JPRS ID: 10429 USSR REPORT HUMAN RESOURCES

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• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/10429
1 April 1982
USSR Re ort .
p
HUMAN RESOURCES
(FOUO 4/82~
FB~$ FOREIGN BROADCASY INFORMATiON SERVI~~
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JPRS L/10429
1 April 1982
~ USSR REPORT
HUNfAN RESOURCES
t~oUO~ 4/s2~
CONTENTS
EDUCATION
Prokof'yev Diacuaaes Status of Education
(M. A. Prokof'yev; S OVETSKAYA PEDAGOGIKA, Jan 82)............ 1
Problem of Interaction of Family, Culture
(A. G. Kharchev; SOVETSKAYA PEDAGOGIKA, .7an 82) . . . . . 9
Perfecting Orgaaization of Education in RSFSR Nonchernozem Zone
(V. G. Aromatov; SOVETSKAYA PEDAGOGIICA, ~T~n 82) . . . . . 16
DEt~:~GRAPHY
Legal Regulation of Demographic Procease~! Diacuaaed
(Galina Il'inichna Litvinova; PRAVO I I~:MOGRAFI(~iESKIY
PROTSESSY V SSSR, 19811~: 24
~ - a - [III - USSR - 38c FOUO]
F~1R IIFFTr`T A T T TCL' /lNT V
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EDIICATION
PROKOF'YEV DISCUSS ES STATUS OF EDUCATION
Moscow SOVETSKAYA PEDAGOGIKA in Russisn No 1, Jaa 82 pp 10-13
[Article by M.A. Prokof'qev: "A Teaclier of the Society of Mature Socialism"]
[Text] Soviet teachers and all educational personael have entered into a new
five-year period armed with a preci8e and,clear program of further development
of the quality teaching and commuaist educarion of students contained in the
Accountability Report of the CP~J Central Committee to the 26th Congress of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The congress noted with satisfaction that
the Soviet school reached an important laadmark in the past five-year plan--it
completed the transitian to universal compulsory aecondary education. But the
requiremeats of society with respect to public education and the teacher are
growing. "The main thing today," Geneiral Secretary of the CPSU Centra7. Cammit-
tee L.I. Brezhnev aoted in the report, "is to raise the qualitq of instruction,
labor and moral training in the school, to eliminate formalism in evaluation of
the results of the work of teachers of the students, to stsengthen in practice
the tie between education and life and to improve the preparation of school
children for socially useful labor."
FuY~ther developmen t of the general educational school a*_ the present stage is
firmly based on the achievements of the entire ~uucational system attained in
the years of the past five-year plan, the ~:nief tasks of which were systematic
implementaCion of the decisions of the 2,�,th CPSU Congresaes and the provisions
of the new USSR Constitut~on on the dev~~lopment of universal compulsory second-
_ ary education, further improvement in the content of education and enhancing
the role of the scho4l in preparing youag people for life and labor activity.
During the lOth Five-Year Plan, 24 million teenagers completed the 8-qear
- school and more than 20 million qoung men aad women completed full secondary
education. Practiically ~11 young people, choosing one or another direction in
secondary education~ contiaue to study following the 8th-year class. They are
entering into the period of labor maturitq, having behind them a basic general
educational training. As before, a leading place in the obtaining of secondary
education is occupied by secondary day general educational school. Ninth-year
- classes of general educational schools talce in more than 62 percent as pupils
_ of�those who complete 8th-year classes of day school.
- Secondary universal education... These words for us are customarq, everyday.
But how important is their political, economic ~nd aoci$1 meaning. The fact is
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that secondary universal education is the foundation of the country's "educa-
tional potential." This poteatial, as attested to by practice, plays a most ~
importaat role in raiaiaag labor productivity aad staadards in industry, agri-
culture and all other sectors o� the national econamy. It is difficult to
overestimate the importance of uaiversal compulsory secondary education in the
formatian of a scieatific outlook, ideological coaviction, development of so- ~
cial and political activity by the youth and preparation of them for an active
and creative life. _
The 26th CPSU Congress set new taska before the educational system. T'he role
of the school in the formation of young generations must gro~ still further.
Ia the words of General Secretary of the CPSU C~ntral Committee L.I. Brezhaev
addre~sed to educational personnel there is coatained aa entire program for our
activixy: to raiae the q~ality of education and training aad to bring them to-
gether even more closely into a single process for the formation of the indi-
vidual inspired by the ideas of Mas~ism-Leniaiem, an individual ready for cre-
ative labor for the good of so ciety; to achieve such an organization of the
educational process that the foundations of the scieaces dealing with society
azid nature become fuadamental and profound for each schoolboy; ta deve~lop in
students durable moral principles where word and deed are one, while the kaow-
ledge of studied laws is indissolubly coanected with the practice of socialist
construction; to bring up young citizens for whom selfless service to the Noth-
erland is the highest sim and great happiness. Duriag the llth Fiye-Yeax Plan,
there is to be consolidated the greatsst actaievement of the party and the Sovi-
et people--granting to all rising generations real rights for obtaining a sec-
ondary education of a high scientific level. Eetimates show that about 18 mil-
lion people will obtain during this five-~yeaY period a complete secoadary edu-
cation at general educational schools..
The 8-year school is an important element in the solution of the tasl~ of uni-
versal secondary education. It f~eds with its graduates both senior classes
of secondary school and vocational-technical achools as well as to a sigaifi-
cant degree secondary specialized educational inEtitutions. Duriag the current
five-year plan, incomplete secondary education in day school will be obtained
bv about 20 million people of whom: about ane million c~ill enter vocational-
technical schools aad 6.6 millioa persons--secondary vocatioaal-techaical
- schools and secondary specialized educational institutions. The 8-qear school '
is directing increasinglq large contingents of its graduates to vocational-
te chnical schools and to secondarq specialized educational institutions. It is
right to orient young people to the selection of paths of vocational education
--this to a significaat degree signifies dete~mination of the success in
training of young workers and secoad-echelaa apecialists, that is~ to solve
the 3mportant state problem of labor reservea. The arhool of working youth is
also not losing its importaace; it is becoming for us to aa increasing degree
the senior concentrum [kontaentr] of study. An interesting process ta to be
observed: in this school there is an increasing number of students aged over
25-30, who in the past had not received a complete secondary education. Round
figure estimates show that we caa expect.in the current five-qear period that
about 6 million persons will complete the course ef secondarq educ~tion gt
evening (correspondeace) schools.
