _ learning; in particular it provides some explanation to the phenomena described by Bruner (growth in the concreteness of cognitive activity in respo~nse to extreme stimuli) and P. A. Shevarev ("displacement", from the consciousness of subjects under certain conditions, of the rules o~E algebraic action in order to validate the appropriate behavioral acts), and so on. Shapiro's conception leads to an interesting approach to interpreting the psychological naturz of Hick's law, which establishes a dependence between the latent time of the choice reaction on the amount of information contained in a stimulus. It reveals new ways for building information mod~ls ~f problematic situations formally describing (to a certain extent) not only recognized but also the unconscious components of thinking. _ 32 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The monograph develops ar.d utilizes, in various classes of programming problems, - an entire series of logical-psychological reference points revealed through psycho- logical experiments; by taking this ap~roach the author excl~ides repeat "moves", miniirizes the distance to the goal--both final and intermediate, creates the basis for planning behavior and counterproposing "coordinates", and so on. Studyinq the relationship between the algorithmic and heuri.stic components o:E tt'.inking in the way that they are ~epresented in different variants of computer programs, the author thus investigates the actions of an individual directed by algorithms described from without: As Shapiro stiows, the mr~re fully the logical-psychological reference _ points borrowed from the individual's "repertoire" are employed, the more effective is the program. The sort of interaction occurring between man and computer depends on the nature of the problems being solved. Thus in the case of the "director problem" (and its generalization--"the circular conveyor problem", which is a variant of the classical three machines problem), it would be suitable to have the computez first thin the branches of the gca] tree, a~.nd for man tu prune the "dry branches" on the basis of logical-psychological coordinates. In problems of another type ("visible squares", ' and others), it would be better for the solution to begin with the individual, who would plan the general course of the work, relega~ing to the computer the task of s~rting through the largest set of variants, ones equally remote from the extreme-- most and least probable--.3lternatives.. There is no single rule of object recognition in problc:ms of the "classification of numbers" type. Thes~ ar~ prob.lems with ambiguous conditions, ones often encountered in life, in sciEnce, and in day-ti~-day experience. In each case, man does somehow solve th~m. Analyzir~g these solutions, the author distinguishes two levels of logical-psychological reference points: "univexsal" coordinates wl~ich remove the "upper" layer of uncertainty, and coordinates permittir.g closer tuning, a closer approach to the givnn type of probl~ms. Shapiro demoiistrates now these reference points interact with each other, how they fal'. into order in response ta partial sorting, and how the~e processes could be embodied within programs promoting an Effective search for solution. We can see here that the operational--"gnoseological" conception of thinking is consistent with the logic of nonrigorous objects, discussed above. We can presume that further synthesis of both approaches will make it possible to ok~tain new, interesting results in the simulation of cognitive proces~~s. But even in its present form, Shapiro's work signifies a new step in the development of the methods of cybernetics representation of complex "humanistic" systems. Many of the author's conclusions may be laid at the basis of further research on heuristic programming and on "artifical intelligence", and therefore they should be of interest to psycho- logists, logicians, cyberneticists, and developers of man-machine complexes. FOOTNOTES I. Shennon, K., "Ra.boty po teorii informatsii i kibernetike" [Studies in Informa- ~ tion Theory and Cybernetics), Moscow, Izd-vo Mir, 1963, 668 pp. . 2. Bongard, M. M., "Problema uznavaniya" [The Recognition Problem], Moscaw, Izd-vo Nauka, 1967, p 6. 33 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 3. For more information, see Dreyfus, Kh., "Chego ne mogut vychislit~l'nyye mashiny. Kritika iskusstvennogo ra2uma" [What Computers Cannot Do. A Criticism of Artificial Intelligence], "rloscow, Izd-vo Progress, 1979, and the postscript to the Russian translation of this book, v~zitten by one of the present authors. 4. Bellman, R., "Kibernetika i meditsinskaya diagnostika" [Cybernetics and _ Medical Diagnosis], Nbscow, Izd-vo Nauka, 1967, p 25. ~ 5. The reference is primarily (though not exclusively) to the conception L. Ae Zade developed in the mid-1960's. Of the numerous works of this scientist and his school, we cite only a few: Zade, L. A., "The Principles of a New Approach to Analyzing Complex Systems and Decision Making Processes," in "Matematika segodnya" [Mathematics Today], Moscow, Izd-vo Mir, 1974; Zade, L. A., "Ponyatiye lingvisticheskoy peremennoy i ego primeneniye k prinyatiyu priblizhennykh resheniy" [The Conc2pt of the Linguistic Variable and Its Application to the S2aking of Approximate Decisions], Moscow, Izd-vo Mir, 1976. 6. Biryukov, B. V., "The Algorithmic Approach in Science, and the Conception ~f Fuzzy Algorithms," in "Kihernetika i sovremennoye nauchnoye poznaniye" [Cybernetics and Nbdern Scientific Knowledge], Nbscow, Izd-vo Nauka, 1976. _ 7. See Biryukov, B. V., "The Problem of Abstraction of Infalliba.lity in Logic," VOYROSY FILOSOFII, No 11, 1973. 8. Pospelov, G. S., and Pospelov, D. A., "Artificial Intelligence Research in the USSR," in Berg, A. I., (Editor), "Kibernetiku--na sluzhbu kommunizmu" ~ [Cybernetics in the Service of CommunismJ, Vol 9, "Control and Information," Moscow, Izd-vo Energiya, 1978. 9. Shapiro, S. I., "Ot algoritmov--k suzhdeniyam. Eksperimenty pc> obucheniyu elementam matematicheskogo myshieniya [From Algorithms to Conclusions. Easperi.ments on the Elements of Mathematiral Thinking], Moscow, Izd-vo Soc. radio, 1973. 10. See Berg, A. I., Biryukc~v, B. V., and Sto~yar, A. A., the "Operational-Logical 'Model' of Z'hinking and Learning, an8 Cybernetic Pedagogics," in Shapiro, S. I., "Ot algoritmov--k s~.xzhdeniyam" [From~ Algc-~rithms to Conclusions] , M~oscow, Izd-vo Sov. radio, 1973. ~ 11. Shreyder, Yu. A., "Semantic Aspects of. Information Theory," in "Informatsiya i kibernetil;.a" .(Information and Cybe�rnetics] , Moscow, Izd-vo Sov. radio, 1967; - see also Piryukov, B. V., "Kiberne#:ika i metodoTogiya nauki" (Cybernetics and the Metr.odology of Science], Mosc~~w, Izd-vo Nauka, 1974, Chapter 3. COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Sovetskoye radio", 1980 11004 CSO: 1840/187 34 I FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ ~l BIOTECFLNOLOGY UDC 612.2:599.5 RESPIRATION AidD OXYGEN PATTERNS OF DOLPflINS Kiev DYKHANIYE I KISLORODNYYE REZHIMY ORGANIZM~ DEL'FINOV in Russian 1980 (signed to press 3 Apr 80) pp 2-5, 331 [Annotation, introduction ar.d table of contents from book "Respiration and Oxygen Yatterns of Dolphins", by Asya Zelikovna Kolchinskaya, Irina Nikitichna Man'kovskaya and Anatoliy Grigor'yevich Misyura, Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", ' 1,000 cop~es, 332 pagesl [Text] The monograph presents the authors' ideas on the respiratory system, patterns of gas mass transfer, and control of these processes in the body of mammals. Experi- mental data and information are presented that are available in the literature on the functions of the organs of external respiration, circulation, the respiratory function of blood, the features of capillarization of cardiac and skeletal muscles, the content and distribution of myoglobin in the musele fibers, and on tissue - respiration of dolphins. Experimental and therretical (on mathematical models) studies are de~cribed on mass transfer of ga~,es, oxygen patterns of the body and oxygen patterns of the muscle tissue of these animals. It is designed for physiologists, specialists in the field of mathematical modeling - of ~iological processes, engineexs, zoologists, biochemists, biologists, physio- logists and veterinarians. Contents Page Introduction 3 _ Chapter I. General Ideas on the Respiratory System and the Process of MasG Transfer of Gases in Mar~mals 6 Chapter II. Oxygen Patterns of the Body and Control of them 76 _ Chapter III. Ecological Factors That Govern the Uniqueness of the 89 Dolphin Respiratory System Chapter IV. Anatomical-Histological Features of Individual Components 99 in the Dolphin Respirat~ry System 114 Chapter V. Respiratory Rhythm and Its Control in Dolphins Chapter VI. Pulmonary and Ventilator S~aces. Respiration Mechanics 148 of Cetaceans Chapter VII. Ventilation and Diffusion Capacity of Dolphin Lungs 168 Chapter VIII. Cardiac Rhythm, Electrical Activity of Heart and Features of Dolphin Hemodynamics 181 35 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FUR ur~rlCt~ U5~ UNLY Chapter IX. Blood of Dolphins and Its Respiratory Function 218 Chapter X. Oxygen Patterns of Dolphins 240 ~ Chapter XI. Process of Mass Transfer of ~xygen, Carbon Dioxide and . Nitrogen in Dolphins 26~ Conclusion 287 - Bibliography 291 Appendix 325 Ir..troduction . A st~sdy of the dynamics of marine mammals attracts the attention of an ever greater number of domestic and foreign researchers. The increased interest in this question is explained, first of all, by the fact *_hat the respiratory system with its com- plicated mechanisms that guarantee gas exchange in the lungs, gas transport by the blood, and oxidation processes in the tissues plays an excepfionally important role . in the adaptation of marine animals to underwater conditions. Since the lungs; cardiovascular system and respiratory function of the blood in different species of narine mammals have undergone the deepest and most general changes during adap- tation to an aquatic medium, their study is of undoubted value for basic sciences, - evolutionary physiology, biochemistry, zoology and bionics. For physiologists and specialists in the field of mathematical modeling, the respiratory system of Cetaceans, and of dolphins in particular, is not only an interesting, but also a rewarding object of research. The approach to studying the respiratory system from the position of the theory of control on this original bialogical subject is somewhat simplified by a number of circumstances. Under natural conditions the main links in the dolphin respiratory system are seemingly separated. During submersion to depths over 100 m the gas exchange in the lungs of these animals is practically missing and gas transport by the blood is isolated both from external respiration, and from the respiration of a.large group of tissues, support, muscle, et~. ThF: powerful and short respiratory act that is in~plemented on the sea surface in Cetaceans is replaced by a respiratory.pause of incommei~sUrable duration. During this pause, as during a slow-motion movie, events unfold that occur in the respiratory cycle. The ventilation-perfusion ratios, the general blood flow and the blood supply to the greater part of the body change significantly. This governs drastic alterations in the rate of gas streams through the alveolar-capillary membrane. These and other features of the functioning of the respiratory system and the process of gas mass transfer in the dolphins sec::a to suggest to the researcher engineering solutions for controlling this~:complicared physiological process. The authors of the prasented monograph,therefore, did not refrain from attempzing to create a mathematical model for the dolphin respiratory system. They present for the reader's judgment the results of their experimental and theoretical research on this system. Currently the world literature on marine mammals 1?as less than a thousand sources. A major contribution to the ecology, morghology, physiology and biochemistry of Cetaceans has been made by our domestic and foreign scientists summed up in mono- graphs and surveys [1,2,21,23,45,61,86-88,116,117,125,126,144,184,198,206,208, 234,237,249,262,269,279,282,293,374,404,527,530,590,680,?21,722,752,755,774,788]. Certain surveys and secti.ons of monographs cite information about the rsspiration of marine mammals [6,45,86-88,117,126,207,269,279,282,516,527,530,533,534,539, 36 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE UNLY 556,560,574,576,758,785,798, and others]. However there are as yet no special monographs on the physiology of dolphin respiration. In addition, the. works that discuss external respiration, the respiratory function of blood, circulation, the adaptation mechanisms that permit marine animals to withstand oxygen deficiency, hypercapnia, high pressure and its drops are primarily based on morphological data. The extreme lability of the oxygen patterns in dolphins (transition from hyperoxic to very pronounced hypoxic states) cannot help but stir the interest of physiologists in a study of the oxygen supply system, and investigation of the oxygen pattern of Cetaceans, and the mechanisms controlling them. Oxygen def iciency that develops during prolonged diving is considered the main fac~or restricting the diving depth and the time for the animals' stay underwater. Therefore, starting with the end of the last century up to our time, determination of the oxygen reserves of diving animals and study of the adaptive mechanisms that guarantee their least expenditure underwater have been at the center of attention of many researchers. The publications on this subject present calculations of oxygen reserves in diving animals of various species. It is a significant short- coming uf these calculations that they take into account the condition of the animal tl~at was recorded at a certain time periad in a stationary pattern that does not exist in reality, i.e., the oxygen reserves are defined as if in an unchanging - system. In reality, a constant redistribution of the oxy~en reserves and change in the demand f.or them by groups of tissues that are considerable in weight occur in the Cetaceans. The complex interaction be~tween different physiological adaptive mechanisms requires a new approach, the application of a different principle for computing the reserves and the possible expenditure of oxygen, an approach that is based on a description of the dynamics for the functioning of the entire respiratory system and the system of regulating the body's oxygen patterns. Such an approach was used in the joint work of the scientific collectives of the A. A. Bogomolets _ Institute of Physiology (department of hypoxic states, headed by Doctor of Medical Sciences A. Z. Kolchinskaya) and the Institute of Cybernetics of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences (department chairman--Doctor of physical-mathematical sciences B. N. Pshenichnyy). The results of the joint studies are presented in this mono- graph. It also surveys the published data on these que~tions. Individual results of experimental studies described in the monograph were obtained by the authors jointly with V. M. Alekseyev, V. V. Belenikin, P. V. Beloshitskiy, L. N. Sogdanova, M. G. Bukhman, S. A. Gulyar, K. A. Dzb~,charadze, V. P. Dudarev, K. F. Zhikhareva, B. A. Zhurid, V. A. Zaboluyev, M. I. %apopad'ko, V. F. Zelenskaya, 0. G. Karan- - deyeva, Yu. N. Korolev, 0. G. Koshev, S. K. Matisheva, T. D. Minyaylenko, V. S. Mishchenko, L. L. Levchenko, N. P. Ocheretnaya, Ye. V. Prudnikova, I. F. Soko- lyanskiy, A. S. Spakhov, Yu. V. Stepanov, Yu. T. Strelkov, V. I. Fedorchenko, M. M. Filippc~v, V. M. Snap~inov, N. V. Shtuchenko. References for these works are given in the appropriate sections. The development and realization of the mathematical model described in the book for the respiratory system on the digital computer - BESM-6 and studies on the model were done by A. Z. Kolchinskaya, and A. G. Misyura jointly with B. N. Pshenichnyy, Yu. N. Onopchuk, D. I. Marchenko, D. V. Shevelo, I. S. Rappoport. The stud',es of P~ distribution in the dolphin muscle tissue were done by A. Z. Kolchinskaya, I. N. Man'kovskaya and Ye. G. Lyabakh [108] on the model [148]. - 37 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR Or~FIC1aL USE UNLY iJe consider it our pleasant duty to express our sincere gratitude to all col- . . _ leagues who participated in our joint research, as well as the director of the Georgian branch of the VNIIRO (expansion unknown] of the USSR Ministry of the Fish Industry, Candidate of biological sciences~L. E. Tsuladze, scientific coworker K. A. Dzhincharadze, and the entire collective of this branch where a considerable _ portion of the experimental work was-c~~ COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka", 1980 ~ 9035 CSO: 1840/144 38 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ENVIRONMENT ANIMAL ECOLOGY ASSISTS IN BEHAVIOR CONTR(JL - Nt~scow EKOLOGICHESKIYE OSNOVY UPRAVELNIYA POVEDENIYEM ZHIVOTNIIQi in Russian 1980 (signed to press 11 Jul 80) pp 2, 188-191 [Annota~ion and ~stracts of articles from book "Ecological Principles of Animal Behavior Control", edited by Doctor of Bioiogical Sciences D. S. Pavlov and Doctor of Biological Sciences V. D. I1'ichev, USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of Evolutional Morphology and Ecology of Animals imeni A. N. Severtsov, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 2,700 copies, 192 pages] (Text] This collection is devoted to control of the behavior of animals in different taxonomic groups. Development of the biological principles of controlling animal behavior and creating, on their basis, a strategy for wise behavior control would make it possible to solve the highly complex problems of exploiting natural and artificial ecosystems. Thus the problems discussed iz~ articles contained in this collection are very timely. UDC 591.511 BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR CONTROL [Abstract of article by B. P. Manteyfel', D. S. Pavlov, V. D. I1'ichev, and L. M. Baskin] (Text] Development of the biological principles of animal behavior control is � significant to many areas of science and economics. Three directions of work are distinguished: I--utilization of the laws of animal behavior, closely associated with behavior prediction; II--stimulation of animals to display reactions in their repertoire, III--changa of behavior by genetic methods or by interference in the ontogenesis of behavior. The first direction unites the passive methods of control, while the last two deal with the active methods. Four groups of control methods are distinguished among the latter: 1--creation of a certain motivation of be- havior; 2--influence by effective stimuli; 3--interference in the ontogenesis of behavior; 4--change in normal animal reactions by genetic methods. - Bibliography--55 references. 39 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ~NLY - UDC 591.51:595.511 PRTNCIPLES AND APPROACHES TO INSECT BEHAVIOR CONTROL [Abstract of article by G. A. Mazakhin-Porshnyakov] [Text] The mechanisms and informational organization of insect behavior are ~ examined. A di~~inction is made between prograncttaed behavior controlled by neuron- detectors, and ,uodifying bshavior, which is subordinated to lower and higher associative schemes of internal behavior control supported by feedbacks and indi- vidual memory. Sensory inputs are analyzed, and a scheme of signal-assisted con- trol of insect behavior is given. Signal-assisted control of the behavior of harmful and useful species (by man) is denionstrated with various examples of successful chemical., optical, and acoustic signaling methods, and of exposure of insects to an artificial electric field. Bibliography--73 references. . ' UDC 591.51:597:639.2 CONTROL OF FISH BEHAVIOR DURING FISHING [Abstract of article by B. V. Vyskrebentsev and M. P. Arononov] [TextJ A combination of defensive ~d exploratory reactions is typical of the behavior of fish in a trawl, as are orientation reactions. Fish behave differently in different zones of a trawl. Bottom-dwelling fish would ~est be i,lfluenced by stimuli eliciting an exploratory reaction in zone one of a trawl. MEChanical devices and acoustic and electric fields may be used as the controlling stimuli. Pelagic fish require development and use of stimuli which also elicit an explora- tory reaction in zones one and two of a trawl, preventing their exit from the fishing zone into zone two. Stimuli for pelagic fish may include electiric and optical fields, as well as various mechanical devices. UDC 591.51:597.639.2 BASIC MECHANISMS AND PRINCIPLES OF CONTRULLING FISH SCHOOLING BEfiAVIOR (Abstract of article by V. V. Ger~simov, A. A. Darkov, and D. V. Radakov (deceased)] [Text] The basic laws governing fish schooling behavior and mechanisms insuri.ng contact and coordinated actions between individuals in a school are described on . the basis of the authors'~and published data. A number of ideas are suggested on the principles of controlling fish schooling behavior. ~ Bi.bliography--14 references. 40 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY i ' UDC 59I.51.597.639 ! SOME ASPECTS OF INUTRECT LEARNING BY FISH IN A GROUP i [Abstract of article by T. S. Leshcheva; ~ [Text] Experimental studies are used as the basis for descri.bing the unique features of first- and second-order indirect learning among schooling and nonschooling species of fish. The dependence between indirect learning and the tendency for schoolinq is established; it manifests itself especially distinctly in second-order indirect learning. Bi.bliography--34 references. UDC 591.185:597.639 OLFACTION AND THE PROBLEMS OF FISH BEHAVIOR CONTROL ' [Abstract of article by G. A. Malyukina, Ye. A. Marusov, and A. O. Kasw~ayan] [Text] Intra- and interspecific communication of fish based on olfaction is com- plex and diverse. Its siqnificance is also extremely great in certain periods in the life of species exhibitinq a relatively low level of olfactory development-- microsmatic species. It is experimentally deaanstrated that the olfactory organ of fish is highly sensitive to many~natural odors. More so than other substances, these stimuli are behaviorally active; their attractant or repellent acti~n is the basis for developing methods to control fish behavior. Bibliography--116 references. UDC 591.51:597.639 CONTR(JL OF THE BEHAVIOR OF FISH IN FLOWING WATER [Abstract of article by D. S. Pavlov] [Text] The bioloqical principles of controlling the behavior of fish in flowing water are analyzed with the example of freshwater, semi-migratory, and migratory fish. Z'he rheo-reaction ("rheotaxis") is the basis for the be?havioral reaction of fish living in flowing water. In the course of evolution, fish developed two basic behavioral stereotypes in flowing water--the behavioral stereotypes of pelagic and bottom-dwelling fish. Among pelagic fish, the dominant orientation mechanism is. visual, and they are typified by low threshold and high critical flow rates for the rheo-reaction. Among bottom-dwelling fish, the tactile orienta- tion mechanism has the greatest significance, and they are typified by high thresh- old and low critical flow rates. Ztao principles of control of the behavior of fish in flowing water are distinguished--active and "passive". Bibliography--14 references. 41 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY UDC 591.51:598:599 ADAPTATION OF THE BEHAVIOR OF BIRDS AND MAMMALS TO TfiE ANXIETY FACTOR _ [Abstract of article by A. D. Vladyshevskiy and D. V. Vladyshevskiy] ~ [Text] The ontogenetic sequence of formation of behavior directed at minimizing the negative consequences of anxiety and direct~pursuit is analyzed. The followi.ng types of behavioral adaptations are distinguished: higher intensity of reactions, withdrawal or covert movement, and differentiation. It is concluded that adapta- _ tion of animal behavior to anxi.ety is directed on one hand at the most effective assurance of security possible and, on the other hand, at minimization of time and effort expended on defensive reactions. ~ Bibliography--14 references. UDC 591.51:598.334 CONTROL OF THE BEHAVIOR OF FISH-EATING BIRD6 AT MANMADE WATER BASINS [Abstract of article by B. M. Zvonov] [Text] Intensive development of pond fish culture has made it necessary tc~ protect water basins from fish-eating birds. Direct observations at fish farms in Astrakhanskaya and Odesskaya oblasts led to development of the rules of acoustic repulsion of birds from wa`cer basins using tape recordings of the alarm and distress signals of different species of seagulls and wading birds. UDC.591.51:598 THE ORIENTATIONAL NATURE OF REINFORCEMENT STIMULI IN THE CONTROL OF BIRD BEHAVIOR - [Abstract of article by V. D. I1'ichev] [Text] Analysis of practical experience accumulated in the use of bird repellents, and of field experiments permits recomnendation of combined repellents as a new means of behavior control. Combined.repellents have been developed on the basis of an analogy with the natural reactions of birds having signaling importance, to in- clude, besides warning cries, cues indicating a situation dangerous to birds (danger cues). Combined repellents presuppose simultaneous use of acoustic alarm or dis- tress signals and imitations of a factor mortally dangerous to birds, creating a situation of extreme danger. Bi.bliography--13 references. ~ UDC 591.51:598 BTRD GROUP BEHAVIOR AND THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ACOUSTIC REPELLENTS [Abs.tract of article by A. V. Tikhonov.j TTextJ Experimental material is used as the basis for discussi.ng the unique features of the defensive reactions '(flight, dispersal) of colonial birds and birds forming ~ 42 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL. USE ONLY temporary flocks. The principal attention is devoted to the adaptive features of defensive reactions in different taxonomic and ecological groups of birds (web- footed, wading, gulls, Corvidae) having important significance to further develop- ment of inethods to control their behavior. Some geographic and interspecific as- - pects of the effectiveness of acoustic repellents are examined. Practical recommenda- tions are given on repelling birds from agricultural materials and fish culture basins with the help of acou'stic repellents. - Tables--4, bibliography--24 references. . UDC 591.51:598 CONTROL OF BIRD BEHAVIOR BY ACOUSTIC REPELLENTS AT AIRFIELDS OF THE LITHUANIAN SSR [Abstract of article by V. S. Shevyakov] [Text] The ornithological situation at airfields of the Lithuanian SSR was studied in joint research conducted by representatives of airfield services. The effective- ness of acoustic reYellents upon different species compositions and upon nesting and migrating birds, and the action of repellents in different seasons and times of the day were determined. Recommendations are given on organizing bioacoustic measures emplaying acoustic repellents to frighten birds away from airfield landing strips. Concrete descriptions are given of a permanent acoustic device at a landing strip, and movable devices installed aboard motor vehicles. Tables--l. UDC 591.51:599.6 USE OF DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOR IN UNGULATE CONTROL [Abstract of article by L. M. Baskin] (Text] Ungulate defensive reactions are basically species-specific, while effective stimuli are specific to populations. Formation of defensive behavior is associated with assimilation of the experience of the mother and companions. The relationship between defenses and social behavior is significant. These principles lie at the basis of control of defensive behavior. The control methods differ in the case of a defensive dominant and the case of a combination of fear with other stimuli. Bibliography--14 references. UDC 591.636.599.6 CONTROL OF THE BEHAVIOR OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS Am INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES [Abstract of article by T. N. Venediktova, Ye. A. Karavayev, and V. G. Pushkarskiy] [TextJ 'Phe prospects and basic principles of controlling the behavior of agricul- tural animals at industrial livestock complexes are discussed. Methods for con- trolling the motor reactions of pigs and cattle are proposed. .Ways for reducing aggressiveness and decreasing arousal of animals at times of regroupings and re - locations are developed. Tables--1, bibliography--10 references. 43 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY UDC 591.5T:599 LOCAI, DIALECTS, (~OGRAPHIC VARIABILITY, AND HEREDITARY TRAITS OF THE ACOUSTIC SIGNAIS OF NIAMNIAL PROGENX (Abstract of article by A. A. Nikol'skiy] [Text] The traits of acoustic signal$ produced by mamanals are subject to geographic variability. However, the local specificity of these traits may be a consequence of two processes--genetic inheritance and learning. T'he capability for imitati~n is the basis of learning. Z'he simplest case of imitation involves monatonous execution ~ of a group species-specific signal. The imitation capability of mammals has b+een ~ studied very poorly. The signals of hybrids possess intermediate traits in rela- tion to tha traits of the signals produced by the initial species (or subspecies), which confirms the genetic inheritance of these traits. Mutual imitation of acoustic signals (merger of individual traits) may be a compromise between the genetic stability of species-specific traits and the need for creating isolation between different groups. Bibliography--21 references. UDC~591.34:599.323 PHEROMONES AND MAMMAL BEHAVIOR. THE ROLE OF OLFACTORY STIMULI IN THE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR OF HOUSE MICE [Abstract of.article by V. Ye. Sokolov, Ye. V. Kotenkova, and E. P. Zinkevichj . [Text] The results of many authors, including those of this article, on the effect of volatile components ~.iberated by house mice upon the agqressive behavior of individuals (mainly males) of the satae species are generalized. 2'he following problems are examined: Tlie influence of experimental anosmia in~house mice on aggressive behavior; hormonal control of excretion of the pheromone causing , aggressive behavior, and of its sources;"repellent" pheromone and its relati~n- ship to the pheromone of aggressive behavior; effect of prior exposure to olfactory signals on aggressive behavior; the complexity of the structure of the aggressive behavior pheromone, data on its chemical composition, and the role of olfactory signals in the aggressive behavior of other rodent species. ~ Tables--4, bibliography--72 references. CppYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980 iioo4 CSO: 1840/175 44 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY - MEDICAL DEMOGRAPHY LIFE EXPECTANCY: ANALYSIS AND MODELING Moscow PRODOLZHITEL'NOST' ZHIZNI: ANALIZ I MODELIROVANIYE in Russian 1979 (signed to press 8 Jun 79) pp 2, 156-157 , [Annotation and table of contents from book "Life Expectancy: Analysis and Modeling", edited by Ye. M* Andreyev and A. G. Vishnevskiy, Department of Demographics, Scientific Research Institute of Planning Computer Centers and Systems of Economic Informatioa, Central Statistical Administration of the USSR, Izdatel'stvo "Statistika", 11,000 copies, 157 pages, illustrated] [Text] As a result of lowering of the mortality rate, there has been a significant it~crease in mean life expectancy in m~st countries of the world. However, the . lowering of mortality differed in different countries, and even in different regions of the same country. Analysis of these differences helps demonstrate the main socioeconomic and biological factors, upon which the mortality level depends, and to define the main directions of control for further decline thereof. The authors of the articles in this collection explore the most important trends and patterns of mortality in the USSR and foreign countries; they propose new methods for ana- lyzYng it and mathematical modeling. _ This book is of interest to demographers, social hygienists, sociologists and economists. Contents Page ~ Foreword 3 Life Expectancy in the USSR: Differential Analysis (Ye. M. Andreyev) 7 1. Goal and tasks of investigation 7 2. Differentiation of mortality levels 9 3. Differentiation of mortality curves 13 ' 4. Link between shape of mortality curve and ;nortality level 21 S. Factors determining the shape of the mortality curve 22 Typological Approach to the Study of Infant [or Child] Mortality (K. Yu. Shaburov) 31 The Causes of Decline of Infant [Child] Mortality During the Years of the Great Patriotic War (R. I. Sifman [deceased]) 50 Cardiovascular Diseases and Life Expectancy (V. L~. Biryukov) 61 One Method of Studying Survival Curves (Ye. M. Andreyev, ' V. M. Dabrovol'skaya) 80 1. Method of linear approximarion 82 2. Choice ~f standard 85 k5 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY 3. Nature of time-related trend of parameters a and b ~ 86 4. Dynamics of parameters a and b in different countries of the world 87 S. Correlation between parameters a and b to describe male and female mortality 98 ~ 6. Analysis of the present situation in the area of mortality using parameters a and b 99 Principles of Mathematical Description of the Essence of Mortality Processes (V. F. Shukaylo) ~ 104 Construction of Simulation Model of Survival Time o~ a Real Generation (A. Yu. Kardash) 124 1. Streler-Mildvan theory ~ 128 2. Construction of simulation model on.the basis of Streler-Mildvan theory 136 Obituary of R. I. Sifman 148 Principal published scientific works by R. I. Sifman 152 _ COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Statistika", 1979 10,657 CSO: 1840/999 46 FOR OFF[C[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAI. USE ONLY � UDC: 312.432/437 THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Moscow OKRUZHAYUSHCHAYA SREDA I ZDOROV'YE CHELOVEKA in Russian 1979 (signed to press 19 Oct 79) pp 4-7, 213--214 [Annotation, foreword and table of cor;ents from book "The Environment and Human Health", edited by A. D. Lebedev, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences:..._...- - Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 4250 copies, 215 pages] [Text] This monograph describes, for the fi�rst time in Soviet literature, the principles and methods or geographic investigation of human ecol.ogy; severai theoretical concepts were developed on this sub~ect. The conception was ~.ntro~ duced of territorial anthropoe~ological systems. It was demonstrated that various types of environments can affect human health, and analysis was ~aade o~ - geography approachES to optimization thereof. Illustrations 32, tables 20; bibliography lists 459 ~.tems. Foreword . I Among problems of Soviet consiructive geography, the ma3,nsteni o~ wh~,ch. ~s xesea,~c~, ~ on the scientific prerequisites for opt3mizing ~nteract~on between ~qan, soc3~,ety~ a~1d the environment in the presence of the progressive scientific and technological re~~lution, the problem of environment and health holds a special place. This is not simply a pressing problem; preservation and improvement of man's health is one of the impor~ant goals of a fully developed socialist society. It is related to the search of criteria of optimum interaction between society and the environment, to assure the environmental qualities needed by man. - The new Constitution of the USSR, which recognizes that the`supreme goal of social production is to meet the needs of the Soviet people, directly states that a healthy environment is a guarantee of health of the citizens. Under condi- tions of developed socialism, there is ample room to implement this conception. The decisions of the 23d, 24th and 25th CPSU congressQS are directed toward this. In accordance with the importance of this problem, ge:.eral humanization of science became ev:ident in the early 1960's, includin~ the system of geographic sciences. - Along with traditional studies of natural resources and conditions of placing industries, there was a drastic increase in importance of studying man~s environ- ment, both natural and altered by industrial endeavors, including the markedly " urbanized environment. A new direction of research in medical geography was one of the manifestations of this process; at one time it had devoted much attention ~ 47 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPR~VED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500020002-2 FOR OF~ICIAL USE UNLY to infectious pathulogy of man, where the links between human diseases and the environment are the simplest ~md easiest to study. At present, studies of eco- logical geography of noninfectious diseases and pathological states of man began to gain increasing significance in that branch of geography. - Studies in medical geography started as far back as 1962 at the Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences. At first, they dealt with specific medico- geographic investigations of a regional geographic nature. Gradually, there was intensification of geographic investigation of human ecology, on the basis of methodological interpretation of ~he demonstrated correlations between human diseases and the environment. There was substantial expansion of .the range of research. Of course, the characteristics ~f man's living and working conditions do not merely refer to demonstration of environment-caused diseases and patholo- gical states. We are dealing here with the need to investigate various features of both th~ natural and urbanized environment, upon which depend, more or less, favorable or unfavorable living conditions, and then to relate them to social, biological, engineering or o~her needs of people. And it is important to do this, not only for a single individual, but for different population groups, so- cieties and mank.ind as a whole. A new scientific direction, the study of geographic aspects of human ecology, began to form in 1971 at the Institute of Geography. It was based on concep- tions of integration of heterogeneous phenomena in specific parts of earth, the possibility of society having an active influence on the environment in accordance with set goals. The constructive sets of modern geography enable us to formulate the question of tasks and means of protecting and improving man's environment, to develop prob- lems of optimization thereof. At the same time, the question of objective cri- teria of quality of the environment, as well as range of human capacity to adapt to unfavorable states thereof in general and individual changes in particular, , is acquiring speciai meaning to constructive formations. It is apparent from the foregoing that studies of geographic aspects of human ecology, which accumulated many of the achievements of modern medical geography, developed expressly within the framework of constructive geography. The scientific conception of this new direction, which is being developed at the Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, was formulated in articles by A. D. Lebedev, V. S. Preobrazhenskiy and Ye. L.Aaykh (Lebedev et al., 1972; - Preo~razhenskiy, Raykh, 1974; Raykh, 1976). In addition, the main theses dealing with research on geographic aspects of human ecology were discussed at a large - conference, which convened in 1974, of the Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, together with the Institute of Human Morphology, USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. A collection, "Theory and Me~hods of Geographic Studies of - Human Ecology" (1974), with the complete text of papers, was published for this conference. In view of the fact that the questions raised at the conference inspired much interest in the community, it was decided to continue to discuss them and elaborate them further in the collection, Geographic Aspects of Human Ecology" (1975), whic}~ was prepared at the Institute of Geography, with the participation of geographers, medical specialists, philosophers and other specialists. 48 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Thus, the monograph offered to the reader, "The Environment and Human Health~" so to speak, completes a certain stage of work on this complex and vast problem. As they began to work on the monograph, the authors' objective was not so much to answer comprehensively all questions th'at arose (which could not be dane, not only because of the limited size of the book, but current depth of work on the problem), as to flut?ine the main aspects of the problem. For this reason, the contents of this mono- graph are limited primarily to discussion of those problems of human ecology, for which the existence of geographic aspects is the most apparent. The autl.'iors also took into consideration the fact that the most general theses of the close link between human health and nature of social relations, which must serve as the founda- tion for analysis of this problem, have already been 3iscussed in the book, - "Society and Human Health" (1973), which was written by an international team of authors, with G. I. Tsaregorodtsev as the general editor. ~ The structure of the monograph reflects both conceptual theses of the new direc- tion and specific studies. Among the latter, the sections dealing with the effects on health of various socioeconomic changes in the presence of the scientific and technological revolution, urbanization, pollution ar..d effects on man of the technogenic environment are probably referable to more traditianal aspects of recent literature, related to consideration of the state of man~s environment. The auth~rs were aware of the fact that questions of man's life and endeavor under urban conditions and development of cities in the interests of man were discussed in the monograph by Yu. V. Medvedkov, "Man and the Urban Environment" (1978), which is also in the "Problems of Constructive Geography" series. The sections o~ the book dealing with adaptation to the environment, including extreme states thereof, and ecology of nutrition against the background of food resources are more unusual. _ The monograph ends with sections, in which an effort was made to outline the geo- graphic aspects of th~e problem of opttmizing the environment in their more general - form, as well as in one of the more special, but specific variants, pertaining to regions of new economic development. Extensive use was made in working on this book of the 10 years of experience of several of its authors in research in the field of inedical geography of the African continent~ and this was partially reflected in the choice of specific examples to confirm general scientific theses. Most of the work on writing and preparing this monograph was done by a team of staff inembers of tt~e Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, consisting of L. V. Maksimova, Ye. L. Raykh, L. I. Saravayskaya, M. P. 5tradomskaya and P. A. Frumkin under the ~eneral guidance of Ye. L. Raykh, A. D. Lebedev and V. S. Preobrazhenskiy. In addition, some sections of the book were authored by V. P. Alekseyev (Institute of Ethnography, USSR Academy of Sciences), B. B. Prokhorov (Institute of Geography of Siberia and the Far East, Siberian Department of the , USSR Academy of Sciences) and V. I. Rusanov (Tomsk State University). Contents Page Foreword 5 Chapter 1. The Environment and Human Ecology (Ye. L. Raykh) 8 Human ecology and geography 9 49 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 _ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Anthrup~~~~c~togic~i] criter3;i o.f qu~lity of tha environmene ~2 Th~ environment and human health ~5 - Chapter 2. Methodological Approaches to the Study of Anthropoecological Systems (Ye. L. Raykh) _ 20 MedicoQeo~raphic territorial differentiation (B.B.Prokhorov, Ye. L. Raykh) 26 Anthropoclimatic territorial differentiation (V. T. Rusanov) 41 Chapter 3. Adaptation and Acclimatization (L. V. Maksimova) 52 Conception of human adaptation 52 . Mechanisms of adaptation 55 - Conditions affecting adaptation 5~ Approaches to evaluation of adaptation 63 Chapter 4. Adaptation and Heredity ('V. P. Alekseyev) 69 The concept of acclimatization and adaptation in general biology 69 Adaptation and man . ~l Morphophysiological variability of the human body 74 Standard reactions and geographic environmental conditions 77 Chapter 5. Extreme Natural Living Conditions (L. V. Maksimova, Ye. L. Raykh) 80 Approaches and methods of isolating territories with extreme conditions 82 Characteristics of some regions with extreine natural conditions 97 Extremely cold regions 9~ _ Extremely hot, dry regions ~ 103~ Extremely hot, humid regions 108 Chapter 6. Urbanization and Human Health (M. P. Stradomskaya) 113 Urbanization as a process that forms the urban environment 113 Effect of urban environment on health 117 = Changes in demographic indicators 121 Chapter 7. Environmental Pollution and Human Health (M. P. Stradomskaya, . Ye. L. Raykh) 126 ~ Environmental pollution as an ecological process , 126 Geography of pollutants and location of industry and motor vehicles 130 Effect on human health of pollution of superficial water, and noise pollution of the urban environment 141 Population pathology 144 - Means of improving the environment _ 145 Chapter 8. Nutrition and Human Health (P. A. Frumkin jdeceased], L. I. Saravayskaya) 150 Food resources 150 Resources of plant origin 155 Resources of animal origin 158 ~ Typical diets 162 5tatus of public nutrition 166 Chapter 9. Optimization of the Environment (Ye. L. Raykh) 171 Chapter 10. Design of Optimum Environment in New1y Developed Regions (B. B. Proldzorov) 183 Problems of optimization of the environment at different stages of land development 184 Elements of social adaptation directed at optimizatio~: of processes of vital function of the public 187 Problems of optimization of the environment in specific medico- geogr.aphic s~udies 191 Conclusion (Ye. L. Raykh) 195 Bibliography 200 COPYRTGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1979 . 1A,657 CSO: 1840/999 50 FOR OFFIC[AL U~E ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 , FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY PHYSIOLOGY AVIATION MIDICINE Moscow AVIATSIONNAYA MEDITSINA in Russian 1980 (signed ta press 5 Nov 79) pp 2-4, 54-95, 247 [Annotation, foreword, chapters 4 and 5, and table of contents from book "Aviation Medicine", edited by Prof. A.N. Babiychuk, doctor of inedical sciences, Izdat el`stvo~ DOSAAF SSSR, 17,000 copies, 248 pages] [Text] This book deals with questions of aviation medicine as they relate to the features of inedical support for flights~aboard aircraft of the civil aviation and DOSAAF. Measures for creating optimam workl.ng conditions for aircrew personnel are examined, the complex of ineasures insuring a high leve], of health among aircrew personnel and their psychophysiological capacities is presented, and other top priority ma~ters of inedical support to insure f light safety are examined. Foreword . . As a result of scientific and technical progress in the field of aviation technology, the inventory of aircraft available to civil aviation is being constantly enlarged with the Tu-134, Tu-154, I1-62, I1-76, Tu-144, I1-86 and other airliners that handle passengers and freight on a massive scale; and with the Mi-6, Mi-8, Mi-10 and Ka-26 helicopters that are used extensively in the various sectors of the national economy. Aviation materiel is also being improved in the civil aviation flying schools and the DOSAAF flying clubs. Today's aircraft and helicapters are complex flying machines equipped with the latest autornat:': and semiautomatic devices, but, as before, man plays the leading role in the man-machine system. The control of modern aircraft is regarded as a comprehensive task including, on the one hand, the human operator, and on the other, the technical control devices, with both elements interlinked. Good reliability and eff icient operation of this system can be insured only if the specifications of the elements of the aircraft interacting directly with the human operator conform to his physical and psychological capacities, and if f light factors do not adversely affect the operator by lowering his work capacity. i - 51 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY , In this connection, medical backup for flight safety in the civil aviation and DOSAAF is organized in two directions. ~ The first direction provides for the creation of the most favorable working conditions for aircrew personnel in the broad sense of the concept. , - These measures are realized directly in the design of the flight deck and its equipment in accordance with special medical engineering requirements, and they include rational layout of working places and equipment in them, devices that _ insure the proper cabin endironment, protection of the cabin environment from - pollution by noxious chemicals, protection against noise and vibration, observance of lighting standards and so forth. The second direction in medical backup f or flight safety provides .