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Several yeara ago, a mass-scale experiment was begun on teaching 6-year olds '
who are not iacluded ia preschool institutions. During the current year,
' 810,000 six-qear olds have begun education. It is expected that this figure
will have grown by the end of the five-year period. If the intrnduction of
the educational program used in prepsratory groups of kindergartens for school
are taken into consideration, it could be expected that by 1985 a large parC
of the six-year olds will have obtaiaed a certain amount af elementary know-
ledge and thea it might be poasible to think of teaching children beginning
with six years of age in going on to the next five-year plan~ Much work
will be required to create an optimal teaching-educational process in the
most initial part of education.
Much attention is paid in oar country to the development of public foro~s of
upbringing of children of preschool age. In the years of the lOth Five-Year
Plan the number of children ia preschool institutions iacrer~sed by 2.5 million
persons. The state is not sktmping on outlaqa: in 1981 more than 5.3 billion
rubles were allocated for the maintenance of preschool institutions and about
1 million rubles on construction. A large ~rmy of pedagogs, exceeding 1 mil-
lion persons, carries on educational work in kiadergartens. The decisions of
the party congress determine the target for expansion of this important form
of assistance to families. During the years of the llth Five-Year Plan, the
number of children in preschool institutioas will grow by 3.2 mi3lion and
- reach 16.6 million. The combination of family with public education creates
objective preconditions for the most correct, all~round scientifically based
education of cfiildren -in Eheir early per3od of life. The task is to realize
t~�ese preconditions most fully and to show special concern for the health and�
- development of each child.
Full-day attendance of school by children has received universal development in
recent years. This comparatively new undertaking for the school is gradually
being developed and improved. Many schools exiat where nonspecific work is
arranged iaterestingly: children have an additional possibility of physical
and esthetic developmeat; '~hey can do home assignments at school a~d engage
themselves in any task. During the current five-year period, there is pla~nned
an additional transition to a regime of semiboarding� maintenance (extended
day) for about 3 million children. By 1985, about 16 million school children,
primarily of beginning classes, will be on a boarding and semiboarding
regime. This will be of trem~endous importance to the family, since parents
will be provided with the possibility of working in peace in production. The
actual scale o~E these measures attests to their colossal social significance.
But much yet remains to be done for improving the upbringing of children.
That large army of pedagogs, which selflessly works in schools and groups on
an extended day basis and in various kinds of btrardiag instiCutions, should do
a great deal of work on improving specific forme aad methods of education of.
pupils.~
During the current fi.ve-year plan, the importance of the qualitative aspect in
the work of the school will especially grow in importance. Raising the 1eve1
of general educational preparatioa of school childr~n and of their perceived
assimi.lation of fundamentals of the scieaces is an ob3ect of special concern.
I~'urther improvement of the teaching and educatianal process on the bases of
laws aad principles based on pedagogic science is an unconditional requirement
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LV~~ VrriVi~Y1 V~.IY V~\VL
of any teaching collective. And this meaz?s that first of all the lesson must
be improved. The school lesaon, as it was emphasized in the decree of the
= party and the government on the school, remains the basis and well tested form
of instruction and education of pupils. There has to be a deepening and fur-
ther improvement of labor trainiag of echool children, the orientation of stu-
dents primarily toward labor in the sphere of material productioa. Today the
task is to raise the effectivenesa of labor instructioa, to ~orient the greater
_ part of grac~uates of 8-year and full secondary schools to worker ocaupations,
to subsequent trainiug in vocational schools. Much must be done by the school
and all pedagogic collectives in connection with the fulfillment of the decree
of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers "On the Further
Rise of the Mass Character of Phqsical Culture and Sports." Physical-culture
study should be made into a need for every individual from early childhood age
--this is the idea behind the givea decre~. It would be impossible to achieve
harmonious development without a concera for one's phyaical conditioa.
At the dawn of the Soviet power, in June of 1918, V.I. Lenin, in preaenting a
speech at the lst All-Russian Congress of Teachers-Internatioaalists, defined
with precision and great perspective Che role of the teacher in the new society.
"The teachers' army," he said, "muet set itself gigantic educatioaal tasks, and
first of all it muat become the chief army of socialist education" ("Complete
Collection of Works," Vol 36, p 420). V.I. Lenin and the Communist Party have
always looked upon teachiag as a most important channel of the ideas of the
party to the masses. At the All-Russian Conference of Political Educational
Committees of Guberniya and Uyezd Departments of Public Education held in Ne-
vember 1920, the leader of the revolution set a concrete task: "...to train a
new army of pedagogic teaching persoanel, which would be cZosely connected with
the party, with its ideas and which would be permeated with its spirit...."
("Complete Collection of Works, p 41, p 403).
Several decades have passed aince then. In this time, there became part of
_ history the struggle with illiteracy, for univereal elementary aad the~n for
_ inco~aplete secondary education. The people have reached a high level ~f cul-
ture and education. A developed socialist society has beea built in che coun-
try. Knowledge in its true, ob~ective sense has become a genuine inheritance
of the Soviet people. Under these conditions, the role of the teacher has in-
creased significantly and hia tasks have be~cone complex. He must not only
master to perfection the arsenal of contemporary methods of teaching but also
form in school children a high communist consciousness and prepare them for
labor. The general educational achool and its pedagogs encompass all the
young genetations in their influence. The succesa of the operation of the
- school predetermines to a sigaificaat degree the quality of operation of voca-
tional and specialized educational institutions. The army of edu.cational
. workers in our count:y has become the most numernus group of the Soviet intel-
ligentsia. A high educational level and political qualitiea of fighters of the
ideological front have created nationwide prestige for teact-?ers.
In speaking at the All-Union Congress of Teachers (1968), L.I. Brezhnev empha-
sized: "In our country, the school Ceacher is oae of the most honarable, most
respected by the people professions... the work of the teacher is so valuable
and wonderful because it. actually adolds the individual." The past five-qear
plan was characterized by a sigaificent improvement in ~he qualitative ~ieeup
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of pedagogic cadres. Durin$ this period there were sent to school more than half
a millioa youag teachers with highe.r.educatioa and aluwst 35U,000 vith second-
ary education. As a result, tbe educatioaal level of Soviet ~eacherB has grawn.
In recent years, special attention has been paid to providing rural schools with
qualified pedagogic cadres. The great ma~ority of young teachers, fulfilling
their civil duty, work ia rural schools, which has had a positive effect an r~is-
ing in them the level of teaching aad educational worUc. During the current five-
year plan new hundreds of thousands of yotmg specialists will go into the educa-
tional system. �
The quality of te~ching and educatioa of the rising generations depends to a
significant degree oa ~he level of scientific-methodological aad ideological-
political training of teachers. Further i~^rovement of theoretical ideological
a~d professional training of pedagogic cadres is the object of special concern
of public-education organs. In this sense~ special mention ehould be made of
the teachers' movemeat so that everyone would have a higher poli~ical educatioa.
- This movement was born iu Moscow and has become widespread in the country.
Under the conditions of developed socialism, the content of teachina work and
the very concept of "teacher" has become �uller aad more capacious. This en-
richment is connected with po*~rerful social-political, econo~c and cultural
processes of the vigorously developing 8oviet society.
At the present stage of d~velopment of the gener~.l. educational school, its
training and educational functfons have become significantly espaaded. Todaq's
teacher is essentially a first comer to the solution oL a historic task--to
pravide young gene~ations with a complete sec~ndary education. The solution of
this task naturally requires of the teacher that he be armed with the most mod-
era and ef�~ctive methods and techniques of work. In recent years, much has
been done on improving the methodological arsenal of teachers. The Soviet
s:.hool does not ~ust help each at;~dent master the total of knowledge ac~umu-
lated by mankind; it so organizes the work of a student that he relates his
learning at each step to the common cause, to the work of creating a new soci-
- ety. The teacher of our day~ on the call of the party aad the wish of the
Motherland, is to be found in the advance ;~ositions in the struggle for the
hearts and minds of c~ildren. The tremendous progress of the material, cult-
ural and spiritual life of Saviet s~~cietq has created qualitatively new condi-
tions which, on tb.e one hand, have expanded the framework of the creative work
of the teachex and, on the other, have made it possible to disclose in full
degree all his potential possibilitias as a creator, builder aad sculptor of
the young citizen of the Land of the Soviets.
Implementation of party policy in the fie:ld of school educatfo*i is a matter of
honor, a sacred dutq of teachers. Sovie~t teachers with determined labor imple-
ment the policy of the partq. The present-day Sovi~t teacher possesses all the
necessary qualities for ftuitful pedagogic activity, for the form9.ng of an all-
' round developed personality. Oaiq that teacher caa stay at the level of con-
temporary h3gh demasds who, as Lev Telstoy said,will not remain stationary ia
knowledge, but�will possess a unique flesibility while not ceasing to educate
himself. For our teacher, a11 the necessary conditiaas have been created for
~hia growth, creative reinterpretation of the th~ory and practice of Soviet
pedagogy.
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What is he like, this Soviet teacher of the developed socialist society? The
scientific foundation of all his multif aceted activity is Marxist-Leninist
theory. A high lev~l of political education, a deep and systematic comprehen-
sion of revolutionary theory hav~e become an iaherent requirement of teachers.
A tieacher possessing a knowledge of scientific commwcaism is a determined
fighter for the cause of Lenin's party. fle cannot be aa indifferent witness
of the events of our day= when an ideoiogi~al atruggle is inteneified 'it? the
international arena. The development of this procesa is connected with the
strengthening of international positions aad prestige of real socialism and
the further sweep of the antiimperialist movement. Todaq, aa uacompromising
battle is going on throughout all the world for the minda of youth. The chief
�ront of the struggle betweEn capitalism aad socialiam lies in the field of.
philosophy, in the field of formation of moral ideals and values.
The Communist Party d~recte teachera to see to it that in the steadilq growing
educational poteatial of the Soviet people a special place is occupied by the
- scientific world outlook, knowledge of the nat~~re of Masxiet-Leriinist theory
and laws of historical development. It is namelq this that mak~s it. possible
to establish in the minds of youth an understaadiag of the establishment of
real socialism and its historical advaatages over the world of capitalism. ~
A permaneat, profeasioual feature of the personalitq of the teacher has been,
is and will be his sincere attachment aad love for children. Under our Soviet
conditions this attachment and Zove is ilnimated bq high ideals in the name of
the achievement for which the Soviet teacher works. The teacher of the society
of developed socialism is distinguiahed by a broad outlook, thorough profeseion-
al competence and the ability to orgauize a children's collective, to f~nely
obse~rve and study the special features of children with the sim of making mau-
imum use of ttie posa3.bilities of the personality of the school ~
~ children. Thus, as N.R. Krupskaya eaid, the teacher "will be able to invest
book lcnowledge with living flesh and blood," aad will make tbe fusion of aci-
ence and life a powerful means for the traasf4rmation of ~cealitq aad tEach
children to assurae an active position in life. ~
The Motherland highly values the labor of teachers. Dnring the years of the
lOth Five-Year Plan, more than 2p,000 teachers aad other educational personnel
were awarded orders and medals of the Sovi~t U~ioa. The high title of l~ero of
Socialist Labor was awarded to k6 person~. For special services in teaching
and communist training of students, 29�~teachers received the title People's
Teacher of th~~ USSR. In the same period,~the title of flonored Teacher was
conferred on 5,000 p~rsons in the repL~blics. According to certification totals,
the titles Teacher Methodologist aad Senior Teacher wene awarded to 11,239 per-
sons. Medals named after outstanding pedagoga N.K. Krupskaya, K.D. Ushinskiy,
A.S. Makarenko, Kara-Niyazov~ Ka.S. Gogebashvili.and Kh. Abovy?an grace Che
chests of more than 3,000 teachers. Many teachers have received other rewards.
The high prestige of the teacher is characterized by auch a noteaorth,y fact:
there are 111,064 teachers among the deputies of soviets of people's deputiea,
including 100 deputies--educational F4raoaael--to U~SR aad republic supre~e
soviets.
The teachers of Moscow and the capital oblast are making a significant contri-
bution~to improvement of the aqstem of education. Here a movement has been
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launched for exemplary schools. Today already 30 schools have earned the title
of exemplary. A socialist competition has been.started with the motto "For the
exemplary commiutist city--exemplarq achools." Many valuable initiatives have
been born among Moscaw's teachers. T6e concentration of_all conditioas on the
most pertineat questioas on the basis of a thornughly thought out complex plan of
teaching and educational work makes it possible to appmach management of the
process of formation of the personali~y at School No 74 in Gagarinskiy Rayon
where the director is A,V. Tavetkava. The pedagogic collective is working on
_ the selectian of forms aad method~ of nonspecific educational work; wide use is
made of talks, disputes and conferences for this. Here they detesmtnedlq strive
to see to it that for each pupil a sub~ect is found aad-proposed to his liking and
individual inclinations, abilities and know-haw are taken into account. Most
seniors when it comes to social~-political subjects have a deep and lasting
knowledge and are able to utilize in practice studied theoretical positions.