~or the set of measures, whose main object is the human operator, that insures a high level or health in aircrew personnel and their psy chophysiological and psychological capacities, such as to guarar.tee high reliability in the human element of the system by which an aircraft or helicopter is controlled. The medical measures in this direction cover candidate selection for civial aviation flying schools and DOSAAF flying clubs in respect of candidates' state of health and observation of their health during t raining and flight activities; evaluation of candidates' personal qualities also n lays a certain role. An important place is assigned to questions of work, rest ~r:~ eating sctiedules, arid also to observation of the physical preparedness of aircrew and flight engineer personel and other special aviation medicine matters. One special area in insuring flight safety is medical analysis of the causes and conditions of flying accidents and aircrew errors in order to prepare medical ' - recommendations to prevent them. The most topical questions of inedical b ackup for flight safety in civil aviation and DOSAAF aviation are discussed in the relevant chapters. This book is intended for aviation doctors and other aviation specialists, and its aim is an attempt to offer a systematized presentation of questions of aviation medicine as they apply to the features of inedical backup for flight safety in aircraft of th~ civil aviation and DOSAAF. - Contents Page ~ ' Foreword 3 Chapter 1. Development of Aviation Medicine in the USSR (Prof. A.N. Babiychuk, doctor of inedical sciences) 5 = Chapter 2. Medical Aspects of Work and Rest Schedules for Aircrew Personnel (V.F. Onishchenko, F.V. Babchinskiy, candidates of inedical sciences) 21 Chapter 3. Physiological.and�Hygiene�Characteristics of the Flight Deck and Passenger Sections (G.A. Demidov, candidate of inedical sciences) 41 52 FOR OFFICCAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL US~ ONLY , The pilot's working position 42 Cabin microclimate in passenger aircraft 45 Barometric pressv.rz 45 Air temperature in pressurized cabins 49 Relative humidity in pressurized cabins 50 Atmospheric ozone 52 Chapter 4. The Role of Vision in Flight Activity (I.D. Semikopnyy, candidate of inedical sciences) 54 Visual acuity and vision correction in flight activity 55 Correction of vision 57 Aircrew personnel vision in night flying 58 Spatial orientation in flight 61 - Significance of color vision iM flight 64 Studies of pilot visual functions in an aircraft cabin 65 Studies of visual perception of instruments .........e 66 Chapter 5. Effects of Altitude Factors on the Body and Physiological-Hygiene Features While in a Rarefied Atmosphere _ (Prof. Ye.M. Peshkov, doctor of inedical sc:iences) 68 Main altitude factors characterizing high-altitude flight, and their biological significance 68 Change in barometric pressure and its effect on the body 69 Causes of and conditions for the onset of changes in barometric prassure 69 Effect on the body of gas expansion in the pneumatic cavities 71 Changes in the body during liberation of gases dissolved in the blood and tissues 73 V~.~or for.mation in the fluid amd semif luid media of the body 74 ' The role of partial pressure in supplying oxygen to the tissues at high altitudes ......................................................e.. 76 Features of beathing atmospheric air at altitude 76 Features of breathing an air-and-oxygen mixture 82 Features of breaching pure oxygen (excluding air supplied via a mask) 83 FeaturQs of breathing hyperbaric oxygen 87 Features of breathing hyperbaric oxygen with the use of comp~nsation (counterpressure) 93 Chapter 6. Accelerations in Flight and Their Effect on the Human Body (I.A Tsvetkov, doctor of inedical sciences). 96 Physical characteristics of accelerations and conditions in which they occur 96 Accelerations during takeoff and landing 103 Accelerations in flight 114 Ctiapter 7. Aviation Noise and Its Effect on the Body (V.M. Kozin, candiate of inedical sciences) 122 Sources of noise and their characteristics 123 Effect of noise on the body 126 Ways of reducing noise and means of protection against noise factors 129 = Chapter 8. Vibration (Yu.N. Kamenskiy, candidate of inedical sciences) 133 Sources. Physical characteristics 133 Effect of vibration on the k?uman body 134 Symptoms of vibration sickness 137 Prevention of vibration sickness 142 53 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY - Chapter 9. Basic Principles in Medical Flight Examinations in the Civil Aviation (B.L. Gel'man, candiate of inedical sciences) 146 Medical monitoring in the periods between examinations 147 ' Annual certification of aircrew personnel by the flight medical board 148 _ - Preflight medical monitoring 150 ' Medical monitoring during flying 151 Chapter 10. Medical Support for Flying at Aviation Schools (Prof. A.N. Babiychuk, doctor of inedical sciences, A.G. Gridchin, M.A. Palamarchuk) .o 153 Differences between visual flight and instrument flight 154 Introductory, training, test and solo flights 156 Instrument flight 156 Chapter 11. Medical Support for Parachute Jumping (I.A. Tsvetkov, doctor of inedical sciences) 164 The parachute as a means of descending from altitude and the classification 164 of parachute jumps The effect of parachute jumping on the human body 170 Medical support for parachute jumping and the prevention of traumatism 172 Emergency escape from high-performance aircraft 175 G-loads developing in emergency escape for an aircraft and their effect , on the body 1~7 Prevention of traumatism during ejection �180 Chapter 12. Medical Support for Aviation Sportsmen in the USSR DOSAAF (Prof. A.N. Babiychuk, doctor of inedical sciences, M.A. Palamarchuk) 184 Chapter 13. Search and Rescue for. Aircrew Personnel and Passengers - (Prof. Babiychuk, doctor of inedical sciences) 188 Chapter 14. Questions of Aviation Toxicology (T.A. Drobyshevskaya, candidate of inedical sciences) 196 The degree and nature of the effects of noxious chemicals ............o... 197 Noxious chemicals in the air on the flight deck and in passenger sections 200 and monitoring the status of the air Atmospheric ozone 203 Radiation background from cosmic radiation 204 Aviation fuel, lubricants, and products from their thermal-oxidative breakdown. Preventive measures when servicing and repairing aviation equipment . 206 Aviation fuel. Kerosene. Gasoline 20G Chronic pofisoning; effect on the skin; first aid 207 Prevention of poisoning 208 Lubricants. 208 A. Mineral oil 209 B. Synthetic lubricants 209 C. Prevertive measures 210 Polymers used in the cabins of airliners 217 Noxious chemicals in atmospheric air at airports, and monitoring them 218 Chapter 15. Medical Support in Crop-Spraying Operations (L.D. Derevyanko, candidate of inedical scisnces) 222 54 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FUR O~FIC'lAL USE ONI.Y Chapter 16. Physiological-Hygiene Principles for Protecting Crews (or Passengers) against Shortage of Oxygen in the Air (Prof. Ye.M. Peshkov, doctor of inedical sciences) 229 Basic principles in group protection against reduced barometric pressure and insufficient oxygen in the air 229 Basic principles in individual protection against the effect of reduced partial pressure for oxygen 230 Basic principles and features of physiological-hygiene requirements for oxygen equipment and for the amount of oxygen needed for crew meiubers 231 Basic principles and features in determining physiological-hygiene requirements for oxygen equipment and the amount of oxygen needed for passengers and stewards 241 Bibliography 245 Chapter 4. The Role of Vision in Flight Activity. _ In order to insure normal flight both by day and at night, pilots should have vision good enough to read the instruments quickly; their eyes should focus well when looking outside the aircraft cabin, particularly against a background of the unfocused fi~ld of vision; they should be able to distinguish correctly any light or colored orientation devices and light signals; they shoul3 be able to adapt quickly to bright or dim illumination; they should be able to see instrument _ readings in emergency and pre-emergency situations, that is, in time-deficit conditions. It has been shown that in aircrew personnel the organ of sight is under great stress when flying an aircraft in both clear and difficult weather conditions. According to both Soviet and foreign publications, about 90 percent of all information the pilot receives comes through the visual analyzer. This has also been confirmed by the fact that in today's aircraft there is a large number of flight instruments which the pilot must constantly monitor. In individual types of aircraft there are now as many as 600 instruments and symbols carrying various kinds of visual information. In addition, the instruments combine readings for several parameters characterizing the aircraft's position in the air. During flight, the visual analyzer is subjected to the effect of various adverse factors, as for example the speed of flight, which is frequently combined with a time deficit in observing the readings of the flight instruments and evaluating the spatial position of the aircr~ft. Time deficit is seen particularly in emergency situations when the pilot does not manage to perceive instrinnent readings correctly; this can lead to pilot error. Considerable significance for visual work in flight attaches to the layout of instruments and control panels. It is common knowledge that many of them are located not in the center of the pilot's f ield of vision but way above his head, or on the side, to the left and right �relative to his position in the cabin. In order to maintain constant and simultaneous visual observations on all instruments 55 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL US~ ONLY and the various symbols within his working area, the pilot must not only turn his head to either side but also change the position of his trunk within his seat, as a result of which he is under constant stress. In addition to his work on the flight deck the pilot must at the same time observe the situation outside the cabin. This means that he frequently flies with unfavorable light conditions in the cabin. At night, lighting conditions in the cabin are not usually optimum since if illwnination fs normal the pilot will be able to orient himself only poorly with respect to the situation outside. This is why during night flying, illumina~ion of the instrument panel and control console should be minimal but at the same insure that instruments can be read. Irrational lighting at the pilot's position can lead to premature visual fatigue. In civil aviation many aircrew personnel are aged 45-50 or more. Efficiency 3~~ their work depends not only their general physical condition but also on the status of the visual analyzer, and iri particular, its functional reserves. There is good evidence that in pilots in the older age group, during the process of flying work these reserves are rapidly depleted, and during intense and prolonged stress they may be completely exhausted. In this connection, great significance attaches not only to the status of the visual analyzer at any given moment but also to its reserves for insuring further visual work at a sufficiently high level. Therefore, in evaluating the status of the visual functions in aircrew personnel, particular significance attaches to special examination methods that must be adequate for flying work and sensitive enough to detect visual fatigue. Moreover, they should assist the aviation doctors in detecting the early signs of pathologic and functional disorders in the visual analyzer during the process of flying activity. It is very important to conduct these studies in time-deficit condit~ons, and this is - achieved by giving subjects special tests. Among the large number of visual functions there are some on which flight procedures and ultimately flight safety depend directly. These include visual acuity and - accommodation, night vision, spatial orientation, color vision and so forth. Visual Acuity and Vision Correction in Flight Activity ~ Visual acuity is determined by the resolution of the retina. The centraZ part of. the retina, called the macula lutea retinae, insures the highest level of visual acuity (1.0-1.5 and more). On the periphery, retinal resolution falls off sharply. Thus, for example, at a distance of 10� from the macula lutea retinae, visual acuity is 30 percent of the maximum, and at a distance of 20�, only 15 percent. Visual stress in a pilot when monitoring instruments on the flight deck of an aircraft and other orientation devices outside it is put mainly on the central vision. Visual acuity is' a quite stable function, but under flying conditions its level, when acted upon by various adverse internal and external factors that the pilot frequently encounters during flight, can be altered. Enhanced flight stress affects visual acuity in pilots. As a result, as a rule there is fatigue of the ocular muscles that insure ocular accommodation. Accommodation disorders in pilots are observed most frequently at ages 45-50 or older. In most cases they cannot read - the text ~f flight documents rapidly and correctly at the usual distance without 56 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY appropriate correcting glasses. At the same time, given only a small degree of age-related hyperopia (of the order of 1.0-1.5 diopter) they can distinguish the instruments and other symbols on the control panel, located at a distance of some 60-80 centimeters from their eyes, quite satisfactorily. With a large degree of presbyopia (for example, 3.0-3-5 diopter), and in maximum magnitudes of hyperopia in refraction, which are regarded as serious medical conditions, instrument readings can be seen with difficulty, while small symbols or slight deviations in needles on scales of instruments cannot be seen at all. The or.set of visual fatigue is rapid in pilots aged 45-50, and in this connection they are forc~d more frequently to take breaks in order to rest. At a greater distance, however, that is, outside the aircraft cabin, as a rule these pilots are utell oriented. The only exceptions are those pilots who are found to have a high degree of hyperopia (1.5-2.0 diopter) during medical flight examinations. Vision acuity studies during medical flight examinations by boards are usually done with the aid of the Golovina-Sivtsev chart, which consists of 12 rows of symbols. This chart has serious shortcomings since the difference between the rows of symbols on the test chart corresponding to vlsual acuity of 0.1-0.2 is 100 percer~t, 0.2 to 0.3, 50 percent, 0.3 to 0.4, 33 percent, and so forth. This method allc~ws error in evaluating visual~.acuity when doing studies on individuals - with lowered visual acuity. This defect is eliminated in visual acuity studies with the aid of the Kholina chart, which consists of 33 rows of Landolt`s rings. Visual acuity is determined with an accuracy down to 10 percent at all stages in loss of acuity. . Thus, in cases where it is necessary to clarify visual acuity through conclusions reached by a board, or for the purpose of prescribing prophylactic measures, the use of the Kholina chart can be fully recommended as an additional method during visual acuity studies. Visual acuity studies can also be done with the aid of just one symbol, by using a broken Landolt's ring. By moving it toward and away from the subject the threshold distance can be determined for the correct response; which, given the appropriate recalculation, will characterize visual acuity. The ability of pilots to make observations outside the aircraft cabin during flight, particularly during takeoff and landing, that is, when there are time constraints on tracking ground and air orientation devices, is evaluated from the status of ' dynamic visual acuity. At a rate of movement for an object at up to 20�/second at an exposure time of _ 1.0 seconds, dynamic visual acuity is static (M.G. Kozyr'kova). Each subsequent increase in the rate at which an object moves relative to the preceding 20�/second reduces dynamic v~GUal acuity by 0.1 to 0.2 As a rule, as exposure time is reduced, dyanmic visual acuity falls off. An individual ability to distinguish maving objects, and arso age-related changes in dynamic visual acuity, have been established. The ].owest indexes for it occur in individuals older than 40. In order to determine the relationship between static and dynamic visual acuity so as to clarify individual and age-related features in the perception of moving objects, it is advisal~le to - conduct studies on dynamic visual acuity with objects moving at a rate of 80�/second at an exposure of 0.25-v.5 seconds. 57 FiDR OFF[C[AL USC ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL US~: ONLY Correction of Vision The u~e in flight of correcting glasses by individuals with age-related weakening of accommodation is provided for by the existing regulations on medical certification for aircrew personnel in civil aviation. Aircrew personnel with abnormal refraction are not permitted to fly when using correcting glasses. Compared with other countries that are members of the ICAO, in the Soviet Union,. standrad requirements for permitting aircrew personnel to fly are considerably more stringent in terms of the status of the main visual functions (visual acuity, refraction accommodation). Thus, for example, minimum requirements for visual acuity for pilots of classes 1 and 2 aircraft within the civil aviation system are 0.6-0.7, while abro~d, these functional requirements have been lowered to 0.1- 0.3, that is, by a factor of 2 or 3. Correcting glasses designed for aircrew personnel shoul'd possess a number of advantages - over regular. correcting glasses made for the general public in our country. First of all, flying glasses should be unbreakable, fireproof and dustproof to a certain extent, fit closely on the pilot's face, and have reliable fastenings. They should restrict the field of vision as little as possible. The optical glass in flying glasses should have one or two, or even three focal distances if required, and the glass should be able to be replaced easily for other glass. Each crew member who uses glasses should have a spare pair made to the same prescription when he flies. , Aircrew Personnel Vision in Night Flying In civil aviation night flying and flying at dusk now occur extensively. Modern navigational aids, improved airfield lighting and radar equipment make it possible - for pilots to continue flying in even the most complex weather conditions. Howev~r, the increased stress on the visual analyzer in conditions of relatively low internal cabin illumination can negatively affect the quality of the pilot's work. It has been established that in night flying, pilot recognition of instrument readings and weak light signal~ in the a~rcraft cabin and of orientation devices outside the cabin is possible only if he has a high level not only of light sensitivity - but also of acuity in night vision. In this connection, the maintenance of conditions that promote a high functional status for the visual analyzer in aircrew personnel during reduced illumination is considered a major problem in medical support for night flying. In contrast to day vision, night vision is more labile. Factors reducing night vision include insufficient oxygen supply, fatigue resulting from incorrect organization of work by aircrews, the consumption of alcohol on the day before flying and so forth. The use of vitamins by aircrew personnel is most important for maintaining a high level of night vision. Thus, for example, if vitamins A, C and B are deficient in food, night vision can be reduced extremely rapidly. At the same time it can be rapidly restored to its initial level after vitamins have been supplied to the pilot's body (M.S. Trusov). 58 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY In our country, several instruments have been proposed and applied for ligh~ sensitivity studies for the purpose of professional selection of pilots. They have included in their time the extensive use of the Kravkov-Vishnevskiy chamber. However, during the process of operating this instrument serious defects were found that affected the quality of studies on night vision in aircrew personnel. Thus, for example, the Kravkov-Vishnevskiy chamber did not enable visual acuity to be studied in lowered illumination, as at night. As a result, the medical board's conclusions on the suitability of aircrew and trainee personnel for flying were based only on data on the rate of nighttime adaptation. At the same time, visual acuity is of great significance for pilots' visual orientation in conditions of lowered illumination. Nighttime adaptation and visual acuity are insured by different elements of the retina and are not mutually dependent. In medical flight examination certification, nighttime adaptation and visual acuity for night can be studied differentially by using the instrument of I.D. Semikopnyy.* The instrument (figure 4.1) is.a portable rectangular box with lightproof covers forming a dark chamber 50 centimeters long. This length precludes the effect of acco~odation on the results of the study. Red and orange aircraft silhouettes and Landolt's rings are used as the experimental test objects (figure 4.2). A facility for altering their position during the study makes it possible at the same time to monitor the indications of the sub~ect. Inside the chamber, illumination can be varied within the limits of 0.0004 to 3 lux, which makes it possible to create the conditions of a natural night varying from dark cloud cover to moonlight, and also to simulate twilight. Studies are done in three stages (baseline adaptation, - a 2-minute deadaptation, and the study proper of nighttime adaptation and acuity in night vision). The fact that the instrument is portable and the facilities for rapid studies (3 to 5 minutes~ make it possible to use it (in flight) for pro- fessional selection and subsequent monitoring of the status of night vision of aircrew personnel in the periods between medical certification. Many years ~f experience have shown that aircrew personnel with lowered night � vision functions in regard to nighttime adaptation (more than 60 seconds) and with a visual acuity of less than 0.03 usually experience difficulties of some kind in visual orientation during night flying. According to available figures, they make up 2.2-2.6 percent of all individuals studied. During the winter and spring period the number of individuals with lowered night vision is sharply reduced (to,l percent). Comparative studies done ou healthy subjects and individuals with impaired night vision using the Semikopnyy instrument under clinical conditions at the Military Medical Academy imeni S.M. Kirov and the Moscow Institute of Eye Diseases imeni Gel'mgolts have made it possible to establish a standard for permitting flying work *I.D. Semikopnyy's instrument for doing night vision studies has now been adopted by the USSR Ministry of Health for supply to all medical establishments in the country. In addition, in 1961 at the International Congress of Military Ophthalmologists in Budapest it was confirmed as the standard instrument for testing night vision in pilots in the socialist countries. 59 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ in pilots who have a rate of nighttime adaptation of no more than 60 seconds and an acuity of night vision of at least 0.03. Individuals in whom the status of these functions is lower than the establisned level are grounded for night flying for a period of treatment. Experience in the Air Force has shown that timely administration of prophylactic vitamin therapy for pilots with a rate of nighttime adaptation of between 50 and 60 seconds and visual acuity down to 0.03 sharply reduces the n~mmber - of individuals grounded from night flying because of the status of this function. ~ 1 ~ 3 2 0 ~ 4 0 ~II ~I 0 o Figure 4.1 The Semikopnyy Instrument for Night Vision Studies 1. Housing 2. Panel 3. Lightproof cover 4. Obturator V/S - ~ 0, 06 U a,os _ ~i 40p ' O,OJ , 1 0,0? 1 0,15 . Figure 4,2 Experimental Test Objects for Night Vision Studies using the Semikopnyy Instrument 60 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Spatial Orientation in Flight - The pilot's spatial orientation includes definition of the bearing and distance of visible orientation devices and also evaluation of their relative locations~ For a pilot to judge the quality of visual evaluation of dist~nce under f light conditions it is necessary for him to have an adequately high level of perception ~ for the relative and absolute distance of ob~ects. Depending on the observation conditions, visual orientation in space is effected in binocular or monocular vision. However, in monocular vision the signs characterizing spatial vision are perceived less precisely. Binocular vision insures better quality perception of space because of the additional pulses arriving in the cerebral cortex from the eye muscles in convergence and divergence. Observation of space is made difficult in a so-called "empty fiel.d," when there are no kinds of landmarks, as for example against the background of the sea, in a cloudless sky, or at night with lowered illumination. The pilot becomes to some extent myopic and unable to observe distant landmarks. The Howard Dolman instrument is used for studying spatial vision in pilots. Iri research work, many people use - various modifications of this instrument. Some interest has been aroused in the modification made by the Polish ophthalmologist E. Zagar (1961). This instrument makes it possible simultaneously to evaluate the depth between objects and their height. Three rods (or needles), one ut which moves, are used as the test objects. The subject observes the ub~ect through an aperture in a screen measuring 20 centimeters wide by 12 centimeters high while his head is restrained by a special device. A modification of the intrument--a portable version with an indpendent power supply, named the "Neptun,"--has been developed at the State Optics Institute (Leningrad) for evaluating relative distance in flight activity conditions (directly at the pilot's working area). However, because of the extremely small dimensions of the - test objects and the small distance at which they are presented to the sub~ect (not from 5 meters as provided for by the Howard-Dolman method, but from 20 centimeters), accuracy and reliability of results are reduced. At this distance it is not so much the status of spatial vision but the status of accommodation in the subject that is determined. In order to judge the quality of visual evaluation of distance in flight activity conditions, in 1967 V.V. Baranovskiy developed an instrument with whose aid individual sensitivity is determined.to basic stimuli that have a signal value in evaluating absolute distance. The stud3~ takes no more than 3 to 5 minutes, which makes it possible to use this instrument in civil aviation and DOSAAF during medical flight examinations, and in research work. Within the instrument a set of stimuli are modeled, typical for the visual perception of changes in absolute distance. The instrument makes it possible to alter the magnitude of the ob~ect and the degree of its approach, which corresponds to rQal observation of an object moving within limits of 30 to 50 meters. 61 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY A dependence has been established between the quality of flying and the status of absolute distance on the instrument; this dependence is par~ticularly noted when an aircraft is landing. In individua.ls making good or excellent landings, the perception threshold is 1 to 9 meters. In satisfactory and unsatisfactory landings, thresholds increase to 18 meters. Threshold magnitudes of 10 meters for absolute distance when an object is moving away from the observer have been established as standard. ' When studying spatial vision and the facility to evaluate a spat3.a1 position correctly during.flight, it is also necessary to kn~w the status of other visual functions that participate directly or.indirectly in spatial vision and insure that it is - at an adequately high level. These functions include binocular vision, muscular balance in the eyes, the availability of fusion reserves and others. The status of muscular balance in the eyes is insured by the correct placement of the two eyeballs in their orbits; this is known as orthophoria. In this version of muscular balance, both eyes are directed toward a fixed point without additional load. However, other innate versions of muscular balance also exist, as for example in latent strabismus, when the visual axis of one eye does not match that of the other. This condition is known as heterophoria. Fixation on a point in space by both eyes is in this case compensated by fusion forces in the oculomotor muscles. In this connection it is generally assumed that heterophoria is an indicator of potential instability in binocular vision. However, experimental studies by V.V. Baranovskiy and Yu.P. Petrova using a measured load on the convergence-accommodation apparatus have shown that stability of binocular vision in aircrew personnel with heterophoria of 2� is greater than in orthophoria or heterophoria of 1�. It is suggested that this kind of stability. in binocular vision in heterophoria is explained by the itineration of the nerve pathways in the central part of th~ visual analyzer resulting from continuous excitation of the retinal convergence reflex to the - activity. These data have served as a basis for lifting the restriction on flying in individuals with impairment of.this function. Practical flying activity has shown that there have been no aviation accidents associated with heterophoria in pilots. According to some authors (E. Zagar), muscular equilibrium is considered impaired only when esophoria reaches 3.0 D and exophoria 5.0 D for distance, and esophoria up to 2.0 D and exophoria up to 8.0 D for close vision. When doing studies on the oculomotor apparatus it is very important to rule out _ oculomotor paralysis and paresis, which can be detected by using the ~louble-image method (with colored glasses). This method is used when individuals complain of diplopia, and also when, during diploscope studies, the symbols on the chart are - read by the subjE :t not along one horizontal line, because the diplogram for one eye is higher than that for the other. Fusion reserve:; make up that status of muscular strength in the external and internal ocular muscles in convergence and divergence. They determine the binocular stability of both eyes. To study this function, a special device called a Herschel prism is now in series production in the GDR. Two prisms are mounted in a special frame with a handle for holding it in the hand. In the zero position the prisms neutralize 62 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLV each other and appear a_s plain glass. When one prism is turned within the frame relative to the other, refraction is either increased or decreased. During the study the prism is hald in front of the Zeft or right eye. The subject focuses both eyes on a point at a distance of 1 meter. The prism is then rotated with the base facing the nose, or the other way round. In the first case fusion reserves on the internal ocular muscles will be determined, and in the latter case, the external muscles. The instrument is scaled in diopters. Significance of Color ilision in Flight The ability to perceive different colors in the working area and outside it is an - innate function related to day vision. At night, colors are not distinguished by their shade at illuminations less than 0.1 lux. At night, individuals with normal color vision distinguish unlit colored orientation devices or colored ob~ects on. the ground and in the air not by the color shade but by their relative brightness or color brightness. In the dark an orange-red shade is perceived as mostlp dark, while a green-blue shade is mostly light. The ability to distinguish colors normally is ma^datory for aircrew personnel, sinc~ during flight it is essential to distinguish rapidly and accurately signals such as airport and navigational lights, warning signals, rockets, flags and so forth. The ability to distinguish the color of landmarks on the ground under local conditions is just as important; this is essential, in particular, in forced landings. Colored light indicators are used extensively in the aircraft cabin. - Luminous colored signals are perceived much better than signals illuminated by natural light. However, tt~e angular dimensions of signals and their brightness characteristics are by no means unimportant in the pilot's discriminator ability. Colored signals that are small or at extremely low brightness may pass quite unnoticed or be taken as a signal of another color if the pilot is in a time-deficit situation. Color vision can be impaired in various kinds of nervous disorders or in nervous stress, as frequently occurs during flight under complicated conditions, and also subsequent to diseases of the eyes or central nervous system Color vision studies can be done using several methods: with the aid of color charts, - anomaloscopes and colored lights. The Ye.B. Rabkin polychromatic charts are usually _ used in medical certification for aircrew personnel. In studies of the status of color vision, when using these charts the function is considered defective when there is incorrect reading of its individual test ob~ects, without taking into account the features of professional activity. Research conducted by A.B. Flek~el' has shown that type C anomalous trichromats can correctly distinguish the colored lights used in aviation practice. The decisive factor in studies of color vision by medical flight certification - boards should be the determination of thresholds for distingua;hing colors. The (Rautin) anomaloscope is the most suitable for this; it makes it possible to determine acuity in distinguishing color in ea^.h of the systems of the color-perception apparatuses of the eyes, namely those for red, green and blue. Using this method it is possible to detect early impairment of color vision. 63 FOR OFFIC.IAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The use of colored lights does not permit quantitative differentiation in the status of color vision but it does insure maximum approximation to condir_ions in flying work connected with distinguishing colored signals used in aviation. The colored- light method is used to present to the subject lights with different color characteristics (as in air navigational lights) at great distances (up to 2 to 3 kilometers) under airfield conditions. The visual work capacity of aircrew personnel in civil aviation is evaluated on the basis of results from testing visual functions at relative rest, that is, on , nonflying dzys. Naturally, under these conditions, the maximum level af visual functions is determ'ined, and in the process of flying activity it can be substantially changed as the result of adverse factors in flight. Studies of Pilot Visual Functions in an Aircraft Cabin With respect to the working conditions of the pilot, it is first~of aZl essential to evaluate the status of the visual functions subject to the greatest change in the process of flying activity. These functions include accommodation, stability - of clear sight, visual throughput capacity, and close visual acuity. Evaluation of visual perception of instruments and signs by pilots should be done directly in the working area of the aircraft cabin. During the first stage, these studies ~ can be done in up-to-date sim~:lators during the training of aircrew personnel in whom impairment of visual functions was found during the course of inedical flight examination boards or during hospital examinations. Accommodation studies can be done with the aid of a portable ergograph, determination � of close and distant points in clear vision separately for each eye, or b;~ moving a special text closer to and further away from the subject's eyes. For this it is necessary to have a special ruler with a movable,area on which Landolt's rings or letters from regular charts for studying close visual acuity can be affixed. For young individuals (20 to 30) text 5 or 6 from this chart can be used. For older individuals the text sh~uld be selected on an individual basis and should have considerably larger angular dimensions. Determination of stability in clear sight consists of f ixed observation of rings with gaps (the gap being equal to 1/5 of the .ring diameter) for two or three minutes at a distance close to threshold for the sight of a nonfatigue~i eye. In isolated - periods the gap in the ring is observed clearly while in others It merges ~*ith the ring. "Block" tests consisting of an image of groups of squares can be used for - the same purpose. When looking at a given test the sub~ect sees tt,e figures and the background alternately. This corresponds to a clear sight of the gap in the ring. Exposure of the "block" test is the same. Here, account is taken of the time that the sc~uares themselves are seen (one above and two below: position I) and the time that they are not seen, that is, the time that the background is seen (two squares above and one below: position II). Results from this study are expressed by the rel.ationship between the time of clear sight (position I) to total exposure time (positions I and II). When using the "block" test it is essential to present them against a white background. The subject should gaze f ixedly at the center of the squares for three minutes. Using a stopwatch, the time for the shift in the process of perception is recorded for various positions. 64 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 fOR ()HFI('IAL. l)til�: ()~V1.1' Visual throu~hput capacity is studied with the aid c~f the Krzywoglawy chart, which is a square arrangement of 49 rings with gaps. Each ring has the gap in one of eight possible directions (above, below, on the right, on the left, upper left, lower left, upper right, lower right). The probability of the ring being in any = one of these position is one in eight. The chart is placed at the level of an instrument panel. I1lumination on it should correspond to conditions in appropriate cabin illumination. Aircrew perso~nel being tested determine the position of the gaps in the rings as rapidly as they are able. Each response equals 3 bits (log2 1/8). The information capacity of the entire chart is 147 bits (3 x 49). As - required, the capacity of the chart can be doubled or trebled during testing by turning it one way or the other. Incorrect identification of a ring means a loss of three bits of information. Taking into account the time spent on the test, throughput capacity equals - 147 - (3n) T where n is the number of incorrectly recognized or missed rings, and T is the time that the chart was exposed. - Change in the throughput capacity of the visual analyzer can also be evaluated from the number of errors made before and after stress, that is, before and after flying. _ The physician must have a second copy of the chart to monitor and record errors. Before the test it is necessary to make four or five dummy runs with each subject. _ Studies of Visual Perception of Instruments As the result of age-related changes in ~cular accommodation or other impairments of the visual analyzer, the ability for good perception of visible objects ~an be _ lost. In this connection, studies of the quality of visual discrimination of instrument readings under aircraft cabin conditions (or in simulators) should be - done on individuals at various ages, wearing, if required, correcting glasses that ; compensate accommodation impairments or refraction anomalies. Here it is essential to take into account fatigue in ai.rcrew personnel during the process of working under various illumination conditions for the instrume.lt panel. In one case the ~ level of illumination is set by the pilot himself. In the other two cases illumination sho�.ld corr~spond to the minimum and maximum levels permitted by the standards (Sector Stan~iard 1.00796-751. e The small synibols from the No 5 or 1Vo 6 Sivtsev chart, designed for studies of close visual acuity, are then set on the instrument panel level against one of the - instruments. Evaluation of the visual function can also be done from accurate and rapid discrimination of readirigs of navigatonal instruments at various levels of illumination. Response time is recorded using a stopwatch. Errors made in discerning instrument readings are considered separately. 55 FOR OFF[C.IAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USN: ONI.Y Chapter 5. Effects of Altitude Factors on the Body and the Physiological- ` Hygiene Features While in a Rarefied Atmosphere. Main Altitude Factors Characterizing High-Altitude Flight, and Their Biological ~ S ignif icance . The properties and condition of ground-level atmosphere largely determine the characteristics of all life-support facilities, primarily altitude and oxygen equipment, and hence, the working conditions for the crew. The atmosphere consists of several layers, each of which has its own character in terms of changes in and properties of physical-meteorological parameters. The - lowest and most dense layer of the Earth's atmosphere is called the troposphere; it extends from the Earth's surface up to various heights in different parts of the world: above the pole up to 7,000-8,000 meters, in the middle latitudes up to l0,OQ0-11,000 meters, and above the equator up to 17,000-18,OOO~meters. The troposphere is of ~reat biological importance and a main element in the Earth's entire ecologic system in which the metabolic processes essential for maintaining life take place. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. In terms of its physical-meteorological characteristics it is more stable. ~ The absence of fog and dust in the stratosphere determines the good visibility and more favorable flying conditions. The stratosphere extends up to 50,000-60,000 meters. Air temperature in the stratosphere at altitudes of 11,000 to 32,000 meters is almost constant within the range -56�C to -57�C. Atmospheric air is a mixture of various gases whose composition at various locations on the Earth`s surface and at various altitudes remains virtually unchanged; up to 7,000 meters it also contains moisture. At sea level, the main gases are found in air in the following proportions: nitrogen 78.08 percent, oxygen 20.95 percent, argon 0.93 percent, carbon dioxide 0.03 percent: In atmospheric air, oxygen is found in three forms, namely molecular, atomic, and in the form of ozone. Atomic oxygen possesses toxic properties. However, considering that it is found at altitudes greater than 100,000 meters, it presents no danger to the hinnan body. The availability of molecular oxygen in atmospheric air is of great biological significance since it insures the conditions essential for supporting life. The redox processes in the human body take place thanks to molecular oxygen. Czone is found in small amounts in atmospheric air. It is formed mainly by the action of ultraviolet rays from the Sun and cosmic rays, and, in the lower atmosphere, in lightning discharges. Ozone possesses high biological activity and toxic properties and is a powerful oxidant. 66 FdR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 ! HOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ I While indifferent for the body, nitrogen is of great importance in forming the gaseous medium and atmospheric pressure, but it cannot be considered harmless for the body during changes in barometric pressure. Carbon dioxide is a metabolic end product. Increasing or decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the body can affect the nature of functional a~itivity in variaus systems. Various kinds of radiation in the atmosphere are of certain biological significance. They include electroma gnetic, corpuscular, ultraviolet, X-rays and others. Barometric pressure f alls with altitude, and as it falls partial pressure for oxygen also falls. At great altitudes the human body is subjected to comprehensive effects from the Eollowing adverse factors: lowered partial pressure for oxygen, low barometric pressure, low air temperature, radiant energy, and others. Of these, the most adverse are lowered partial pressure for oxygen and tne drop in barometric pressure. Change in Barometric Pressure and its Effect on the Body Causes of and Conditions for the Onset of Changes in Barometric Pressure., ~ Changes in barometric pressure in terms both of rate and magnitude are not without consequence for the body. Man feels pressure gradient during climbing to or - descending from altit ude, and also when an aircraft cabin depressurizes. By a pressure gradient is meant an increase or decrease in barometric pressure; and also the difference between the pressure of the surrounding meclium and the pressure in a pressurized aircraf t cabin. Depending on its direction, a gradient is either a decompression gradient or a compression gra~ient, that is, it is either falling or rising. The main characteristics of a pressure gradient are the rate, the multiplicity factor, the magnitude and the duration. The rate of a gradient is the change in the magnitude of pressure per unit of time (mmHg pPr second). Gradient multiplicity factor is defined as the relationship between the pressure in a pressurized cabin (in normal flight) and the barometric pressure of ttie surro unding medium. Gradient magnitude is defined by the difference in barometric pressure inside the cabin before and after depressurization. Pressure gradients that occur in less than one second are called explosive decompression. This kind of situation can occur in sudden accidental depressurization of the cabin. In exp losive decompression there is a noise like an explosion which is the sound of the air rushing out of the cabin; condensation of air vap~rs forms fog and dust in the cabin. The causes of cabin d epressurization during flight at great altitudes, and of changes in barometric pressure in the cabin, can be damage to the walls or glazing (windows), engine failure or failure oF the air-conditioning system, and inadequate pressurization of individual cabin e lements becausz of malfunction. . 67 FOR OFFICIAL USE aNLX APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 HUR OFFI('IA1. USF UN1.Y Change in the barometric pressure during flight exerts a definite effect on the bodies ~f the pilot and passengers, and i~he magnitude of this effect depends on cabin - pressurization and the. operation of systems regulating pressure. In a drop in barometric pressure, various kinds of dysbarism processes can occur, that is, disarders in the body associated with the change in barometric pressure that depend on a number of cond?ti~ns, including the time taken for the pressure change, the frequency, and the mnltiplicity factor of the gradient. Dysbarism processes are usually divided into three main groups: , processes associated with the expansion of gases and the occurrence of excess pressure in the hollow organs and difficulties in equalizing this pressure with ambient pressure; this is the phenomenon of altitude meteorism associated with the expansion of gases in the gastrointestinal tract, blocked ears, earache, pain in the area of Che ~~nus maxillaris and the sinus frontalis, and so forth; processes associated with the formation of gas bubbles in the tissue from gases previously dissolved in the tissues (altitude joint and muscular gain, altitude cough and other decompression disorders); processes associated with the formation of vapors ("boiling") in fluid and semifluid mediums, particularly the onset of altitude subcutaneous emphysema. Effect on the Body of Gas Expansion in the Pneumatic Cavities Processes associated with the expansion of gases and increased pressure in the pneumatic cavities in the human body are usually considered in the following aspects: in decreased ambi~nt pressure--a decompression gradient; in increased ambient pressure--a compression gradient; in small pressure variations in a pressurized cabin during varying flight conditions. Climbing to altitude is accompanied by an increase in the volume of gases present in the gastrointestinal tract (altitude meteorism) (see table 5.] ) Table 5.1 Characteristics of the Increase in the Circumference of the Torso at the Level of the Abdomen at Altitudes 2,000-14,000 Meters Altitude in meters Condition 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000 14,000 Perimeter of the torso at the level 0.6- 1.0- 2.2- 4.0- 5.1- 6.4- 8.2- of the abdomen 0.8 1.8 3.4 4.7 5.8 7.9 10.4 (umbilicus), cm. . 