_ In practice each pupil of the achool completes a social task.
L.L. Osipova, a female teacher of literature at School No 190 in Cheremushkin-
skiy Rayon of Moscow-
works intereatingly. With the resources of her sub~ect,
shE inculcates ~ta~'s hatred of the petty bourgeois way of life and forms
Gor'kiy's dream of the wonderful man of revolutionarq spirit. If aay litera-
ture lesson does not evoke emotions, thoughts, if it does not lead to arguments
that are fraak and open, then it is a bad lesson. This is haw this teacher
thinks = she does everything possible to see to it that the literature course
maximally promotes the moral forming of the young persoa.
N.I. Demidenkov works at Ramenskaya Secondary School in Shakhovskiy Rayon of
Moscow Oblast. Nikolay IVanovich was born in Shakhovskiy Rayon, completed
rural schools and the pedagogic institute and returned to his native village.
He does not merely give labor l~ssons, but firmly forms in his pupils such
feelings and concepts which become the source of manifestation in each of them
of love for the Motherland and home ares and a feeliag of citizeaship and deep
patriotism. In 5 years, 113 of his graduates have been granted rights of
tractor operator~and machinist aad of these 69 have stayed on to work at their
local kolkhoz. At rayon and oblast competitions of young plowmen, the pupils
of Nikolay Ivanovich inevitably take prize placeg. Teacher N.I. Demidenkov
generously shares hia experience with his colleagues and is the director of
the rayon ~thodological association.
Among the remarkable masters of peda$ogic work, we with full right include
Moscow representatives- V.D. Sidorova, a history teacher of School No 620 of
Volgograd.gkiy Rayon, O.I. Koloakova, a mathematics teacher at School No 59 of
Tushinskiy Rayon, N.I. Galaktionova, a teacher of elementary classea at
School No 904 of Krasnogvardeyskiq Rayon, A.I. Ivanov, a teacher of hiatory at
Vozrozhdenicheskaya School of Kolomenskip Rayoa of Mpscow Oblast, I..N. Vasil'-
yeva, a chemistry teacher at Medvezh'ye-Ozerskaqa Secondary School of Shchel-
kovskiy Rayon. Deputy of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet N.N. Zakharova, director of
Nikonovskaya Secoadary School of Ramanskiy Rayon and many others. In the front
ranks of our teachers, who give all their energies, knowledge and ability to
the cause of tsaching and comaaunist upbrin~ing of the rising generation, there
stand thousands of teachers, who adorn the Soviet scizool and multiply its
achievements as the most democratic, accessible and humaae ia world practice.
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The successes of the Soviet school are first and foremost due to party guidance.
Tn the decisions of the CPSU Central Committee and in the works of L.I. Brazh-
nev, perso~nel of the Soviet educational system find both inspiring ideas and
plans of coacrete action. Party committees devote coastaatly growiag attention
to the cause of educatian. The school would have been unable to solve maaq of
its problems if it did not depend an the aesistanca of operational organs,
trade-union and komsomol organizations, parents and the public; thonsaads upot~
thousands of peoplee enricY~.2d with life experienoe, take part in school affairs.
Teachers and the public educational pers~anel of our country= as all the Soviet
- people, inspired by the decisions of the 26th CPSII Congress, persistently and
determiaediy work oa the implemeatation of .~h~ pariy's plans, and there is no
doubt that they a~e ful.filling with honor set tasks in the na~e of the triumph
of mankind's bright future--communism!
COPYRIGHT: "Sovetskaya pedagogika", 1982
7697
CSO: 1828/56
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EDUCATION
PROBLEM OF INTERACTION OF FAMILY, CULTURE
Moscow SOVETSKAYA PEDAGOGIKA in Ruesian No l, Jan 82 pp 14-19
[Article by A.G. Kharchev: "The Family aad Culture"~ -
[TextJ The problem of interaction of family and culture has two equall~r i~ortant as-
pects: the importance of spiritual culture in the development of family mar-
riage relations and the role of the family in the transmission of cultural
values to new generations and consequently in the reproduction and enrichment
of these values. For the two types of eulture prevailing in the contemporary
world--socialist and bourgeois--there correspond two qualitatively different
types of familq. In family marriage relatiens characteristic of the coatemp-
orary development of Soviet society, the possibilities of mature socialism are
realized far from fully. The development of these relatioas reflects both the
successes and the tremendous difficulties of building communism in our country.
Considerable damage to the Soviet faanily was inflicted in particular by the
consequences of the war, the large losses of the male population, tremendous
destruction of housing and economic difficulties. The inertia of individual
consciousness and its lag behind being are most strongly manifested in the
personal life of people; it is less accessible than other spheres of human
activity to social regulation and control.
- At the same time, bourgeois society ia the highly developed capitalist coun-
tries has fully real.ized those changes in interrelations between man and woman
which follow f mm its nature. The chief result of these changes is the weak-
ening of the 3nfluence af caltural norms on intimate life, utilization of the
motives of respect and marriage, cheapeniag of the main social function of the
family--upbringing of children. This process is reflected in the slogans of
coatemporary feminisffi--bourgeois-ultraleft reaction ro capitalist discrimina-
tion of wom~n. A well-known American feminist, Ellen Peck, energetically pro-
pagandizes, for example, a"movemeat of nonparents," that is intended in her
words to free the woman fxom the "most cardinal source of her inequality"--
children. Such moods are manifested in attempts to consider professional ac-
_ tivity as a kind of antithesis to marternity, as a more important form of its
social activity for society and womea.
- The bourgeoie alienation of relations betWeea the sexes finds expression
in the so-catled sexua~ revolution, propagandized in ultraleft literature as a
'8wdera alternative" to the traditional �ami~q, a radical~ expression of
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_ "freedom of the individual." The "sexual revolution" is a typical example of
ideological mi.micry.
As K. Marx wrote, "the animal is natn~ally identical with his life activity~.v.
Man makes his own life activity an ob~ect of his will and his consciousness.
His life activity is a conscious one" (Marx, K.and Engels, F., "Iz rannikh pro-
izvedeniy" [From Early Works], Moscow, 1956, p 565). Consequently, the well-
known expression "he behaves like aa animal" has only metaphoric meaning. Hu-
man behavior, right to the satisfaction of his natural vital aeeds, is condi-
tioned by social factors. In nature there is nothing base, as everything in it
is natural. Violation of the na~ural is only possible to man. And no matter
hot~ vile a human act may be, behind i~t, in the final analysis, these or those
social circumstances are to be found. On the other haad, there is nothing in
human behavior which directly stems from mateYial pr.oduction in whose condi-
tions the individual lives and develops. Everythiag is mediated bq the con-
sciousness and is connected through the type of culture to production relatioas.
Prinate ownership of the means of production ia not simply extrapolated for the
relations of the sexes, as theoreticians of "freedom of love" assume but direct-
ly influences these relations, forming a consumer psychologq and absolutizing
its role in motives of behavior. '
The initiators of Msrxism, criticizing attempts continuing today to associate
this "freedom" with the commuaist movement, have qualified them as "vulgar,"
"crude" communism. Relations between man aad woman reflect in their develop-
ment noC economic changes by themselves but social progress as a whole; coase-
quently, it is possible to judge on the basis of these relations the charac-
ter of spiritual culture and the level of moral maturity of society and man.
The alienatioa of relations of the seses from outstanding moral traditions
and From spiritual-esthetic principlea is frequently ~ustified by references to
fashion. As a cultural phenomenori, fashion is the synth~sis of social nor~ and
the desire of the individual for self-expression aad the self-affirmation of
his individual tastes. Fashion stems fmm the ideae of society concerning
~ human beauty, honor, dignity, maaliness, womanliness. But influence is also
exerted on it by elements of the mass psyche and the desire not to repeat that
which has become a standard. "Grimaces of fashion" are most frequently dis-
- played at this level.
Fashion is one of the laws of human behavior, a meaas of regulating certain
relations among individuals. But there are spheres of human relations to
which fashion is not subordinated. Among them are to be found the intimate
relations between man and woman, maternity, pateraity. A morally healthy per-
son will never permit into this holy ~f hol:tes "legislators" from the outside.
Real love dictates to people its own logic of behavior. For this reason,
fashion perverts and coarsens sexual behav~ior not by itself but in interaction
with moral feelings and esthetic taste, wi1:h the inabilitq for real love.
K. Marx wrote of the richness of the human psyche as a moet important quality
of social behavior, having in mind "such feelings which are capable of human
en3oyment and which assert themselves as humaa esaential forces" (Marx, K. aad
Engels, F., ibidem, p 593). He included r;mong them love, emphasizing that in
distinction to instinct it has a apiritual, moral-eethetic character.
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The need for love is far from the~equivalent of aexual need. It has its ~
origin. in the whole structure of the individual, his intereat, sympathies,
tastes aad value orientatioas. The persistenoe aad stability of these com-
_ ponents make love constant, removi.ng thE difference between the con3ugal state
end marriage. IInder the conditioas of socialism, freedom of love is actuallq
the equivalent of freedom of marriage and does not oppose responsibility but
rather supports 3.t.
The social changes carried out in our country have led to the reiection by
qoung people of the system of values fouad in prerevolutionary Russig. connected
with relations between the sexes: subordination and submissiveness, identifi-
cation of marriage with childbearing aad the advantages of a spouse in matters
connected with ownership and inheritance of private property. Among the motives
determining relations, the foref ront is occupied by such values of world moral.
culture inherited and developed by socialist humanism as love, fidelity, re-
sponsibility, honor and dignity of the individual. One of the chief values of
socialist society is the family and the specific emational atmosphere created by
it. The data of a number of surveys of persuns eatering into marriage show that
the decisive factor in the adoption of a decision on marriage is love and com-
munity of interests of the future married couple (see: Kharchev, A.G. and
Matskovsiciy, M.S., "Sovremennaya sem'ya i yeye problemy" [The Contemporary Fam-
ily and its Problema], Moscow, 1978, p 87). The social value of the familq is
identified with its educational functioa, with the role of the family collec-
_ tive in the development of the individual. ~
According to the data of a survey encompassing about one thousand workers of
industrial enterprises, sovkhozes and kolkhozes of Vladimirskaya Oblast, the
educational effect of different social factors was named in the following order:
(1) family; (2) school and mass information media; (3) public organizations,
labor collectives, comrades and friends; (4) self-education; (5) literature and
art. Preference for the family dver other social factors wae also provided by
persons surveye,d by staff worlsers of the sector of problems of communist educa-
tion of the ISI [expansion unknown] of the USSR Academy of Sciences; these were
students of WZ's and of tekhnikums (1,669 replies were received). The persons
surveyed usually relate a large part of their good points and defect~ to familq
upbringing. Such an assessm~ent ie an eloquent confirmation of the conclusion
of Soviet scientists that the family is a necessary and deeply specific compo-
nent of socialization of children. In this process, the child interacts at
least with four groups of factors, each of which, sigaificantly affects the
formation of its personality--influence of the aoctal enviroament, activitq,.
upbringing and self-educatioa.
The family as aa immediate social surrounding posseases ma~dmal possibilities
for gradual familiarization of children with social values and roles and the
introductiaa of the child to the large and complex social world.
In a socialist society, the femily's educational potential is eignificantly
streagthened by the antagonism arising from private ownership between the per-
sonal and social interests and tendencies of "self-isolation of the family."
In its most general form, this potential can be described as su aggregate of
factors maximally favoring the establishment and development~of the individual.
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The chief of them are: the specifically intimate, truating character of the
moral and psychological climate of the family; the presence in it not only of
~ a"horizontal" but also of a"vertical" (with respect to age) contact that
plays a decisive role in the intellectual ~evelopmeat of ~children: the many-
sidedness of its educational influence...One may agree with the concYusion of ~
certain sociologists that in distinction b~ oti~er (secondary) small social groups
the family should be considered se a primary group. It influences the individ-
ual throughout his eatire life, and this influence takes in all sides of his
personality and life activity.