68 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY � APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY As the intestines dilate and abdominal pressure rises, the mobility of the diaphragm is restricted during inhalation and exhalation, the depth of respiration is reduced and the tidal volume of the lungs is decreased. Pressure on the diaphragm changes the position of the heart and as a result circulation is impeded. In addition to the mechanical effect on internal organs and the circulatory and respiratory systems, altitude meteorism exerts a marked reflex influence on other organs and systems. With only a slight increase in the expansion of gases in the intestine, individuals experience unpleasant sensations in the abdominal field. With a significant increase in the volume of gases in the intestines, severe autonomic vascular disorders can develop. The ingestion of food rich in fat or of carbonated beverages promotes the formation of intestinal gas. Gradual decrease in the pressure of the surrounding medium causes virtually no unpleasant sensations in the middle ear or the frontal and maxillary sinuses. _ Howevery in sharp pressure gradients or if there are inflammatory processes present, blocking of the ears and sensatio*~s of "popping" and pain can occur as the result of swelling of the mucosa and stenosis of th~ canals. A drop in pressixre in the surrounding medium is usually tolerated better than an increase, since air is removed from a cavity more easily than it is forced in. If the pressure gradient moves from low to high, in most individuals the unpleasant _ sensations and popping and pain in the ears are usually experienced when the gradienfi _ is moving at the rate of 1.2-1.6 mmHg/second. The pressure difference formed between . the cavity of the middle ear and the surrounding medium acts as a definite irritant _ on the nerve endings. Similar phenamena occur in the frontal and paranasal sinuses when equalization of pressure is impeded in the case of compression gradients. Rapid (explosive) decompression, which is most often associated with rapid cabin depressurization during flight, occupies a special place in the general scheme of the effect of barometric pressure on the human body. The special feature of its effect is that the drop in pressure in the medium surrounding the body creates a large difference between the pressure in the hollow organs and in the surrounding medium. Excess air pressure (free gas) in the hollow organs (intestines, paranasal _ sinuses, frontal sinuses, lungs) can cause unpleasant sensations and sometimes even pain. The effect of explosive decompression on the body depends mainly on the magnitude and duration of the gradient, and also on the patency of the respiratory airways, respiratory resistance, the phase of the respiratory cycle, the design of oxygen masks, means of compensation and the method by which oxygen is being fed to t'he lungs. During decompression, t:nder the effect of excess pressure occurring at the moment of decompression pulmonary tissue is subjected to expansion and the diaphragm is displaced downward. A stream of nerve impulses passes to the central nervous system �rom the lungs, diaphragm and other internal organs. In the first instant of the effect therP is a reflex deep exhalation followed~ by breath holding and, after a certain period of time, rhythm disorder. The structure of the respiratory cycle is disrupted especially significantly when the explosive decompression coincides with the inhalation phase. Respiratory musr_les are usually stressed and the amplitude of the electromyogram for the respiratory intercostal muscle is increased. This change in the respiratory function is the body's protective response to prevent the danger of overdilation of the the lungs. , ~ ~ 69 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USF ONLY Small pressure variations of varying amplitude and duration occurring during various ~ flight conditions also affect the body. In isolated cases variations in pressure , can reach 18-20 mmHg at a rate of 7-8 mmHg/sec. These pressure changes can cause ; unpleasant sensations in the ears, hsadache, and the phenomenon of general malaise. Their intensity depends on the duration of the effect. In accordance with standards for air worthiness and the requirements for aircraft . cabin pressurization in civil aviation, the~rate of pressure change established for the cabin at any stage of flight, including during climbing and descending from altitude, should not exceed 0.18 mmHg/sec �15%. However, even these magnitudes of variation can cause unpleasant sensations in the ears in some individuals. Changes in the Body During the Liberation of Gases Dissolved in the Blood and Tissues. Above altitudes of 7,000-8,000 meters, any further drop in barometric pressure can be accompanied by decompression disorders that include a range of various changes in the body, including altitude pain in the jo3nts and muscl~s, dermal itch, altitude - cough, retrosternal pain and so forth. Decompression disorders are seen in different ways in different individuals. The probability of their occurrence and their duration depend on the degree of atmospheric rarefaction, the rate of climb, the length of time spent at altitude, the degree of body cooling, physi~al stress and so forth. Decompression disorders are very rarely seen until an altitude of 7,000-8,000 meters has been maintained for 5 minutes. The longer these altitudes are maintained the greater the percentage of cases of decompression disorders. For example, while maintaining altitudes of 10,500-11,000 meters for 1 hour, decompression disorders are seen in 25-30 percent of individuals (averaged figure). Physical stress increases the onset of disorders to 30-45 percent. Most authors think that the cause of the main forms of decompression disorders is the formation and expulsion of bubbles of nitrogen or some other indifferent gas dissolved in body fluids and tissues. Carbon clioxide is also involved in the formation of gas bubbles. Reduced barometric pressure leads to a situation in which body tissues become saturated and oversaturated. The content of gases in the tissues is greater than the limit they can retain at a given pressure. Under these conditions the so-called process of desaturation of the body fr~m gases takes place. Excess gas - contained in the tissues passes into the blood. This process depends on the duration and multiplicity factor of the barometric pressure gradient. In a slow pressure gradi~nt the gases are given off mainly by diffusion. In a rapid pressure gradient gas in dissolved state is given off in the form of bubbles. In falling barometric pressure the body tissues possess the ability to retain a _ certain amount of excess gas. This ability of the tissue is characterized by the coefficier:t of saturation, which is defined as the relationship between the pressure of a gas dissolved in a fluid and the total ambient pressure. The ability of the tissues to retain gases in a slightly oversaturated state creates conditions for maintenance of stability in the internal physicochemical medium. During a sharp barometric pressure gradient moving downward, when gas saturation in the tissues exceeds the maximum limit, gas bubbles are formed. Intensity of � bubble formation depends on the difference in the partial pressure of the gas 70 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI.Y APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USF: ONLY dissolved in the tissues and the pressure of alveolar air, ~nd.also on the hydrostatic pressure in tissues, the condition of the inner surfaces of the vessels, temperature, and the surface tension of fluid mediums in the body. The bubbles that form exert pressure on the tissue surrounding them and cause pain. Typically, gas bubbles can be washed out by venous blood and reach the capillaries through migration. When they enter the pulmonary capillaries the gas bubbles can cause a tickling in the throat and and coughing. When they reach the field of the central nervous system they can cause dizziness, vision changes, paresis, convulsions, paralysis, deterioration of the general condition and loss of work ability. Pain can result from reflex spasms in capillaries and vessels (as the result of deformation). Prolonged pain, in which the dynamic equilibrium of basic nerve processes begins to be disrupted, is frequently accompanied by a secondary reflex response. In these cases, instead of the normal sensations of pain, secondary sensations can occur, with functional disorders in most of the body's systems, acute loss of work ability and collapse (shock). In some cases decompression disorders are seen in.the form of lass of sensation in individual parts of the body or pain along nerve roots. If there are lesions of the higher sections of the central nervous system there can be serious impairment of respiration and the activity of the cardiovascular system, accompanied by manifestations of general asthenia, dizziness, excessive perspiration, nausea,. a precollapse condition and sometimes loss of consciousness. Vapor Formation in the Fluid and Semifluid Media of the Body. In conditions of lowered barometric pressure, below 47 mmHg (at.altitudes above 19,200 meters) with a body temperature of 37�C, the process of vapor formation, so-called "boiling' of biological fluid media, takes place in the most porous tissues of the body as the result of the diffusion of water vapor and dissolved gases (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and others). Here, the so-called "altitude" tissue emphysema develops (figure 5.1 l. The formation of vapor takes place regardless of the degree of blood oxygen saturation. As altitude increases, the gas bubbles formed ini'tially expand, separating the surrounding soft tissues. Individuals experiencing this first begin to feel pressure and then difficulty in moving the hands and fingers, and pain is sometimes felt at the site of the gas bubble. - After descendin~ from altitude, the reverse process takes place (vapor condensation); the gas bubble first decreases in volume and then completely disappears. Tissue emphysema Eorms mainly on skin surfaces not protected by compensating devices, and it i.5 also of a Zocali2ed character limited Co some small area; accordingly, for short periods of time (5-10 minutes) it presents no danger to the life of a human being wearing a special compensating outfit. In order to prevent the formation of vapor on the surface of the body appropriate . counterpressure is created, whicYi should be greater than 47 mmHg when added to atmospheric pressure. The use of full-pressure suits or compensating suits and of compensating gloves and hose for the hands and feet substantially reduces the danger of vapor formation in biological fluids in the human body at high altitudes. 71 FOR OFFIC(AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 ~ FOR OFFICIAI. USE ONLY q 6 ~A) . ~ ~ ' - B ~ ~ . (C) (D) . 2 3 y . Fi~gure S.1 Image of Hands in Conditions of Rarefied Air at Barometric Pressure of 8.5 mmHg with the Onset of Altitude Emphysema ~ _ Key: A and B. Initial condition at barometri�c pressure of 760 mmHg C and D. At barometric pressure of 8.5 mmHg after 10 minutes (the images on the left are outside the hand, the ones on.the right are X-ray pictures) The left hand is protected by a compensating glove. 1. Image of the layers of the compensating glove with.air residues 2. Raising of the skin on the back of the hand because of the vapor . and gas bubbles formed beneath the skin 3. Image of expanded air in the compensating glove 4. X-ray pictute of the vapor and gas bubble on the back of the hand (altitude tissue emphysema) - 72 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The Role of Partial Pressure in Supplying Oxygen to the Tissues at High Altitudes reatures oE Breathing Atmospheric Air at Altitude - Under the conditions of rarefied atmosphere, the magnitude of partial pressure for oxygen is of great importance for the human body since the process of oxygen saturation in the body takes place only when oxygen partial pressure in the pulmonary alveoli is greater than in the capillary blood in the alveolar walls, and in other tissues when it is less than that of capillary blood. Magnitudes for partial pressure for oxygen and carbon dioxide in inhaled air and the human blood and tissues in sea-level conditions are shown in table 5.2. Table 5.2 Partial~pressure mmHg Object Oxyg~n Carbon dioxide Inhaled air 159 0�23 Alveolar air 100-110 40 Arterial blood 75-98 35-43 Venous blood 35-45 41-50 Body tissues 10-20 55-60 - Water vapor and carbon dioxide with a partial pressure of 47 mmHg and 40 mmHg respectively are always present in alveolar air. Oxygen partial pressure is determined by using the following formulas: in alveular air P~ alv. _ (Pn- 47)~~ - 40 ; 2 100 in inhaled air (under mask and in the upper airways) 02 P inhal. _ (P - 47) , ~2 n l00 ' - in atmospheric air 02 P~2atm. = Pn'100 ; where PD is partial. pressure for oxygen, mmHg; Pn is atmospheric pressure, mmHg; 2 02 is the content of oxygen in inhaled air, volumetric percent; 47 is partial pressure for water vapor in the lungs, mmHg; and 40 is the mean magnitude of partial pressure for carbon dioxide in alveolar air, romHg. 73 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAI. USN: ON1.Y As altitude increases total pressure of gases falls; but partial pressure f~r its component parts, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, remains virtually unchanged in alveolar air. In this case a substantial change occurs in the oxygen pressure gradient in alveolar air. As a result of the drop in total pressure and particularly in partial.pressure for oxygen in alveolar air, the process of diffusion is impeded, that is, the passage of oxygen through the alveolar walls into the blood, its bonding with hemoglobin, and its penetration of the tissues. The oxygen deficit in the tissues is caused by the drop in its partial pressure in alveolar air, which causes oxygen starvation (hypoxia). When oxygen is cut off from the tissues in sea-level conditions, human work capability deteriorates already in the first 2-3 minutes be~ause oxygen reserves in the body are used up relatively quickly; after 5-6 minutes the situation is life-threatening. In most individuals, in climbing to altitudes of 1,200-1,300 meters virtually no changes are observed in the body. The body copes satisfactorily with the oxygen deficit in the inhaled air. Starting at altitudes of 1,200-1,500 meters the level of activity in individual functionaZ systems of the body begins to change. These _ changes differ in different individuals. One early sign of hypoxia in these conditions is a deterioration of visual perception of instrument readings at night (the ability to distinguish poorly illuminated figures on instruments deteriorates against the dark background and shaded light, and nightime adaptation suffers). In some individuals, at altitudes of 1,500-2,000 meters initial changes are seen in the activity of the cardiovascular system, external respiration, and higher - nervous activit.y. These changes are frequently insignificant and the pilot's body retains quite satisfactory work capacity. Above 2,000 meters is referred to as the reaction threshold, and the layer of air between 2,000 and 3,000 meters is called "the zone of full compensation," since the human body can cope quite satisfactorily with this kind of oxygen deficit for 3-4 hours. However, in long duration flights (6-8 hours) at altitudes of 2,000-3,000 meters (cabin pressure) - the human body begins to show signs of oxygen starvation. Marked functional changes are seen in the body at altitudes of 3,000-4,000 meters. If these altitudes are maintained for prolonged periods, pulmonary ventilation, heart rate and minute volume increase, arterial pressure~is elevated and a number of other functional changes of an adaptive nature are initiated. At the same time the onset of. general lassitude, somnolence, dyspnea, sensations of heaviness in the head and sometimes clizziness and other signs is seen, that is, all the signs of "altitude disease." The reserves of the body are depleted. An altitude of 4,000 meters is known as the "impairment threshold": heart rate and pulmonary ventilation,rise steadily, the capacity for correct perception of surroundin~ objects and incoming information falls off, and the attention and memory wander; as a result of which general work capacity drops, the onset of apathy and fatigue is seen, and sometimes the phenomenon of euphoria, a state of excitement and slight "intoxication" and so forth. In marked oxygen starvation metabolism is impaired and changes occur in the process of oxidation in protein, lipids and other substances that play key roles in the biochemical responses of the.body. Fluid loss also occurs; this happens mainly as the result of increased evaporation from the skin and the mucosa of the~upper airways. ~ 74 FOR UFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500020002-2 F'ON OFFI('IA1. USH: UNLY In most people, in oxygen dericit the motor activity of the digestive organs is altered, food passes slowly through the gastrointestinal tract, and the functions of the salivary and gastric glands are changed. These phenomena can sometimes be - accompanied by loss of appetite, changed taste sensations and nausea. The altitudes between 4,000 and 6,000 meters are usually referred to as the zone ~ of "incomplete compensation": in most healthy individuals the body can still cope for short periods with the oxygen deficiency in the inhaled air even though it does not fully compensate for demand. The marked increase in the activity of the cardiovascular system and respiration during the first stages of hypoxia is caused mainly by the neuroreflex response. When altitudes of 5,500-6,000 meters are maintained for prolonged periods, the vital organs beging to suffer to a more marked degree from the oxygen deficiency. Marked changes are seen in the central nervous system and the balance of basic neural processes (excitation and inhibition) is upset. The speed of response reactions slows, there is difficulty in motor coordination, logical thinking, attention and memory deteriorate, and differentiated inhibition is affected. Despite the substantial increase in pulmonary ventilation and heart rate, the body is unable to maintain functional systems and the activity of the organs at the required level. Respiration often becomes shallow, the tidal volume decreases, periodicity is seen in the respiratory cycle; the cause in acute oxygen starvation is excessive inhibition of the cerebral cortex and subcortical centers (I.P. Petrov). - Because of the onset af marked disorders in the body, the altitude of 6,000 meters is known as the "critical threshold." As altitude increases blood oxygen saCuration and oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air decrease steadily. Mean figures for change in oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air and blood oxygen saturation when breathing atmospheric air in activity simulating that involved in flying an aircraft 10-15 seconds after the oxygen supply has been cut off, as seen in an altitude chamber (altitudes 6,000 to 12,000 meters), are shown in table 5.3, while the oxyhemogram is shown in figure 5.2. Tab.le 5. 3 ~Altitude in meters Parameter 6000 8000 10,000 12,000 Oxygen partial pressure 35.7-39.8 30.1-34.2 25.3-26.7 21.6-22.4 mmHg in alveolar air Oxygen blood saturation 64-69 54-57 48-50 40-43 from oxyhemograph % At altitudes of 7,000-8,000 meters life-threatening signs are seen a~id the mental capacities begin tu deteriorate relatively quickly (after s~veral minutes). Perception and processing of incoming information is impeded and operator activity deteriorates. 75 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY ~A) ~B~ C) ' ~ v 6 B . ~ I / 1 - . ~ % 02 - - - 100 ~ ~ 2 . 80 I. 60 ~ . 3 UO 20 ~lOc Figure 5.2 Oxyhemogram of Sub~ect I. Recorded at an Altitude of 12,000 meters Following Oxygen Cutoff Key: , A. Oxyhemogram in ground-level conditions B. Oxyhemogram at 12,000 meters breathing oxygen C. Oxyhemogram at 12,000 meters after cutoff of oxygen supply via mask (the arrow pointing downward marks the moment of oxygen cutoff, the arrow pointing upward marks the moment when oxygen was again supplied via the mask) D. 40 seconds 1. Heart rate trace 2. Oxyhemogram 3. Respiratory movements of the thorax (marked in 10-second intervals) ~ Numerous erroneous actions and lack of motor coordination occur. On the EEG (figure 5.3 ) slow high-amplitude waves are seen, while on the EKG (figure 5.4 ) the waves are altered, indicating significant oxygen starvation. Taking into account the frequent cases of critical conditions initiated in the body, the layer of air at altitudes above 6,000 meters is arbitrarily designated as the "critical zone," wh~ere without additional oxygen supply it is dangerous ~ because of the rapid impairment of work capacity and loss of consciousness. When the so-called "reserve time" has run out when breathing rarefied air, work capacity in man is completely disrupted, autonomic disorders are seer~', and the onset of a - syncopal conditions follows. 76 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2447/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500424442-2 F'UR OFFICIAI. USE UNLY aao 00oooooaonoooooooa ~A) � ~i~~~~~~ ~~~~~ii~ii~~~i~iiii~i~iiiiiiiiiiii~iiiiiiiiii 30~B lc ~ O O O O O O O O O O O O p O O O ~ O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O ~ O O (B) 6 ~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iii~iii~~~~~i~i~i:~i~~iii~i~i , ~c e aooooaooooaooo~aaoooao 000000000000.00000000000 ~ (c) e I 30~wB 1 c O O p O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Figure 5.3 Electroencephalogram of Sub,ject L. Key: A. In ground-level conditions B. At altitude of 12,000 meters using "demand oxygen equipment" - C. At altitude of 12,000 meters 1 minute after cutoff of oxygen supply to the mask. 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q D 0 0 0 ~ ~ ,i ~,a~ I I I 1MB A I ~ i,~ I I I 0 C O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 b 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 D O O O O D O 0 ~OGOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOD00000000000 I ' I ~B) 6 I aooooo00ooooonooonoaoooooooaooooo ~ooooo000ooooonoooocoooaooooo00000 `I' ~ ~ ~~i~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~~''ill!;'~ I!i'I:~~I! I i! ~I I, i ~ I II II I ~noc~oanooooooouoooaoooooonoooooao Figure 5.4 Electrocardiogram of Sub~ect P. in Various States of Oxygen Starvation ' at 11,000-12,000 Meters after Cutoff of Oxygen Supply to Piask Key: A. EKG in ground-level conditions breathing normal oxygen (lead II) B. ~KG at 11,000 merers 1 minute after cutoff of oxygen supply to mask (marked in 0.05 second intervals, 1cm=1mV) C. FKG at 12,000 meters 1 minute after cutoff of oxygen supply to mask 77 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R400540020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Reserve time is the period in which work capacity is retained after the body receives insufficient oxygen, or the time elapsed after cabin depressurization before work capacity is lost. At altitudes above 6,000 meters, according to various figures, the time for possible retention of work capacity varies within considerable limits. This is explained by the fact that the studies were done in dissimilar conditions using different methods. - "Reserve tim~" as a function of altitude is shown in table 5.4. (averaged figures). Table 5.4 Altitude, meters 8000 900Q 11,000 12,U00 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 18,000 Reserve time 120- 80-90 25-30 20-25 16-20 15-18 10-15 9-12 9-10 8-10 seconds 130 At altitudes of 13,000-18,000 meters the time that the altitude can be maintained is substantially reduced and is associated with rapid reduction of oxygen in the blood and also with the constant presence of water vapor in alveolar air at a partial pressure of 47 mmHg and carbon dioxide at 40 mmHg. Features of Breathing an Air-and-0xygen Mixture ~ At altitLdes above 12,000 meters the normal supply of oxygen (without excess pressure) with facilities for the delivery of atmospheric air via a mask is ineffective in the event of cabin depressurization and does not adequately protect the pilot's body from oxygen starvation. For example, at 14,000-~5,000 meters, even when pure oxygen is being breathed from "demand oxygen equipment" not at excess pressure the onset of o:cygen starvation is rapid and physiological functions are altered substantially. Respiratian becomes more rapid, pulmonary ventilation increases and aftQr a relatively short period of tiirte, periodic (forced) deep respiratory movements ar~ ^:en against the background of fast respiration. When great altitudes - are maintained oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air falls. Blood oxygen saturation - progressively decreases. In these cases, the quality of operator activity deteriorates sharply. Avera~e figures on the change in oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air and blood oxygen saturation in different individuals when using demand oxygen equipment while maint~~inin~ altitudes of 10,000-14,000 meters for 2-3 minutes while engaging in simulated Clying activity are shown in table 5.5. . Table 5.5 Change in Oxygen Partial Pressure in Alveolar Air and Blood Oxygen - Saturation at Altitude Altitude 10,000 11;000 12,000 13~000. 14;000 Oxygen partial pressure in alveolar 105-108 78-84 62-66 38-44 30-33 air, mmHg Blood oxygen saturation from 98.4 94-96 80-83 55-64 42-44 oxyhemograph, % 78 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY With respect to higher nervous activity, at altitudes of 14,000-15,000 meters a Predominance of the inhibitory proce~s is noted in the cerebral coretx. This is indicated by the increase in the latent period in response to incoming stimuli, constraints on movements, tension, the degree to which conditioned reflexes are shown with time, and also the appearance of slow, high-amplitude waves on the EEG. In addition, in these conditions, the handwriting deteriorates, task solving becomes - difficult and errors are seen in ~he execution of va�rious kinds of tasks. This - is also explained by the development of excess inhibition in the cerebral cor tex cavsed by the l~ck of oxygen in the body. During the initial period when maintaining altitudes of 14,000-15,000 meters, when a periodic-type oxygen set is used, the EEG of a subject shows a rhythm of 7-9 waves per second. As oxygen starvation develops and the general condition d eteriorates, the normal alpha-rhythm disappears from the EEG and slow, high-amplitude wave s are " 5een, tirst at 6-5 per second and then at 4-3 per second. Under the same conditions, on the EKG lowered R and T waves are observed, with smaller R-R, QT and TP intervals ~nd an incr.ease in the systolic index. Heart rate increases 30-60 per minute and arterial (systolic) pressure is elevated 40-.i0 mmHg. Followin.g a pressure gr adient at these ~iltitudes, subjects relatively rapidly begin to experience difficulty in - determining colors on the instrument panels and when they attempt to carry out tasks associated with physical stress (on the control column and pedals) a deterior ation is seen in their general condition and, in turn, a drop in heart rate. The time that altituctes of 13,000-15,000 meters can be maintained with retention of work capacity depends not only on the oxygen supply but also on the observance of eating ~ and rest periods ~before climbing to altitude. ~veraged figures for reserve time when breathing oxygen without excess pressure - are shown in table 5.6. Tabie 5.6 Altitude 13,000 13,500 14,000 14,500 15;000 16;000 Reserve time 7-8 5-6 2-3 25-35 15-18 14-16 min min min secs secs secs - flnalysis of material. L-rom research conducted at aititudes of 14,000-16,000 meters usin~ "demand oxygen equipment" which does not exclude the possib::lity of inhaling riir via the mask, }ia5 shown that this principle of oxygen supply ~'annot be used as the basis for a practical supply of oxygen to pilots at t~Pse a]titudes beeause of tt~e rapidly devel.oping signs uf oxygen starvation. I'eatures of Breathing Pure Oxygen (Excluding Air Supplie~ V~.a a Mask) When atmospheric air is prevented from er~tering the mask a relatively satisfactory ' condition with a certlin degree of oxygen starvation is maintained at altitudes ~f 13~000-14,000 meters for longer than when a mask is used that allows air to be suckecl into the a~rways. While, however, the increase in the time that altit udes of 13,000-14,000 meters can be maintained is mo;.P or less significant, at a ltitudes - of 14,500-i5,000 meters it is insignificant. Unde~ these conditions, despit e some improvement in the ox~gen supply, humar.work capacitv remains at a low level and can be maintained only for short periods.* *Air bein~ sucked in under the mask was eliminated by creating a small oxygen ~~verPr.essurc_~ in thc mask (35-50 mil.limeters of water). 79 Fa~R OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500020002-2 FUR OH H'IC7A1. USH: ONLY At altitudes of 14,500-15,000 meters, even when air is prevented.from entering the mask, physiological reacCions in subjects start to change relatively quickly. Heart rate and respiration increase considerably, along with pulmonary ventilation. Heart rate in some individuals reaches 140-150 per minute and respiration 30-32. On the EKG the R and T waves are suppressed, the R-R, QT and TP intervals are shortened and the systolic index rises. (see figure 5.5.). After a short time subjects begin to make errors when solving arithmetic problems. Their handwriting deteriorates (see figure 5.6 Blood oxygen saturati~n drops to 55-50 percent. Systolic pressure is elevated 5-65 mmHg, and diastolic 5-50 mmHg. As the altitude is maintained, inhibitory processes are initiated. ~onditioned reflexes increase with time. With closed eyes, in cerebral bioelectrical activity (during the initial period at these al.titudes) the rhythm decreases to 9-8 and then to 7-5 waves per second, with a slight drop in amplitude. As the degree of oxygen starvation increases and the general condition dekeriorates, the normal alhpa-rhythm disappears from the EEG and high-amplitude slow waves appear at 3-2 per second. At this time cardiac activity begins to weaken, motor coordination is impaired and the skin becomes pallid, with subsequent transition to a precollapse and collapse condition. Oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air and blood oxygen saturation decrease progressively as altitude increases. � If,~'~~(~~~~ n(~1) ~ 6~B) e~~) 2(D) ~ili~~l~~~~ ~ 6,6HM 19,5'2~ D 1 pn V I I-~i~~j ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ I ~ ~~i I ' , ~ ~i ~-I I ~ I~ I ~ i, I~� I I I Figure 5.5 ~lectrocardiogram of Subject M at an Altitude of 14,500 meters Using an Oxy~en Mask. that Excludes I~nhalationof Air: leads I, II and III K.~y. A. Baseline t:ace B. At an altitude of 6,600 meters before pressure gradient ~ C. At an altitude of 14,500 meters after 2 minutes D. AEter losing altitude _ 8~ ~ FOR OF'FICIAI_ USF: ONI.Y APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY , (A) 4t�6?r;rytlucN 3. ~B~ueubvriyerrcna ~f. , i i � _ � i . - i 1 ~s1~97d-~'911-p-q6y-~.95~',~� , t~s-3�~~z-3-8z9-3~::c-3=a+ . ,19S0-1=~9,j-~-~j(J~6�~..~-~=~Z.~ %-3�tso-S~bli-3'iw-3=iu~3'to~ - ~ 7_/J~3'�~ta~W'~.~"~= -3=1oT-3=l~r ~go.~a dyy-~:~~_t ~laeGcmBuir,oruu6aKHe'm ~73 - 3a ?NUM 178eucm8uu, uwu6ox Hem ~C ) yps ~~-y,~.6 d~ -,-i:e�s=u~-e= ~ri~ -3~= ~ "G-s',~~~5~9~ ~ Sc~ 6,~/ - _3 G = s6~ ~ '~-9~-~'-~iy _ a) y - 3 ~ 8' � = f - 3 _ . ~-y..I~ �~=655-~': sy~'-s.,S~r~_ YGS -3 _8 - , _ -6' -.s~'i - 3a ?~~uH. ~6 deucn8uu, 6~S- G9 s}Il B 8eucm8uu , ~ c~~~~u awu6NU 3 oruu6rru u~ onucKa ' Figure 5.6 Samples of Handwriting and Solving of Arithmetic Problems by Sub~ects Z. and N. at an Altitude of 14,000-14,500 Meters (Inhalation of Air under Mask Excluded) Key: 1 and 2. In ground-level conditions before the experiment 3. At an altitude of 14,000 meters 4. At an altitude of 14,500 meters A. Sub~ect Z. B. Subject N. C. After 2 minutes: 17 actions, no errors D. 11~ actions, no errors E. After .2 minutes: 16 actions, 1 error F. 8 actions, 3 errors, 1 slip of the pen Average figures on the change in oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air and blood _ oxygen saturation in different individuals after 2-3 minutes at 10,000-14,000 meters as the aircraft pilot (with intake of air under the mask excluded) are shown in table 5.7. From analysis of the material presented lt follows that the onset of marked tachycarida (heart rate of 140-150 per minute or more) with depressed R and T waves on the EKG and simultaneous appearance of slow, high-amplitude waves on the EEG (5-3 per second) are the signs of an inc ipient presyncopal condition. Marked bradycardia following marked tachycardia, and a drop in arterial pressure with marked changes on the EEG indicate considerable weakening of cardiac activity and the onset of a precollapse condition resulting from marked oxygen starvation. 81 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ Table 5.7 Oxygen P.~rtial Pressure in Alveolar Air and Blaod Oxygen Saturation - at Alti~udes of 10,000-14,000 Meters _ Altitude Physiological S~ 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 ~ Oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air, mmHg 107-110 82-88 68-73 46-54 34-37 - Blood oxygen saturation. 98.8- 96-98 83-86 62-68 46-50 .__4,~;~ from oxyh,emogram, % 99.8 For comparison, the times that altitudes of 13,000-15,000 meters can be maintained in conditions when ~he intake of air under the mask is excluded are shown in table 5.8 (averaged figures) Table 5.8 Time Spent by Subjects at Altitudes of 13,000-15,000 Meters When Intake ~ of Air under Mask Is Excluded Altitude, meters Time Maintained 13,000 95 minutes 13,500 30-40 minutes 14,400 10-20 minutes 14,500 2-3 minutes 15,000 20-30 seconds In order to improve the oxygen supply, at altitudes above 12,000 meters oxygen sets are used that deliver the oxygen for breathing under e~:cess nressure. Features of Breathing Hyperbaric Oxygen Comprehensive studies conducted by large collectives ~ointly with industrial enterprises have made it possible to some extent to clarify the problem of pioviding oxygen at hyperbaric pressure at altitudes of 12,000-15,000 meters, establish a number of the laws involved in the change in basic physiological functions, work out the permissible magnitudes for delivering the oxygen, and develop special sets of oxygen equipment for flights in the stratosphere. The use of excess pressure for breathing which sutomatically increases to maintain an absolute pressure of 112-115 mmHg (by absolute pressure, in this case we mean excess pressure under the mask plus atmospheric pressure at a given altitude) has made it possible considerably to increase the time that altitudes up to 15,000 meters can be maintained, even given the marked functional changes in respiration and circulation. At altitudes above 13,500 meters the excess oxygen pressure under the mask added to the barometric pressure and regulated automatically, remains 82 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ virtually constant. For example, if the pil~t is at 15,000 meters, where atmospheric pressure is 90 mmHg, excess pressure under the mask will be maintained at 25 mmHg, which makes a total of 115 mmHg, with small variations on either side. When descending to 13,000 meters and then to 12,000 meters, absolute pressure increases to 145 mmHg first by reducing and then by removing the excess pressure under the mask. Despite the relatively large magnitudes for oxygen excess pressure under the mask, - partial pressure in the alveoli and b lood saturation are reduced as altitude increases, although the drop in blood oxygen saturation is less than c~rithout excess pressure. The nature of these changes (averaged figures) is shown in table 5.9. Table 5.9 Dependence of Oxygen Part ial Pressure in Alveolar Air and Blood Oxygen - Saturation on the Magnit ude of Excess Pressure at Altitudes of 12,000 to 15,000 Meters Altitude, meters Factor 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 _ Magnitutde of excess pressure, r_nclg 30-50 95-115 185-208 320-350 Oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air, mmHg 66-74 52-60 44-50 36-45 Blo~d or_ygen saturation . from oxyhemograph, % 87-90 78-83 73-77 64-68 When excess pressure of 300-400 mm water or more is crp:.ted, unusual conditions are set up for respiration: resistance is created in the trachea, bronchi and lungs to the movement of the inhaled oxygen, and because of this a corresponding pressure is created on their walls. The oxy gen pressure acts as a kind of irritant on the pulmonary receptor apparatus. When acted upon by excess pressure, all parts of the pulmonary tissue are expa~nded, ~ the degree to which they are filled is increased, respiration becomes slower �nd i deeper, and the relationships between respiratory capacities in the respiratory , phases are altered. The structural characteristics of the respiratory cycles are ' also altered, the exhalation phase is extended, particularly during the initial ~ period, the inhalation phase is shortened, and the total respiratory cycle is more I prolonged. The most clearly marked changes are observed directly after cabin ; depressurization at great altitudes. ~ When breathing oxygen under excess pressure the mobility of the diaphragm is ' restricted and the intercostal and abdominal muscles u.:ed in exhalation are stretched more than those used in inhalation. The ~.:~ess pressure exerts a ~ considerable effect in the intensity of the muscle bio~lectric potentials. This , dependence is of a directly proport ional nature (see figures 5.7, 5.8 and 5.9). , i I ~ 83 ~ FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ ~ Afli~ ~ ~ t~ > ,~i~.. , Z. ~ j ~ i. ~ ~ ~ t~ ~ ..i; ~ f ~~i ~a~~~~ . ~'~t l~~I ;5~~~ ' � ! ! yYy ,i ,t ~ Figure 5.7 Roentgenkymogram of Respiratory Movements of the Diaphragm in Subject C. When Breathing Oxygen under Excess Pressure. ~ left: baseline recording - right: with pressure of S00 mm water under the mask (mobility of diaphragm is restricted) ~ loc ~A~ . ~ ' ? ~ ~B) oy ~ao~C I 0a ~ I ~ 4 3 , ; 7 I i ~ ~ ~ . 3 I M"ti't~"^*'wi'rWV''^"''"~"^ . 15oi"V ; ' . '~Cy "'~y~p"~ . . Figi~re 5.8 Electromyogram of Subject B. Above: baseline recording Below: breathing oxygen under excess pressure of 500-600 mm water Key: 1. EKG , 2. Respiratory movements of chest 3. Electromyogram of intercostal muscles 4. Electromyogram of oblique muscles of abdomen (lEft to right: inhalation, above; exhalatio below) A. 10 seconds B. Inhalation C. Exhalation. 84 . ~ FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY , /O C 3 I s~r?' ~ 9 Figure 5.9 Oscillogram of Physiological Functions of Subject K. with Excess Pressure in the Lungs from Zero to 1,200 mm water (left: start of delivery of excess pressure) Key: 1. EKG 2. Respiratory movements of chest 3. Electromyogram of intercostal muscles 4. Electromyogram of oblique muscles of abdomen ~ (inhalation above, exhalation below) Speech difficulties are ch4racteristic of breathing under excess pressure. Words , can be articulated only after taking a deep breath and with great effort on the part of the entire respiratory and articulatory apparatuses. The hemodynamics of pulmonary circulation also change, resistance to blood flow in the pulmonary circulation increases, and the return of venous blood to the heart and into ~ systemic circulation is impeded. The flow of tissue fluids and the blood is ; slowed. ~ , The marked shrinking of the shadow of the heart and vascular bed under excess ~ pressure of 400 mm water can be seen on the X-ray image (figure 5.10 ) Associated figures are shown in table 5.10 � Table 5.10 Changes in Heart Size and Vascular Bed during Respiration under 400 mm water Excess Pressure (average figures) P~rcentage decrease in Percentage decrease in - basic size of heart size of vascular bed Remarks Phase of length 'breadth size at size at Decrease respiration level of level of in size of aortic arch arch of heart and pulmonary vascular artery bed is shown as percentage of initial condition . inhalatinn 12.0 5.1 7.2 8.1 � Exhalation 13.4 6.4 10.2 9.7 ' . 85 � FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000504020002-2 F'OR OFF1C[AL USE ONLY : . _ v ,~A_ .j - s 1\ ~ II t.l � J~ _ ~ 1 � il ~L ~ t y~k. ~I . , P ` . . Figure 5.10 Shadow of Heart and Vascular Bed in Sub3ect L. Breathing Oxygen under Excess Pressure Left: Baseline recording, no excess pressure Right: In excess pressure of 400 mm water under mask (shadow of heart and vascular bed is smaller. Pictures taken at full inhalation) The attempt by the develogers of equipment to supply oxygen in respiration ~zder excess pYessure using a pressure of 115 mmHg encountered great difficulties at . altitudes of 16,000-18,000 meters. The time t~at man can spend at each.successive altitude decreases signi~icantly. Whereas at 16,000 meter~~ the limit averages 6- 8 minutes, at 17,000 meters it is reduced sharply to 50-60 seconds, and at 18,000 meters to 30-40 seconds, with marked functional changes in peripheral circulation and external respiration. ~ At altitud es of 16,000-18,000 meters, when oxygen is breathed at excess pressure some indi vlduals become distended, with hyperemia, the palpebral fissure is narrowed, the eyes water, perception of instrument readings deteriorates and heart ~_ate and respiration rate increase considerably. In some individuals the heart rate increases 60-80 per minute above normal rate. Blood pressure is elevated and there is considerable apeech difficulty. In the conditions encountered at 16,000-18,000 meters the general condition in man and the t ime that these altitudes can be maintained are influenced not only by the oxygen def icit in the body but also, and chiefly, by the changes associated with excess pressure in the lungs, and in particular by circulatory dis4rders. One of - the causes of the deteriorating general condition is the developmQnt of functional insufficiency in the cardiovascular system. The mark~d increase in excess pressure in the ai rways and lungs creates even greater difficu'!ties in pulmonary circulation. - Afferent impulses arrive in the brain from the receptc~rs in the upper airways and lungs, Respiration and circulation are ad~usted autociomically and the blood pressure in the vessels of systemic circulation is elevated. When the load on the heart is increased, especially on the right atrium and right vec~tricle, conditions are created for~ he development of congestion in the periphera vessels. This all adversely af ects the general condition of the body. In s h cases the reason for lowered work~capacity is evidently not only hypoxia but als autunomic changes in cerebral circ lati~~n. 86 ' _ � _ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE: ONLY Along with h~�voxia, hypocapnia also plays a definite sole in the deterioration of the pilot's condition. I'ree carbon dioxide is "flushed out" of the blood in the excessively rapid and deep respiration, that is, in increased pulmonary ventilation. Hypocapnia reinforces the adverse effect of oxygen starvation, reducing work capacity even further. Since respiration under excess pressure substantially alters the activity of the most important functional systems in the body, mainly the respiratory and circulatory systems, in excess pressure of more than 400 mm water, external counterpressure must be used. For example, at a magnitude of 530-550 mm water, without count~rpressure, after 1-2 minutes marked shifts are seen in autonomic responses, with considerable - deterioration of the general condition (collapse, loss of consciousness). This happens because of circulatory disorders, cardiac arrhythmias, extrasystole, a restricted flow of venous bl.ood to the heart, d isruption of the structure of the respiratory cycle and other symptoms typical of the stage of decompensation. However, a healthy individual who has been trained to breathe oxygen under pressure, ~ regardless of tY~e difficulties encountered in emergencies, can wit?:stand sudden excess pressure under the mask up to 800 mm water for short periods (up to 30 seconds) without using compensatiun devices, and up to 1,000 mm water in the mask when wearing a vent suit, without pressure in the tension devices. Features of Breathing Hyperbaric Oxygen with the Use of Compensating (Counterpressure) The use of compensat~.on devices when breathin~ under excess pressure makes it possible to extend the ra~~ge of altitudes between 16,000 and 18,000 meters that can be maintained safely and to weaken or prevent the. rapid development of functional changes in ehe body. For this purpose use is made of special equipment in the form of a compensating jacket or vent suit that creates counterpy-essure on the surface of the human body. In this case, also, however, despite the large excess pressure in the lungs and the counterpr~ssure on the thorax, oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air and blood oxygen saturation still decrease as a?titude increases (see table 5.11). Table 5.11 Change in Oxygen Partial Pressure in Alveolar Air and B1ood Oxygen Saturation at Altitudes 16,000-18,000'Meters when Breathing under Excess Pressure Altitude Indicator 16,000 17,000 18,000 Excess pressure in mask, mm water 440-490 610-660 740-800 Pressure in chamber of vent suit mm water 440-490 610--660 740-800 Oxygen partial pressure in alveolar air, mmHg 36-40 35-38 33-36 Blood oxygen saturation, from oxyhemograph, % 70-74 68-70 62-66 87 FOR OFF[C[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAI. USH: UNLY Despite the creation of more favorable conditions for respiration, the use of a compensating jacket does little to limit the development of functional changes in respiration and circulation. At an altitude of 16,000 meters, and even more so at 18,000 meters, subjects are in an extremely stressed condition. Aeart rate and respiration are slower than without the compensating jacket but are nevertheless substantially increased. For example, at an altitude of 16,000 meters heart rate increases 44 percent from its initial status; at 17,000 meters it increases 56.5 percent, and at 18,000 meters, 66 percent. In some subjects, at altitudes of 17,000 to 18,000 meters heart rate reaches 175 per minute. ~ The use of a compensating jacket with a rubber chamber coupled to the breathing system does not provide adequately effective compensation for excess pressure in the lungs at magnitudes greater than 40 mmHg, and it cannot prevent the onset oF disorders in peripheral circulation that disrupt the supply of blood to vital organs, The counterpressure created with the compensating jacket is applied only to some parts of the bod~ while the head, neck, and upper and lower extremities remain unprotected. In t hese areas of the body, at altitudes of 16,000-18,000 meters the return of venous b lood to the right heart is hamperPd and reduced, and pulse pressure drops. The elevated arterial pressure and increased heart rate are obviously associated - with these changes. - A ' _ Q > >oc ~ ? a - - ~ 5 6ao~ g~aar . ]SOrY ~14 ~ y ~M ~ ( t ~ . . ~ ~ 3 ~ ,1 4 ~ y Figure 5.11 Oscillogram of Subject Ly Breathing Oxygen under 1,200 mm water Excess Pressure Using Vari~~us Forms of Compensation Key: A. Baseline recording � B. Breathing oxygen under e:ccess pressure without compensation _ C. In a compensating ~acke~ . D. In a vent suit l. EKG 2. Respiratory movements of thorax 3. Ele~[romyogram of intercostal muscles 4. Electromyogram of oblique muscles of abdomen (left to right: inhalation, above; exhalation, below) S. Inhalation 6. Exhalation 88 FOR OFF[C[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500020002-2 ~ FOR OFFIC.AL USE ONLY ~ i _i ; Improvement in conditions for the supply of oxygen at altitudes of 16,000-18,000 ~ meters can be p.rovided either by increasing the efficiency of the compensating ; jacket an~ developing "self-breathing" devices that actively assist respiration, or--and this is more reliable--by using compensating garments that cover the entire ' body, including the upper and lower exrremities. The use of a vent suit in combination with an oxygen mask and the creation of excess pressure up to 75 mmHg improves the efficiency of the oxygen equipme;:t. At altitudes of 17,000-18,000 meters further increase in excess pressure above 7~ mmHg causes intense lacrimation and narrowing of tc:e palpebral fissure, resulting in difficulties ' in the perception of instrument readings. The increased pressure also adversely affects the sense of hearing. A pressure helmet provides the best conditions for breathing under elevated pressure. When a vent suit is used in combination with a pressure helmet it is possible.to create more excess pressure in the lungs. Absolute pressure at altitudes above 12,000 meters can be brought up to 145 mmHg, thus~significantly increasing the altitude that can been maintained safely, even during cabin depressurization. Given the same magnitudes fnr excess pressure in the lungs, when vent suits are used respiratory movements are made more easily than when compensating ~ackets are used; this can be seen from the bioelectric potentials for the respiratory muscles on the electromyogram (figure 5.11). Despite the relatively satisfactory conditions created by oxygPr_ sets and~altitude ~ special garmen`s (in the form of compensating ~ackets and suits,''masks and pressure ' hel.mets), in casP~ of accidental cabin depressurization, the mos~ favorable conditiAns ~'~r supplying ox~gen to the body at altitudes above 15,000-16,000 meters are created ; inside a full-pressure suit within which elevated pressure (compared to that of the sur~vu*.�ding medium) essential for normal respirat:Con in man is maintained. ' However, because of their ctm?bersomeness and certain ~Lnconveniences in operation, ; full-pressure suits are not used extensively in aviation. ; COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo DOSAAF SSSR, 1980 ; ~ 964? ~ CSO: 8144/1609 i i I ~ 7f . -i 89 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 QOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ` i , REGULATING MECHANISMS OF MEMORY Leningrad R~GULIRUYUSHCHIYE MEK&1NIZ,IY PAMYaTI in Russian 1980 (signed to press 13 Feb 80) PP 5-6~ 95-96 . [Foreword and table of cuntents from book "The ~egulating Mechanisms of riemory" (Proceedings of the International Symposium "Mechanisms of I+Iemory Control" in Leningrad~ 1976) edited by G.A. Vartanyan, Izdatel�stvo "Nauka"~ 2050 copies, . 101 pages ] - [TextJ This publication is based on ~everal papers and materials discussed at the international symposium "~Iechanisms of riemory Control" held in Leningrad in November . 19?6. In view of the ~ceat number of studies presented at the Symposium, the or- ganizing committee Kas not able to publish all of the material. In.connection with this and taIting into account the great scientific importance of questions raised during the Symposium~ the organizing committee requested that those speakers and discussants xhose material was not available for the proceedings of the Sympo- sium expand and revise their xork for publication in the form of a.separate - book~ which a majority of authors agreed to do. according to the basic directions of research on this problem~ the book is divided into three sections~ I. riemory Mechanisms and Possibilities for Their Regulation; II. Neurophysiological Studies of Memory Control Flechanismsi III. Neuropharma- ceutical Methods of Memory Control. Since these gener~l tendencies have not been definitively solidified~ the reader xill fi::ci various principles and approaches to the problem of inemory controli hox it is studied from different points of view and how it is perceived by representa- tives of vaxious disciplines from various "schools". But this, at first glance diverse~ material is unified by a persistent search for ways of actively influencing memory function in the interest of mankin~. In all three above-mentioned ax~as there is an accumulation of interesting data which apgarently will soon require neK explanations. - In the area of inemory mechanisms the interest is again on the structural-chemical hypotheses of inemory. Jata has been obtained on the transfer of cnnstant functional and pathological sta.tes of the b~a1n from animal donors to intact recipients by neuro-humoral factors of a peptide nature o~tained fron? the b~ain and cereb~al-spinal liquid. These experiments question the real nature of the participa.tion of specific neuropeptides-connectors in the formation of new adaptive connections in the central :Qrvous system (CNS).. At the same time it ha.s been shown that a series of recently 90 FOR OF'FICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ . discovered neuropeptiaes, fragments of hypophyseal hormones in the ~aino has a , general alleviating effect on memory. ~ Electrophysiological studies of the b~ain are continuing successfully and confirm ~ the actual ro~e of interstructural synchronization of electrical processes in the optimization of learning and memory. Studies of the pre- and post-synaptic mecha- nisms with the goal of increasing the effectiveness of synaptic transmissions for brain and memory flexibility have been further developed. i In the field of neurophysiological approaches to the study of the control mecha.nisms ~ of the mind, it ha.s been shown that electrostimulation of a series of non-specific brain structures plays an important role in transforming certain defense mechanisms of the higher t~ain function.s,including memory. Studies on the mechanisms of intra- ' and trans-cranial micropolarizations, which aid memory processes and optimize a i series of other CN5 functions, are also continuing successfully. iJith respect to ' the regulation of t~ain function and memory processes, the recently discovered Urain ~ phenomenon of formulating artificial sicahle functional connections~ whose activation ~ can elicit super-activation of higher b~ain functions and thus overcome certain per:nanent pathological Urain conditions~ has been especially promising. In relation : to this~ the indicator og bsain ststPS -a constant extra-s1oW potential or a qua.si- ~ constant potential difference--is exceptionally inforn~ative. i ~ In the field of neuropharmaceutical approach~s to memory control, studies to deter-. ~ mine the role of various mediatory systems in the formation and fixation of temporal i relationships and long-term memory are developing. On this basis are also being ' developed the principles of active involvement in the process of inemorization and information retrieval in the brain. The recently formulated problem of phaxmaceuti.- ~ cal non-specific connections~ which as experimenta.l data shox~ ensure the immediat~~ fixation of active effective neurodynamic connections, is being intensively stud.ied. i Interesting experimental data have appeared on the role of chromosome restructuring in the growth of several CNS functions. The reciprocal tra.nslocation of certain ~ antosomes lead~ to pathological shifts of CNS activity. However~ in the presence of other Robertsonian chromosome translocations~ there is an optimization of several CNS functions. These studies open up new~ cytngenic~ approaches to the study of brain function and in part~ memory. i Real phfsiological principl~s and mechanisms of the organization of inemory have been ~ successfully used in mathematical and machine modelling of learning proces'ses in ~ neuron nets, which can give additional evidence on the paths of active involvement , in the organization and course of inemory processes. ~ It is impossible to even mention all of the "new developments" in the prohlem of memory control. However, the directions of research meationed�above indicate that ~ it is possible to hope that the time is near xhen the study of the t~ain xill enable ~ us to productively opti:nize the memory processes in the event of their dest=uction ~ or for immediate activa.tion in unusual circumsta.nces or under experimental conditions. 3ooks devoted to the problem of inemory~ the most controversial.and perhaps the most ~ important ~roblem of contemporary neurobiology and medicine~ have always aroused a great interest among readers. The collective of authors and e4ltors here hopes that this publicat~on wi~I be of use to specialists in the fi=1d of inemory problems as ~ 91 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICYAL USE ONLY well as to a wide circle of interested readers. ~ Table of Contents - Forexord 5 5ection Is Me:nory t4echanisms and Possibilities of Their ~egulation On the physical treatment of inemory mechanisms. I. Ye. Mikhal'tsev 7 On the compaxative-physiological method in the study of macromoleculax 18 mechanisms of inemory. N. A. Tushmalova Learr.ing under adjunct stimulation of immunogenesis. F. P. Ashmaxin, Yu. Yeropkin 22 3ome changes in the macromolecules of the brains of monkeys learning visual discriminatian. B. Petrovich~ a. Protich~ D. Chupich, ~zh. Krzhalich 2~ Cn txo stages c~f the metabolic processes in the t~ain of ra.bbits accompanying the formation of a conditioned reflex to light. T. B. Shvets-Teneta-Guriy 26 3lochemical correlates of the active b~ain sta.te. V. S. Repin, 2T. A. Jani- lovskiy~ B. I. Rlement'yev, Z. I. Stepanov 30 Characteristics of the synthesis of high and lox molecular pr~teins during a randomiza.tion of stimulation and learning. B. I. Klement'yev~ I. I. Stepanov~ T. S. Glushchenko, 0. V. Bogdanov 32 Kemory and morphogenesis in insects. I. i~. Sheyman, Iv. Yu. Sakharova~ I. A. Yefimov 35 On the role of t~rain cortex synapses in subcellular memory mechanisms. ~ A. A. ;ianina~ R. P. ;{ucherenko~ Ye. G. Gilerovich~ V. S. Turovskiy~ A . A . Ivonin 3$ Section IIs Neurophysiological Studies of Memory Control i~fechanisms On the role of some cortex structu~es of the larger hemisphere of the b~ain ~2 - in the appearance of inemory in lower monkeys. A. N. i3akuradze Electrophysiological analysis of the optimal level of emotional tension ~ during mnestitic activity. M. B. Zvykov 9 Long-term memory (loz~g lasting nervous processes) in warious structures of conditioned reflex systems and various functional b~ain states. V. P. i~ura- - v'yeva, A. T. Selivanova, N. N. Lazuko, T. Ye. Kolosova 53 Local effects of repeated rhythmical inter-hemispheric stimiil.ationi its relationship to the mechanism of exc:tation. Ya. ~ia.khek~ Ye. Urdzhek, V. Pavlik~ r. Khorak 56 Reorganization of bi.oelectric activity of brain structures and systems under the influence of micropolarization controlling memory processes. ~ G. V. Gal�dinov~ N~ iCudryavtseva, Yu. 31ank The effect of micropolarization of "sharp" and chronic centers of 67 epileptic activity. Ye. I. Tkachenko t Thc r~~sibility of establishing an inte~ral condi:ioned reaction xhile the ~roduction of its individual components is disturbed by electric shocks. 3, B. Tsvetovskiy, v. V. Vol'f~ V. P. Leutin 69 92 ~ ~ . FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE OI~I.Y 3ection IIIs Veuropha.rmaceutical Methods of Memory Control ~ comparative evalua.tion of the role of biogenic monoamines in the processes ~ of develo~ing and fixating ~emporal relationships. R. I. ~truglikov '73 Lxperim.en-tal bases of pharmaceutical effects on memory trsou~h the exchange of biogenic amines. Ye. A. Gromova 77 : The relationship of the learning process in anima.ls at emotionally different support levels to ~he activity level of serotinin and noradrenergi~ systems of the hrain. T. P. Semenova 82 Periodi.c changes in the activity of cortex neurons in tissue culturas - under the influence of serotinin and the3.r significance in the mecha:iisms of ine mory . A.:~ . C hubakov, A, a. Nikonov 86 Catecholaminergic mecfianisms of conditioned~reflex behavior. Ye. Endretsi ~ . CCPYRIGhTs Izdatel�stvo "Nauka", 1980 9233 CSO: 1840/1030 _ ~ i . . i ~ ~ - ~ E 1 ~ 7 - ~ _ i - 93 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 - I~'OR (lH'F'ILIAL USE ONLY M UDC 612.886:611.85 OBJECTIVE METHOD FOR EVALUATING VESTIBULAR STABILITY FROM TREND OF N`ISTAGMIC INDICES AFTER EXPOSURE TO CUMULATIVE CORIOLIS ACCELERATION Moscow IZV~STIYA AKADEMII NAUK SSSR: SERIYA BIOLOGICF.ESKAYA in Russian No 2, Ma.r-Apr 81 (manuscriot received 1~ Feb 80) pp 276-283 [Article by I.A. Sidel'nikov]. ~ [TextJ Studies in which 172 electronystagmograms (ENG) were re- corded were conducted on 30 volunteers. These investigations showed _ that the cumulative action of Coriolis acceleration either stim- ulated nystagmus or suppressed it (although there were no signifi- cant changes in nystagmic indices in some cases). The present art- icle proposes an objective new method for individual evaluation of the functional status of the vestibular analyzer during stationary vestibulometry, based on comparative evaluation of the trend of the changes observed in nystagmic indices after continuous cumulative exposure to Coriolis acceleration jCCCA]. Subjects in which the rate of the slow nystagmic phase (RSP) after exposure to CCCA exceeds its normal value prior to exposure are considered.to be vestibular-stable, while those in which the nystag- mic ttSP undergoes a significant reduction (or remains unchanged) after CCCA are regarded as vestibular-unstable. The effect of Coriolis forces on the semicircular canals is due (Voyachek, 1908) ta - the production of a resultant between the Coriolis forces acting o~a opposite ends of the canal. Stimulation of the otolithic apparatus is also undoubtedly of etiological signifi- cance in the development of autonomic disturbances under the action of Coriolis acceleration (Markaryan and Sidel'nikov, 1967). Bergstedt (1961) believes that Corioiis acceleratio~ is r.egistered only by the otolithic apparatus ancl that, if the sub3ect moves his head, e.g., in the frontal plane, the acceleration due to gravity is doubled. However, in Gued~y?'s op~.nion (Guedry et al., 1961), the Cor~olis . - acceleration that develops when the head is moved is insignificant in comparison with the acceleration due to gravity. The reaction of the otoliths to movement of the head is therefore almost identical to the normal reaction, i.e., that observed - with the chair not rotating, while the ~emicircular canals exhibit an intensified reaction. It is hypothesized that this unusual type of stimulation ~f the semicircular 94 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/42/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY canals causes a reflex interaction of the two vestibular systems, which is reflected in the corresponding reactions and is responsible for the difference in the stimuli associated with tilting and straightening of the head. Thus: it is obvious from the studies cited above and other reports by a number of authors ~Khilov, 1936, 1969; Popov, 1939; Yuganov, 1963, 1965; Yuganov et al., 1963, 1964; Bryanav, 1963; Lebedinskiy et al., 1963; Kurashvili, 1967; Sidel'nikov, 1970; Schubert, 1954; Bornschein et al., 1954, 1962, 1963; Dowd et al., 1966; Sinka, 19fi8; Collins, 1968, and others) that Coriolis acceleration represents a complex and unus- ual external stimulus to the semicircular canals and otolithic apparatus. Tn view of these circumstances, we felt it expedient to utilize a test involving simulation of Coriolis acceleration, particularly continuous cumulative Coriolis acceleration (CCCA), by the Markaryan-Sidel'nikov method (Markaryan et a1., 1966) as a functional load on the vestibular analyzer. What we had in mind was th~ fact that nystagmus is an integral reaction of this analyzer, so that the stimulatiion of the cupular system and otolithic apparatus during such tests should affect the degree - of ny.::tagmus. In this case, data on the nystagmic reaction recorded before and after - exposure to CCCA could be used to evaluate the sensitivity and stability of the ves- - tibular analyzer or make an objective 3udgement regarding tolerance ta the action of Coriolis acceleration. The present investigation was conducted to determine whether this approach is feasible. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD _ Studies in which 172 electronystagmograms (ENG) were recorded were conducted with 30 volunteers 20-4~0 years of age. A special electronystagnwgraphic technique (Sid- el'nikov, 1970, 1978) was used to record nystagmus. Electronystagmography was car- - ried out during two rotation tests (w = 60 deg/sec in test I and w= 180 deg/sec in test II) prior to exposure to CCCA and two rotation tests (w = 180 deg/sec in test III and w= 60 deg/sec in test IV) im~~ediately after exposure to CCCA. The acce- leration (1 deg/secZ), angular valocities (w = 60 and 180 deg/sec), and chair stopping timP (stop stimulus = 0.15 sec) were always constant. Stopping of the chair and re- cording of the postrotati.on nystagmus were conducted afCer the rotation nystagmus - disappeared, i.e., generally after rotation at a constant angular velocity for 40-120 sec. In making each record of postrotation nystagmus, we employed a method for bio- logical enhancement of the informa.tion content of the nystagmic indices (Sidel'nikov, 1970a and c, 1974). The intervals between the rotation tests were 5 min. Continuous cumulative Coriolis acceleration (CCCA) wa.s car,ried out during the third rotation test, i.e., with a constant rotation speed ~~f 180 deg/sec. During rota- tion, the sub~ect made steady pendulum-like movement:~ of the head through angles of 30� to the left and right of the vertical position. The duration of the right- 7.eft and left-right head movements was 2 sec. Continuous rotation and tilting of the - head toward the shoulders was continued until nausea and pallor appeared, but for � no more than 15 min. Subjects who displayed pronounced symptoms of air sickness (seven in number) were retested 1 or 2 days later but with a CCCA that was reduced bv a factor of 2. We also conducted control studies (six) in which the subject rested for a time equivalent to the duration of the CCCA test. The indices obtained for the postrotation nystagmus recorded after exposure to Coriolis acceleration were compared with the nystagmic reaction recarded immediately before the CCCA test. The ~ 95 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY . APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 _ ~'OR OFFLCIAL US'E OIVLY ENG data wera employed to determine the duration and r~te of the slow phase (RSP) and the amplitude and frequency~of nystagmus. The latter three indices were evalu- sted every 5 sec over the first 30 sec of nystagmus. We also determined the average inciices for the first (,1-15 sec) and second (16-30 sec) 15-spc periods of the nystag- mic reaction. The indices in question were measured with the aid of specially devel~ oped nystagmometric gages and reference tables, i.e., Sidel'nikov nystagmometers (Sidel'nikov, 1970b, 1975). In order that the nystagmographic indices could be com-- pared with the sensitivi~y and stability of the cupular syst~m and otolithic appara= tus, we determined the threshold of sensi~ivity to linear ac~eleration, the resis- tance to cumulative linear acceleration in Kh:~lov-sw~ng tests, the threshold of sen- sitivity to electric current for the vestibular analyzer, the threshold of nystag- mic sensitivity to angular acceleration, the duration of nystagmus in the Barany test, and the resistance to.CCCA for each sub~ect. The experimental data were subjected to statistical processing, establishing the mean (M), mean error (m), and reliability of the changes in the indices investigated, with the error probab ility (P) serving as the reliability criterion (Kamenskiy, 1964). EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Proceeding from the results of 30 studies utilizing the maximum CCCA time, the 30 sub~ects ~~re divided into two groups. The first group consisted of sub~~ects (15 individuai:~ who withstood maximum exposure to Coriolis~acceleration without mani- festing vestibuloautonomic reactions. When determined by other methods, the vesti- bular stability of this group was rated as high and its vestibular sensitivity as low. The second group comprised subjects (15 individuals) who displayed the symptom complex of motion sickness during CCCA; when determined by other methods, their ves- - tibular stability was rated as low. The subjects in the second group participated in experiments in which the duration of the maximum exposure to continuous cumula- tive Coriolis acceleration was reduced by a factor of 2. Table 1 gives the ind3ces of vestibular sensitivity and stability for the two groups of subjects, together with the ave~age durations of nystagmus in response to the stop stimulus for rota- tion speeds af 60 and 180 deg/sec before and after exposure to Coriolis acceleration. As can be seen from Table 1, the changes in the duration of nystagmus following CCCA were slight, took different directions, and were independent of the degree of vesti- bular stability, i.e., exhibited no regular pattern, while the indices of the func- tional status of the vestibular analyzer (Table 1) showed a clear division of the sub~ects into vestibular-stable and vestibular-unstable with respect to the action of adequate stimuli. . The results obtained for other nystagmic indices (RSP, amplitude, and frequency) were somewhat different. The clearest and most reliable changes were observed in such indices as the rate of the nystagmic slow phase. Table 2 gives data on the changes in nystagmic indices during the first 5 sec and over the first (1-15 sec) and second (16-3~J sec) 15--sec periods of the reaction. The data ir~ Table 2 indicate that the RSP decreased in all the subjects toward the end of the nystagmic reaction. This parameter was highest during the first 5 and 15 sec of nystagmus. The nystagmus rate was gxeatest for the higher angular rota- tion speed. Thus, the RSP found for the stop-stimulus period after rotation at 96 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFiCIAL USE ONL~ 180 deg/sec wa5 twice that obtained for the stop-stimulus period following rota- tion at a speed of 60 deg/sec. After continuous expusure to Corio~i.s acceleratic,n, both groups of sub~ects exhibi- ted charact~ristic and reliable changes, especially in the RS? during the stop- stimulus period fallowing rotation at a speed of 180 deg/sec and during the first 15 sec of the nystagmic reaction. Thus, after maximum exposure to CCCA, the first group of subjects was characterized by a significant increase in the RSP during the stop stimulus following rotation at a speed of 180 deg/sec and no changes after the stop stimulus following roration at 60 deg/sec. A significant decrease in the RSP during the stop stimulus follnwing rotation at a _ speed of 180 deg/sec and CCCA and a reliable decrease in this index during the. stop stimulus following rota~ion at a speed of 60 degfsec were typical of the second group of subjects. When the duration of the CCCA was reduced by a factor of 2, the msximum change in the RSP for the second group of sub~ects wa~ similar to that for the first group, i.e., the RSP increased after CCCA. Figures 1, 2, ar~d 3 illustrate these variation patterns for the RSP. RSP (deg/se.c) ~ Analysis of all our experimen.*.al data showed BO ~ that the action of stimuli during tests in- 70 \ volving continuous cumulative Coriolis acce- . ~ leration (CCCA) altered the levels of cer- 60 \ tain nystagmic-reaction indfces. After the uo /\O subject was brought to a stop fol.'_owing ro- 30 � tation at a speed of 180 deg/sec, the most ~ 2~ . significant changes were in the rate ,~f the ~ slow phase and the nystagmus amplitude. ~ __.t� The character of the changes in these indi- - 10 20 ~ 30 ces for the maximum CCCA duration were simi- ~ , sec lar to those in the RSP when the. sub3ects ~ were exposed to 2-g loads (increased weight) Fig. 1. Graph representing change and linear accelerations during swing tests in nystagmic RSP during stop stim- (Sidel'nikov, 1970~, i979). In those cases ulus following rotation at speed where exposure to CCCA di~ not pr~~uce auto- of. 180 deg/sec for �irst group of no~ic disturbances in the subject;s, the. subjects, who withstood cumulative change in the RSP took the form of stimula- Coriolis acceleration without ves- tion. Conversely, in those cases where a tibuloautonomic disturbances. 1) vestibuloautonomic motion-sickness syndrome RSP before CCCA; 2) RSP after CCCA, developed, the sub~ects exhibited an inhi-~ bition effect, i.e., a decrease in the RSP from its original level. These changes in _ the nystagmic reaction were quantitatively most pronounced during the stop stimulus following rotation at a speed of 180 deg/sec. Thus, the graphs representing the nystagmic RSP recorded before and after maximum exposure to CCCA showed two types of relative positianin~ for the corresponding curves. The RSP curves were located above the initial curves in the first type of reaction and below then in the second type. It must be noted that the sec~nd - type of reaction was characteristic of su.bjects who exhib ited a distinct vesti- 97 FOR CFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY . . ~ s ~ ~ -NF) � +i +i ~ � : ~ o 0 - K ' _ a+ ao ~ .r � N .-1 ~fS � ~ J, ~ O. ~ ~ s H ~ ~ ~ N~ N~ ~ a ~ V cd m ~ ~ o~ v~ oi U ~ m O 'b fA ~ o ~ 8 8 O ~ y~ 1~ tt1 ~ Q U O ~ � ~ 'r -FI -1~1 +I +I . ~ c~ O cl T ~b S S S S V~ N'r'J O ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ o C o G V p tA N v ~o � ~ ~ ~ ~ x ~ ~o ~r o~ ' a, a ~ ~ o ~y M d ~ a~. - _ o ~ w M~ ~ � o~ o ~ ~ a~i ~ W ~w~'t A N ~ ~ w f0 ~'i~ O~1 N ' 7~i ~ N ~I 'lp~~i ~ 'rl O~ tb ~ E � ~ y p N ~ ~.J O ~ r. , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~n a~ v~ b ` ~ ~ ~ +I +1 � +I +i �q ~ o o a~ a ~ a H ~'s 8 o o m cq oC0 p 1+ cd w H ao v~ V~ d ~-71 t~l '~+V' rw-I f~.7 W i~~1 r~-1 H 1~-~ G1' ~ i O :r t~ C9~~~C. f~Ci~+W Gl ~ ~ x ' +I fi +1 v w ~ ch e~ o . . . . . . . . ~ O = ,M '.'r O' er `a N N1 ~t V1 ~O 1~ 00 ~ .-a .-i .-a ~ - ~I ~ ~ oo w u~ o.� oo u~ ~n q, w N N w P~ e'7 ~ $ 'F~ 't'' ~ ~ V ~ o^ M N l+~ ~tM O O O N ~~i N N N N N N. iV N N tU ~ . ~ O' Cl 'U ' 00 00' ~ 00 N.p~ O O ~,~j 00 N N N.� M~ eq N Ga 1,1 R1 ,b ~ ~SE~ g~ -1~1 +I EI +1 -M ~I -FI ~ ~ -f+ N L q u~ V~ 00 t~ O O O O ~ N ~p ~ ~ C7 N~ ~ N N N N N N N K V ~'r' q.0 25.~ x~ 1~ a+ - t~ a~t~ t~ ai . A w 'd ~ 'L~ Ol O uY� . cd t!~ C~v K~c~~ C~ .r. C'i N O Ci 'r'1 ~ ~ N ~ ~p H V 'd rl ~ ~ m b0 00 C~ O r-I t~ ~ v �~1+ ~ ~ ~ v N C+ d'b ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ . N `r'! 'J+ O ~ v ~ ~ ~ ~ � ~ ~ 'U ~1 ~ ~ ~ G) cd W .C ^ y.~j ~ t~.~ N N O W~'b al O m o y W O~ Ul W c~tl r-~1 t~ C1 O ~ ~ � ~ s~ ~ O . W O O ~ O ~ ~ ~ Gl .C - p~ . a / v~~4 . ~ ' al ~ .c c~d ~g N o ~ a~' ~ y ~-~-I p,.`I.," ee p~ O ia ~e~i ~ 4-t Ul U U1 ~ W O ~ ~ C,~7 Z A~' a 01 N c.~ D+ co ~ u1 ~ I tA tn P~l 'J U`~+ P~l F3 0 v ~ , . ~ ~a ~1 p~v ~ ~ ~ O - a~ ~ � � � � � � � ~ ai ~ ~--i N M~t u'1 ~O t~ 00 C~ O ~ ' a~ . . o.~ ~ / ~ ycd,~ ' o,~ ~ a o oa . ~ a C C ~ ~ A � ~ a . . ~ ~r+ ~ "N M . . ~ ~ . ~ rl � v . ~98 ~ FOR OFFICIAL U$E ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ' FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ i i � ~ NN N.+ ~+N NN tqN c'~.+ ~'~~T NM 00 00 00 00 00 OC~ 00 00 ' ~ +1+1 +I+I +~+I +1+1 +1 +I +I ~I N~l +I fl CO t~ t0 t~ t~ tq ~ ~tl' N N�+ tD t~ ~ C7 N ~ w .ri r. ~ .~i .r r�~ ~ - - ~ ~ K K7 M N P~ c'7 e'q e'q e'7 M 1rJ NM M M R7 d~ ~ .n ~ ~n 00 00 C~O 00 00 00 00 00 ~ ~ - H CA ~ i ~ 'I"I ~I 't'~'~~ ~'~'~I +~'F~ 'F'~ ' 'I'~ Q~p ~0'd' NC~ V~N NO Q~O O~.-~ CBN O O) ~Nj NN MN NN NN ~+N NC7 NN a c~ U n1 O " u U e- . U cd 01 ~ s ' ^ M e'O N e'0 w~f' c'9 c9 ~a M u~ v~ ~T n') ~A M 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ~ - ~ ~ -6-I #~t ~I+I -FI-FI +1+1 ~I+I +Itl +I+I +1~t-1 O m O ~c oo ~ o o.+ rn o~c u~ c*~ e*~ ~a .r ~a . N MM Ne+9 ~C'~ ~''~N V'~ NN r7M NN V}~j 4-I ro O A N ' Q U t~0 Vl J V U W ( o u~ w n o~ c~ O ~ o o cV v~ Op, al ~ fA W " ~ ~e+~,,, .n-~ d ~ ^ ~ .~t~+ OL~ .Nlr CL~ CLO .~r ~ .N.. 41 ~ G) e~l ~ ' ~ ~ :-1 '~l ~ l'~~'~ "i~ T'~ '7 rl'i'~ 'r~ T~ 'r~ T~ '~'f'~'~ ~ _ u v ~ _ pp~p pp NN NO 00 00 NO 00 u~i w ~ ~?r~ ai oo u~. oo ~ o ci ti e~ ~n v~ ti � ~ g~ ,w O.rD o..� o~a ..�o c~rn e-~o o�~ aoao .a .r O d ~ ~ ~ .av~ ~n., wrn o~n oo o0 00 ~ ~ ~ 'L7 u ~ M 'd ~ - _ ~ p . � ~p pp ~y ~ ~ C"" ie ~ v~ M N ~ .Ni N ..~r .Mi N ~ N N ~ ~ ri TI ~ ~ ~ o ~ j -Fl-t~l ~Itl +I-FI i-I+1 tl LI ~I-FI 41~ -FI-FI . Y Npp p~tp .-iN ~i~ 00 00 ~O 00 ooa~ ~~vp' b S~+ ~ ch ~n cr~ O~n m oo N ~ N ~n N m�~ cc3 N �,-1 ~?-i J.~ O N r-I C O ~T O~ M N a0 ~T �r ~ GO O sD ~ w ~ N .-i ~ .r ~+.r .r a+ . ?T+ U CA Qi ~ ~ ~ ~1 4~N p~ u~ t~ �y~ 00 O O a0 O O O u~ O o~ t~ ~ ~ [~t0 t~~d ~N ..~iM ~c'N7 ~N g .~.1 .r~ w ~A u~ q ~ I ~FI ~I +1 ~1 ~Fl FI FI+1 +I+I -FI+1 -hl+l -1-1~FI o . . . . . . m~ .p~ V~ N O N O O O O O O O O O V O~ N Cr'9 ~7 ul ~ ~ ~ I~ CrJ N M~p ~J C~ ~ O M C~ C7 M~ 4 r~l ~--1 rl rl ?-1 r-1 ~ tf~ pQ l~ Qf `0~ M.r ~ia fe r-1 UJ ~ _ ~r .r N .r .r .ti N Y . ~ b ~ . CON OO~A h0 ~fJC~ tD00 Q~h NM ~N~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~r .:i 1~ .~i �.+.i N N O i+ M N ~ r�~ 1 'F~'f'~ T~'~') 'F~ f'~ ^ ~ ~b u~ ?fi M.+ C~ aD `O~ti O O O O O O N n U'O en .y~ O N ~A N~tl^ N N 00 Cf O t~ e0 ~r N C: ~ ~ ...r ~ .r .N ~ ~ u1 cd - ~ u'1 O ~ t~ �tl~ �y~ d~ t~ N N o~0 O O N~+ m""~ ~ `O ~,o c� �a~ N N e+i cr~ c~ m�~r e+~ ~a -}.1~') -~I-I-I o ~ ~ w ~ ~ -~1-FI tl ~f-I -FI ~Fl tl tl -I-~~-1 -Fl ~1 0 0 ,o ~ ez ~ ~ o ~a co 0o c~ e- ua ~r ao 0 0 0 0 . ~ v~ ~ w~ ~3N ~53 ~in3 a�~a,~ ~c'3 ~ ~ w b ~l f` d~ C~ V~ Oi a0 V~ N N^ N~ O O - ~ O 00 O O ~ ~ r~l d' ~ N u~ ~D M M ~0' e0 M N 00 .r ~~O e~+ w eD t~ o"' j +I+ I + I+ I i~ 1 t 1 M- F I +I+ 1 + l t l t l+ f t l i- 1 o a? c~ ~ �r~ 1.~ O~ N W M a0 t~ N M O O O O O O ~ eC ' ~ N e-I N U Gl ^ a~'i ~ ~ o m ~3 ~ ~ � ~ ~ m o ~3 ~ m ~ ~3 ~ ' u a~i w� ao0i a~'i ~ u v~i � d d d ' ~ ~ GJ ~r-, b ~I ~ �~-~I u1 ~~je'+' ~i!~~{ ~ ?i `.9 ?i `a ~i *i �r'1 .a tA 4~1 'L! D 00 ~Y V~OII N O~ ~ ~ " ~ ~ ~ O ~ O ~ O ~ 'd ~.1 ~ ^ lC O L+ U ~ D~ ' o ,~.mi a~ ?~c ~tc ac aC . '~C ~ ~ v~i ~ o b W u�1i o ~,~~~d, w o ~ ~d ~ ~-Ni ~ ~oo b c~'i N a ~ �nnam.a. uoo . ~ S ~ ~ ~ ~ oo~,aia�1ia~~~ab~a~i a . a?~�~amoo~ii~ ~~a .v . ' H a ~ ~ " t� ~ ~ as�~~a ~ a ~,c~n ~ ~ ~ ~,CSZv~ cdPON qt1i~W ' ~ O ~,~j 7nOlaRlf �r ~ ~ ~ r~.. ' . . . . . . � � . ~ [''r ~p~o ~muSQl ' . . ~ , _ ~ ~ N M .7 ?~1 ~G f~ 00 O~ ~ ~ ~ ~ KN9],~~~V v ~RxH 1fN9 ,AN9901f~If~Oi! ~ ~OR91lOaJAO z ~4Mxx�~1~~JC yfll~9 70H91fa1f0djj ~0 BHN80IIOU ~ ~ �~i ~ ~ N ~ ' ~ . ~ � ~ ~ . ~ ' ~ r~l v ; 99 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500420002-2 FOR OFFiCIAL USE ONLY , ' RSP ~(deg/sec) . ~ RSP (deg/sec) ~ ~ BD ~ ~ BO \ . . r ~ 70 70 ~ ; ~ ' : 60 \ ' . 60 ' ~2 ' ~ SO t ' . � SO / � . 40 2 \ . . y~ y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . '~ao . 30 ~ ~ . t0 20 3~'\` � 10 ~p � \ � � ~0 20 t 30 sec ~ ~ ' - - - ~ _ ~ ~Q . _ . i . ' , � . sec ~ ' . Fig. 2. The same, for subjects in Fig. 3. Change in RSP during stop second group, who displayed pronoun- stimuli following rotation at speeds . ced vestibuloautonomic reactions when of 60 and 180 deg/sec for second exposed to continLOUS cumulative Co- group of cub3ects, who withstood ex- riolis acceleration. Symbols the posure to Coriolis acceleration for a same as for Fig. 1. period equivalent to SOX of maximum ' time without vestibuloautonamic dis- turbances. 1) RSP before CCCA (180 buloautonomic syndrome at any point during deg/sec); 2) RSP after CCCA (180 exposure to CCCA for the maximum time, deg/sec); 3) RSP before CCCA (60 while the first type of reaction was char- de~/sec); 4) RSP after CCCA (60 deg/ acteristic of subjects who withstood the /sec). � tests without developing the autonomic symptom complex of motion sickness. The stop stimulus following rotation at a speed of 180 deg/sec made it possible to use the R~P data to obtain definite and very valuable information on the funcr.ional status of the semicircular-canal recegtors anc otolithic apparatus, as well as~on the c~arac- teristics of their interaction. The existence of two types of changes in the rate of the nystagmic reaction was confirmed by the fact that the data obtained in other ves- tibular tests showed the sub~ects to differ in vestibular stability. HowQVer, we also obtained the first type of change in nystagmus rate for the sub~ects in the second graup when they participated in experiments in which the durati~n of ex- posure to CCCA was only half the maximum duration. This in~dicated that, in addition to the original functional status of the analyzer, the extent (or phase) of t~e ves- tibuloautonomic motion-sickness syndrome was important for the change in nystir~gmus rate. . Data on the nystagmic RSP level in the second-group sub,jects exposed to CCCA for only half the maximum time were of particular interest for elucidation of certain of the mechanisms by which the observed effects were produced. As we saw above, stimulation of the nystagmic RSP occurred in place of inihibition in this experimental variant. Phenomena of this sort enable us ta hypothesize that stimulation of the nystagmic reaction can occur only when the vestibular-analyzer otolithic apparatus receives a stimulus of definite optimum strength. 100 _ ~ FOR QFFI~IAL USE ONLY . APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 F"QR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ - In cases where the otolithic apparatus is overstimulated (a process whose strongest manifestation can be seen in vestibuloautonomic disturbances), there are paradoxi- cal cupular reactions. In view of the fact that tt~ese are a product of the func- tional interaction of the otolithic apparatus and cupular system, one can also speak of the existence of "paradoxical" forms of this interaction. We observed similar ~ phenomena in studying nystagmic indices after cumulative exposure to linear accele- rat~on (in swi.ng tests) . - Analysis of the RSP over shorter reaction times (5 and 15 sec) showed the chang~es in nystagmus rate to have the same character, especially during the first 15 sec sfter the s*_op stimulus following rotation at a speed of 180 deg/sec. Thc: experimental results obtained in these series of experiments can thus serve as still another confirmation of the fact that nystagmus is actually an integral reac- tion of the vestibu].ar analyzer and that the character of the changes in this reac-~ tion depends on the functional state of the semicircular canals and otolith3c ap- paratus and is governed by the characteristics o~ their interaction. Recording of nystagmus in combination with impo~ition of a functional load by the CCCA method, like swing tests, makes it poss~ble to determine rwo types of cupular reactions, making it useful in examination of.flight personnel for determination of vestibular stability in cases of simulation or dissimulation, for objective evatu- atian of tolerance to cumulative Coriolis acceleration and particularly to the CCCA test. Another striking feature of our investigations was the fact that, after preliminary exposure to CCCA, the second group of subjects exhibited the RSP changes character- - istic of a rotation speed of 180 deg/sec when subjected to the stop s~imulus follow- ing rotation at a speed of 60 deg/sec. In view of this fact and the substantial difference between the first and second groups. it would seem possible to improve the technique described above for objective determination of vestibular stability during CCCA. The data obtained in these studiPS will be published in a separate article. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bryanov, I.I., VOYENNO-MED.ZH., No 11, p 54, 1963. - 2. Voyachek, V.I., RUSSKIY VR.ACH, ~lol 27, p 904, 1908. _ 3. Kaminskiy, L.S., "Statisticheskaya obrabotka laboratornykh i klinicheskikh dan- nykh" [Statistical Proces~ing Gf Laboratory and Clinical Dataj, Leningrad, 1964. 4. Kurashvili, A.Ye., VOYENNO-MED. ZH., No 1, p 61, 1967. ~ 5. Lebedinsl,;iy, A.V., Arlashchenko, N.I., Bokhov, B.B., Grigor'yev, Yu.G., Kvasni- kova, L,N., and Farber, Yu.V., in collection: "Aviatsionnaya i~kosmicheskaya meditsina (materialy konferentsii)" [Aviation and Space Medicine (Proceedings of a Conference)], Moscow, 1963, p 333. 101 ' FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ~NLY 6. Makaryan, S.S., Yuganov, Ye.M. and Sidel'nikov, I.A., VOYENNO-MED. ZA., No 9~ p 59, 1~66. 7. Makaryan, S.S. and Side~'nikov, I.A., in collection: "Aviakosmicheskaya medi- tsina" [Aviatian and Space Medicine], Vo1 1, Moscow, 1967, p 302. 8. Popov, A.P., in collection: "Voprosy meditsinskogo obe3pecheniya aviatsii" [Problems of Aviation Medical Services], Vol 1, Mescow, 1939, p 112. 9. Sidel'nikov, I.A., "Modern electronystagmography in the theory and practice of vestibular-function evaluation", Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation, Moscow, 1970a; ZH. USHNYKH, NOSOVYKH I CORLJVYKH BOLEZNEY, No 6, p 71, 1970b; VQYENNO-MED. ZH., No 12, p 49, 1970c; VESTI~. OTORINOLARI1vGOL., Vol 2, p 26, 1974d; _ VOYENNO-I~D. ZH., No 3, p 72, 1975e; IZV. AN SSSR, SER. BIOL.,~No 2, p 259, 1978f; _ IZV. AN SSSR, SER. BIOL., No 4, p!~98, 1979g. ~ 10. Khilov, K.L., in collection: "Vestibulometricheskiy profotbor na letnuyu sluzhbu _ i vestibulyarnaya trenirovka letchikov" [Ves~tibulometric Occupational Selection for Flight Crews and Vestibular Acclimatization of Pilots], Moscow, 1936a, pp 1, 5; "Funktsiya organa ravnovesiya i bolezen' peredvizheniya" [Function of the Organ of Equilibrium and Motion Sickness], Leningrad, 1969b. 11. Yuganov, Ye.M., in collection: "Aviatsionnaya i kosmicheskaya meditsina (materialy konferentsii)" [Aviation and Space Medicine (Proceedings of a Conference)], Mos- cow, 1963, p 496; PROBLEMY KOSMICH. BIOL., Vol 4, No 1, p 54, L965b. 12. Yuganov, Ye.M., Markaryan, S.S., Sidel'nikov, I.A., Bryanov, I.I. and Vartbaro- nov, R.A., in collection: "Aviatsionnaya i kosmicheskaya meditsina (materialy konferentsii)" [Aviation and Space Medicine (Proceedings of a Conference)], Mo.s-- cow, 1963, p 506. 13. Yuganov, Ye.M., Sidel'nikov, I.A., Gorshkov, A.I. and Kas'yan, I.I., IZV. AN SSSR, SER. BIOL., No 3, p 369, 1~64. 14. Bergstedt, M., ACTA OTO-LARYNGOL., Stockholm Suppl., Vol 165, p 142, 1961. 15. Bornschein, H. and Schubert, G., ZEITSCHRIFT BIOL., Vol 107, No 2, p 95, 1954a; - Vol 113, No 3, p 145, 1962b; INTEItNAT. Z. ANGEW. PHYSIOL., Vol 20, No 2, p 178, 1963c. - 16. Collins, W., AEROSPACE '-iED., Vol 39, No 2, p 125, 1968. 17. Dowd, P.M., Moore, S. and Cramer, R., AEROSPACE MED., Vol 37, No 1, p 45, 1966. 18. Guedry, F.E. and Montague, E.K., A~ROSPACE MED., Vol 32, No 6, p~+87, 1961. 19. Schubert, G.I., J. AVIATION MED., Vol 25, No 3, p 357, 1954. ~ 20. Sinka, R., AEROSPACE MED., Vol 39, No 8, p 837, 1968. COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Izvestiya AN SSSR, seriya bio?ogicheskaya", 1981 2478 CSO: 18~40/355 102 �FOR OFFICIA3. USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 - FOR OFEICIAL L;SE ONLY UDC: 613.693 PROBLEMS OF SPACE BIOLOGY, VOL 39: EFFECTS OF HYPERBARIC EDNIRONMENT ON MAN AND ANIMALS Moscow PROBLEMY KOSMICHF~KOY BIOLOGII, TOM 39: DEYSTVIYE CIPERBARICHESKOY SREDY NA ~ORGANIZM CHELOV~KA I ZHIVOT?dYKH in Russian 1980 (signed to press 24 Oct 80) - pp 4-7, 258-259 � _ [Annotazion, introduction and table of contents from book "Problems of Space - Biology, Vol 39: Effects of Hyperbaric Environment on Man and Animals", by G. I. Kurenkov, B. 0. Yakhontov, A. V. Syrovegin, A. I. Sterlikov, V. P. Nikolayev and D. B. Vandyshev, editor-inrchief: Prof A. M. Genin, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", - 900 copies, 259 pagesj [Text] This book describes research on the main problems of ssbmarine biology and medicine. Attention is devoted spe~tally to questions of saturation and desatu- ration of body tissues with inert gases when atmospheric pressure and composition of the gas environment change, as well as r~epiratory function in g high-density environment, toxic effects of high levals of oxygen pressure, effects of inert gases on the nervous system under hyperbaric cot~ditions, heat exchange in man under w~ter at high pressure. The authors~ ob~ective did not include comprehen- sive discussion of the problems mentioned. This book may be of interest to a wide circle of biologists, physicians and specialists in the field of submarine and space medicine. There are 10 tables and [illegtble] illustrations; bibliography covers 27 pages. Introduction At present, a new branch of natural science is completely formed--submarine biology and medicine, which deals with the functional state of man and animals exposed to the set of deleterious factors that appear when submerging into a marine environ- _ ment. The objective of these studies was to find means of protec~ion that would enable man not ~nly to work well at elevated pressure, but to preserve entirely his health. Submarine biology and medicine was conceived on the basis of classical physiology . in the second half of the 19th century, when a special type of human endeavor appeared, work at high pressure in caissons and under water. In the presence of elevated atmosp~eric pressure, there are a number of factors - that man had not encountere~i in the coursQ of evolution, which affect the organism: high hydrostatic pressure, high partial pressure of oxygen and other gases in the respiratory atmosphere, high density of gases in the respiratory mixture. 103 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FOR OFF1C'IAL l1SF ONLY The fullest information on this score was first fuxnished in the classical work of Paul Bert, "Atmospheric Pressure" (1878). Humran physiology was enriched with new data about the t~xic effects of oxygen, processes of saturation and desaturation of body tissues with inert gases when aemospheric pressure changes, and about functional disturbances during and after decompression~. Subsequently, hyperbaric physioZogy was augmented with conceptions of the narcotic effects of inert gases (nitrogen, argon, neon, krypton), specific effects of helium, safe range of use of nitrogen and helium at elevated pressure, possibility of man's adaptation tn long-term exposure to 3 hyperbaric environme.nt. The feasibility of developing the world~s oceans depends on advances in submar3ne biomedicine. The increasing interest in hyperbaric physiology is also linked with~ the development of new therapeutic methods, for example, oxygen ba.rotherapy, and - !:he prospects of manned flights to such planets of the solar sys'cem as Venusy where acmospheric pressure near the surface constitutes about 96 kgf/cm2. The following are the most complex biological problems that p~event man from sub- merging to grea` depths at the present time: overcoming respiratory functional dis~ur.~ances and neurological disorders that occur when air pressure rises to more than 6 kgf/cm2, i.e., at depths in excess of 60 m. At such depths, when divers breathe with air they develop a state of so-called nitrogen anesthes3a, which is characterized by diminished efficiency, drowsiness, hallucinations, loss of sense of time and space~ Most researchers consider the chief cause of this state to be the specific effect of elevated partial nitrogen pre~sure; however, it has also been demonstrated that elevated oxygen pressure, rarbon dioxide pressure and gen~ral cooling of the ~ody have an enhancing effect on formation of nitrogen anesthesia. One of the chief factors iirvolved 1.n accumulation of carbon dioxide in the bo~iy and accentuation of cooling properties of gase~ under hyper- bsric conditions is the increased density of gases, which affects 3iffusion of gases in the lungs and heat transfer. The signs of nitrogen anesthesia can be ruled out when nitrogen in the respiratory mixture is replaced with a less dense gas, helium, and thus one can increase the depth of diving. However, when submerging very rapidly, at depths of 300-350 m, man develops neurological disorders, the clinical manifestations of which differ from the state of nitrogen anesthesia. These neurological disorders a~re charac- terized by a set of symptoms indicative of increased excitability of different structures of the central nervous system (tremor, hyperkinesia and others). At the present time, the state of heightened excitability under hyperbaric conditions while breathing with helium and oxygen mixtures is known under the name of the nervous high pressure syndrome l,NSVD). It is believed that the causes of NSVD ' could be pressure per se, the effect of helium at elevated pressure, heat stress, as well as accumulation of carbon diox~de in body tissuefa with the use of a dense respiratory mixture. On the basis of the results of studies of NSVD, some researchers concluded that 3.00 m is the ma~cimun depth to which man can submerge when using mixtures containing helium, ~ust Zike a depth of 60 m is the maximum when breathing with gas mixtures containing nitrogen. However, it was learned that one can create conditions that pos~pone the deleterious effects of = high pressure. Thus, there was substantiation of the possibility .of man an~i animals overcoming NSVD at depths in excess of 300 m. This book submits the results of the authors~ own resea~ch on the effects oi high pressure of respiratory mixtures on man and ani~als. Reference is made 104 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500420002-2 I FOR OFFICIAI. USE O,NLY chiefly to the data of �oreign authors in the.ir discussien of the results of the3r studies. The team of authors expresses its sincer~ grat~tude to V. N. Chernigovskiy,. aca3emicia~n of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Xe. M. Kreps, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Prof I. A. Sapov, Prof G. L. Zal'tsman, Prof A. G. Zhironkin, Prof V. B. Malkin, Prof V. S. Farfe4' (deceased), I. S. Breslav, doctor of medical sciences, Z. S. Gusinskiy, candidate of inedical sciences, G. A. Kuchuk, candidate of bioJ.ogical sciences and A. I. Selivra, candidate of inedical sciences, for their useful comments and assistance in preparing this work for publication. Contents Page Introduction 5 - Chapter 1. Dynamics of Exchange of Inert Gases Between the Organism ~ and Environment Duxing Compression and Decompression 8 Gas equilibrium of th~e organism 8 Saturation of the human body with gases in an environment with stable composition and pressure 9 _ Postdecompression and isobaric oversaturation of the organism with gases 11 Biophysical bases of the etiology of caisson disease 14 Sclubility of inert ~ases in physical systems and tissues af the organism 22 Rate of diffusion of inert gases in fluids 26 Haldane's theory on processes of saturation of the or~anism with inert gas and desaturation 29 Currc..it models of ~iesaturation and saturation of the body under isobartc conditions 31 Comparative estimation of rate of saturation and desaturation of the organism from diverse inert gases 40 Distinctions of the organism4s desaturation from inert gas during decompressioz 41 Conclusion 42 ~ Bit~liography 43 ChaptEr 2. Human Respiratory Function Under Hyperbaric Density Conditions 48 Physical bases of respiration in a dense medium 48 Oxygen cost of respiration ~3 Venti.lation mechanics 55 Ventilation reaction to carbon dioxide 62 Alveolar-arterial exchange of gases 6.5 ~ Minute volume of circulation ~ 79 Conclusion 81 Bibliography 83 Chapter 3. Toxic Eff~cts of High Partial Oxygen Pressure 90 Acute form of oxygen poisoning 9~ Chronic form of oxygen poisoning 102 Oxygen poisoning combined with other factors 107 M~chanisms of oxygen poisoning 110 Conclusion 120 Bibliography 122 Chapter 4. Neurophysiological Studies and Clinical Signs of the - Effects of Inert Gases at High Pressure 130 Hyperbaric anesthesia 131 General clinical ~tgns of anesthesia and correlation thereof with gas composition af respiratory mixture 131 105 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 I~O~~ JFHICIAL USE ONLY - Anesthetic effects of inert gases on the central nervous system 134 - Motor function with hyperbaric anesthesia 147 The nervous high pressure syndrome 164 Symptomatology of the nervous high pressure syndrome and i~s etiology 164 Central nervous system during development of nervaus high prQSSUre - syndrome a70 Changes in excitability of the neuromotor system with development of the nervous high pressure syndrome 176 Conclusion 181 - Bi~liography 182 Chapter 5. Dist~nctions of Heat Transfer in Man Du:ing Exposure to Elevated Pres~ure of Gas Environment and Under Water ?92 Heat transfer in man in hyperbaric chambers 193 Microlimate distinctions 193 Distinctions of heat transfer by convection 198 ~ Changes in thermal properties oi clathing in a hyperbaric environment 202 Heat loss via the respiratory tract 204 Heat transfer by evaporation in a hyperbaric envixonment 209 Heat production in a hyperbaric environment 212 Heat balance in man during stay in hyperbaric chamber 213 Setting standards for comfortable microclimate in hyperbaric chambers 215 Heat transf~r in mar. when working under water 222 Mathematical mddeling of the human heat-regulating system in hyoerbaric chambers and ur_der water 239 - Conclusion 244 Bibliography 254 COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980 J 10,657 CSO: i840i999 106 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY BOOK EXPLORES ADVANCED THEORY OF EXTRACELLULAR BRAIN CURRENTS Moscow BIOFIZIKA VNEKLETOCHNYKH TOKOV MOZGA ir. Russian 1980 (signed to press ~3 Jun 80~ pp 2~4~ 182~184 [Annotation, foreword, and table of contents from book "Biophysics of Extracellular Brain Curren~s", by Aron Meyerovich Gutman, JSSR Academy of Sciences, Scientific - Council for Problems of Biological Physics, Institute of Biological Physics, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1,700 copies, 184 pages] ~ [Text] This monograph presents the theory of the extracellular field and electric influence upon the cell. The theory is refined down to assessments used as the basis to analyze electrostimulation, the origin of the ECG and EEG, the methods of deter- - mining stimulation sources by EEG interpretation, the layered distribution of poten- ' tials in the cortex, an~l the extracellular spike. Objections are raised to the hypothesis of (efapticheskoye) interaction of neurons ~r+a some commonly accepted ideas about the genesis of a number of biopotentials of the central nervous system. The concept of the EEG quantum is introduced--an elementary impulse of biocurrents in the gray mattsr, or a synchronous extracellular postsynaptic potential from all , synapses of one axon. Theoretically predicted registration of the EEG quantum and its use in direct investigation of a synapse are described. The concept of the EEG qu~antum is applied to LEG and ECG interpretation. The bock is intended for biophysicists and physiologists involved with the problems ~f neuro- and electrophysiology. Forty-three fi~ures, 601 bibliographic references. Contents Page - Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . Principal Symbols and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 I. Principles of Cable Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 I.1. The Cable Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 I.1.1. The General Cable Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 I.1.2. Simplifications Associated With the Extracellular Field 8 I .1. 