- Activity as a component of the educational process is present in the family in
, the form of play and household labor. Play in t:ie eyes of a child is identical
with his life activity and is aa effective pedagogic means of the development
of the psyche, especially the emotions of children, and the inculcation in them
of habita of the culture of behavior and their familiarization with elementary
f.orms of labor. In the solution of the problem of labor education, it is neces-
sary to take into consideration the difference between the urban and rural fam-
ily. Rural children systematicallq participate according to their strength in
the production procPSS, particularly in the family's subsidiary farieing, which
evidently (this question has as yet not become a subject of scientific study)
helps more than hinders their development. The separation of t!~e urban familq
from the production process and the limitation of its connection with the pub-
- lic economy soicly bothe sphere of consumption create certain difficulties in
family upbriaging. Thus, under rural coaditiona cases are more rarelq observed
of inf antilism and instaacea of teenager vandalism--a direct consequence of ig-
norance in terms of personal experience of the value of products of human la-
bor. Consequently, the problem is more acute in the urbaa famy.ly: haw for
educational purposes to employ children in the performance of household func-
tions, how to iaculcate in them the taste for occupational activity, albeit in
its more simple forms. Sociological atudies ehow that in the solution of this
problem certain families are only in the iaitial stage; parents evea doubt the
practicality of familiarizing children with any form of feasible labor. Thus,
according to the data of a study carried out by the sector of social problems
of f amily and mode of life of the ISI of the IISSR Academy of Sciences, in 1980
- only 55 percent of Moscow schoolboys and 70 percent of schoolgirls have perma-
nent household duties; the great ma~ority of pareats (92 percent) consider
that teenagers should systematically talce part in household labor, buC far
from everyone achieves the realization of this preacription. Oaly a little
more than half of the surveyed achoolboys (57 percent) replied that they have
agreed to give 4-5 hours a week of their free time for paid occupational labor
(at the post office, at a store and so forth).
The desire to participate in such labor dces not deperid on the material posi-
tion of the family, as one might expect, but on the labor activity of the
schoolboy in work at home (a direct dependence). Youngsters of 1`~17 years of
age need money (even if only for entertainment), and their refusal of paid
work can be qualified as a device for "seeking" money from parents, for "get-
ting" it some other way. What does the idea of spread of paid labor of
_ school children provide for education? "First, a schoolboy will feel that his
labor is indeed useful. Second, even if it not be for long, let him stew in
the worker's pot. And third, he will get a concrete lesson of a respectful
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attitude toward the labor rublet0 ~Aliyev, T.A., "Formirovaniye aktivnoy zhiz-
nennoy pozitsii: opyt i aktual'ny~s problem~? niavotvennogo voapitaniya" [The
Formation of an Active Life Position: Ea~perience and Actual Problema of Moral
Upbringing], Moscow, 1979, p 37).
- FYequently, not without the influence of the pareats, the attitude toward la~
bor among school children in many cases is fouad to be selective: acknowledg-
- ing "creative," "prestigious" occupations, theq consider any other work to.be
somewhat degradiag. This in point of fact bourgeois po8ition even affects
interpersonal relations in claas+�. aad the selection of comrades for leisure
hours. Evidently puttiag into operation reserves of the labor upbringing of
school children requires a significaat rise of the cu~.tural level of a signif-
icant number of familfes, since there is not nor can there be a socialist cul-
ture without a respect for labor, "...no matter haw dirty and difficult it
might be...." (Leain, V.I. "Poln. sobr. soch." [Com~lete Collection of Works],
Vol 41, p 318). The fact is that labor is a form of serving society, the cause
of communism, a most durable tie connecting maa with the society that has given
rise to him and fostered him.
Labor activitq is a most effective means of forming in man feelings of citizen-
ship, responsibility--the first and chief element of all other social values--
and initiative, without which he, in turn, is unable to develop the capacity
for creativity and perception of life and the labor process of culture. For
. this reason only a really active participation in the affairs of the family
and then school and the production collective ensures man's integration with
society and his transformation into a socially active, creat.~ve individual.
In a proper orgaaization of the activity of the child lies the ch~ef atimulus
for enrichment of kaowledge and the development and satsifaction of moral aad
esthetic requirements, that is, for self-education. Orientation toward self-
education predetermines the relation of the child and youngster to educational
effor.ts of the parents, their persoaal example, school study, mass information
aad propaganda. ~
The educational activity of the family, its purposeful influence on the child
by its adult members canstitute esseatially only one co~panent of a dynamic
system affecting the formiag personality. Social existence and spiritual
values are apprehended bq the child as a rule not directly but through the prism
of family relations, prescriptions, ori~ntations and way of life of the family��
Depending on the psychological climate, this influence can be "bmken dowa"
into the verbal and real level, collisio~ between which sharply reduce the
effectiveness of upbringing even in socially happy families, not to speak of
d3sorganized ones. Such collisions could include not only cantradiction be-
tween statement and action, w~ord and deed, but even the presence of "forbidden
zones" in actual dealings among members of the family, which foroes the child
to look for other souroes of info~ation.
Such prohibitions can be the cansequences or realization by people of their
incompetence with respect to theae or those questions or a lack of correspond-
ence of certain aspects of family life with a moral (or sometimes even a legal)
norm or a fallacious pedagogic idea of what a child should or should not knaw.
Particularly widespread--and ia this sense pedagogicalZy pertineat--is the
last named circumstance. The accelerated development of children�is~a~acE~
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that is not only physiological but also psychological. The accessibility Fo~
children of the most diverse information stimulatea their intellectual matura-
tion, which also means the need for knowledge. In regard to children there is
often observ?d. a reverse. tendenc~r: the latest are too long considered little
for the purpose of knowin$ more about life thaa the parents the~alves knew at
the same age. Moreove-r, the older generation usually som~ewhat partially asseSs-
es its owa ignorance; actual iacorrectness is to be found in the given
comparison.
The most impressive arid sa~::rating information is visual. Tize pretelevision
generations of children differ significantly from the present generatioa: their
visual knowledge of the world was it~comparably more li~i.ted and the effect of
a lag in explanatioa and comprehenaion of ever new impressions reaching the
awareness of the child was manifested less acutely. At the pregent time, the
role of the family is growing as the authority eaplaining and adding to the
information already received by the child. And it should be said outr3ght here
that silence here would be more harm�ul than any confidential candor.
Any information strives, as it were, for consummation. If a family does not re-
ward thia striving and does not use it in the interest of education, the child,
especially in the adolescent period, looka for and finds other groupe for ex-
change of gerception and comprehension of life experience. A significantly
greater interest in such mutual perception and cou~preheasion exists than in�
- adults--this is one of the features of children's and ado3~escents' understand-
ing of life and culture. The effectiveness of both family and echool education
- depends to a significaat degree on how acceasible to social r,a~gulation aad
control such an importaat element as informal contacts is in me~tat3ag the con-
nection of the child to the cultural values of aociety.
With respect to informal groups, the understanding of social regulation and
control acquires an especiaZ~-y specific meaning. It is a question of maximal
use of the leisure time of~youngsters in~the inte"rest~of ediacation; of organ-
ization of children's clubs and wider involvement of the public in work with
children wizeze they live. To prevent auch work possessing the character of a
brief campaign, it should be directed by staff pedagog-organizers. '
The realiLation of the ~ocial possibilitiea of informal contacts acquires a
special immediacy in connection with the weakeniag--from intenaification of the
process of urbanization--of the system of external, visual public control and
also because of growth of divorces and consequently because of an increase in
the number of children with respect to whom the educational potential of the
family is realized far from completely. But we are far from the thought that
informal contacts of children~ even with the best possible organization of them,
can compensate for the losses which our society bears because of the growth of
the wave of divorces. The more science knows of the tre~aeadous and deeply spe-
cific possibilities of the family as a factor in the formation and development
of the pe~:sonality, the larger do these loeses appear. School education, which
formerly had a decisive significance in "spiritual production," has today been
transformed into anly one of its aspects. These changes increase atill more
the influence of the family on the cultural development of the individual, as
it is here in particular that a foundation ia lai'd for those feelinge, value
orientations, ideas, which then begin to fulfill the fuactions of criteria~of
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selection of information and of preference of some of these forns and sources
~o others and so on.
;cam~.ly upbringing has a most broad and practica?~y a1l-encompassing range; it
i~ not reduced to didactic suggestiaa but includes all forms of influence on
the forming personality: contacts and direct cogaition, labor and the personel
example of those around him, evaluation of real behavior, reward and punishm~nr.
It can be said that the development af the child is orgaaically written into the
life activity of the family. This educational activity is distinguished by
maximum diversity and includes familiarization with culture through television,
radio, pres,, books and the libce. Such perceptioa is mediated by the psqcholog-
ical atmosphere of the family group; it is connected With the desire for co~un-
ity of reaction, for exchange of opinions.
Ir~ this manner culture is assimilated by members of the family, especially by
children of the youagest age, through the prism of already e~stent family tra-
ditions. This is why the ideological-educational activity of societq must be
oriented not only toward the individual but toward the family as a whole. Re-
alization of the directives of the 26th CPSU Congress, aimed at further raising
the well-being and culture of the people and at strengthening crf the family,
will increase still more its role in the solution of both economic-demographic
and cultural-ideological tasks todaq facing Soviet society.
COPYRIGHT: "Sovetskaya pedagogika", 1982
7697
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EDUCATION
PERFECTING ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIOIJ IN RSFSR NaNQiERNOZEM ZOIJE
Moscow SOVETSKAYA PEDAGOGIKA in Itussian No 1, Jan 82 pp 54-57
[Article by V.G. Aromatov]
[Text] The improvement of the organization and planning of public education
is a continuous process that is conditioned to a significant degree by social-
econo~ic demographic, cultural and pedagogic organizational factors. The ex-
tent of inf luence of each of them depends on the tota7.. aggregate of local con-
ditions. For the Nonchernozem Zone of the RSFSR (a territory of 2,824,000
square kilometers), its specific character is determined by: shallow contours
and dispersion of fields; p resence of acidic and water-logged soils with a
small content of nutritive substances; insufficient concentration and special-
ization of agricultural production; existence of a large number of small resi-
dential centers and their dispersion. Overcoming of the lag of agricultural
production made necessary the development of a complex program that was formu-
lated in a decree of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Minis-
ters "On rieasures for the Further development of Agriculture of the Noncherno-
zem Zone of the RSFSR" (1974). The decree specified three ways for the real-
ization of this program for Che period to 1990: complex land improvement,
specialization and concentration of agricultural production, improvement of
rural social-everyday and cultural construction. Eventually, cardinal changes
ara expected in the economy and allocation of the region's inhabitants, includ-
ing a significant reorganization of the economy as a whole.
Fulfillment of the program of agricultural development of the Nonchernozem
Zone requires a significant rise in the general educational and vocational
level of rural workers. An important role in this belongs to educational in-
stitutions called upon to carry out universal obligatory secondary education,
especially in ruraZ general educational schools. An analysis of the present
state of the school network in rural areas of Che RSFSR Nonchernozem Zone
showed that it is constartlq being improved, but as ye t there has been no
qualitative change. Despit~ the fact that the total number of rural schools
is not being reduced, they still remain small, and this inevitably results in
a number of serious consequences: it is responsible, on the one hand, for a
loweriiig of the quality of knowledge of the students and, on the other, for
tiie retention of a reXatively high level of expenditures for the obtaining of
an education. Such a situation must be overcome on the basis of a reorganiza-
tion of the zone's economy and improvement of organization of public education
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;
~ tn tlie next 15 years. ~xperience, however, shows that the solution of this
proDlem would be practically impossible ~solely through the improvement of the
i network of general educational schools; the further rise of the country's na-
tional economy outlined by the party and the government is most closely con*-
' nected with the question of all young peogle obtaining an obligatory secondary
education. For this reason, a most important problem at the present time i~
' continued improvement of the network of botli rural ~eneral educational schools
and other educational institutions (vocational-technical schools, tekhnikums)
under the conditions of a reorganiza~ion of the economy of the Nonche.rnozem
Zone. For this purpose, xegionalization of this territory into three subzones
was carried out, the basis of this being natural-geographic, economic, demo-
graphic, national and pedagogic organizational factors.
The first subzone includes: Chuvashskaya ASSR, Moscow, Leningrad, Bryanskaya,
Vladimirskaya, Gor'kovskaya, Ivanovskaya, Kaliningradskaya, Permskaya, Tul'-
sl:aya and Yaroslavskaya oblasts, the territory cf which comprises 25 percent
of the Nonchernozem Zone (706,000 square kilometers). There has.come into
bein~ here a multisectorial economic complex with stable specialization. The
subzone is distinguished by a high level of industrialization; about 60 percent
of all persons en,gaged in the sphere of material production in it belong to
industry. In agriculture, animal husbandry~ prevails. In fartaing, potato grow-
ing and fruit growin~ are the most developed. Thi6 subzone is characterized
Uy hidh density of the population--two-thirds of the zone's entire p~pulation
live in it. It is also char.acterized by intensive development and settlement
of the land, rapid concentration of rural inhabitants in central settlements
of kolkhozes and sovkhozes (the average size of a residential center in 1980
~aas 130 persons). The network of educational institutions is distin~uished by
big enrollment and good organization of pupil transportation. Thus during the
1979/80 school year, the average erirollment of rural general educational
schools in this group of districts was: elementary school--18, 8-year school--
" 130, secondary school~-355 pupils. For 98.2 percent of the school children
livins at a distance of more than 3 km from school, regular transportation has
been organized. It is the prevai~.ing form of providing accessability to school
for the tesritory. The average enrollment of vocational-technical schools was
680 pupils, rural vocational-technical schools--400 persons, secondary special-
, ized institutions--1,120 persons and rural tekhnikums--990 pupils.