3. Rall' s Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 I.2. The Ohmic Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3. The RC-Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 I.3.1. Green's Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ~ I.3.2. The Division of Variables Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 . 107 - FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R400540020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ t ~ � ~ II. Influence of an Extracellular Electric Field Upon a Neuzon 21 II.1. The Problem of (efapticheskoye) Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 II.2. The Cable in a Given Extracellular Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 II.2.1. General Solution for a Segment of Ohmic Ca~le 2a II.2.2. 'I'he Most Important Par~icular Cases of the Ohmic Cable iri a ' Given Extracellular Field . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . � � 25 ; ' II.2.3. The Myelinized Axon in a Constant Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 II.2.4. The Nonlinear Cable in a Constant Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 II.2.5. An RC Cable Segment in a Given Variable Field 31 II.2.6. 2'he Boundless RC Cable in the Field of a Traveling Pulse 34 II.3. Numerical Assessments of the Influence of an Extracellular Field on a Neocortical Neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 II.3.1. Change in Transmembrane Potential in the Trigger Zone of a Pyramidal Cell of the Cat Cortex by the Field of an - Electrocorticogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 II.3.2. Effect of an Extracellular Fi21d on Neuron Spike Activity 36 II.3.3. Effect of a Constant Extracellular Field on Presynaptic Endings 38 II.3.4. Assessment of the Parameters of Effective Cortical Stimulatian by a Constant Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 - II.3.5. Assessment of the Parameters.of Pu~sed Stimulation of Ax~ns 40 II.3.6. Assessment of the IntEraction of Axons in~a Nerve 43 II.3.7. Stimulation of a Cortical Neuron by Short Electric Pulses 44 III. The Th~ory of the Extracellular Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 III.1. The Extracellular Field Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 - III.l.l. Laplace's Equation for a Three-Dimensional Ohmic Conductor 48 ' III.1.2. Capacitance in a Three Dimensional Nervous Tissue Conductor 48 III.1.3. Corrections to Laplace's Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5I - II2.2. The Source of an Extracellular Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 III.2.1. 'I'he Basic Integral Formula for Laplace's Equations in the Theory of the Extracellular Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 III , 2 . 2. The Cell as a Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 III.2.3. 2'he Cell as a Set of Field Sources . . . . . . � � � � � � � ~6 III.2.4. The Physical Meaning and Elementary Derivation of the Dipole Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 III.2.5. Relative Independence of the Source of an Extracellu~ar Field . 59 III.3. The Field in a Nonhomogeneous Environment. A General Examinati~n, and the Fiimple Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 III.3.1. The Basic Integral Formula in a Nonhomogeneous Environment 60 _ III.3.2. The Reciprocity Theorem, Electrode Theory . . . . . . . . . . . ~61 III.3.3. The Double Electric Layer in a Nonhomogeneous Space 62 III.3.4. The Space of ~ao Homogeneous Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . 64 III.3.5. 'The Flat Boundary Between Ztvo Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 III.4. 7.'he Field in a Nonhomogeneous Spherically Symmetrical Medium.. The _ - Theory of the ECG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 III.4.1. The Conductivity and Geometry of Brain Tissues 68 III.4.2. General Methods of Analyzing a 5pherically Symmetrical Field . 70 III.4.3. The Dipole in a Homogeneous Isolated Sphere 72 III.4.4. The Field of a Tangential Double Layer in an Isolated Sphere . 74 108 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFI~I~L USE ONLY III.S. EEG Theory as Approximated by Thin~Cerebral Membranes . . . . . . . . . "17 III.5.1. Z'he Cerebral Membranes as a Multilayer Spnerical Cable 77 III.5.2. The Equation for the Spherical Cable and Its General Solution � 78 III.5.3. Numerical Assessment of the EEG Representing a Separate Spherical Harmonic of a Tangential Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 III.5.4. The EEG Field of the Simplest Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 III.5.5. Electrostimulation of the Human Brain With Scalp Electrodes 86 III.5.6. The Reverse Problem of Electroencephalography . . . . . . . . . 87 III.6. The Field of the Anisotropic Medium of White Brain Matter 89 IV. Quantitative Assessments of Cortical Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 IV.1. The Sources af a Field Created by Cortical Neurons 93 IV.1.1. Physiological Characteristics of Possible Sources of an Extracellular Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 IV.1.2. The Pyramidal Neuron as a Set of Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 IV.2. L~~iered Distribution of Potentials in the Cerebral Cortex 99 IV.2.1. Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 IV.2.2. Experimental Data on the Nature of the Profile of the . EP Component in the Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 IV.2.3. The Synaptic Nature of the lEP Component in the Cerebral Cortex 101 IV.2.4. Interpretation of the Nature of a Profile . . . . . . . . . . . 103 IV.2.5. Theoretical Assessment of the Size of a Transcortical Potential. 106 IV.2.6. The Field in Nonoriented Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 IV.2.7. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 IV.3. 7."he Neuron Extracellular Spike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 IV.3.1. The Amplitude of an Extracellular Spike . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 IV.3.2. The Shape of an Extracellular Spike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 IV.3.3. Comparison of the Theory of the Extracellular Field of a Spike - With Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 IV.3.4. Spikes and Cumulative Bioelectric Activity . . . . . . . . . . . 119 - V. The ~,EG Quantum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 V.1. The Concept, and Assessment of Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 V.1.1. The Concept of EEG Quantum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 V.1.2. Assessment of the Three-Dimensional Structure of the Field of an EEG Quantum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 V.1.3. Assessment of the Amplitude of an EEG Quantum 126 V.2. Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 V.2.1. General Methodological Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 - V,2,2. The EEG Quantum o~ the Frog and Cat Retinotectal Afferent Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 V.2.3. 2'he EEG Quantum.of Affere:~t.Impulses of the Cat Spinal Cord and Trigeminal Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 V.2.4. The EEG Quantum in the Rabbit Hippocampus . . . . . . . . . . . 133 V.2.5. Registration of EEG Quanta ira the Rabbit Neocortex 135 V.3. Application of the EEG Quantum Concept to Biopotential Interpretation 141 V.3.1. Three Bands in the Spectrum of Cumulative Biocurrent of Cerebral Gray Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 V.3.2. Theoretical Analysis of High Frequency Manifestations in the. EEG, in the ECG, and in Microelectrode Recordinq 144 V.3.3. The Quantum Band and the Spike Band in Experiments 145 V.3.4. EEG Multiple Quantum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 109 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY V.4. Registration of EEG Quanta--a New Direct Method of Investigation of Synaptic Transmission Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 V.4.1. Frequency Dependence of Retinotectal Transmission in Frogs and Cats 148 V.4.2.Posttetanic Potentiation of the Evoked Postsynaptic Potential. . of Nbssy Fi.bers in the Rabbit Hippocampus . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 - V.4.3. Ph~rmacology of the Retinotectal Synapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 V.4.4. The Nature of Synaptic Influence and the Location of Axon Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 V.4.5. The EEG Quantum and Interpretation of Individual Intracellular Postsynaptic Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Foreword The principles of the theory of the tissue electric field were discnvered back at the dawn of biophysics by Helmholtz (330). Research on this problem is being continued (404, 456) together with further development of electrophysiology. However, usually the extracellular field is now analyzed quantitatively only in relation to relatively simple situations, such as a cylindrical fiber in infinite space (487), permitting = a sufficiently precise numerical solution. But in most cases researchers limit themselves to examination of the orientation of dipoles, and to determination of potential signs (118). Use of the intermediate approach of gross quantitative assess- ments is justified by its simplicity and by the broad range of its applications. Quantitative assessments are verl popular in ph~sics, at least in terms of the fre- quency of their application. 'I"hey must be utilized even more broadly in biology, in- asmuch as the ~.ccuracy of an experiment is often limited to the first significant figure, and precise calculations are incomparably harder to arrive at in biology than in physics. It would appear suitable to apply this approach to the highly coniusing . problem of brain gray matter biocurrents. , Although the principal object in this book is the extracellular field, Chapter I begins with a description of the intracellular potential fields, inasmuch as we can assume with satisfactory accuracy that an intracellular potential, which determines extracellular biocurrents, does not itself depend on the l~tter. This result follows from the conclusions of Chapter II on polarization of the membrane of a cable by a given extracellular field. Chapter III~is devoted to the general :heory of the extracellular field; moreover a method for simple guantitative assessment of a dipole and of a set of dipoles representing a source-cell is proposed. This chapter uses a simplified approach to the nonhomogeneity and nonisopropicity of the brain and its membranes. This method is used in Chapter IV to assess concrete electro- physiological phenomena occurring mainly in the cerebral cortex. Chapter V presents ~ the most important conclusions, demonstrating that an elementary impulse of bio- potentials in the gray matter elicited by a single a~ferent spike, which has come to be called an EEG quantum, may be recorded. 7.'his prediction was~experimentally con- firmed. Inasmuch as extracellular currents are a continuation of intracellular cu~rents, and in the gray matter the latter are associated mainly with thick nerve fibers-- dendrites, the book devotes its main attention to analyzing dendrites as sou'rces of. an extracellular field. ~ 110 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FUR OFFICIAL USE ONLY I am grateful to many individuals, and mainly to my labor::.f:ory colleagues, for their cooperation. I extend my gratitude to N. Khusainoven for his great assistance in preparing the manuscript. COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980 11004 - CSO: 1840/190 111 FOR OFIFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FUR UFN tCIAL USE ONLY HUMAN FA~'~~RS UDC: 612.172.2 - PROBLEMS OF SPACE BIOLOGY~ VOL 41: BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS Moscow.PROBLEMY KOSMICHESKOY BIOLOGII~ TOM 41: BIOLOGICHESKIYE RITMY in Russian 1980 (signed to press 23 O~t 80) pp 4-9, 316-319 ~ [Annotation, introduction, conclusion and table of contents from book "Problems of Space Biology. Vol 41: Biologi~al Rhythms", edited by Academician V. N. ~ . Chernigovskiy, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 2300 copies, 320 pages] [Text] This collective monograph deals with biological rhythms on different levels of organization of living systems (cellular, organismic, population), as well as their relation to periodicity of the environment on our planet. On the basis of data in the literdture and experiments conducted by the authors, there is dis- . cussion of the system of biological rhythms, correlations between them and their lability, role of rhythms in nor.mal function of the organism, effect of exogenous conditions on rhythms and capacity of some rhythms to adjust to the periodicity of the environment. This monograph is intended for specialists in the field of space biology and medi- cine, physiologists, botanists and biologists in other fields. Tables 3, illustrations 72; bibliography listed on 39 pages. Introduction � A brief report about one of the experiments of the famous French naturalist, J. J. de Meran, was published 250 years ago in the works of the Royal Academy of Paris. He discovered that plants retain their circadian rhythm of leaf movement in total and constant darkness. For the first time, it was demonstrated ~hat biological rhythms are a special category of phenomena, rather than a simple reaction to changing conditions. This is how development of a new science, the science of biological rhythms, began. One quarter of a millennium later, the problem of biological rhythms became one of ~ tl~e basic problems ot modern biology. Numerous studies have shown that biologi~al rhythms are the v~:;~ basis of Uiological processes. The start of exploration of space served as a powerful impetus for fur*_her develop- ment of the scienc, of biological rhythms. Expressly there, many problan:s of bio- rhythmology acquired special meaning, and often very marked practical relevance as well. Impairment of biorhythms has often been observed during space flights. - Yet the rhythmic structure of any organism is ~ust as important to life and just 112 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 FC1R OFFICIAL USE ONLY as c~mp~ex as the spatial structure. This time structure is flexible and labile, - but still it is very vulnerable. Impairment of rhythmic structure leads to dis- eases and even death. For this reason, one of the most important tasks of space biology is to study biological rhythms--their stability, factors affecting them and periodic chan.ges in sensitivity of the organism. The study of biorhythms is just as important to space exploration as, for example, studies of the effects of weightlessness. This task can be formulated on a broader basis: it is not only in space, bu~ on our planet that we have to be concerned with preservation of the trme structure of life, which is so sensitive to diverse factors. What are biological rhythms? They are periodically recurring changes in nature and . intensity of biological processes and phenomena. Each of these recurrences usually differs somewhat from the prec.eciing an.d subsequent ones, both in amplitude and in duration of period. However, -~f one studies rhythm long enough, one usually finds . that the mean values of rhythm parameters are quite stable. These mean parameters change in a consistent way when there is a change in exogenous conditions. Rhythms are not the exclusive property of living matter. Appearance of fluctuating processes is inevitable wherever there is regulation with lagging feedback. Accord- ingly, the most diverse processes, very distant from one another, in both inanimate and animate nature, may be rhythmic. However, living mal:ter differs from nonliving in that there is mare ordEr in the rhythmic processes. The more complex the system, the more important to it is organization in time. Evidently, life in general is impossible without rhythms, - without pulsations. And, although biological rhythms of a given ~r~anism, or population, must be coordinated, the mechanisms of most rhythms are profoundly different. Although it would be tempting to conceive of low-frequency rhythms arising on the basis of high-frequency ones and to find�the "rhythmic unit," there is still no convii_cing experimental evidence of such unity of rhythmic structure. One thing is certain: some rhythms model others in the organism, there is syncrhoni- = zation and entraining (prolongation) of rhythms. - The science that deals with biological rhythms--biorhythmology--is a part of chrono- biology--the science dealing with time in biology, but it actually uses all of the main contents of modern chronobiology. The impression could be gained that such a science is utterly artificial, as it deals with such profoundly different pro- cesses and uniting them according to a rather formal feature, the pres~nce of rhythmicity. After all, there is no science, for example, such as physicorhyth- mology dealing with photic, sonic, u~echanical and other fluctuations. ~ If we weLe to refer to the current situation in biorhythmology, we would find ~ evidence that would appear to confirm this thought. Different rhythmic processes are studied by biologiste in the most varied directions, virtually without a connection between one another. Only one category of rhythms is the primordial field of research by biorhythmologists. We refer to so-called ecological rhythms: daily, seasonal, tie~al, lunar, i.e., rhythms that have distinct atronomical ana- lo~ixes in the environment. At the present time, the study of rhythms of the - organism reminds one of the well-known parable about the blind men who tried to _ 113 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 M~U1C Ur'N1(:IAL U,~ UlVLY determine what an elephant~was like, vome feeling only its leg, others only its tail, other yet only the trunk, etc. Still, the subject of the science that is forming only now--Uiorhythmology--does definitely exist. The task oi future biorhythmology wi11 be not only to analyze th~ mechanism of a given specific rhythm (which can only be done by a specialist in the _ narrow field of the phenomena studied), but primarily to synthesize all of the rhyth- mic systems of the organism in all its interactions. _ Our book is an effort to integrate in some way these scattered studies, to stress the fact that a11 of them pursue the same ultimate goal, that of studying the rhythmic structure of the organism. A rhythmic structure is apparently mandatory, to some extent or other, in all living things and it is present on all levels of organization, from intracellular to population processes. Biological rhythms can be observed in virtually every cell of a multi.cellular organism. Some cells or groups of cells take on the role of synchronizers, controlling the rhythm of organs or even the organism as a whole. It is well-known that biological rhythms can persist for some time in organs and tissues isolated from the organism. The rhythmic structure of an organism, like its morphology, is geneti~ally fixed. Most rhythms appeared spontaneously in ontogenesis, but some require specific exogenous influences for their manifestation. ' All organisms adapt to thE environment and bear its imprint. This also applies to .the rhythmic structure, which developed not only.as the inevitable result of complex interactions within the organism, but as adaptation to environmental rhythms. There is a rhythmic pattern of events inherent in each plant, and everything living that exists on earth is permeated with terrestrial rhythms, which are part of its substanc~. When we leave our planet, we still remain terrestrial and bear its rhythms. Under natural conditions, these ecological rhythms conform strictly with periodic changes in the environment due to astronomical causes. Apparently, the study of such rhythms is of special importance in connection with exploration of space. - Ecological rhythms serve as a biological clock for the organism, enabling it to be oriented in time and prepare in advance for expected changes in conditions. Stability oE peri~d is typical of ecological rhythms, with regard to diverse chemical factors, different levels of temperature and illumination, i.e., they are self- sufficient with respect to metabolic processes. Because of this relative inde- pendence, the endogenous ecological rhythm controls the rhythms of the entire or- ganism, affecting the level of motivations. But motivations apparently have no effect whatsoever on endogenous rhythm. The rhyttun of animal activity observed under natural conditions is a complex combination of elements of behavior that _ are actuated by the endogenous rhythm and immediate reactions to exogenous condi- tions. This entire behavior is subsCantially modified by the biological state of the animal. All other rhythms, unlike ecological ones, either have no marked and stable exogenous analogues, or else have some specific phasic relation to them. This 114 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY applies to most physiological rhythms, such as, for example, the heart beat, respiratory excur~ions, etc. However, all of these rhythms are modeled to some extent or other, in frequency and amplitude, by ecological rl:ythms. ' Development of biorhythmology began with the proof of preservation of ecologiCal circadian rhythm in continuous darkness. There are two interpr~tat~.ons of this phenomenon: either the rhythm is endogenous, i.e., spontanPOUS, and the fluc~uations are determined by an endogenous ~~~hanism, or else the organism, when isolated from alternation of light and temperature, perceives some sort of time signals from the outside, senses the regular changes in geophysical factors that penetrate ~ through the laboratory walls. At present, it can be considered that the spontaneity of all of the main rhythms, including ecological ones, has been completely proven. However, an actual rhythm always has both endogenous and exogenous components. The question ~f the role of exogenous factors in maintaining and regulating endogenous, spontaneaus rhythms cannot be considered definitively answered. We cannot rule out the possibility that geophysical factors play a significant part here. To test this hypothesis, experiments must be conducted at a considerable distance from our planet, where complete isolation from terrestrial factors can be ob- tained. It is quite apparent that this question has more than great theoretical - significance. If "penetrating" geophysical factors are mandatory to maintain rhythms, it would be impossible to make any distant and long-term space flights without simulating the natural rhythmic environment for living organisms. The change in period under constant laboratory conditions is another distinction of ecological rhythms. Solar daily, lunar daily, weekly, lunar semimonthly, lunar monthly, annual rhythms become "circa-" rhythms in the absence of the usual environmental changes, i.e., "near-" solar daily, "near" lunar daily, etc. The period of a rhythm under constant conditions is individual for each specimen, and it also depends on prevailing conditions. By analogy with physical oscillations, such rhythms are called free-flowing under o stable conditions. This implies that, expressly under stable conditions, the rhythm is manifested as such, without any exogenously imposed elements. Apparently, constant conditions [sic], on the contrary, have a marked unnatural effect on the organism, deforming the parameters of rhythm. They cannot by any means be considered the neutral background against which rhythm is manifested. Any regulation of ecological rhythm is possible because of the fact that unstable states--time of potential readiness (TPR)--appear several times within each of its periods. They correspond to the time when the organism is ready to receive an exogenous signal, a certain change in conditions. If the signal is sonewhat - behind or ahead of time, there is a corresponding shift in rhythm phase. The same reaction to conditions occurs when they are constant. If these conditions are close to signal values, the rhythm phase shifts ahead during TPR, and if they are far from these values, it shifts back. Tfiere is a corresponding deformation v~ the pe~~od of rhythm, and tRe magn~tude of tTiis deformation equals the alge- bxaic sum of aZl phase shf.~ts within eacii o~ the TPR~s. 115 FOR OFFICIAL USE 6NLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFIClAL USE ONLY Thu~, ecological rhythm is neve~~ a"free fluctuation." It r~gularly "consults" ; with exogenous conditions to which the organism is exposed. The camplex rhythmic svst~m of the organism cannot be absolutely closed, no matter how much we try to isolate it, i: will always react to the conditions we present to it. This reaction , to the environment is always an organic part of the rhythmic system. On the wl~ale, ' however, the rhythmic system reacts with amazing refinement and precisiotl to the environment, providing for maximum adaptability of the organism. ~ We have tried in our book to demonstrate this multifaceted rhythm system of the organism, with its complex endogenous and exogenous interactions. .It was not our aim to furnish exhaustive surveys on each of the problems, which would have required a much larger book. The book is divided into two parts. The first deals with biological rhythms on dif- ferent levels of biological organization, from cells to populations. The second part describes the properties of rhythms--daily, lunar and seasonal--that are the most related to the environment and important to space practice. This part also has a chapter on biological rhythms related to solar activity. Authars who work indegendently in allied fields always have different opinions, a different style, different approaches to a question and its presentation. For this reason, we tried to reflect mor~ fully the complexity, contradiction. and acuity of current problems in biorhythmology. The authors will consider.~ their mission accomplished, if the book will he:lp develop life support systems for space flights, if it discloses even more that li.fe has not only a spatial structure, but an equally important time structure, an.d if it is instrumental in expanding continued research and generating heated di~cussion. Conclusion ~ A quarter of a millennium has passed since the disco~very made by de Meran~. But _ it is only in the second half of our century that, finally, the significa~nce of biorhythmology to basic biology and practice of human life was appreciat~d, and this discipline began to develop rapidly. Still, strictly speaking, the science , of biorhythmology as such does not yet exist. There are only some of it:; frag- ments and efforts to tie them together. It has now become very obvious that virtually all processes in the organ~sm are rhythmic; some rhyti~ms appear and are manifPSted independently, others are the , result of integration of several rhythms. It is equally apparent that all of these rhythms interact with one another in some way or o~her, forming a more or less ~.oordinated rh}ithmic system, time organization of a living thing. In~a normal organism, these rhythms form an crderly and complex whole, like the 3ound of a symphonic oL~_.iestra. However, it is not always by far that one can say something definite about the mechanisms of rppearance of some biological rhythm, its regulation and lability, and as a ruln, the longer the period of a rhythm, the less we know about its - mechanism. It is relatively easy to create a mathematical or physical model that would describe, more or less satisfactorily, the properties of a biological rhythm. Numerous such models have been proposed and more than one interesting hypothesis has been expounded, but there is still no definitive solution. 116 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 - ~'OR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ The situation i~ even more complicated with respect to the study of the time or- ganization of living systems. In the first place, different rhythms are the sub- ject of research for d~fferent specialists limited to the narrow range of their problems. In the second place, the rhythms that we are accustomed to considering elementar}~ are often in fact the result of complex interaction between many rhythms. For this reason, we are still ~ar from.having a real idea about the rhythmic structure of organisms. - The yauth of r~u: discipline is also reflected in the fact that it is called by different names. Even in the different chapters of this book, reference is made to biorhythmology in some cases, chronobiology in cthers. Of course, the teaching on time organization of living things is the foundation of our discipline, which should be ca11Fd chronobiology, where the problem of biological rhythms is an extremely important but special one. Of course, one should not study only rhythmic phenomen~, but all of thQ existing 1�trends," viewing rhythms as elements of onto- genesis and phylogenesis. But yet, we feel that it is more appropriate to use the term, "biurhythmology," which corresponds to the current state of our knowledge. - Also, a few words about the impvrtance of our discipline today and in the future. We have already started to become accustomed to conceptions that biorhythms are always superimposed over the studied biological processes, that one should pay attention to time of day and time of year in any investigation. We have qet to become used to the fact that biorhythms are the substance of the process itself, one of the mandatory elements of its mechanism. The exceptional significance of biorhythmology in space biology and actual practice of space flights has been demonstrated in many sections of our book. Long-term manned space flights would be impossible without the study of inechanisms of coordination of rhythms with the environment and analysis of rhythm disturbances ~ that occur under the influence of space flight factors. But we hope that the conceptions of time organization of living things will have a substantial influence on future development of such disciplines as physiology and molecular biolog~, embryology and genetics, immunology and oncology, and many other branches of biology and medicine. Contents Page Introduction (V. I3. Chernyshev) 5 I. Biological Rhythms on Different Levels of Biological Organization Chapter l. Time Qrganization of Biological $ystems (Yu. A. Romanov) 10 Time organization of .biological systems as the principle of biological organization 11 Appearance and development of time organization of biological systen~s in evolution of lire 12 General structure of time organization of biological systems 18 Regulation of time organizatl.on of biological systems 21 Time organization of some biological systems 23 Desynchronosis of time organization of biological systems 36 Space,and time organization of function of biological systems 38 Time organization of human functions in the presence of diseases 40 Chronopharmacology and chronotherapy 43 117 ~ FOId OFFICIAL USE ONL~' APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 HOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ` Chapter 2. Rhythmic Processes and Regulation of Vital Functions (S. A. Chepurnov) 5~ Physiological aspects of biorhythmology 57 Rhythmic course of the main physiological processes--excitation and inhibition (functional rhythms) 60 Rhythmic zctivity and functional state of the brain � 86 , Self-regulation and rhythms of autonomic processes in man and animals with changes in abiotic environmental factors 102 Rhythmic processes of the cardiovascular system and the biological clock 110 Chapter 3. Rhythms of Animal Growth and Development (G. A. Klevezal', M. V. Mina) 139 Growth and devel~pment as a complex rhythmic process 142 Rhythms with periods of more than 24 hours 148 Circadian rhythms 150 Ultracircadian rhythms 151 Special categories of rhythms of growth and development 152 Rhythms and regulation of the growth process 154 Significance of rhythmic organization of growth and development processes 159 Chapter 4. Periodic Changes in Size of Animal Populations (B. Ya. Vilenkin) 166 Causes determined by properties of the population itself, exoge~ous circumstances and interaction between populations of different species 167 II. Biological Rhythms and Environmental Rhythms Chapter S. Circadian Rhythms (V. B. Chernyshev) 186 Circadian rhythms of organisms and the environment 186 Environmental factors regulating endogenous rhythm 196 Scheme of regulation of endogenous rhythm 201 Rhythms under constant [stable] conditions . 203 Daily and circadian rhythms 206 Patterns of rhythm ghase shifts by time sensor (phasic curve) 208 Extension of rhythm due to various illumination conditions 210 Arrest of the rhythmic process 215 Modeling the circadian rhythm 216 Central mechanisms of regulation of rhythms 218 Daily organization of a living system 22~ Adaptive significance of circadian rhythms 222 Chapter 6. Lunar and Certain Multiday Rhythms (V. B. Chernyshev) 229 Chapter 7. Seasonal Rhythms (V. P. Tyshchenko, T. K. Gory~hina, 238 V. R. Dol'nik) Seasonal rhythms.of the environment (this section written by 238 - V. 13. Chernyshev) 239 Adaptive role of seasonal biological rhythms Change in biological states as the adaptive basis of seasonal rhythms 246 Regulation of seasonal rhythms 25~ Seasonal rhythms of plants 265 Seasonal rhythms of arthropods 2~4 ~ Seasonal rhythms of vertebrates 289 . Chapter 8, Biological Rhythms and Solar Activity (B. M. Vladimirskiy) 292 Solar activity and parameters of the environment jhabitat] 300 Main cycles and periods of heliogeophysical factors 305 Heliogeophysical cycles in the biosphere 316 Conclusion (V. L. Ciiernyshev) COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980 � _ 10,657 CSO: 1.840/999 118 ROR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/49: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFF[C[AL US~ ONLY ~ TEXTBOOK ANALYZES WESTERN PFi:~JECTIVE PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Nb~ ~ow PROYEKTIVt~~tYE ME;TODY ISSLED0~7ANIYA LI~iNOSTI in. Russian 1980 (sign~ d to press 3 Jul 80) pp 3-9 ~ [Table of contents and foreword from book "Frojective Methods of Personality : Analysis", by Yelena Feodorovna SokoloLa, Izdatel'stvo Nbskovskogo wziversiteta, 15,100 copies, 176 pages] , [Textj C~ntents Page Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 _ ~apter I. General Chara~ ~ristics and Classification of Projective 10 ~ Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter II. History of ttxe Development and Substantiation of the 19 ' Projective Method � � � � � � � � � � � � ' ' ' ' ' _ �1. Substantiation c.f the Projective�Method by the Principles of 21 Holistic Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~2. Effect of Classical and Revised Psychoanalysis on the Basis of the 25 Projective Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . �3. The Significance of "New Look" Studies to Substantiation of the Projective Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . 38 �4. Z'he Conceptions of Projection in Substantiation of the Projective M~ethod 44 55. Z'he Projective Method in the Context of the Conceptions of.Personal 58 Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � Chapter III. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) . . . . . . . ~ � � � � � � ~l �1. Basic Premises of H. Murray's Personality Theory . . . � � � � � � � � � 71 ~2. ~i'he TAT: H. Murray's Expei~i~.:,ntal Procedure, Analysis Scheme, 76 and Interpretation � � � � � � � � � ' ' ' ' �3. D. Rapaport's Basic Categories�for�Analysis of TAT Stories. 84 ~4. Some Approaches to Interpreting the TAT: S. 7.bmkins' and M. Arnold's 92 Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter IV. H. Rorschach's Inkblot Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : 102 �1. Description of the Technique and Experimer.ital Scheme . . . . . . . . . 104 Questioning the Subject . . . . . . . . � . � � � � � � � . � � � � � . : 106 Determining Sensitivity Limits � � � . � . � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 107 ~2. Basic Procedures of Response Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 , Designating the Location of a Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 The Basic Determi.nants of Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 119 ' FOR O~FICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 rVK urci~..iHa. UAG VI~ILi ~ �3. Interpretation of fihe BaSic Coding Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 The Psychological Meaning of Location Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . 121 The Psychological Meaning of Basic Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 ~ 44. Interpreta~ion of Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : 133 Interpreting the Test's Basic Indicators and Z"heir Relationships 136 Affect and Its Controllability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Evaluating Intellectual Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 , Specia? Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Diagnosis of Conflict and the Defense Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 ApPendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Foreword = Projective techniques have begun enjoying broad application in many areas of psychological practice in connection with the growinQ demand for applied psychological analyses of the personality. But the:ir use is not always justified by the objectives of the concrete analysis, and results are interpreted in categories adequate to ideas about the personality that have evolved in domestic psychology. Hence it follows thai, directly borrowing foreign methods of personality diagnosis without critical inspection of their theoretical basis may produce serious difficulties, both theo- retical and practical. Al1 of this makes lengthy and meticulous work necessary to develop a theory of the projective met.hod based on the premises of Soviet psychology. The first steps in ihis direction presuppose, first of all, associating the princi- ples and concepts making up the conceptual machinery of the projective method with the personality conceptions corresponding to it; second of all, distinguishing that psychological reality which, within the framework of the given conception, serves as the object of the projective method; and third and finally, describing this object in concepts that hav~ been developed in Soviet psychology. However, to what degree are the method or the particular techniques determined by psychological theory; The history of the projective method's development shows that - it does not exist apart from personality theory; at the same time the relationship - between the projective method and theory is not unatnbiguous and unchanging. Nbreove~, - the relationships between one theory or another and some single technique are even more complex and indirect.* It cannot be doubted that to one degree or another, the birth of a method is prepared for by a theory already in existence, though this fact may not be fully rerflgnized by the analysts.themselves. In this case the im- pre:~sion arises that the technique is also nothing more than a fortunate discovery of its creator, who is often little concerned with theoretical explorations. The - *Following the convention of some author~, we will distinguish a method as a means of analysis derived from general theoretical ideas about the essence of the object under analysis, and teehniques as the technical procedures by which the method is implemented with the purposes of refining or verifying our knov~itedge about the object (33). 120 FO~ OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY paradox of this situation revealed itself with special obviousness when a few decades following the arisal of projective techniques, their relationship to the basic personality theories became the object of inethodological reflex action--that is, this relationship transformed into a special research task. T'he situation is made even more complex by the fact that with time, a method acquires what seems to ~ be relative independence from the theory that brought it into being, and it begins to "operate" in other conceptual systems. As a rule this promotes alteration of the entire conceptual machinery, and concurrently, change in our ideas about the objects under analysis. In turn, transformations of the method bring varic+us schemes of analysis and interpretation of the individual techniques themselves into being as weil. As an example despite the indisputable fact that both the projective method and the projective technique were created under the influence of psychoanalysis, the latter was not their sole theoretical basis: "New Look" exper~.- ments on the role of personality factors in perception, and the holistic and personological ideas of K. Levin and G. Allport affected, directly or indirectly, - the corresponding conceptions of projection, the content of the interpretative schemes, and the personality models them~elves. Consequently no matter how much the technical procedures used in implementation of a projective method (that is, the projective techniques) seem to be divorced from theory, they are all permeated by theory. Of course, this does not exclude the use of some particular technique independently of the theory which historically brought it into being--projective techniques are broadly employed abroad by proponents of behavioral psychology and Gestalt psychology, and representatives of the information approach. Nevertheless it would be important to emphasize that the ambiguity and the looseness of the re- lationships between theory, method, and "technique" do not at all mean that the latter may be employed apart from all theory. After all, when we interpret the results of projective techniques, we essentially build a model of the personality, and consequently this interpretation would be predetermined by the theory of which the experimental psychologist is a willing or unwilling follower. And while we find some Western conceptions of the projective method to be debatable, the problems they touch upon doubtlessly deserve attention and further development. "In any science," Engels wrote,"incorrect ideas (if we disregard errors of abserva- tioril are, in the final analysis, incorrect ideas about correct facts. The facts remain., even if the ideas about them turn out to be false" (1, 20, 476). This is why the task of theoretically substantiating the projective methods w:thin the framework of domestic psychology is ~o important and timely. � 2'he projective method is oriented on the study of unconscious (or not fully realized) forms of motivation, and in this quality it is hardly the sole, specifically psycc:~logical method of penetrating into the most intimate area of the human mind. But the unconscious is significantly richer in its phenomenology, as well as in the possibilities for interpretation of its content, than had been imagined, for - example, in classical psychoanalysis. Meaningful experiences", "personal meaning", and other constructs r~veali.ng unconscious partiality of inental reflections may not come Co lig}it, 4'VC'tl with direct referral to a subject's responses or observation of his behavior. Projective techniques allow us to study these personality constructs, which reveal themselves directly or in the form of different personality sets, in- directly, by modeling some living situations and relationships. While most psycho- logical techniques are aimed at studying how man arrives at an objeci:ive reflection of the external world, projective techniques have the purpose of revealing unique "subjective deviations", and personal "interpretations", in which case the latter are far from always objective, though they are always personally meaninful as a rule. 121 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 NOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Of course, the approach proposed here is not the only one possible. Theoretical and methodological substantiation of the projective method �a important, but more is required. We also need to conduct further research on problems such a~ diagnosis of the individual style of the personality with the help of projective techniques, creation of schemes of analysis and interpretation within the framework of the - activity approach, and many.others. Efforts are being conducted.in this direction by a group of colleagues and students of Nbscow State University's departiaent of psych~logy. ~ - Z"his book will acquaint students with the basic directions in projective analysis, with the debatable problems, and with the vazious approaches.to their resolution, and it will help them arrive at an objective assessment of projective t~chniques, and reveal the possibilities of their application. COPYRIQiT: Izdatel'stvo Nbskovskoqo universiteta, 1980 11004 ~ CSO: 1840/189 122 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY � DECISION MAKII3G AND AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL Moscow PRINYATIYE 12ESHENIY CHELOVEKOM V AVIATSIONNYKH SISTEMAKH~UPRAVLENIYA in Russian 1980 (siQned to press 5 Feb 80) np 2-9, 347-348 [Annotation, table of contentsy foreword and introduction from book "Human Decision Mak~ng in'Aviation Control Systems", by P. P. Novikov, Izdatel~stvo "Vozdushnyy transport", 2,830 copies, 348 pages] [Text] Annotation This book examines research on the activities of an air traffic controller and ~ pilot. A modeling approach to describing decision making, to experimental analysi.s of activity, to siinulation of air traffic control and "pilot-aircraft" systems, and to the solution of the practical problem,s associated with organizing, automating, and providing ergon~mi.c support to control systen~s in civil aviation is implemented. The book is intended for engineers specializing in air traffic con`ro~, air traffic controllers and flight crews, developers of automated systems for aviation, students in their senior years at institutions of higher education, and specialists involved , i.n analysis of decision m?king, systems analysis, and modeling. . ~ Contents Page Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Chapter 1. Analysis and Modeling of Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.1 Semiotic Aspects of Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2 Procedural Aspects of Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 ~ 1.3 The Disposition Model flf Human Decision Making in Control Systems 23 1.4 Formation of Situations and Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1.5 Accumulation and Utilization of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1.6 Modeled Organization of Task Completion in Control . . . . . . . . . . . 47 123 FOR ~FFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/49: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 rvn vrr.~~M~. ~~oc ~nv~.i Chapter 2. Experimental Analysis of Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.1 T'he Activities of an Air Traffic Controller, and a Description of i:ne Object of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 ; 2.2 P.ircraft Landing Control, and a Description of the Object of Control . 6$ 2.3 The Methods of Experimental Decision Making Analysis 76 2.4 Analysis of the Activities of the Air Traffic Controller 83 2.5 Analysis of Pilot Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 2.6 Relationship of Modeling Concepts to Subjective Evaluations and the Behavioral and Electrophysiological Components of Activity 116 2.7 Analysis of the Dynamics Behind Formation and Structure of a Habit Involved in Task Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Chapter 3. Nbdels of De~ision Making in Real Control Systems . 135 3.1 Formation of Situations and Decisions in Concrete DNIl~i [Decision _ Making Models] Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 3.2 Writing Up Goals and Criteria For Modeling Purpose.s 1~5 3.3 Nbdaled Organization of ~ontrol Task Completior~ in CDMM's [Controller Decision Making Models] and PDI~Il~I's [Pilot Decision Making Models] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 3.4 The Disposition Model Developer'~ Language as an Al,qorithmic Language and a Programmi.ng Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 3.5 Disposition Model Support Systems and Software . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Chapter 4. Machine Processing Experiments With PDNIl~!'s . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 4.1 Selection of Parameters for Evaluation of Decision Making by ~ Controller in an Air Traffic Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 4.2 The Experimental Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 4.3 Results of Experiments With PDMP�i's P~3th and Without Training . 187 4.4 Results of Experiments With PDPM~i's Following Training 198 Chapter 5. Machine Processing Experiments With CDMM's . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 5.1 Choice of Parameters for Evaluatinq Decision Making During Aircraft Landing Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 5.2 The Experimental Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 5.3 Comparison of Decision Making by Pilots and PDMM's 225~ 5.4 Evaluation of the Efficiency of a PDMM Operating as.a Controlling . Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 1'L4 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL, USF ONLY Chapter 6. Practical Aspects of DNA~i Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 6.1 Prediction and Detection of Conflict Situations in Air Traffic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 6.2 Comparative Analysis of Methods for Detecting Conflict Situations 27b 6.3 PDMM Procedures Viewed as an Aircraft Landing Algorithm 279 6.4 The Workload of Air Traffic Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 6.5 Modeling Air Traffic Control Systems on an Accelera~ed Time Scale 290 6.6 A Modeling Method for Evaluating Air Traffic Control Systems 296 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . 304 Appendix 1. Description of the "Situation Formation" and."Decision Formation" Blocks of the CDMM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Appendix 2. Description of the "Situation Formation" and 1tDecision Formation" Blocks of the PDMM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Foreword Control is now becoming one of the principal spheres of human activity, as a con-. sequence of which we face a large number of new practical.problerns associated with algorithms, systems engineering, human factors analysis, and ergonomics and involved with the planning and improvement of this type of activity. The success with which these practical problems are solved depends on how deeply we subject the laws and unique features of human thinking accompanying problem.solving to theoretiaal and experimental analysis. 2'his book :xamines the decision making problem in application ~o control systeans in several aspects. First a certain conceptual model of human activity is formed, based on certain ideas concerning tiie structure, functional content,,--~nd hierarchi- cal orgariization of decision making. Then follows an elaboration of:the conceptual m4de1, taking the form of a decision making model (DMM) described formally by com- - plexly structured texts and dispositions. T'he next step involves experi.mental identification of the concepts and procedures of the DMM through analysis of human activity in real control systems and in the laboratory, using behavioral and electrophysiological techniques, and subjective evaluation and scaling methods. ~'he experimental results take the form of precise descriptions of DMM's for human activity in different real systems. The facts used here are taken from analysis of the activities of an air traffic controller and a pilot controlling an aircraft during landing. The corresponding DMM descriptions are called the CD_MM--the con- br.oller decision making model, and the PDMM--the pilot decision making model. The intern 1.logic of the models is checked out through decision making simulation~. cycles run through digital computers. The results of the machine processing 125 : ~n UFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 . 1~OR Oi~l~I('IAL U~1~. ON1.Y experiments are also used to evaluate the adequacy of processes performed by the DMM and the individual in real conditions. Thus~this book~proposes and sucaessively implements a modeling approach to analy~is of human decision making, based on con- temporary methods of experimental analysis of hwnan aGtivity, and on contem,porary methods of formal description. The modeling results are an a9.d to understanding and refining the concepts, to predicting development of training processes, to abstracting, generalizing, accumulating, and utilizing experience, and to formation _ of habits and memories in complex activity, which is what decision making is. The modeling approach, one of the important properties of which is that it offe~�: a possi.bility for transforminq a vague conceptua~. model into precise, exp~a.citly modeled concepts, is extremely adequate to the practical tasks associated with planning and improving control systems of which man is an integral part. Use of this approach is what predetermined the content of the book's discussion of the use of DMM's to refine systems concepts, to describe.the procedure for defining the . control problems and the means of their solution, to evaluate systems, and to predict their behavior. The author of the book is grateful to engineers A. P. Kulaichev and R. N. Suleymanov for their cooperation in running the decision making models, and to B. M. Borodenkov, A. N. Sumin, ancl L. S. Z~-yachikh, who took part in some of the experiments and pro- vided considerable assistance in preparing the manuscript. Introduction The decision maki.ng problem is at the center of attention of many sciences-- mathematics, logic, psychology, physiology, and philosophy. But even within the - framework of an individual science we typically find a multiplicity of conceptions and approaches to it. This pertains first of all to definition of the "decision making" concept itself. Predominantly in mathematics and logic, and sometimes in *~~~~r'hologi~;.ul ~~sdies as. well, ~ec~�~.on makinR ~-a ~~mpletely identified with the y j v . . . ~ : - means of problem solving. In physiology, meanwhile, decision making is usually defined as just a single act occurring within complex integrated activity. In application to human activity, this problem should be interpreted as thinking in the course of solving problems (formal and practical). 7.'he goal of studying this problem is to describe this thinking process and to resolve all issues associated with it. ~ Thinking is the highest product of the brain's work, it plays a role in different forms of activity, and it entails the individual's purposeful reflection of properties and relationships in the outside world, abstraction and generalization of sensory experience, suggestion of hypotheses, definition of problems 'and their solution, establisiunent of laws, and creative development of n~w ideas. Thinking became an object of experimental study in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (31, 80, 84, 85, 117). I. M. Sechenov founded the materialistic approach tc :e- search on thinking. His works are significant in that they revealed the means by - which the behavior of the living organism is determined by properties of the ob- - jective world and by the mind through the brain's reflex activity. The structure of reflex activity includes mental components beginning with elementar}t levels of sensation and ending with the highest forms of inental activity--thinking. 126 ~ FOR OFFiCIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 MOR OFFICIAI. USE ONLY I. P. Pavlov (90) subsequently made a major contribution to development of these ideas. He formulated a single approach to all forms of human behavior, and he demon- strated the basic possibility for assuming a scientific approach to anal;yzing the _ brain's physiological activity, which is at the basis of any mental phenomenon. MateriaxisLic viewpoints on the nature and mechanisms of thinking are at the basis of thinking research in Russian and Soviet psychophysiology (23, 42, 57, 97, 102, 113). Thinking plays a real role in different forms of activity, manifesting itself as the individual's solution of concrete problems as he interacts with objective reality. Problem solving is the most frequently encountered form of thinking. 22etrospertive analysis of studies on activity would demonstrate the doubtless im- - portance of the "problem solving" concept, since it is indispensable in all direc- tions of research on thinking. However, it does require fundamental refinement. _ Problem solving is a directly observable, real product of th~inking (97). But thinking itself cannot be completely reduced to just problem solving alone. The solution mechanism is a thinking process involving certain laws governing the dependence of analysis, synthesis, and generalization, which themselves must explain what occurs in problem solving. This is what makes it necessary to consider the thinking process when studying problem solving, and to examine all real problems associated with this. The integrated problem of analyzing thinking in the course of problem solving is sometimes referred to as the�problem of human decision making. It is precisely in this sense that we will define decision making as a complex pro- - cess of human information processing directed at problem solution. - In application to studying hw~an decision making in control systems, there are a large number of structural, descriptive, strategic, heuristic, and other approaches (29, 35, 36, 37, 48, 93), in which this process is interpreted as operational acti- vity (operational thinking). One book (93) defines operational thinking as "a process of establishment of a sequence of actions with objects being controlled, performed on the basis of dynamic modeling of these objects, their properties, and their mutual relationships." Formalization and modeling are effective methods for studying decision making (5, 37, 91, 92, 96, 109, 117, 123). Among models that have been created and are presently being developed, we can come across models which integrate data from different areas of knowledge, and models locked within the framework of a single scientific discipline; models enjoying meticulo~zs experimental verification, and models having no experi- mental grounds at all; models adequate to the object of modeling, and models super- ficially reflecting some of its significant aspects. Most works, wi�th the exception of some in which singular or multicomponent reflexes, functional systems, and sets are modeled, si.mply described decision making without modeling its structural organi- zation, though they did have a particular physiological or psychological conception _ at their basis. Z'he first attempts at modeling the process were associated with development of heuristic programming, which is based on the maze hypothesis of psychology (42, 79, 142). After heuristic programming was "defeated" in its attempts at becoming the "computer" theory of human thinking (87, 102), a. new direction began to develop, which is now referred to as the "artifical intelligence" problem. On one hand modeling methods for solving problems falling within the natural intelligence sphere improved, and models of deductions, inductive and deductive ~onclusions (25, 119, 124, 126), 127 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 rutc urr?..iAL u~r. ~~iv~.r semantic memory and semantic representation of information (130, 148, 149, 150, 151), formation of concepts and generalizations (49, 95, 105, 130, 135, 148), development of strategies and plans (41, 70, 99, 104, 135, 147) and other objects were broadly discussed. Simultaneously, on the other hand, most models were developed apart from psychophysiological ideas and experimental analysis of h~an decision making, which is fully justified in the creation of "artificial intelligence" and wliich is highly problematic in terms of the attempts made in some publications to associate the - latter with the mechanisms of brain function (for example attempts at reducing thinking to natural language models, and at identifying the two). However, use of precisely this class of models, which are structurally sophisticated and are supported by a diversity of ineans for describing structural levels and units, . will apparently predetermine the direction that will be taken in the near future in theoretical and experimental analysis of human decision making by the methods of formalization and modeling. Given the diversity of approaches to studying brain function, in most cases the brain is recognized, directly or indirectly, to be , complex system functioning as a single whole. This is in essence a systems approach (11, 16, 40, 53, 63, 69, 105, 108, 110). The basic principles of this approach to analysis of concrete real systems are as follows: A system is a class of terms having their own internal relationships; a system is said to be correctly represented if in addition to the terms, the class of - their paired associationsis given; in addition to internal relationships, each term is typified by external relationships induced by their internal relationships and - prescribed by the class of paired associations of terms--that is, each term pl.ays the role of an"instrument" observing the properties of the other terms; each term is an abstract system (in the terms of general systems theory), and it may be de- scribed by any of the known organizational or formal methods far describir.g objects and systems. What we have here in fact is a transition from concrete to abstract systems and a return, following analysis of the abstract systems, to conclusions concerning the essence of the object under analysis. The question of isolating a concrete real system is answered in application to decision making on the basis of the principle of process and funetion. Decision making is a real event, characterized by change of intrinsic states in time, and directed at altering the environment with the goal of solving the problem posed. Simultaneously it is a function of brain mechanzsms dependent upon the anatomical. and neurophysiological structure o.f the brain, the properties of the environment, and emoti~nal and motivational factors. On analyzing the studies of thinking activity occurring in the course of problem solution, we can assert that: a) The class of terms in decision making, when viewed as a system, breaks down into at least three subclasses: psychophysiological, informational-logi.cal, and experi- mental terms; b) analysis of decision making may be said to be integrated only when it includes at least one representative from each subclass of terms. 128 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Isolation of a subclass of psychophysiological terms is intuitively clear: Every psychological and physiological conception contains within itself a description of brain function given at one level of generalization or another. In most cases the terms of this subc].ass are described structurally, with the logical, operational - and algorithmic approaches perhaps being an exception. The psychophysiological approach u.Ged here for isolating the different terms is based on representation of thinking as a structural-functional system. Abstraction, generalization, formation of concepts, learning, and accumulation and utilization of previous experience are the most important brain functions promoting successful solution of control problems. No research has yet been done on the neurophysiological mechanism responsible for this complex type of acti.vity. Thus investigation and description of the mechanisms responsible for decision making is highly important. Analysis of signaling~and analytical-synthetic activity, of inemory organization, of inental habit formation, and of exercise of inental habits acquires special significance in this aspect. Informational-logical tern~s correspond to formal models and descriptions of decision making. Representation of this subclass in integrated research is made indispensable by the need for reproducing, predicting, and obtaining precise quantitative charac- teristics of decision making. The language used to describe such terms must necessarily bz formal: terminal (explicit or implicit) or purposeful. In our re- search, the inforr,3tional-logical term, which we named the DMM, is selected on the basis of two requirements: structural and experimental identification of the DNiM, and the formality of the procedures used to describe it. The DMM and its individual parts are represented as dispositional descriptions of problems and the methods of their solution. The level of detailed description of the DMM is selected to insure convenient running of the models in a computer, as a program written in problem-orie~?ced language. The model is essentially a semiotic system having a developed hierarchical structuxe, a semantic memory, and the elements of deductive and inductive conclusions, learning, planning, and goal-setting. Integrated research would not be complete without conducting an experi.ment to confirm - the psychophysiological and infoxmational-logical terms. The structural descriptian of the experimental term is structurally fomtal. Obviously, the elements of the corresponding abstract system should include "inputs", "outputs", "the processing method", and "the representation method". In our research, the relationship between the structure of decision making by man and a DMM on one hand and change in the state of the object of control and in the behavioral components of activity on the background of electrographic processes on the other plays the dominant role. In addition, we make use of subjective analysis methods such as reports by the subjects themselves, questionnaires, evaluations, and subjective scaling. Thus when we assume an integrated systems approach to analysis of decision making, we must represent, mutually coordinate, and work out the questions and reach a decision as to the way the process under analysis is to be structurally represented, as to the structure, semiotics, and procedures associated with the formal models, as to the organization and planning of the experimental research, as to the formali-� ~ zation techniques, and as to the relationship between the experimentally determined facts and our representations of decision making as structures and models. A large number of problems of outwardly purely technical nature arise in parallel (running the models, testing the adequacy of the models and human decision making, developing ' 129 ' FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 l~v~~ vr~ ~~,ana. v.au v~ra..a the formal machinery of modeling, and so on) , thouqh they are not essentially . an actual factor of the systems approach. In this aspect our.choice of htunan activity in control systems a.s the object of research stemsnot only from the previousl~ . recognized practical significance of this problem, but also the conviction that man-machine systems are a rich experimental model for studying habits and intuition~ logical conclusions and deductions, formatian of concep~s and memory, planning, and learning--all which make up the structural basis of thin;cing associated with problem solving. COPYRIGHT: "Vozdushnyy transport", 1980 11004 ~ CSO: 1840/148 134 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ; ~ i f ' PSYCSIATRY i i ~ ; MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS USED IN PSYCHIATRY Moscow LEKARSTVENNYYE PREPARATY PRIMENYAYF~MYYE V PSII~iIATRII in Russian 1980 (sigaied to press 3 Sep 79) ~p 1-18, 207-208 . I [Annotation, table of contents, and the chapters "Principles of Psgchopharmaco- ~ therapy" and "Basic Objectives in Psychopharmacotherapy of Mental Diseases" from book "Medicinal Preparations Used in Psychiatry"~ edited by Prof G. Ya. Avrutskiy, Vsesoyuznoye kon"yunkturno-informatsionnoye byuro Glavnogo aptechnogo upravleniya Ministerstva zdravookhra~neniya SSSR, Moskva, 20,000 copies, 208 pages] (Text] ~his handbook contains data on drugs used in the USSR in psychiatric practice to treat patients with mental disorders. ~e principles of psychopharmacotherapy ' and modern clinical viewpoints on the use of psychotropic drugs are presented. The concepts "specifically psychotropic action" and "directed psychotropic activity" are analyzed, the general form and methods of psychopharmacotherapy are described, , and the problem of inedicinal pathomorphosis of psychoses is discussed. ~ The handbook contains descriptions of neuroleptics (amin;azin, tizertsin, teralen, i melleril, triftazin, mayeptil, moditen-depo, ethaperazine, frenolon, meterazine, ~ neuleptil, haloperidol, trisedil, chlorprothixene, karbidin), tranquilizers (meprotan, trioxazine, elenium, seduxen, tazepam, eunoktin), antidepressants (meliprami.n, pirazidol, nuredal, indopan, tryptizol, phthoracizi.n, azafen), psychostimulators (sydnocarb, acephen), correctives (cyclodol, norakin), and lithittm carbonate. This publication includes medicinal preparations produced in the USSR and purchased abroad, as of 1 January 1978. The description of each preparation includes brief pharmacological information, a detailed discussion of the unique features of its psychotropic action, reconanendations on clinical use, and data on side-effects and complications. ~ The handbook is intended for psychiatric physicians and pharmacists. ~ Contents Page ' . . . 3 ~ Principles of Psychopharmacotherapy, G. Ya. Avrutskiy . . . . . . . . � ~ Basic Objectives in Pharmacotherapy of Mental Diseases, . . 14 . . . . . . . . . . i Z. N. Serebryakova . � � - � � � � � � � ' ' ' ~ 131 I FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY i APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ ~ ; Neuroleptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 r 18 i Aminazin, A. S . Lopatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - Tizertsin, L. G. Efendiyeva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 27 ` Teralen, M. I . Fot' yanov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 ; Melleril, M. I. Fot' yanov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 ~ Triftazin, I. Ya. Gu~ovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Mayeptil, V. A. Yezhkova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Moditen-depo,. I. Ya. Gurovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � � � Ethaperazine, O. N..Kuznetsov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Frenolon, O. V. Kondrashkova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Meterazine, I. Ya. Gurovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 = Neuleptil, I. Ya. Gurovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Haloperidol, Yu. A. Aleksandrovskiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 i 115 ~ Trisedil, V. A. Yezhkova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chlorprothixene, L. A. Nikitina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 � . � Karbidin, I. Ya. Gurovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Tranquilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 138 ' Meprotan, Yu. A. Aleksandrovskiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trioxazine, Yu. A. Aleksandrovskiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 _ Eleniinn, V. N. Prokudin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 . Seduxen, V. N. Erokudin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 - Tazepam, Yu. A. Aleksandrovskiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 ~ Phenazepam, Yu. A. Aleksandrovskiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Eunoktin, Yu. A. Aleksandrovskiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 ! i ~ ~ ~ . . . . . . . . Antidepressants, V. V. Gromova . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 ; ~ . . . ~ Melipramin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 ~ ~ ~ . . . . . . . . . . ~ Pirazidol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 � ~ Nuredal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Indopan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : 172 ~ ~ . . Amitriptyline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Phthoracizin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 . Azafen, 0. P. Vertogradova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Psychostimulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . : 181 Sydnocarb, Yu. A. Aleksandrovskiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � : . 181 Acepheri, L. M. Nemirova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Lithium Carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . . � � . � . . . � . 189 . . . . . . . . 194 Correctives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � � � . . . . . . . . Cyclodol, I. Ya. Gurovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . 194 . . . . . . . 197 Norakin, I. Ya. Gurovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Nootropic Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Piracetam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 205 Alphabetic Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � . � � . . . . . 205 Latin Alphabetic Index of Preparations and Their Synonycns . . � � � � � � � � 132 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Principles of Psychopharn~acotherapy In distinction from so-called shock methods (injection of insulfn, EST--electroshock therapy), psychopharmacotherapy employs medicinal therapy primarily. 'I'hus it has become possi.ble to apply the forms and methods of phara?acotherapy and~pharmaco- dynamics common in somatic medicine to psychi~try. As with all other pharmacotherapy, i correct, clinically grounded establishment of indications for treatment is of special significance to achieving a therapeutic impact. But no matter how correctly the indi- cations for initiating therapy are established, they lose a11 of their significance - as the patient's state changes in response to therapy. As a result a preparation - that is clearly indicated for a patient just begirining his therapy may turn out to - be ineffective or even harmful in just a few days. This requires constant observa- tion of the dynamic principle when conducting psychopharmacotherapy, which means constantly changing the treatment tactics depending on the dynamics of the patient's state. In the course of treatment, as a rule we observe nonuniform change in differ- ent psychopathological disorders: Some decrease in intensity while others remain unchanged, or they become even more intense. In each case the therapy must be systematically changed ?n accordance with daily assessments of the effectiveness of the given dose of a given medicine, plus meticulous clinical psychopathological _ analysis of all changes in status. A mandatory prerequisite is total individualiza- tion of therapy, with a consideration for the specific features of the pat~.ent's - reaction. The basic principles of the clinical action of psychotropic drugs must be fo:.lowed when establishing indications in the course of therapy. Psychotropic drugs differ from all other medicines due to their so-called specifically psychotropic action, which expresses itself in typical somatic, autonomic, and mental disorders, ones which appear in the clinical pattern of psychosis due to the nharmacological proper- ~ ties of the preparation, and which are also encountered among healthy people. Mental disorders which are always noted i.n the clinical pattern of psychosis during the time of therapy, and which disappear only after the therapy is withdrawn, have special significance. These psychopathological disturbances, the expressiveness of which usually depends on individual sensitivity to the preparation, dosage,� stage of treatment, and so on, do not appear as distinct episodes, in distinction from insulin coma, instead in a sense intertwining with the symptoms of psychosis, which also experience changes, thus creating the impression of a chaotic combination of symptoms. Nevertheless this set of symptoms associated with the direct action of the preparation is highly typical, and therefo're it may be isolated from the clinical - pattern of psychosis and examined separately. Inhibitory and activating effects arising in different cotnbinations have been f~und to be the principal components of this set of symptoms. Z'hese effects occur in conjunction with a thymoleptic, thymoanaleptic, or thymodysleptic effect. Differ- ences in the expressiveness of general and selective antipsychotic influence (upon psychosis in general and upon individual psychopathological disorders) is ariother typical trait of the specifically psychotropic action of these preparations. Different combinations of these components make up the individual spectrum of the psychopharmacological properties of each preparation, which determines the orienta- tion of their psychotropic activity. 133 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY � Thus aliphatic derivatives of the phenothiazine series (aminazin, tizertsin) differ ~ from other neuroleptic drugs mainly due to dominance of the inhibitory components in their specifically psychotropic action. Aminazin eli~its lethargy,intellectual and u?otor inhibition, passiveness, lack of initiative, neutral emotional reactions going as far as development of apathy coupled with asthenic phenomena and a subdited iraod, and someti.mes development of depression (Flugel's "apathoabulic syndrome" or ~ Delet and Deniker's "psychoaffective indifference"). ` In addition to group properties co~non to all aliphatic derivatives, tizertsin has _ individual features. They include, first of all, significantly high expressiveness of the inhibitory components of specifically psychotropic action, both in the motor and intellectual sphere and in the emotional sphere; development of "emotiunal blockade" is much faster than wi.th aminazin. T_nhibition elicited by tizertsin is accompanied by sleepiness, often going as far as critical sleep, differing dramatically from narcotic sleep in its subjective and objective signs (including EEG data), and quite similar to physiological sleep. Overall inhibition is not so heavy as with aminazin; a subdued mood.and, all the more so, depression are not observed. Owing to the inhibitory nature of specifically psychotropic action, aliphatic derivatives of the phenothiazine series are superior to all other neuro- leptic drugs in the strength of their sedative action. Z'hese preparations are the ones usually able to curtail psychomotor arousal, with the sedative effect manifest- - ing itself primarily along the lines of affective blockade, coupled with motor in- hibition. In this connection the main indication for using aminazin and tizertsin is a state ~ of psychomotor arousal of varying origin. And, on the other hand, in the presence of states associated with motor inhibition (stupor, apathoabulia, and so on), the exi~~ting symptoms of psychosis in a sense merge with the lethargy and inhibition introduced into the clinical pattern by the specifically psychotropic properties of the preparation, which results in a worsening of condition. 7.'hus "psychiatric" contraindications arise. For example aminazin treatment of patients having si.mple schizophrenia apart from aggravations or other forms coupled with expressive apathoabulic disorders is clearly harmful, amplifying the manifestations of schizophrenic alterations of the personality and thus preventing social and voca- tional rehabilitation. We would have to conclude from this that a course of aminazin therapy would be unsuitable, and that after arousal is curtailed, a switch must be made quickly to other neuroleptics having stronger selective and general antipsychotic action. The main trait of preparations classified as piperazine derivatives of the pheno- thiazine series is presence of a stimulatory, activating element in their speci- fically psychotropic action. 7."his manifests itself especially clearly in 5uccessive prescription of preparations with no break in the transition from aliphatic to piperazine derivatives. Patients exhi.bit motor arousal, animation of facial expressions, activity, initiative, and a desire to act, and their emotional resotions become livelier, clearer, and more differentiated. The individual properties of preparations in this group also differ significantly~ Thus in terms of specifically psychotropic action, the stimulatory effect of 134 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY triftazine is less pronounced in comparison with other piperazine derivatives. It occurs in cor.,j unction with distinct selective antipsychotic action, directed mainly against hallucinatory, hallucinatory-delirious, and delirious syndromes, which predetermines the specific psychotropic activity of the preparation. Therefore triftazin does not usually elicit a direct sedative effect. Its effect upon aff.ective disturbances and arousal manifests itself only when the particular syndromes involved are directly associated with hallucinatory-paranoid phenomena, and if their reverse development begins with a decline in the intensity of hallucinations and delirium. The stimulatory properties of the specifically psychotropic action of mayeptil are more strongly pronounced than tho~e of triftazin, manifesting themselves as dis- inhibition, maliciousness, and someti.mes euphoria. ,While it does not have selective antipsychotic influence upon specific psyehopathological syndromES, mayeptil does . have its strongest general antipsychotic action upon the clinical pattern of psychosis in general, often promoting a break in its course. While possessing the general properti.es of their group, ethaperazine and similarly structured frenolon differ significantly from triftazin, metarazine, and mayeptil. The stimulatory influence associated with their specifically psychotropic action is not only significantly more pronounced than that of other piperazine derivatives, but it also combines with a typical thymoleptic (ethaperazine) and thymoanaleptic (frenolon) influence, which reflects itself in the spectrums.of their psychotropic activity. The general antipsychotic action of ethaperazine more strongly pronounced than that of frenolon while its thymoanaleptic effect is less pronounced, owing ~o which it has a deeper influence in the presence of, for example, hallucinatory-delirious syndromes, e specially ones occu.rring together with depression. This mutual dependence between the psychopharmacoloqical properties of the prepara- tions and the spectrum of their psychotropic activity is applicable not only to phenothiazine derivatives but also to neuroleptic d-rugs of other chemical groups. Thus in the thioxanthene derivative group, chlorprothixene differs from.sordinol, which has a piperazine ring in its side chain, in approximately the same way as - aliphatic derivatives differ. From piperazine derivatives of the phenothiazines. Preparations of the butyrcp:zenot:e series have an even more pronounced stimulatory component in their specifically psychotropic action than do piperazine derivatives of the phenothiazine series, which is consistent with the greater depth of their elective and general antipsychotic action; at the same time, from the point of view of sedative effect and direct influence upon affect, they are inferior even to aliphatic derivatives . ~ In addition to having these general group qualities, haloperidol is typified by maximum expression of sti.mulation among its individual, specifica~ly psychotropic properties; this is especially true of its motor component; however, its thymo- analeptic influence is not as great as that of frenolon and ethaperazine; but on the other hand its thymoanaleptic effect is devoid of the dysphoric action inherent to mayeptil, instead producing a positive mood background. 135 FOR OFFICIAL USE Oi~ILY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/49: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The psychopharmacological properties o� a preparation correlate with the exp~essive- ness of its general and especially of its selective aMtipsychotic action, oriented mainly at relievinq rallucinatory and delirious disturbances. _ Z'he specifically psychotropic action of trisedil combines the characteristics of haloperidol and mayeptil: activation coupled with dominance of the motor component, and disinhibition coupled with dysphoria. The uniqueness of the preparation's psycho- tropic activity expresses itself when it is combined with the properties of haloperidol (its influence upon delirium and hallucinations) and mayeptil (its breaking action, its influence upon deficient symptoms and catatonic-hebephrenic disorders), which raises its effectiveness in the preserce of a chronic, unfavorable disease course. Summarizing the above, we can note that the series of neuroleptic drugs exhibits several trends: an increasing order of general antipsychotic action--aminazin, meterazine, trisedil, mayeptil; an increasing order of selective antipsychotic influence--aminazin, triftazin, halc,peridol,_trisedil; sedative properties--aminazin, - tizertsin; stimulatory action with a thymoanaleptic component--meterazine, ethapera- zine, frenolon. ' All of these patterns of clinical action are typical not only of psycholeptic but also psychoanaleptic drugs. The specifically psychotropic properties of the repre- sentatives of this clas s of compounds are also the product of specific components, the main one being thymoanaleptic influence (corresponding to the antipsychotic effect of neuroleptics), which combines to different extents with the stimulatory or, on the other hand, the inhibitory com,ponent. Owing to this each preparation assumes an individual profile of psychopharmacological properties and, consequently, an individual spectrum of psychotropic action. Thus in terms of specifically psycho- tropic properties, melipramin has a distinct capability for elevating moo3, which combines with less-pronounced activation; this corresponds to its maximal thymo- analeptic activity (in comparison with other antidepressants), and therefore its maximum effectiveness against the most typical endogenous, vital depressions coupled with inhibition. On the other hand the sedative component dominates in amitriptyline, which has antidepressant action equal to that of inelipramin; this makes it especially effective against anxious-depressive states. In opposition to this, the stimulatory effect is sharply pronounced in the 8pecifically psychotropic action of MAO inhi.bi- tors (nuredal), and it dominates over the thymoanaleptic effect, in connection with which the therapeutic impact of such drugs is most distinct in the presence of sub- melancholic states groceeding in conjunction with inhibition. Similarly, there is - a clear relationship between inhibitory and euphoric influence in the specifically psychotropic properties of amitriptyline and its selective effectiveness against anxious-depressive states and other depressive syndromes combining with productive psychopathological symptoms; owing to this, the latter do not become aggravated, as sometimes happens with the use of MAO inhibitors, experiencing reduction instead. Similar dependencies may be observed in the use of tranquilizers, which also vary in their specifically psychotropic in~luence. Thus the acti.on of ineprotan is domi- - nated by its sedative, inhibitory component, as a consequence of which it exhibits more-pronounced psychotropic action in relation to neurotic and neurosis-like syndromes proceeding in conjunction with irritability and heightened excitability. 7:n opposition to this, the combination of sedative and activating influence seen in trioxazine and seduxen corresponds to their greatEr tropism in relat.ion to neurotic syndromes proceeding i.n conjunction with lethargy, inhibition, and submelancholic.mood. 136 . . FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFtC1AL USE 4NLY Only a few preparations were presented here as examples simply to demonstrate the basic patterns in the action of psychotropic drugs; descriptions of greater detail can be found in the appropriate sections of this book. The present s~age in the development of psyEhwpharmacotherapy is typified by an ever-increasing assortment of psychotropic druc~s, including original preparations created in this country. This demands constant ia?provement of the forms and methods of psychopharmacotherapy, and eli.mination of the stereotypic approach to therapy still encountered here and there, expressing itself as lengthy use of the same preparations in standard doses without a consideration for the changes occurring in the state of the patients or, on the other hand, groundless transitions from certain preparations to others before all of their therapeutic possi.bilities are exhausted. In the final analysis, the success of therapy depends on the clinical and psycho- pharmacological qualifications of the physician and his ability to correctly analyze changes occurring in the clinical pattern and in the course of psychosis during treatment, and promptly stimulate favorable trends or break negative ones. Th~us, for example, one of the typical traits of the pathomorphosis of psychoses today is a sharp increase in the number of depr~ssive states, which often have an atypical, diffuse, "masked" nature. Z'his is usually associated with certain transformation of the clinica~ pattern of psychosis in response to prolonged neuroleptic therapy. T'he preferred neuroleptics used against productive psychopathological symptoms are unable to influence depression; they in a sense "filter out" the clinical pattern, as a result of which depression assumes the forefront, defining the state of the patient. On the other hand such modifications in the clinical pattern mean an improved prog- nosis, inasmuch as the arisal and amplification of affective disorders is usually accompanied by a transition from a chronic course to a sporadic course in which times of longer and deeper remission are possible; on the other hand an opposite tendency may reveal itself--the duration of the attacks may become longer; in this case de- pression in a sense blocks the remaining psychopathological symptoms or, assiuning the forefront, it dominates the state of the patient, preventing complete recovery and making social and vocational rehabilitation impossi.ble. Sur.h protracted cases of depression are frequently diagnosed as manifestations of a schizophrenic defect. Experience has shown that such states can easily be diagnosed ir~ the clinic. Certain criteria are an aid in such diagnosis, one being the patient's own sense of a change having occurred (in distinction from the situation with apathoabulic disturbances existing as manifestations of schizoprenic alterations af the personality). 'I'he patients themselves complain of their lethargy, inactivity, lack of initiative, sub- dued mood, es'~rangement, and so on, and they seek help and support. Revelation of the elements of inental anesthesia and daily variations in affect are nn less im- portant. Such changes in states, which are encountered so frequently in practice, require timely addition of antidepressants to the therapeutic program, and primarily ami- triptyline, sometimes in rather large doses; this often results in significant improvement of the patient's state. 2'here is another possibility of incomplete recov~ry from psychosis, also associated with the unique features of the clinical action of neuroleptic drugs used over a long 137 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL vSE ONLY period of ti.me. I am referring to the mi.ldly pronounced, torpid, extrapyramidal side-effects, mainly of the parkinsoni~n tXpe, which usually arise among patients exhibi.ting organic deficiency or a pathologically altered background. R'hese dis- turbances, which are outwardly indistinct and which ~ften express themselves as hypokinesia, as , a u9ildly pronouneed rise in muscle tone, and as light tremor o~ fingers on outstretched hands, attests to extrapyramid.al insufficiency, which may block the action of neuroleptics and hinder reduction of mildly pronounced but - stable psychopathological symptoms. In these cases, this insufficiency is typified by the domira.ice of a diffuse pattern that may consist of the most diverse symptoms. Usually representing the rudimentary manifestations of previous psychosis, as a rule it is often accompanied, and frequently overshadowed, by general inhibition, letharqy, passiveness, hypochondriasis, and, on occasion, senesthopathy. Submelancholic mood is highly typical of such cases. - Being manifestations of inedicina~l pathomorphosis of psychoses, these and many other states representing incomplete recovery from psychosis are, in my opinion, one of the most important problems of clinical and practical psychiatry, considering their vesy high incidence and diversity. These patients often fail to attract the active attention of psychiatrists, especially in outpatient practice, they ~eceive standard doses of neuroleptics in a course of maintenance therapy, and they remain unemployable. A certain neuroleptic drug is often prescribed to a patient "for preventive purposes"�, "just in case", and so on. Such an approach could hardly be thought of as suitable, inasmuch as there must be substantiated indications for all medicinal therapy. All of this requires persistent attention toward this sizeable category of patients, c~inical study and classification of the disease, and development of inethods far pre- venting and treating it. Consequently considering the present state of our knowledge and the experience accumulated in clinical psychopharmacotherapy, we can assert that in addition to ex- panding and interisifying psychopharmacotherapy, we must also consider establishing another trend--sensibly restricting medicinal therapy when its therapeutic possi- bilities are exhausted. This pertains to lengthy use of neuroleptics, which promotes reduction of the acuity of the patient's condition and a transition to a ~r~re sluggish course, not only reducing the acuity of the psychopathological symptoms but also sometimes imparting permanence to some disturbances; thus we witness a qeneral ten- ciency of incomplete recovery from psychosis coupled with the arisal of monotonous, unique states lasting over a long period of time, ones which may be described as follows, paraphrasing Mauts' well known definition: "The psychosis is no longer, but remission is still to come." Thus the notion that lengthy, sometimes perennial maintenance therapy with neuroleptics is necessary requires reexamination. Such therapy must be limited mainly to pro- - gressive forms of chronic schizophrenia--nuclear and paranoid, and only when the disease is obviously progressive, when productive psychopathological symptoms exhibit a tendency for expansion and complication. But even in these cases, therapy must be maximally intense, diverse, and individualiz~d (growing doses of the preparation, substitution of neuroleptics, their combination with one another, their combination with antidepressants, alternation with courses of insulin therapy and EST, biological stimulation methods, and so on). - 138 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY It should be considered that even these forms often acquire an attack-like course in mr~dern psychopharmacotherapeutic practi~e. The possibility of remissions has become a reality even in cases of rather malignant juvenile schizophrenia in response to - intensive and clinically justified therapy. The structure of the attacks exhibits unique shifts coupled with amplification of depressive components sen5i.tive~:to ~he use of high antidepressant doses; careful analysis may reveal this situation, for example, in some forms of catatonic stupor, verbal hallucinosis, and so on. In contrast to this, a shift in the direction of a maniacal state coupled with more- natural behavior, reduced artificiality, normalization of facial expressions, and a reduction of "nonhuman" playfulness may be observed in the structure of some forms of stable hebephrenic arousal. A similar transformation may be observed in unfavor- ably proceeding paranoid and paraphrenic states, which must be caught in time, But if no changes in the therapeutic tactics produce the desired results, doubt is cast over the suitabilit,y of prolonged neuroleptic therapy. A monotonous, unchanging clinical pattern lasting several months and absence of any sort of pronounced improve- ment in response to a:~ increase in the doses, substitution of the neuroleptic, or addition of an antid~pressant raises the question of at least temporarily withdrawing the neuroleptic, which often leads to noticeable improvement in the patient's state. If in some cases aggravation does occur, this "zig-zag" dces make sense as a means for surmounting resistance to neuroleptics. This also pertains to treatment of protracted depression with antidepressants. Also promising is the method of withdrawing psychotropic drugs suddenly and abruptly-- completely withdrawing the preparations after first raising their dosages to the maximum. Retrospective study of patients experiencing improvement revealed that in the past, most exhibited a tendency for an attack-like caurse coupled with more or less pronounced affective disturbances. And it was only as a result of unjusti- fiably prolonged neuroleptic therapy that the tendency for remission faded away. These and a large number of other clinical questions signify a new stage in deeper study of the patterns of prolonged psychopharmacotherapy, about which there is Gtill much to learn. I have dwelled on just a few of these problems in order to once again emphasize the _ complexity of the large number of problems arising in the treatment of each indivi- dual patient, and thus to substantiate the need for maximally individualizing therapy and surmounting all stereotypy. Therefore we naturally cannot claim to - have illuminated all aspects of therapeutic tactics in this handbook; nevertheless ` the information it contains may serve as a basis for sensible, clinically justified therapy. Basic Objectives in Pharmacotherapy of Mental Diseases In the 20 years of its existence, psychopharmacotherapy gained a firm foothold in medical practice and now occupies one of the leading places in the treatment of ~ nervous and mental diseases. Characterized by relative simplicity and safety of application, and combining general and selective action upon psychoses, psycho- tropic drugs have not only noticeably raised the effectiveness of therapy, but they have also made outpatient therapy much more possible, which has dramatically expanded the volume of psychiatric care. ~ 139 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY . Many forms and stages of inental disease5 which required hospitalization before are now being treated successfully in psychc~neurological dispensaries. This has es- pecially important significance, since it makes an extensive, eontinuous program of i medicinal, social, vocational, and rehabilitational influence possible. In this ~ ~ case each form of therapy potentiates the others, which doubtlessly raises the overall effectiveness of therapy. Medicinal pathomorphosis of psychoses observed in recent years has led to a~signi- ficant increase in the number of nonpsychotic states coupled with domi.nant neurosis- like states, psychopathy-like states, reduced hallucinatory-delirious states, different variants of depressive states, and others. In the overwhelming majority of cases, such patients remain outside the hospital, and they present a new and ~ rather serious clinical, therapeutic, and social-vocational problem. As a consequence we observe significant growth in the role of outpatient psycho- neurological institutions, which must not only cQnduct maintenance therapy (that is, maintain the results of therapy achieved in the hospital), but also organize inte- _ grated, clinically justified treatment of this group of patients. Experience shows that the overall effectiveness of therapy rises significantly when outpatient care is expanded, when real continuity exists between hospital and dispensary care, when the outpatient stage of psychopharamacotherapy is viewed as being no less important than treatment inside the hospital, and when the patient is subjected to active, clinically dif~erentiated treatment in conjunction with all measures of social and vocational readaptation. ~his pertains mainly to prevention of recidivism and rehospitalization. In addition to an improved course of psychosis, an increase in the number of rehospitalizations has been noted in connection with the extensive use of psychotropic drugs. Z"his is associated with changes in the clinical pattern and course of psychoses involving a shift from chronic to attack-like disease, making remission possible in patients who had formerly been kept i.n hospitals for long p~riods of time. At the same time these episodes of remission, especially ones arising in the course of chronic, pro- - gressive forms of schizophrenia, are typified by a certain degree of "adaptation" to the preparation being employed, and the length of such remission i.s associated with the quality of outpatient care. Fluctuations in state that arise in tYsis connection (for example, a certain degree of actualization of delirium and hallucinations, in- tensification of'depression, and so on) cannot always be interpreted as relapses, since they are often quickly curtailed by insignificantly raising the dose of the preparation, or by adding other drugs. However, the section physician-psychiatrist often makes no attempt to correct the patient's state in outpatient conditions, instead sending him to the hospital, where the same measures are implemented anyway; but the very fact of hospitalization~causes a break in social and vocational adapta- tion, fills up expensive bed space, and worsens the overall results of therapy. And on the other hand, when a relapse is curtailed in a dispensary, the patient's presence in his accustomed environment--at work, in the family--results in quicker improvement of his condition, and further stabilization of remission. - It stands to reason that it is not easy to solve all clinical problems by dispensary treatment in all cases; however, the occasionally encountered practice of automatic- ally sending patients to the hospital should be abandoned. This would requi.re, fi;rst 140 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 _I i FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY i - of all, improvement of the knowledge of clini~al psychiatry and psychopharmacology possessed by physicians employed in outpatient psychiatric institutions. In recent years the psychopharmacology division of the RSFSR Ministry of Health Scientific Research Insti~ute of Psyehiatry in Moscow has done a great deal of work to improve the psychopharmacological skills of physicians through annual seminars in Nbscow and other cities. ~nformation bulletins and methodological publi- cations, including this book, serve this purpose as well. A mandatory prerequisite of raising the quality of therapy is further consolidation of the ties and continuity in the work of hospitals and dispensaries. In particular, medical information on patients being released from the hospital must be documented promptly, and the data must be complete. As a rule, the medical history contains a ' rather full description of the development of disease, the patient's somatic and mental status, and so on, but the dynamics of the patient's state in response to psychopharmacological influence and, most importantly, recommendations on outpatient therapy and rehabilitation are absent. And yet this is precisely the information - that could he].p the dispensary physician to insure real continuity in the patient's subsequent treatment. It would seem to be suitable to expand the concluding part of the medical history with a detailed indication of the medicinal and rehabilitation measures necessary for stabilization of remission, and the particular therapeutic tactics to be employed in the event of aggravation. In this connection, mention should be made of the tendency still witnessed in some hospitals for reducing the doses of psychotropic drugs to a minimum prior to the patient's release, a practice associated with previously existing directives which overstated the danger of side-effects outside the hospital and of other phenomena. This problem has now been studied and illuminated rather fully. Groundless mandatory reduction of dosage, especially in the presence of progressive psychoses, in connec- tion with which a rather high level of clinical and social compensation persists - with the use of relatively high doses of neuroleptics, invariably leads to a worsening of the patient's state, and a greater danger of a relapse following release. No less important is the need for ree~ramining the comnnonly a~cepted criteria for establishing disability. In a significant number of cases, changes in clini,cal pattern arising in response to intensive psychopharmacotherapy are such that d~spite presence of residual psychopathological disorders--the ones which are no longer im- portant and which do not dominate the behavior of patients--such patients not orily can but also must work, since work is a powerful factor of further olinical and social-vocational compensation. 'Unjustified estrangement of patients from work diminishes the results of inedicinal therapy and c~~ates a real threat of recidivism. Among the organizational problems, that of maintaining a regular supply of psycho- ~ tropic drugs is important. Their assortment increased significantly in recent years, and industry has st~rted producing original domestic preparations that are not in- ferior in their effectiveness to foreign preparations: A major role in thiG complex work belongs to executives of local psychiatric insti- tutions and pharmaceutical administrations. The USSR Ministry of Health has published methodological recommendations, which have doubtlessly ~layed a positive role in improving the organization of requests for and supply of inedicines. ' 141 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 'i'he task now is to make sure that the quantity and assortment of preparations really necessary for complete therapy are really accounted for in the orders submitted.. A tendency of excessively broad use of traditional preparations at the expense of new, improved ones has been noted in recent times. Thus owing to the use of other, fmore- powerful neuroleptics (triftazin, haloperidol, and so on), aminazin has lost much of its significance i.n long-term therapy, and i~ is now being used mainly to curtail psychomotor arisal of varying genesis, in relation to which it is more effective, as is true for tizertsin as well. In connection with the phenomena of lethargy, inhibition, and emotional indifference it elicits, prolonged use of amina~in often intensifies passiveness (for example among schizophrenics), liindering social and vocational readaptation of patients. At the same time, due to the weakness of its general and selective antipsychotic action, prolohged and groundless use of aminazin prevents prescription of more-powerful neurol~eptics, and thus reduces the effective- ness of tnerapy. The physician should also be cautioned against becoming carried away with new "fashionable" preparations, which are often prescribed not so much on the basis of clinical indications as due to a desire to display one's erudition. What extensive experience in psychopharmacotherapy really shows is that there are no good or bad, or weak or strong preparations, that instead there are preparations which are most _ effective against a concrete state at a given moment i.n relation to a given, concrete patient--that is, therapy must be based on strictly substantiateci clinical indica- tions. ~ I have only been able to touch upon some organizational problems in modern treatment of ineni-al diseases which appear most important~from my point of view. ~e solutions to many of these problems are still far away, and further work is required. This handbook, the ma:terials of which reflect many years of work by the psychopharmaco- logical center of the USSR Ministry of Health. supported by the RFSP~ Ministry . of Health Scientific Research Institute of Psychiatry 3n Moscow~ wa.s written - with the purpose of broadening the psychophaxmacological knowledge of physicians, helping them conduct clinically differentiated therapy, and thus promoting improve- ment of its effectiveness. COPYRIGHT: Vsesoyuznoye kon"yunkturno-informatsionnoye byuro Glavnogo aptechnogo upravleniya Ministerstva zdravookhraneniya SSSR, Nbskva, 1980 . 11004 CSOt 1$40/1029 142 FOR OFI~'ICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY INDIVIDUAL DISTINCTIONS OF HUMAN MEMORY (PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY) Moscow INDIVIDUAL'NYYE OSOBENNOSTI PAMYATI CHELOVEKA (PSIKHOFIZIOLOGICHESKOYE ISSLEDOVANIYE) in Russian 1980 (signed to press 18 Nov 8Q) pp 2-4, 151 ~ [Annotation, foreword and table of contents from book "Tndividual Distinctions of Human Memory (Psychophysiological Study)", by E. A. Golubeva, Scientific Research Institute of General and Pedagogic Psychology, USSR Academy of Pedagogic Sciences, Izdatel'stvo "Pedagogika", 14,000 copies, 152 pages, illustrated] [Text] This monograph submits new expertmental data on problems of individual dif- ferences; there are descriptions of bioelectrical parameters by means of which stable distinctions of brain function are determined in adolescents and adults. Electroencephalographic methods are proposed for defining the different properties of the nervous system characterizing the modern level of research. The EEG para- meters are compared to memory. - This book offers scientific substantiatian of the need to consider individual ~ ' psychophysiological differences when dealing with the distinctions of inemory, its optimization in the course of learning and work. It is {ntended for scientific workers in the fields of psychology, psychophysiolog~, physiology and pedagogics. Foreword ~ Dedicated to the noble friendship and bright memory of Anatoliy Aleksandrovich Smirnov and Boris Mikhaylovich Teplov. - With all the diversity of theoretical and experimental studies dealing with the disclosure of cerebral mechanisms of mnemic function, there are very few publica- tions concerned with the problem of the innate conditions of individual differences in human memory. Yet the importance of working in this direction in the concepts of reflex theory of I. P. Pavlov and his typological conception had been stressed by B. M. Teplov as far back as the 1950's. Indeed, probably more than from any other mental function, we could have "expected" consistent relations to the stable Gharacteristics 143 � FOR aFFICIAL US~ ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY of higher nervous activity. This ensued primarily frmn the elements in common in physiological mechanisms of conditioned reflexes and association: a temporary association is the most universal physiological phenomenon in the animal kingdom and in ourselves. At the same time, it is mental, what psychologists call associa- tion, be it the formation of connections of all sorts of actions, impressions, or I letters, words and thoughts".[151, Vol 3, Bk 2, p 325] ' But the results of the first experimental compa~x~.sons of productivitq of inemory to - properties of the nervous system were rather negative. This could have been attri- ; buted in part to th~e lack of separation between the psychological concepts of memory and learning, but mainly to the absence of integral characteristics of typo- , l~gical properties that are more adequate for comparison to human memory, the , systemic organization of which is demonstrable in both retaining information and , processing it. Use of the EEG makes it possible to obtain such characteristics. The most important feature of such methods is that they broaden the possibility of interpreting indi- cators referable to the properties af the nervous system, thanks to the use of the advances in allied sciences, including neurophysiology, modern physiology of Y~igher nervous acrivity and neuropsychology. This, in turn, helps gain somewhat better understanding of the nature of the properties of the nervous system. However, before comparing stable individual EEG features to memory, it was ne- cessary to show that they can be used as indicators of nervous system properties, and for this purpose they had to be compared to previously studied nonbioelectrical parameters. Since the 1960's (1961-1979) we have concentrated chiefly on the study of uncondi- tioned reflex features of the FEG related to information processes--reactive po- tentials (mainly reactions of alteration of rhythm and its harmonic elements) as indicators of nervous system properties: strength, equilibrium ar.d lability; the study of correlations between bioelectrical characteristics and some individual psychological distinctions of human memory. And the properties of the nervous system are considered as the innate conditions for individual psychological differ- - ences im m~emic function. � At the present time, bioelectricai studies have been deployed of the specially human types of higher nervous activity, their relation to properties common to man and animals, and the role of both in forming the individual distinctions of cognitive processes, including memory. This study was conducted in the directions headed by Ye. I. Boyko, B. M. Teplov ~ and V. D. Nebylitsyn. The author wishes to express her profound gratitude to all comrades who partici- pated in the work, as well as to A. A. Smirnov, N. S. Leytes, Ye. N. Sokolov, V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya and A. N. Sokolov, who were very helpful in the course of the study and in writing it up. Contents Page 3 Foreword Chapter 1. Methodological and Methodical Principles of the Study The subject and methods of general and differential psychophysiology 5 144 ~'OR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICiAL USE ONLY Initial theses of the study related to development of theory of nervous system properties 11 Memory as an object for the study of psychological manifestations of nervous system properties 1~ Chapter 2. Strength of the Nervous System and Memory Bioelectrical indicators of str~ngth and weakness of the nervous system 21 Strength of the nervous system as a factor of involuntary and voluntary memory 30 Analysis of the obtained functions 42 Chapter 3. Lability of the Nervous System and Memory Bioelectrical ind icators of lability of the nervous system 53 .Lability of the nervous system as a factor of involuntary and voluntary memory 62 Analysis of the obtained functions Chapter 4. Equilibrium of Nervous Processes and Memory Bioelectrical ind icators of equilibrium of the nervous system 78 Equilibrium as a factor o� involuntary and voluntary memory 91 Analysis of the obtained functions 9~ Chapter 5. Bioelectrical Correlates of Memory and Some Problems of Differential Psychophysiology - Possible approach to the study of innate prerequisites of abilities 108 Specially human types of higher nervous activity and their bioelectrical correlates 120 Conclusion 13~ _ Bibliography 141 COPYRIGHT: Izdatel~stvo "Pedagogika", 1980 10,657 CSO: 1840/194 ~ 145 FOR OFFICIAL US~ ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 NVK Vrrll.aAa. V~L. V1rLY UDC 612.822.3 ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF MUTUAL RELATIONSHIPS EXISTING BETWE~N DESYNCHRONIZING AND SYNCHRONIZING BRAIN STRUCTURES DURING SI,EEP AND WAKEFULNESS Leningrad FI~IOLOGICHESKIY ZHURNAL SSSR IMENI I. M. SECHENOVA in Russian Vol 67~ No 3, Mar 81 pp 364-370 (Article by D. A. Romanov, Division of Cerebrovascular Pathology, Scientific Research Institute of Neurology and Psychiatry imeni B. P., Protopopov, Ukrainian SSR Ministry of Public Health] ~ - [Text] Z'he characteristics of the long positive wave (P-wave) arising in response to stimulation of the basal preoptic region are studied; the mutual relationships existing between the P-wave and some structures of the brain's desynchronizing and ~ synchronizing systems during sleep and wakefulness are analyzed. It is demonstrated that as the subject falls asleep, the aiapli- tude and duration of the P-wave in the mesencephalic retieu3:ar formation, the central nucleus of the thalamus, and the posterior hypothalamus increase. Correlation is revsaled between the expressiveness of the P-wave in the hippocampus and the total duration of paradoxical sleep. In comparison with wakefulness, the P-wave in the midbrain reticular formation and the central nucleus of the thalamus is reduced in this stage. Z'he results are discussed from the standpoint of the functional ambiguity of the preoptic P-wave. The validity of using this potential as a correlate of mutual relationships in the system regulating sleep and wakefulness is substantiatecl. Key words: Basal preoptic area, positive wave, sleep and wakefulness. ~ Z'he system regulating sleep and wakefulness includes a size~able number of struc- turally distinct formations, mutual relationships between which may be established with the help of various techniques, to include those based on some electro- physiological phenomena. One of them is the long positive wave (P-wave), which arises in structures at the meso-diencephalic level in response to isolated stimu- lation of the basal preoptic area (4, 7, 9)--one of the components of the brain's sleep-inducing system (17). The P-wave reflects postsynaptic reversible inhibition of a neuron ensemble, and in this connection it can serve as one of the indicators of the orientation and intensity of the influences exerted by the basal preoptic 146 . FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ' FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY _i i I area. Thus it has been established that hyperpolarization processes occurring on cell membranes, involving a decline or total cessation of their spike activity, aorrelate with the P-wave (5, 9, 19). As this phenomenQ.n,%proceeds, a reduction in auditory evoked potentials (9) and in the negativs�.�~,~;~;e of the primary somatosensory thalamic response (2) is observed. 7.'he existing information affords the grounds for suggesting that the functional significance of the P-wave varies (4); however, a correlation between its dynamics and the level of wakefulness has been studied only in acute experiments, predominantly on preparations in which the brain stem is sectioned, and with the use of pharmacological agents. We therefore made it our purpose to clarify the unique features of a P-wave ~ developing in response to stimulation of the basal preoptic area during natural sleep and wakefulness, as recorded from structures of the brain's activating and sleep-inducing systems. Methods Chronic experiments were performed on 13 cats weighing 2.2-3 kg. Surgical prepara- tions were made under nembutal anesthesia. Monopolar constantan electrodes with a I diameter of 50 u were inserted, on the basis of stereotaxic coordinates (11), into the hippocampus (F+3; L5; H+6), the central nucleus of the thalamus (correspondingly +9; l; +1), the mesencephalic reticular formation (+2; 4; =2), and the posterior hypothalamus (+9.5; 1.5; -4). A bipolar stimulatory electrode with an inter- electrode distance of 0.5-1 mm was located in the basal preoptic area (+14.5; 3; -4), ipsilaterally in relation to the recarding electrodes. Steel needle electrodes were used to record the EEG. An electromyogram was recorded with the help of a silver plate implanted into the neck muscles. A steel screw in the frontal bone _ served as the indifferent electrode. The experiment was performed 5-7 days after the surgical wounds healed. The animal was in a partially soundproof box illuminated by diffuse light. Polygraphic re- cording, which was performed during daytime from 1000 to 1800 hours, was initiated after a day of adaptation to the experimental conditions. Z'he levels of wakefulness and the stages of sleep were deternu.ned, in accordance with the classification suggested by Dement and Kleitman (10), on the basis of data from an electrocortico- gram, a hippocampogram, and an EMG. At the appropriate periods of sleep and wake- ' fulness, the basal preoptic area was stimulated by square pulses with a duration of 0.5-1 msec and an amplitude of 5-12 volts. Individual responses were superimposed on an oscillograph screen, and then averaged according to Yemel'yanov's method (1). In order to obtain fuller information on the configuration and latent time of the potentials, in a number of experiments the latter were subjected to computer ' averaging with a"Minsk-22" computer (using 16 responses or more). Z'he animals were killed following the experi~ents. Direct current was fed into the brain through implanted elec.trodes with the goal of producing electrolytic labels. The brain was fixed in 10 percent formalin solution. The locations of the electrode tips were determined from cross sections. The experimental materials, including data on the structure of sleep, were subjected to statistical treatment. 147 . FOIt OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 Nux urr~~iw?, u~~, uN~.Y Research Results . Stimulation of the animal's basal preoptic area during calm wakefulness caused arisal of a long positive wave in all analyzed structures. In a number of cases it was preceded by a shorter negative wave (N-wave) (Figure 1). A P-wave developing in response to paired stimuli with an interval of up to 10 msec between individual stimuli always had an amplitude that was larger than the potential produced in response to single stimulation of the basal preaptic area; we used this feature to identify the P-wave (2, 8). The configuration and the amplitude and temporal characteristics of the N-wave, and of the P-wave following it, were sufficiently stable in relation to different animals. Z"he deviations that did occur in the parameters may have been the product of later initiation of the P-wave, and an increase or, on the other hand, absence of the N-wave: In the latter case the response began with a positive deflection (Figure 2j. Investigation of computer- averaged potentials showed that during calm wakefulness, the shortest latent time is observed with a P-wave developing in the posterior hypothalamus (58t1.8 msec), followed by the latent time of the P-wave in the central nucleus of the thalamus-- 67.8t2.0 msec, and in the mesencephalic reticular formation--70.5 t 1.8 msec. It was only after 77.1 � 2.2 msec that the P-wave in the hippocampus attained its maximum. The amplitude of the P-wave was found to be greatest in this structure as well (136 �v on the averag~e). Differences in amplitude of the P-wave of the central nucleus of the thalamus and the mesencephalic reticular formation were insignificant (correspondingly 115 and 92 uv; p> 0.05). In a number of cases a positive potential was not recorded in the rear ~hypothalamus during wakefulness, despite ~evelopment ~f an initial N-wave (Figure 3). When the animal achieved sleep of inedium depth (stage III, as classified in (10)), . at which time the EEG was dominated by slow waves with an amplitude of 200-250 uv and a duration on the order of 250 msec, occupying up to 50 percent of the duration of the period of analysis, stimulation of the bas~l preoptic areas by stimuli of - the previous intensity and duration was resumed. In rare cases the animal reacted to the applied stimulus by jerking its head, without awakening. The increase in - amplitude and duration of the P-wave during stage III sleep in comparison with - wakefulness was found to be significant in relation to al�1 studied stru~tures except the hippocampus (Figure 3). A correlation was revealed here between the orientation ot the dynamics of the P-wave in the hippocampus during the time of slow sleep and the total duration of paradoxiaal sleep. Thus in animals for which the _ amplitude of the P-wave decreased during stage III, a significant decrease in the duration of the paradoxical stage of sleep was observed as well (an average of 2.2 percent of the total recording ti.me), while according to the literature (18) and our data for most animals, its duration during daytime is 11 percent and higher. Reduction of fast sleep was combined with a 12.2 percent increase in the total wakefulness time; meanwhile, the duration of the remaining stages of sleep changed insignificantly. In stage III sleep, especially pronounced changes in the P-wave were detected with electrodes implanted in the posterior hypothalamus,in which the amplitude of this potential more than doubled, attaining 100-180 uv. The duration of the P-wave in this structure increased from 32 to 100 msec. The characteristics of the N-wave _ in staqe III hardly changed at all (see table). 148 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONL.Y / ~ ~00 ue 100 msec ~ Figure 1. P-Wave Elicited by Single Stimulation of the Basal Preoptic Area Durinq Calm Wakefulness: Pnints of contact (from top = down): hippocampus, central nucleus of the thalamus, mesen- ~ cephalic reticular formation, posterior hypothalamus~ Downward deflection of the beam indicates a positive signal. Arrows indicate N- and P-waves. ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 0 5o msec Figure 2. P-Wave of Preoptic Genesis in the Central Nucleus of the Tha].amus (Left) and Posterior Hypothalamus (Right) : Computer average of 16 single r~sponses. Arrow indicates stimulation artifact 149 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 N'UK UH'Nil'IAL U,~ UNLY u~ '/,80 ~ ?.40 Z00 . 4 , 9 160 Z - ~zn 2 3 80 - ' 4 � 40~ 3 A B C' ' Figure 3. Dynamics of the Amplitude of a P-Wave Developing in Response �o Stimulation of the Basal Preoptic Area During Sleep and Wakefulness (Cat No 22): A--wakefulness, B--sleep af inedium depth, C--B-sleep, D--paradoxical sleep; 1--amplitude of the P-wave in the hippocampus, 2--in the central thalamic nucleus, 3--in the posterior hypothalamus,4--in the mesencephalic reticular formation The transition to d-sleep (stage IV), in which waves with an amplitude above 250 uv and a duration from 300 to 800 msec began to domiriate, was typified by further significant increase in the P-wave. In some cases its amplitude reached 200 uv in - the central thalamic nucleus, 200 uv in the mesencephalic reticular formation, and 240 uv in the posterior liypothalamus. The amplitude of the P-wave was reduced even in this stage among animals experiencing paradoxical sleep of shorter duration. In all studied structures, the amplitude of the N-wave increased somewhat, but the duration of the N-wave decreased signi�icantly only in the Posterior hypothalamus, as was true for the P-wave. Onset of paradoxical sleep, which was deduced from a sharp drop in ~the amplitude of . the EMG record~d from neck muscles, from desynchronization of the electrocorticogram at all points of contact, and from arisal of a A-rhythm in the hippocampus and, in a number of cases, in the mesencephalic reticular formation, was accompanied by further change in the characteristics of the recorded potentials. This change included a decrease in both the amplitude and the duration of the P-wave in comparison with responses recorded during slow sleep. Only a reduction in amplitude was typical of the N-wave. It would be interesting to compare the response parametera for the fast 150 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY Parameters of the P- and N-Waves of the Potential Evoked by Single Stimulation of the Basal Preoptic Area During Sleep and Wakefulness ~1~ l'h~~ui;~~cn C~e~irtnwi'i 4enTp'rnnaacyca liapn- I - `1eTPw a>mnuT� a un?+renbxocTb a~~n:ttiTy:ta(3~ :inurennuocTe(~ +'A l'-nonsa (6) { 136 (tOQ-`'S0) ~5 (GU-t'?~1) 1!5 (6U-150) 80 (60-100) 158 (12U-2U0) iif, (50-2UU)* i53 (100-340)" 115 (75-160)' 3 1~0 (L'lU-?I)11 * 120 (RO-18Q)' 192 (120-260)" 120 (85-180)* /i 11G (70-iFiU), 90 (50-11;1)) 78 (~i5-120)' 6E3 (40-80)� N-sonsa (7) i 100 (50-170) 22 (18-28) 106 (6~-180) 31 (24-40) 122 (50-190) 30 (20-52) 109 (80-190) 1'?9 (70-186)' 28 (18-34) 136 (90-235)" 29 (23-31). 4 G'~ (50-81)� 20 (18-22) 75 (38-163)' 30 (16-54) ~1~ ~tof�u(~~~ia~;IN4CCKJA pOTfIKyJl/tnHUA aaAU~+iI rnnaranaxyc ;o~ ,pop":ut~,n (9) llapa- MI!T[)61 ~{~Tl�7IhHOCT6 ~MtlllilTyAa I ~RH'fCJ[bHOCTb - A~IIU[0T};l'1 I .Z� Y-sonsa 1 g~~ ~g~_.i;ii~ 76 (50-110) 66 (0-l50) 32 (0-60) ll9 (80-190)"' 1U~i (EO-170)' 151 (10U-130)~# 100 (65-170)'* 3 153 (t20-'3U(?)*� 104 (50-180)' 192 (140-2~i0) 112 (70-190)*' - 4 '?3 (0- GO)*" 56 (0-120)"' 60 (0-120) 56 (0-80) ~ N-aonua - t tU7 (GO-t80) 26 (18-30) 144 (4(1-280) 28 (l7-52) 113 (f,0-193) 27 (20-35) 156 (60-320)y 31 (18-59)i :3 1~i9 (SU-'?7:3)* 28 (25-3i) 217 (80-360) 39 (l8-80) t~ i3 (U-8U)* 16 (0-25)' 134 (30-28Q) 28 (18-51) Note: 2'he parameters of the P- and N-waves in each of the stages of sleep are compared with the same in the period of wakefulness; a single asterisk denotes changes with a probability of 0.05, and two asterisks indicate a probability of 0.01; 1--potential parameters during wake- fulness, 2--during sleep of inedium depth, 3--during d-sleep, 4--~.uring paradoxical sleep. Key: 1. Parameters 6. P-wave 2. Hippocampus 7. N-wave 3. Amplitude 8. Mesencephalic reticular formation 4. Duration 9. Posterior hypothalamus 5. Central thalamic nucleus 151 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED F~R RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 - h(?K UM'N'1(;IAL U~~ UNLY � sleep phase with waves observed during wakefulness. In this case the differences in the charaateristics of the P-wave recorded from the hippocampus and posterior hypothalamus are insignificant. The only thing that attracts attention is the great stability of the responses in these structures. At the same time the ampli- tude of the P-wave in the central tl~alamic nucleus decreases by an average of 37 uv (32 percent), while its duration drops by 14 msec (18 percent). Even more significant are changes in the parameters of the P-wave in the mesencephalic reticular formation: Its amplitude drops by an average of 64 uv (70 percent), and its duration decreases by 30 msec (26 percent). In some cases as with the N-wave, the P-wave is not recorded in the mesencephalic reticular formation during para- doxical sleep. Discussion of Results The results show that changes in parameters of the P-wave originating in the preoptic area during the sleep-wakefulness cyclc~ may reflect, to a certain extent, inter- action of. the basal preoptic area with s~ructures of the sleep-inducing and activating systems of the brain, within which this wave arises. In this case we are able to reveal differences in the expressiveness and orientation of the influences exerted by the basal preoptic area during wakefulness and in each stage of sleep. Thus the - low P-wave amplitude we discovered in the posterior hypothalamus during wakefulness and its increase a5 sleep develops can be explained by our present ideas about the reciprocal mutual relations existing between the desynchronizing machinery of the - posterior hypothalamus and the sleep-inducing area of the forebrain (3). At the same time, the absence of significant changes in the N-wave, which rspresents arisal of an excitation at the recording point (5)~ attests to continued transmission of impulses from the basal preoptic area into the posterior hypothalamus, which in _ all probability indicates not only the dominance of the activity of its desynchronizing mechanisms, but also a decrease in their reactivity to the inhibitory in.fluences of the basal preoptic area. 7.'he similarity of the characteristics of the P-wave recorded from the posterior hypothalamus during wakefulness and paradoxical sleep presupposes a certain degree of sameness of inechanisms responsible for formation of this potential in these states, based in particular on the increase in activity of desynchronizing compo- nents in the brain. However, judging from the dynamics of the parameters of the P-wave in the mesencephalic reticular formation, the activity of its components differs in wakefulness and in paradoxical sleep. 7.'he amplitude and duration of the P-wave in the mesencephalic preoptic area are significantly reduced.in this stage, while during wakefulness the P-wave is rather pronotanced in this area. Therefore the impression is created that during paradoxical sleep, the mesencephalic reticular formation "slips away" fram the inhibitory influences of the basal pre- optic area, which may be explained by change in the orientation af forebrain influences, and by growth in the intrinsic activity of the mesencephalic reticular _ formation during this period. The latter apparently occurs in respo~se to in- fluences of the reticular nuclei of the pons (13), which also exists in competi- tive mutual relationships with the basal preoptic area, as was demonstrated in ~ experiments in which neuron activity (14) and the P-wave (4) were recorded. - As in the mesencephalic reticular formation, reduction of the P-wave is observed during paradoxical sleep in comparison with wakefulness in the central thalamic 152 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/42/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ nucleus. The P-wave in this structure is known to be associated with reversible inhibition processes (8) lying at the basis of synchronization of the brain's electric activity (6); we are also aware of a relationship between desynchroniza- tion of the electrocorticogram in the period of fast sleep and suppression of the thalamocortical system in response to activation of the mesencephalic reticular ' formation (16). Therefore it seems probable that the high activity of its de- synchronizing components exhibited in this stage of sleep limits the functions of thalamic synchronizing mechanisms even more, even in comparison with wakefulness. The importance of hippocampal-preoptic-hypothalamic integration to modul.ation of paradoxical sleep (20) is confirmed by, in addition to the existing data on the ~ similar disturbances occurring in this stage in response to isolated lesions of the basal preoptic area (15) or the hippocampus (12), the relationship established between the orientation of changes in the P-wave in the hippocampus and the total _ duration of para~.oxical sleep. In this connection, and considering the fact that the dependence of the P-wave on fluctuations in the level of wakefulness or sleep is lower in the hippocampus than in other structures, we can hypothesize that the functional mutual relationships existing between the basal preoptic area and the hippocampus, one of the indicators of which is the P-wave, do not necessarily have an inhibitory or "stimulatory" nature. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Yemel'yanov, I. P., "Treatment of Evoked Potentials Recorded by the Super- Imposition Method (As Described by Dawson)" in "Elektrofiziologicheskiye issledovaniya v klinicheskoy i ekspertnoy praktike. Tr. LIETINAa" [Electro- physiological Investigations in Clinical and Expert Practice. Proceedings of the Leningrad Scientific Research Institute for Determination of Disability and Organization of Work for Disabled Persons], Issue 13, Leningrad, 1964, pp 46-54. 2, bbgilevskiy, A. Ya., and Romanov, D. A., "Participation of Neocortical and Reticulohypothalamic Components in Regulation of Reversible Inhibition in the Intermediate Thalamic Nucleus," ZH. VYSSH. NERVN. DEYAT., Vol 25, No 3, 1975, pp 595-602. - 3. Nbgilevskiy, A. Ya., and Romanov, D. A., "The Role of the Medial Fasciculus of the Forebrain in Organization of the Electric Activity of the Neocortex," 'LH. VYSSH. NERVN. DEYAT., Vol 29, No 2, 1979, pp 320-329. 4. Mogilevskiy, A. Ya., and Romanov, D. A., "Influence of the Basal Preoptic Area on the P-Wave Arising in Some Synchronizing and Desynchronizing Structures of the Brain," ZFi. VYSSH. NERV. DEYAT., Vol 30, 1980. 5. Andersen, P., Eccles, J. C., and Sears, T. A., "Z'he Ventro-Basal Complex of the Z'halamus: Types of Cells, Their Responses, and Their Functional Organiza- tion.," J. PHYSIOL. (London), Vol 174, No 2, 1964, pp 370-399. 6. Andersen, P., and Andersson, S. A., "Physiological Basis of the Alpha Rhythm," Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1968. 153 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 7. Bremer, F., "Preoptic Hypnogenic Focus and N,esencephalic Reticular Formation," BRAIN RES., Vol 21, No 1, 1970, pp 132-134,. 8. Bremer, F., "Inhibitions intrathalamiques recurrentielles et physiologie du ~ sommeil," ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAF. CLIN. NEUROPHYSIOL., Vol 28, No l, 1970, ~ pp 1-16. . 9. Bremer, F., "Preoptic Hypnogenic Area and Reticular Activating System," ARCH. ITAL. BIOL., Vol 113, No 2, 1973, pp 85-111. 10. Dement, W., and Kleitman, N., "Cyclic Variations in EEG During Sleep and Their Relations to Eye Movements, Body Motility and Dreaming," EEG. CLIN. NEUROPHYSIOL., V'ol 9, No 6, 1957, pp 673-690. 11. Jasper, H. H., and Ajmon-Marsan, C., "A Stereotaxic Atlas of Diencephalon of the Cat," Ottawa, 1954. 12. Kim., Ch., Cr.oi, H., Kim, Ch. Ch., Kim, J. K., Kim, M. S., Park, H. J. and Ahn, B. T., "Effect of Hippocampectomy on Sleep Patterns in Cats," EEG. CLIN. NEUROPHYSIOL., Vol 38, No 3. 1975, pp 235-243. 13. Lecas, L.-C., "Duration of Paradoxical Sleep Episodes. A Quantitative and Pattern Analysis of Reticular Multiunit Activity in the Cat," EEG. CLIN. NEUROPHYSIOL., Vol 43, No 2, 1977, pp 260-269. 14. Mancia, M., Mariotti, M., Roman, E. R. and Schieppati, M., "Basal Fosebrain and Hypothalamic Influences Upon Brain Stem Neurons," BRAIN RES., Vol 107, No 3, 1976, pp 487-497. 15. McGinty, D. J., and Sterman, M. B., "Sleep Suppression After Basal Forebrain Lesions in the Cat.," SCIENCE, Vol 160, No 3833, 1968, pp 1253-1255. 16. Sasaki, K., Shimono, T., Oka, H., Yamamoto, T, and Matsuda, Y., "Effects of Stimulation of the Midbrain Reticular Formation Upon Thalamocortical Neurons - Responsible for Cortical Recruiting Responses," EXP. BRAIN RES., Vol 26, No 3, 1976, pp 261-273. 17. Sterman, M. B. and Clemente, C. D., "Forebrain Inhibitory ~r�c:~anisms: Cortical Synchronization Induced by Basal Forebrain Stimulation," EXP. NEUROL., Vol 6, No 2, 1962, pp 91-102. 18. Sterman, M. B., Knauss, T., Lehmann. D. and Clemente, C. D.," Circadian Sleep and Waking Patterns in the Laboratory Cat.," EEG. CLIN. NEUROPHYSIOL., Vol 19, No 5, 1965, pp 509-517. 19. Vastola, E. F., "After-Positivity in the Lateral Geniculate Body," J. OF NEUROPHYSIOL., Vol 22, No 2, 1959, pp 258-272. 20. Yamaoka, S., "Participation of Limbic-Hypothalamic Structures in Circadian Rhythm of Slow Wave Sleep and Paradoxical Sleep in the Rat," BRAIN RES., Vol 151, No 2, 1978, pp 255-268. COPYR~GHT: Izdatel'stvo "N'auka". Fiziolc,icheskiy zhurnal im. I. M. Sechenova, 1981 11004 cso: 184o/las , 154 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY - APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ; FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY ; ; ; ; ; . ~ ~ ~ UDC 612.8 ' NEW BOOK SUBJECTS BRAIN-STREBS CORRELATES TO QUANTITATNE ANALYSIS Leningrad FIZIOLOGICHESKIY ZHURNAL SSSR IN~NI I. M. SECHENOVA in Russian Vol 67~ No 3, Mar 81 pp 473-474 [Review by V. G. Zilov of book "Korrelyatsionnyye pokazateli elektroentsefalogramm golovnogo mozga pri emotsional'nom stresse" (Brain EEG Correlation Zndices in Emotional Stress?, by A. M. Mamedov, Izd-vo ELM, Baku, 1979] . _ [Text~ Doctor of Biological Sciences A. M. Mamedov's book is devoted to one of - the important problems of neurophysiology and clinical medicine--intercentral mutual relationships existing amonq brain structures in the presence of etnotional stresses. Besides illuminatirq the concepts of domestic and foreign researchers on the mechanisms behind formation ~f emotions and deve~opment of emotional stress, in the first part j of the book the author devoted his princYpal attention to analyzing cortico- ; subcortical cross correlations associated with formation of emotionally.stressful states, the spatial-tempcar.al organization of EEG potentials in cases of "signaling" ~ ar~3 "nonsiqnaling" situations, and electrographic indicators recorded from ~he brain ; of animals predisposed to stress and resistant to stress. One of the chapters is devoted to an analysis of the statistical parameters of electroencephalograms re- = corded in response to different pharmacological substances--aminazin, phentanyl, and sornbrevin. ~ . Z'he basic technique used by the author focuses the reader's attention on a typical feature of negative emotional stimuli--their capability tor persi.sting for a long period of time in the centrai nervaus system, even after cessation of the stimuli. It is emphasized that this feature, which has stabilization of excitations as its consequence, is the most dangerous to the organism. The author meticulously analyzes the dynamics of spatial-temporal cortico-subcortical mutual relationships of the brain with the correlation of autonomic indicators accompanying development ~ of emotional stress. Data on the brain's pacemaker formations and their role in the formation of emotionzlly negative reactions are especially interesting. Correla- tion an~lysis of neurochamical mechanisms involving the use of a ntunber of pharznaco- logical agents exhibiting different orientations of action primarily demonstrated ~ the complex integrated nature of stress reactions, revealing the important role played by tne adrenergic system of the hypothalamoreticular complex in formation - of emotionally stressful states. ~ ~ 155 FOR OF~'ICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FOR OFFlCIAL USE ONLY Analysis of the conditions causing arisal of negative emotional excitations and of their transition to stable form demonstrated that besides physical factors, the purely infarmative characteristics of "conflict situations" play an important role in fozznation of an em~tionally negative state. � Z'he author persuasively shows that the degree of emotional stress depends on the ~ amount of pragmatic information available--that is, information on the moment a painful "blow" is inflicted, permitting an animal in an experimental situation to prepare for the emotionally unpleasant stimulus in accordance with its forn?ed acceptor of the results of action. The dynamics of autonomic indices and cross correlation analysis of electric activity recorded from cortico-subcortical forma- tions confirmed that emotional arousal is significantly less pronounced in a"sig- naling" situation as a result of the animal's "prediction" of the moment of appli- cation of an emotionally unpleasant stimulus, than in a"nonsignaling" situation, in which the animal experiences a situation of uncertainty. It is precisely this sort of long-persisting situation of uncertainty that is the most dangerous to the human body as well. A long-lasting conflict situation arising as a result of particular stressful influences produces an irreversible process, leading to formation of a new state in the brain, differing from normal, and typified by disturbed spatial-temporal mutual relationships between different structures of the brain. This brain state is accompanied by somato-autonomic disorders, which may be referred to as a"cere- brovisceral syndrome" of emotional stress. The second part of the book exan~ines some principles of the structure of automated systems intended for computer processing of biological information. Of special interest are systems in which a computer controls a complex experiment in real time, becoming an organic participant of the experiment. Such int~grated systems, as follows from tne review provide.l by the author, provide a framework for creating a single, optimally mated brain-computer complex in the future, one capable of effectively solving problems associated with the control of complex objects. Differences in the possibility computers and man have for solving complex problems are examined. Indicating the limited possibilities offered by mathematics and electronics in the creation of ar.tificial intelligence in the full sense of this term, the author examines the question of using, in the future, integrated brain- computer systems in wnich the advantages of human intel.ligence would be united with the unique features of a computer. ~ A. M. Mamedov's book is doubtlessly timely and up to date. 7.'he results of his research, which was performed in its entirety with the assistance of a computer, and which involved the use of precise quantitative methods of ~nalysis, broaden our present ideas about these mechanisms, and they provide indications of promising ways to conclusively solve the problems addressed. . COP'YRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal im. I. M. Sechenova, 1981 - 11004 . CSO: 1840/188 156 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ; FOR OFFICiAL USE ONLY ~ ~ ~ ! f ~ ~ PSYCHOLOGY i i EMOTIONS AND THOUGHT Moscow EMOTSII I MYSHLENIYE in Russian 1980 (signed to press 29 Jan 80) pp 2-4, 192 [Annotation, foreword and table of contents from book "Emotions and Thought", by Igor' Aleksandrovich Vasil'yev, Valentin Leonidovich Popluzhnyy and Oleg ; Konstantinovich Tikhomirov, Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo universiteta, 22,000 copies, 192 pages] [Text] The authors of this collective monograph deal with the question of emotional regulation of thinking activity. An effort was made to consider the correlation between cognitive and emotional processes in the light of psychological systems , analysis. In this regard, the role of emotional p~ocesses in goal setting and , formation of ineaning was demonstrated. Foreword f This book sums up information about emotional regulation of thinking activity, and it describes some experimental psychological studies of the role of emotions in , thinking. It so happer~ed that thinking is most often investigated apart from a , subject's motivations and emotions. With all the difference between theories of thinking as an analyti~al and synthetic process and the process of functioning of - mental actions, they are united by the fact that psychologi^al studies of thought do not include analysis of emotional processes. Also, psychology of emotions seldom includes fine analysis of a subject's cognitive acts. This did not happen by.chance; ~ it reflects the rift that exists in modern psychology between "cognitive psychology" and psychology of the personality. ' Addition to psychology of the category of "ob~ect-related activity" makes it possible to overcome tt~is rift and pose the question of emotional regulation of thought. In our opinion, formulation of such a question not only discloses new possibilities of productive analysis of thought and emotions, but permits develop- - ment of general theory of activity. ~ In working on the problem of activity in psychology, questions of internal and, in - particular, emotional regulation of activity, which is instrumental in its "self- advancement," "self-development," i.e., its creative nature, are the least studied. As a result, there is occasional incorrect equating of activity and its technical, operative components, absolutizatton of exogenous, "rigid" control of cognitive activity, i.e., ultimately "expulsion" of the subject from the activity he performs. ~ As a result, not only is the actual conception of cognitive processes in man made poorer and it is more difficult to solve problems of practical importance, which 157 - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500020002-2 FOR ON'M'ICIAL USE UNLY are related to education and upbringing, evaluation of the prospects of creating human intelligence in artificial systems, but grounds are provided for a critical attitude to the "activity-related" approach, as it is often called, in psychology. In modern Soviet psychology, the "activity-related approach" is sometimes set against the "systems approach." In this regard, it must be noted that there may be at least three variants af the systems approach i:~ modern psychology. In the first place, it may refer to extension of principles of describing engineer- ing systems to the area of psychological phenomena. Such a systems approach could result in a grossly mechanistic conception of man, v~ewed as a device that processes information in accordance with pxeviousl,y.set algorithms. In the second place, it could refer to efforts to interpret consciousness, activity and personality of man on the basis of physiological tiYoory of a functionaZ system. Such a systems approach results in underestimation of the qualitative uniqueness of man's conscious activity, as compared to organization of the behavioral act. In the third place, it may refer to the study of inental phenomena in the system of human activities. Only ~his systems approach can be called actually psychological. We think that the contrasting of activity-related and systems approaches is based on a misunderstanding: "Activity is a system that has structure, its own internal transitions and transformations, its own development" [60, 82]. . Psychology cannot be built by simply applying general system theory. The psycho- logical systems approach should aid in gaining deeper knowledge of the nature bf mental phenomena, patterns of their generation and function in man's real activities. This is the idea that we tried to apply to the specific area of research on emo- tional regulation of thinking activity. Contents Page Foreword 3 Chapter 1. History ~znd Current Status of the Problem of Emotional ~ Regulation of Thought Consideration of phenomena of 'intellectual emotions and feelings' in philosophy S Development of the problem of intellectual emotions and feelings at the first stage of development of psychology as an independent discipline 20 Current status of the problem of intellectual emotions and feelings in Soviet psycliology 29 Psychology of thought and emotions 52 Chapter 2. Experimental Analysis of Conditions Under Which Intellectual Emotions Appear ~1 Analysis of some general conditions of appearance of intellectual emotions 72 Methods of studying conditions of appearanee of intellectual emotions 79 Time relations between recorded subsystems of thinking activity 88 Development of operational meanings as a condition for appearance of intellectual emotions 105 Chapter 3. Experimental Study of Correlation Between Intellectual . ~motions, Goal Setting and Motivation 127 158 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 ~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ Correlation between the process of goal setting [or formation) and intellectual emotions while solving cognitive prablems 12~ Emotional processes in the pre~ence of different motivation for activity 165 Conclusion 184 ' Bibliography 186 COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo universiteta, 1980 10,657 . CSO: 1840/999 ~ ~ 159 _i i i FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/49: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY PSYCHOLOGY IN PHXSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS Moscow PSIKHOLOGIYA FIZICHESKOGO VOSPITANIYA I SPORTA in Russian 1979 (signed to press 11 Dec 79) pp 2--4, 143 [Annotation, introduction and table of contents from book "Psychologp in Physical Education and Sports", edited by T. T. Dzhamgarov and A. Ts. Puni~ Izdatel'stvo "Fizkul'tura i sport", 30.000 copies~ 144 pages] [Text) This manual is prepared for the use of pertinent paychological categories for students in physical culture institutions. It familiarizes future educators of physical education and sports with the sub~ect~ metfiods and current state of � paychology in physical education and sports. It presents t~se psychological characteristics of sports activities~ psychological problems related to training - and education in physical education and sports and campetition in sport and the socio--psychological aspects of physical education and aport activities. All these relevant problems are examined in the light of current achievements in psychology, particulaxly sport psychology. INTRODUCTION. _ Education in psychology plays an important part in the training of physical culture cadres. It includes the study of general psychologq~ age- related psychology and Lhe psychology of physical education and aports. General psych~logy is the basis f~r the students' paychology education, it provides them with information on the essence of the psyche--specifically arranged traits tha.t reflect the objective world--~on patterns of inental processes and the state and personality features of an individual as part of the socio-historical process. Age-related psychology reveals the pattern of ontogenetic mental development. The psychology of physical education and aports provides atudents with specific information on the psychological aspects of training~ education and personal development during physical cultnre and sport activitieB, information on the psychologica'_ principles involved in training and competition in sports and the deaelopment of personality in a Soviet aportsman~ as a citizen and sub~ect equipped with special abilities that enable him to achieve a high level of proficiency in specific types of sports. The psychology course is intended for the profESSional and educational training of studenta who will be the future inatructors of physi- cal culture in the schools~ and will teach physical education to trainers tor various types of sports in the higher educational institutions. 1b0 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY . APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500420002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY This is the first manual that describes problems in physical education and sport6 that can be applied in tfie psychologp program for students of physical culture institutes, Due to the small size of the manual~ the reports on the investigated problems had to be brief. The reports on the psychology of pbysical education are printed in a limited form as they have not been fully developed yet. Most of the studies are linked to the pspchologp of sports. Recently, another educational manual has been printed~ entitled "The psychology of high achievement sports" edited by A. V. Rr.dionov. These two manuals will provide considerable help in the professional-educational preparation of students at a physical culture inst~tute. The manual consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 examines the topics of the sub~ect on methods of psychology in physical education and sports and the importance of psychology as a component of higher hysical education. The chapter also contains a short outline on the development and current state of psychology in physical education and sports. Chapter 2 deals with the psychological features of sport activities and di~ecusses the following aspects: sport as one of the basic types of human activitie:s, general psychological traits in sport activities, types of sport and comp~:titive training and communication problems in sports. Chapter 3 describes the problems of teaching and training~ including the psychoZogi- cal principles 3nvolved in physical practice~ tactical actions, personality development in physical education and sports and the psychological aspects of training of qualities of resoluteness. Chapter 4 reports on the psychological aspects of competitive activities and of the psychological preparation of teams for contest~ the level of emotional pre~ contest stimulation and its regulation. Chapter 5 deals with the. topic of social psychology in physical education and sports. It includes the psychological meaning of t~rms like sport group, team~ collective~ management and leadership in sports, psychological climate and inter- personal relationships in the sport unit. Chapter 6, the last chapter, examines the effect of stress on the mental condition of a person in physical training and in sports. This manual has been assembled by the lecturers and scientific co-workers of the Department of Psychology of the P. F. Lesgaft Institute of Physical Culture of. the Soviet Order of Lenin and of the Order of Red Star~ and edited by professors T. T. Dzhamgarov and A. Ts. Puni. Contributors: Docent D. Ya. Bogdanova, candidate of psychological sciences (chapter 5, 2.3); docent G. D. Gorbunov, candidate of psychological sciences (4.4; in collaboration with A. Ts. Puni - 6..1, 6.2, and 6.3); professor T. T. Dzhamgarov, doctor of psychological sciences (2.1~ 2.2, 2.4~ 2.5, 6.4); profesaor A. Ts. Puni, doctor of psychological sciences (chapter 1~ 3.4, 4.1~ 4.2, 4.3; in collaboration with E. N. Surkov, 3.1 and 3.2; in collaboration with 161 FOR OFFICIAI, USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500420002-2 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY G. D. Gorbunov~ 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3); docent B. N. Smirnov~ candidate of educational _ sciences (3.3); E. N. Surkov, candidate of psychological sciences, senior scientific associate (3.1 and 3.~ in col3.aboratior. with A. Ts. Puni). TABLE OF CON'PENTS. Introduction~~~��~������~~���~~��~~~~~~~.~��~~��~�~~~��~~~~~~~~~~~~��~~~� 3 Chapter 1. PSYCHOLOGY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS - SPECIAL BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY 1.1 Subject of the psychology of physical education and sports... 5 1.2 Methods of psychology for physical education and sports...... 8 1.3 Importance of psychology in physical education and sports = within the framework of advanced physical culture edu~cation.. 11 - 1.4 Short outline of the development and current state of paychology in physical education and sports 12 Chapter 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SPORT ACTIVITIES 2.1 Sport as one of the basic types of human activity............ 18 2.2 General psychological features of sport activities........... 21 2.3 Communication in sport activities 29 2.4 Psychological features of different types of sports and competitive training 34 2.5 Indi,vidual psychological traits of the activitp of sportsmen.��~~~��~~���~~~~~~~~~~���~~~�~~��~~~~�~~~~~.~~~~~~� 41. Chapter 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF TRAINING AND EDUCATION 3.1 Psychological problems of training in mobility 46 3.2 Psychological problems of learning tactical actions.......... 59 3.3 Psychological aspects of teaching resoluteness 66 3.4 Psychology of personality development in physical education ~ and sports 82 Chapter 4. PSYCHOLGGY OF COMPETITION IN SPORTS 4.1 Psychological features of competitive activities in sports... 91 4.2 State of inental preparednees for competition 92 4.3 Aspects of psychological preparation for competition......... 97 4.4 Levels of emotional stimulation and its regulation........... 105 Chapter 5. SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBiEMS'IN PHXSICAI~ EDUCATION AND SPORTS S.1 General concept of sport groups, teams and collective........ 114 5.2 Sur~ervision and leadership in sport teams 119 5.3 Paycholog3cal climate and interpersonal relations in teams... 126 Chapter 6. THE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL STRESS AND SPORT ACTIVITIES ON THE MENTAL STATE OF A PERSON - 6.1 On the need of exercise and its fulfillment 131 6.2 Exercise and mental development of an individual 133 162 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/49: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 6.3 Exercise and work ability 134 6.4 The development of inental and psychmaotor qualities in sportsmen......~ 139 COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Fizkul'tura i sport"~ 1979 9680 CSO: 1840/1001 ~ 163 FOR OFF~CIAL USE 'ONL~. APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFI~'lC[AL USE ON1LY DEVELOPNIENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE AT THE PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTN~NT OF MOSCOW UNI VE~2.S ITY Nbscow VESTNIK MOSKOVSKOGO UNIVERSITETA, SERIYA 14: PSIIQiOLOGIYA in Russian No 2, Apr-Jun 81 pp 3-9 [ArtiGle by A. A. Bodalev] [Text] Documents examined and adopted by the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union summarized the work of the Soviet people in the lOth Five-Year Plan and developed the plans for their forward motion in the immediate and more- remote future. These documents also deeply and thoroughly evaluated the work of Soviet scientists in the past five~year plan, and they clearly reflecteci the tasks to which Soviet science must subordinate its activity in the llth Five-Year Plan. In the past five-year plan, psychologists of Nbscow University participated actively and usefully in work on~~,any problems of importance to our country; representatives of other areas of knowledge studying the laws and mechanisms defining the day-to-day life and activities of the individual and directly influencing all of his social characteristics were also encouraged to participate in scientific illinnination of these problems, with a consideration tor their specialties. Besides having general - significance to science, the obtained results were a step forward in our under- standing, from the positions of psychology, of the essence of formation of a number of human features characterizing man as an individual, his development as a person- ality, the problems of improving training and indoctrination, preparation for creative labor, raising the effectiveness of~labor in different areas of the national economy, and preservation of the health of the Soviet individual. The department i1lLaninated the psychological mechanisms of k~oth simpler and more- . complex psychological phenomena, it traced the principal trends ~.n formation of cognitive, emotional, find volitional spheres of the per~sonality and their tormation into an integral structure, it studied development of leanings and capabilities in the individual, "crystallization" of the core of the personality--the character, and the deviations in the general course of_the personality's education, and it examined the personality as an object and a subject of learning, communication, and labor, all on the basis of the general psychological theory of activity, which was also the methodological foun@ation of all other studies performed by the department's scientists in 1976-1980. Guiding themselves by this theory, into the creation of which A. N. Leont'yev in- vested a great deal of labor, interpreting the mind as a subjective reflection of 164 FOR OF~IC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONY.Y the objective world, something which develops in response to material, practical activity and supports this activity--activity which acqui:res the form of internal activity at the highest levels of its development and which basically has the same structure of external activity, the department's scienti.sts conducted research on a broad spectrum of the most important problems of modern psychological science.. Research conducted in the lOth Five-Year Plan on color t~ision at the department under the guidance of Ye. N. Sokolov was of fundamental importance. A model of color vision capable of representing numerous shades of color on the surface of a sphere was successfully built and tested, and it was simultaneously dettbnstrated that the coordinate system of color vision consists of contrasting-color neurons (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white). 7.'his research group also created an automated system for diagnosing color vision abnormalities with an on-line com- puter. Working on the topic "Neuron Mechanisms of Memory and Learning", Ye. N. Sokolov and his colleagues stuciied the mechanism of neuron plasticity, and they demonstrated that the pacemaker mechanism, which p~chibits endogenous plasticity, determines plasticity at the behavioral level, and that associative learning is an intra- cellular process of alteration of the reactivity of loci in the soma. It was also - found that giant neurons may acquire additional integrative properties through in- dependent generation of action potentials in individual axon branches. M~oreover this group developed a system for diagnosing the states of an individual, using objective electrophysiological indicators: the EEG, EKG, EMG, the rhythm assimilation reaction, and brain evoked potentials. In the course of its re- search, it found bioelectric correlates of different activation systems, inter- action of which prede'cermines functional state. 7.'hese experiments revealed the significance of individual human differences (extraversion-introversion, strength- weakness of nervous processes, etc.) to evaluation of the unique features of the EEG, EKG, and evoked potentials. Rese~x~,h performed in the department in the last five-year plan by A. D. Logvinenko and his colleagues led to the creation of a theoretical model of psychophysical - processes occurring in the human visual system; this model describes transformation of the visual image of a moving object. A given law of an object's motion is - placed in correspondence with a linear operator describing changes experienced by the image.in motion. This operator, interpreted in the language of three-dimensional frequencies, performs the function of a filter possessing certain characteristics, presence of which was confirmed through experimental study of recognition of moving images. A. D. Logvinenko and his colleagues also developed the new concept of the informa- tional spectrum of an image, and they experimentally studied the informational spectrum of a number of concrete images. Using the method of selective adaptation, they discovered the phenomenon of interaction between three-dimensional frequency channels in the human visual system, and they plotted the curves for interaction of these channels. An extensive cycle of research devoted to the role of the motor system of the eyes in various tasks--perceptual, mental, motor, and so on--was completed under the - guidance of Yu. B. Gippenreyter. The functions of eye movements, their place in - 165 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 b~OR Urh'IC'IAL U~~ t)NI.Y the structure of activity, and the mechanisms of their organization and control were studied in the course of this research; new, unique methods for evaluating visual process parameters such as the area of the operational visual field, stress, and Volunt~arism were created and successfully applied. A method for analyzing the structural units of activity was also developed. It was based on the idea of re- cording fixaticnal opticokinetic nystagmus in association with perceptual, motor, and mental tasks, and recentiy the group successfully tested a new, more-sensitive and practically convenient p~-acedure permitting solution of the same problems with the help of galvanic nystagmus. Consistently relying upon the theory of activity being developed at the department, its scientists canducted research on the psychological mechanisms of goal-setting and of formation of the individual's mptivations and needs, and the processes by - which the individual masters social experience in the form of training and education. It is namely from these positions that 0. K. Tikhomirov and his colleagues completed research in the lOth Five-Year Plan which illiunina~ed the basic forms of goal-setting and determined the conditions influencing the nature of formulated goals in i.ntellec- tual activity, to include in problem solving involving the use of a computer in ~ dialog mode. They also developed techniques for controlling goal-setting in a "dialog" with a computer, ones which broaden the possibilities for the individual's ~ creativity, by way of increasing the total number of goals formulated and raising their originality. Studying the significance and place of unconscious mental phenomena in creativity, this same research group demonstrated that the range of unconscious phenomena traditionally studied in experimental psychology must be ex- panded by including unverbalized operational meanings. In that same five-year plan, efforts were continued in a program initiated by A. N. Leont'yev to reveal the complex dependencies tying in the characteristics of activity in which an individual engages and the unique features in the develop- ment of his motivations--content, structure, dynamics, motive force, emotional valency, and so on (A. G. Asmolov, B. S. Bratus', V. K. Vilyunas, 0. V. Ovchinnikova, V. V. Stolin, and others). Also far-reaching and permeated by the principle of activity mediation was a cycle of research conducted at the department under the guidance of G. M. Andreyeva. - It was demonstrated with great persuasiveness on the basis of materials describing many psychosocial phenomena observed among people involved in communications tr~at the content and the structural and dynamic properties of these phenomena are governed predominantly not by the individua~.history of the communicating people, but rather by the nature and specific features of the social activity in which they engage. Usinq the example of analyzing interpersonal cognition, the researchers traced the relationship between such processes and the particular features of grai?ps, intergroup relations, and social situatioris in which every personality finds itself every day. gnploying a system created and theoretically substantiated by P. Ya. Gal'perin, during the past five-year plan the department continued its planned formation, in the child and in the adult, of different types of cognitive activity having pre- scribed properties; concurrently, the relationship between the types of teaching and the course of a child's mental development were revealed, and the internal mechanisms responsible for development of a child's manifestations of inental activity 166 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/49: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY such as interiorization, combination, automation, and so on were discovered. Appli- cation of this method of directed development mads it possible to develop highly generalized forms of attention in normal children and in children exhibiting retarded mental and speech development; it was also possible to develop the capacity of such children for systematic thinking when solving so-called "imagination problems". The most significant factor characterizing the unceasing progre~s in Gal'perin's theory of planned formation of inental actions was the transition, clearly manifesting itself in this research, from study of the conditio~~s and mechanisms governing forma- tion of individual mental actions to investigation of systems of actions and different forms and types of real human activity. It is mainly in this context that in the past five-year plan, Gal'perin and his students scientifically illuminated the psychological conditions for formation of complex types of inental activity (using the example of some types of special activity), and the psychological mechanisms of combination. The procedure they developed turned out to be highly effective in solving the problems associated with nurturing high-precision and high-speed forms of special activity in ordinary and experimental conditions. The system of inethods created on the basis of the theory of planned formation was also used successfully in the past five-year plan to shape the thinking and speech of blind-and-dumb children, and in this case its application also made it possi.ble to reveal a number of fundamental conditions predetermining the general course of mental development in the specific circumstances typical of the daily activities of a blind-and-dumb person. Finally, in 1976-1980 Gal'perin's creatively working collective managed, on the basis of the theory of planned formation, to perform an encouraging search--were we - to judge by the obtained results--for objective tools with which to diagnose human mental development and determine the real prospects of this development. Diagnosis of inental activity, performed on the basis of information acctutiulated by pedagogical psychologists and developing on the basis of the theory of planned formation, which provides a complete picture of the state of the form of activity ~xnder analysis and objectiviz es its main characteristics, makes it possible to chart out, with maximiun individualization, the course of further work with students serving as the subjects; as a rule this produces a high didactic impact. Research aimed at revealing the psychological characteristics of instruction activity - was continued in the past five-year plan under N. F. Talyzina's guidance. Following the general laws of knowledge assimilation, formation of this activity presupposes - the conduct of such research in all stages typical of this process. The unique features of knowledge acquired through systemic orientation of students in their subject matter were described, and it was demonstrated that in this case, knowledge _ rises to the methodological level of generalization, bringing it closer to the modern theoretical form of scientific knowledge. Z"heoretical and experimenta~. analysis aimed at clarifying the role played by other forms of activity in formation of usable ' knowledge was continued. Research om m~emic activity, which has become traditional to this scientific group, was supplemented by investigation of the inf~.uence of long-term memory on short- term memory. Early forms of a child's memory were subjected to special analysis, and the conditions and stages of its development in joint objective and practical activity of a child and adult were revealed. - 167 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 N'uK urr~~~wL u~~: ur+~.Y A system of differentiated indicators reflecting the level of an i.ndividual's moral consciousness and his preparedn,ess to behave in accordance with consciously recognized norms was revealed by this scientific collective in the course of its effort,to illwni.nate forma~ion of the personality's moral qualities, and the psychological foundations of an individual's philosophy. Theoretical research was conducted con- currently on the conceptual apparatus required for systemic conceptualization of philosophical development, and the content of activity leading to successful orienta- tion and deep assimilation of social values was determined. Nbreover the scientific collective led by N. F. Talyzina received new data on a nwnber of conditions pro- moting elevation of knowledge to the level of an individual's personal convictions. Research aimed at clarifying the psychological conditions for raising the effective- ness of an individual's work with equiprrw_nt, and at psychologically substantiating the ways for improving activity of the individual as a subject of different forms of labor occupied a significant place in the department's scientific efforts in 1976-1980. Under the guidance of V. P. Zinchenko,.the department's engineering psychologists _ developed a conceptual scheme for functional-structural and microstructural analysis of control activity; this scheme was used as a basis for thoroughly studying the activity of an operator-manipulator, and developing experimental stands for movement analysis of fundamentally new design, and new variants of controls having no previous analogs. The results of this research led to suggestion of an integrated variant of N. A. Bernshteyn's theory of movement structure and A. V. Zaporozhets' theory of movement development, and to resolution of the greatest conflict existing in modern habit psychology--the conflict between the theories of open and closed movement control loops. They concurrently demonstrated the quantum-wave nature af organization and _ implementation of a motor act, and presence of waves of psychological refraction in the spatial-temporal structure of a controlling action. An extensive cycle of research was also conducted under V. P. Zinchenk4's guidance on the topic "Theoretical and Methodological Principles of Planning the External and Internal Resources of Labor"; the processes studied included ones such as detection, information retrieval, short-term memorization, information selection, elementary logical transformations, preparation of information for problem solving, and so on.' Methods of functional-structural and microstructural analysis of cognitive processes were developed and realistic ways of optimum planning of the internal resources of _ operator activity were outlined in the course of this research. Working on a CEMA assignment in cooperation with other organizations, in 1976-1980 ,this scientific collective also conducted an extensive cycle of historic and theoreti- cal-methodological research within the mainstream of the psychological theory of activity; the purpose of this research was to develop this theory, refine it, and determine its applications to the tasks of la3~or psychology, engineering psychology, and r.rgonomics. . During the lOth Five-Year Plan the department completed a series of studies having the purpose of neuropsychological analysis of psychological processes occLtrring in the presence of local brain injuries, and improvement of the system of rehabilitation of patients with such injuries. Recognition was subjected to experimental study in the course of this research (under the guidance of Ye. D. Khomskaya and L. S. ~ 168 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 1FOR OFFICIAL USE ONY.Y Tsvetkova). The rc~~carch revealed the specifically mnemic element, the search element, and the decision making element. Tr.e rich phenomenology obtained in this case was analyzed from the standpoir.t of sic;nal detection theory, and it was re- - lated to different brain structures with a~~onsideration far the role of the left and right cerebral hemispheres in memory processes. Z'hus the group was able to establish that when the right hemisphe~e is injured, topological concepts are disturbed prir~.arily, whi.le with left-sided injuries disturbances in coordinate and projected concepts dominate. It was also revealed that space perception is supported not only by structures of just the right hemisphere (as is asserted by many re- searchers), b2~,t also by the joint work of both cerebral hemispheres, each of which makes its own specific contribution to the support of these processes. In the course of this research,, new methods for evaluating em~tions and personality features were de~~eloped and tested successfully, and it was revealed that the right hemisphere is predominantly insusceptible to negative emwtional influences, while the left is so to positive emotional influences. It was also deternti.ned that among patients having emotional and personality disorders, the influence of the emotional factor upon memorization and information processing is absent (or reduced). A new, effective technique for evaluating the coherence of different bands of the - EEG spectrum in the presence of intellectual tension was created in the course of psychophysiological investigation of disturbances in mental functions accompanying local brain injuries. This technique was used to demonstrate that when healthy people experience intellectual tension, dramatic growth occurs in the general interdependence of bioelectric precesses. The local interdependence rises an es- pecially great deal, in the form of an increase in the coherence of alpha and higher frequencies of the.spectrum, predominantly in the frontal lobes. It was also re- vealed that the parameters of evoked potentials--mean amplitude, mean latent time, the extent of interhemispheric asymmetry recorded in the anterior divisions of the brain--reflect the emotional content of stimuli. Concurrently the department's neuropsychologists developed and successfully tested new verbal and nonverbal methods of group therapy for patients with locai brain injuries, and they created a standardized system o~ methods for objectively evalu- ating the dynamics of development of descriptive thinking in the presence of s7eech disturbances accompanying aphasia.. An especially great deal of attention was de- voted in the lOth Five-Year Plan to the psychosocial aspect of rehabilitation ~ training, and to formulation of objective criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of this training. Promising research was conducted at the department under B. V. Zeygarnik's guidance in the area of pathopsychology. The methodological tools of qualitative and quantitative eva.luation of different parameters of goal formation were created. They were used to reveal the specific ways different groups of inental patients form end and intermediate goals, in comparison with normal people. Methods aimed at revealing motivational disorders in different types of patients were developed and tested, and the prognostic value of these methods was increased just as purpose- fully by this creative group in the past five-year plan. 7.'hese researchers created a system f.or analyzing the internal picture of disease, one fundamentally new to pathopsychology; they used it to reveal individual types of formation of the internal picture of disease in the presence of different somatic illnesses. The proposed 169 FOR OFFICIAY. USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 N'UR ON'M'IC:IAL US~: UNLY methods for interpreting the inte.rnal picture of diseas~ permit assessment of the effectiveness of inedicinal therapy, and they may be used successfully in expert labor certification. This creative collective also acquired new scientific facts in pathopsychological research on different age groups of children. Were we to evaluate all that had been don.e by the department's scientists in the lOth Five-Year Plan, we would find it obvious that they made a substantial contri- bution to the development of all basic areas of psychological science and practice. Z'his effort was descra.bed in detail in the article "Nbscow University Psychologists Aid Practice", published in this journal (No 4, 1979, pages 64-70). But the tasks they face in the llth Five-Year Plan are even greater. Documents adopted by the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union obligate scientists to increase their participation in the work toward the goals formulated in the "Basic Directions of the USSR's Economic and Social Development in 19�31-1985 and in the Period to 1990". Ta psychologists of Nbscow State University, this means intensively and extensively increasing their participation, in cooperation with scientists at other psycho- logical centers, in creation of the psychological principles of formation of the communist personality, in development of a scientifically substantiated and practically effective system of personnel training, and mainly labor training, in revealing the psychological prerequisitesfor optimizing the individual and collective activity of the Soviet citizen in all sp$eres of his labor, in substantial justifi- cation, from the standpoint of the particular researcher's science, of the principles of designing more or less complex manipulators for different areas of the national economy, and in illuminating the psychological mechanisms of preserving and restoring the individual's health and normalizing his spiritual and physical life in the family, at home, and at rest. Without weakening their.attention to the general theory of their science, scientists of the Moscow State University's psychology department will actively participate in efforts to solve these problems in the new five-year plan, ones so i.mportant to the development of our society. COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Nbskovskogo universiteta. "Vestnik Nbskovskogo universiteta", 1931 ~ 11004 CSO: 1840/182 170 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ~DNLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 ; FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY i I i i -i ' o ! PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF INTELLECTUAL SELF-REGULATION AND ACTIVITY Moscow PSII~iOLOGICEiESRIXE ISSLEDOVANIYA INTELLEKTUAL'NOY SAMOREGULYATSIY I ~ ARTIVNOSTI in Russian 1980 (aigned to presa 25 Feb 80) pp 2-6~ 208 : [Annotation, intraduction and table of contents from book "Psychological Studies ~ of Intellectual Self Regulation and Activity'~ edited bp V. M. Rusalov and ~ E. A. Golubeva~ Izdatel'stvo "Nauka"~ 4500 copies~ 208 pagesJ jText] This cellective monograph contains the results of~ several pears of ' studies of differential papchophpaiology related to the neurophysiological ; basea of inental activity and self-regulation as the most common inherent prerequi- sites for overall capetbilities (personal talent). The book reflects significant ~ changes in the methodical and conceptual approach to the study of the neuro- ~ physiological mechan3sm of individual psychological differences. ' This book is inteaded for paychologists, physiologists and educators. -I ~ INTRODUCTION I ~ The progress achieved in differential psqchophysiological aciances in the last ~ decade prompted us to try to define one of the principal problems of psycbology--- " ~he problem of inherent bases of human talent. We were motivated bq these two ~ conaiderations: First, the publication of theoretical and experimental studies ~ dealing with the inner prerequieites for talent--mea~tal activity and selfw ~ regulation (N. S. Leytea et al); second~ a significant ahift took place in the j interpretation of the nature of the basic character3stics of the nervous system ; which induced us to inveatigate the so--called general characteristics of the ~ human nervous system (V. D. Nebylitsyn et al). This book describee the resulta of inethodical differential psychophqsiological studiea of the neurophysiological bases for mental activity and self=regulation. ; The studiea presented in this book have one common objective: They aim at the - inveatigation of the relationahip between tt~e neurophysiologica? characteristics o~ an individual ~traditional features of the nervaus system, integral electro- encephalographic (EEG) parameters~ activation, induced activity, hqpoactivity of , the brain~ galvanic cutaneous reaction and others) and the formal-dynamic charac- ' teristics of inental activity and self-regulation at varying levels of inental i 171 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY I APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY , functions (perceptive~ peychomotor, mnemic and intellectual). All thp included studies have a similar theoretical basis and thus this publication appears aa a monograph. The book focuses primarily on comparison of the mental activity and self-regula- ~ . tion features with integral EEG parameters which are~ according to V. M. Rusalov and M. B. Bodunov, potential indicators for the general characteristics of the " nervous system. A distinctive feature of the EEG characteristics is their refiec- - tion of the integr.ation level of the nerve processes in the brain. The identifi- cation of four separate factors in integral EEG parametere (space-time dependency of EEG pr~cesses~ based on synchronization and coherency, energy of slow rhqthms~ activity of beta-2 and slow rhythm frequencies) in the structure of the electro- encephalographic activity of the brain is, according to the authors, an important step toward the discovery of the nature and structure of the general features of the human nervous system. - Concepts of inental activity and eelf-regulation were further developed and re- inforced. The activity and self-regulation of intellectual behavior of a person was realized for the firat time in a stochastic environment (on a model of proba-- bility prediction, by V. M. Rusalov and S. A. Kostmian). The factorial analysis of the formal--dynamic features of the probability prediction permitted the authors to identify two factors in the area of self--regulation'--sensitivity to the random . environment and plasticity of prognosti~cated self'regulation--~and two additi~nal independent factoxs in the area of activity~ viz.~ speed of inental processes and variability in the rate of inental processes. The use of factorial analysis helped considerably to de�ine more accuratelp the existing concepta of the structure of activities and sel~-~regulation in a determined environment. For example, M. V. Bodunov confirmed in his studp the existence of three individual aspects of inental activitqr-speed~ ergonomics and variability. The studies of A. V. Pasynkova confirmed two basic factors of - psychomotor self-~regulation (on a model measuring time intervals)--the factors of accuracy and stability. Camparison of the formal--dynamic featurs of inental activity and self--regulation with 3ntegral EEG parameters produced a series of completely new data (works by V. M. Rusalov and S. A. Koahman; M. V. Bodunov and Paeynkova). For example~ the level of space-time interrelation in the EEG proceases affects positivelp the mental activity rate, and negatively the plasticity of aelf-regulation. Sensitivity to random enviranment showed a tendency to a poaitive link with ttie beta-2 activity. Among the traditional traits of the nervous system, labilitq was found to have the strongeat link wi.th the formal-dynamic features of human behavior~ especially the apeed of inental proceases, in a defined and a random environment. The significance of the individual activation level, as a permanent feature of the nervoua system~ reflected by various forms of inental activity (solving mnemic tasks and learning activities), is described by A. V. Pasynkova et al. and S. A. Izyumova. - 172 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY - N. A. Aminov reporta on the dynamics of inental states as one type of regulation of on-going activitiea. The author succeeded in establishing signif icant activity components by using a curve of skin resistance. The typological prerequisites for involuntary and voluntary functions are dis- cussed by E. A. Golubeva who compiled aeveral experimental studiea that indicate that a high level of voluntary and second signal reactions and successful academic performance are correlated with the slow (spontaneous and induced) rhythms in the electroencephalogram. Central or reversible inhibition is suggested - as one of the possible mechan3sms of voluntary self-regulation (according to I. M. Sechenov). ~ I. A. Levochkina investigated the involuntary mechanism of self-regulation and established the general self-regulatory factor respon~ible for the functional r~arrangement of the nerve processes during reactiona nf varping degrees of - crnnplexity. A link has been established between the duration of individual sequelae after e~cperimental inhibition induced by monotonous work~ and the individual differences produced by two types of inhibitions-~voluntary suppres- sion of motor reaction to a conditional signal and the spnchronization of a1pl~a- rhythms in the EEG while being blindfolded. N. A. Leonova compared extremely-low brain activities with �eatures of ths experiment. The arrangement of the mental and biological rhythms is conaidered to be the general regulatory mechanism for the entire human behavior. ' The studies of N. S. Leites, E. A. Golubeva and B. R. Kadyrov are particularlq useful for the anglysis of th~ obtained psychophyaiological correlations. They point out several indicators of the dynamics of inental activity~ relatively simple in nature~ but directly linked to the energy base; these indicators are directly proport3onal to the activation level. At the same time, numeroua other indicators of the dynamics of inental activity t~at are more complex and condi-- tional, are indirectly proportioaal to the activity level. An increase i~: the - activity dynamics in liypo-activated test sub~ects (as compared to medium-activated) is due to a secondary compensating action. In other words, both activation poles proved beneficial for the dynamics of inental activities. The above studies auggest that B. M. Teplov's indirect "evaluation" method, used for the features of the nervous system, ahould be fully extended to the manifestations of the nervous system during the dynamics of inental activities ~and aelf--regulation that are considered inherent prerequiaites of general human capabil3ties (talent). The studies reported in this book contain aubstantial information for widening our ?cnowledge in the area of the neurophysiological bases of individual human behavior. TABLE OF CONTENTS ~ IntroductiCon.�~~�~��.���~�~.���~��~�~~~~~~r�~~~~~~~~~~~~~~��~~~~~~~~~~~~� 3 173 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2 F'OR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 4 ~ ~ ~ ! ! V. M. Rusalov, S. A. Koslunan ~ - Differential-paychophpaiological analqsis of intellectual human . behavior in a random enviromnent 7 ` ~ M. V. Bodunov ~ Studies of the correlations between the.formal-dynamic aspects of ' activity and the integral EEG parameters 57 , ~ - A. V. Pasynkova ~ ~ Interrelat3ons of psychomotor aelf-refulagion indices with the EEG background features and the traits of the nervoue apstem 83 ' V. M. Rusalov~ M.. V. Bodunov Factorial structure of integral electroencephalographic parameters of an individual 94 N. S. Leytea~ E. A. Golubeva~ B. R. Kadprov Dynamic aspects af inetnal activities and of brain activation 114 E. A. Golubeva Typplogical prerequisites for some involuntary and voluntary ~unctions... 125 A. V. Pasynkova~ E. P. Guse~~a, S. S. Linovetskig Correlation of the induced potential components with the activation indices and ssuccessful academic and mnemic performance 135 S. A. Izyt:mova � Characteristics of activation and proceases of rearrangement and storage of information by an individual 148 N. A. Aminov The fluctuation rate of cutaneous resistance as an indicator of the functional atate during voluntary and compulsory work schedules.......... 1G3 I. A. Levotchkina The after-effect of inhib,iting actions as an indicator o~ self-- regulation 172 - N. A. Leonova The reflection of ad~usted human conditions in the dynamics of an extremely low brain potential ~and of cutaneo-galvanic activities......... 185 COPYR.IGST: Izdatel'^~do "Nauka", 1980 9680 CSO: 1840/1002 - END - 174 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020002-2
Agency
About CIA
Organization
Director of the CIA
CIA Museum
News & Stories
Careers
Working at CIA
How We Hire
Student Programs
Browse CIA Jobs
Resources
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)
Center for the Study of Intelligence (CSI)
The World Factbook
Spy Kids
Connect with CIA
Search CIA.gov Site Policies Privacy No FEAR Act Inspector General USA.gov Site Map