The second subzone includes: Mariyskaya, Mordovskaya and Udmurtskaya ASSR,
l:aluzhskaya, Kalininskaya, Smolenskaya, Pskovskaya, Novgorodskaya, Vologod-
skaya, Kostromskaya, Kirovskaya, Orlovskaya, Ryazanskaya and Sverdlovskaya
oblasts. Industry plays a smaller role in the economic complex of this sub-
zone than in the first subzone. Its share of the total number of ~aorkers em-
ployed in tlie s~liere of material production does not exceed two-fifths of the~
in~icated subzone. Agriculture is of a sectorial character, but without clear-
ly expressed specialization and concentration of agricultural p roduetion.
Tiiis subzone is characterized by somewhat larger territory (724,000 square
kilometers) ttian the first and but 2.3-fold smaller population size (average
size of a populated place in 1980 was 110-115 persons). It is characterized
by moderate development and settlement of the land. Small schools predominate
here with an average enrollment which in the 1979/80 scbol year was in ele-
� mentary school--13, 8-year school--110 and secondary school-325 pupils. The
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rvn va~~~a~.ana. v.,..
average enrollment of vocational-technical schaols is 434 pupils, rural voca-
tional schools--360 individuals, secondary specialized educational institutions
--830 persons, agricultural tekhnikums--800 pupils. A weak link in the school
network is the existence of small eledentary and 8-year schools and in the net-
~iork of vocational-technical schools--vocational-technical schools that do not
provide a secondary Qducation. The chief form of access to school in the ter-
ritory is organized transportation of pupils and p reschool boarding schools
arrangements. .
The third subzone includes: Karel'skaya and Komi ASSR, Arkhangel'skaya and
- 1�iurmanskaya oblasts; their territories make up about half of the entire area
of the zone (about 1,400,000 square kilometers). The chief directxon of de-
velopnent of the productive forces of this subzone is development of natural
wealth: mineral-raw material, fuel-power, forest and water. Growth possibil-
ities and agricultural development are limited because of severe, unfavorable
natural-climatic conditions. This subzone is characterized by slow se.ttlement
and considerable migration and movement of the population and its low density.
The population is mainly concentrated in the larger populated places (the
average size of a populated place in 1980 was 200 persons). For this reason
the network of educational institutions is distinguished from the first two
subzones by 2~ larger enrollment of rural general educational schools and inad-
equate development of secondary educational institutions. The average enroll-
ment of rural schools during the 1979/80 school year was: elementary ~rhool.--19,
8-year school--155 and secondary--434 pupils. The chief form of school ac-
cess in the territory is preschool boarding schools. The average enrollment
of vocational-technical schools was 120 persons, rural vocational-technical
schools--310, secondary specialized education~oachsistreiuired9forathe organ-
tekhnikums--780 pupils. A differentiated app q
ization of public education and long-term planning of the scha~l network and
other educational institutions depending on the special featu1'es of the sub-
zones and individual areas.
One of the directions of improving the organization of public education in
the rural localities of the Nonchernozem Zone is development of a network of
schools of the optimal type and the establishment for them of the most ped-
agogically advantageous structures. The researches of school specialists
(V.t~i. Dmitriyev, M.I. Kondakov, A.M. Novikov, ~V.S. Selivanov and others) have
established that that structure of the general educational school is optimal
which makes it possible to correctly place pedagogic cadres and to provide an
established educational-training load for all pupils and the scientific organ-
ization of their labor; it contributes to the achievement of the best organi-
zation of the pedagogic process and its high results as well as the improvement
of the economic indicators of school educaCion. With the present teaching
plan and with the class-lesson system of organization of the teaching process
~ and prescribed class enrollment, oprimal school structures should be considered
three-complement [trekhcomplektnyye] elementary schools, 8-year and 8earnclass-
schools in a composition of three parallels 4th-8th, 4th-lOth(llth)-y
es and three or more lst-3rd-year classes.
The rural secondary general educational school has assumed a solid place in
the system of functioning types of general educational schools. Their network
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in the Nonchernozem Zone in comparison to other types of general educational"
- schools is quantitatively not large--15.1 percent, but the quantity of pupils
in then comprises 53.9 percent (by our calculations). The optimality of the
secondary school is determined by ita big role in the social development of
- the countryside. The secondary achool promotes growth of the educational lev~l
and culture of the rural population. It exerts a significant inf luence on the
- activity of libraries and mass educational work of rural clubs and dces consul-
tation work with the adult population in�regard to raising its general educa-
- tional level. The secondary school contributes to the economic development of
k~lkh~zes and sovkhozes. More than half of the rural secondary schools of the
Nonchas~ozem Zone already train pupils of. 9th-lOth-year elasses as qualified
machine-operator workers, animal-husbandry workers and field workers. A.t the
same time, in elucidating the causes of migration of youug people from .�cural
localities, for example, in Penovskiy Rayon of Kalininskaya Oblast, it was es-
~tablished that one of them is to be found in the absence of secondary schools
for a large part of the terrftory of the rayon (there are only two secondary
schools fur the entire rayon). For this reason, the main portion of the grad-
uates of 8-year schools, in order to continue its education, is obliged to go
to different educational institutions providing secondary education, but lo-
cated outside the limits of the rayon and even the oblast, and, as a rule,
they do not return home. Consequently, the development of secondary schools
in rural localities will contribute to keeping the young peopie at kolkhozes.
and sovkhozes by providing them with the opportunity of obtaining their second-
ary education here. ~
T.he optimality of the secondary school is also determined by the fact that it
meets to the greatest possible degree the vb~ects of improving the organization
and developing universal compulsory secondary education of the youth and con-
tributing to sound and planned curtailment of small elemenCary and 8-year
schools. But on the basis of location of the population in connection with Che
new economic and organizational planning of productive forces, we came to the
conclusion that in the forecast period (to 1990) elementary schools in the Non-
chernozem Zone will retain their place in the system of public education (in
this connection it is expected that their structure will be improved). Calcu-
lations showed that it would be advisable to plan for all the economic-
geographic subzones (in accordance with the size of school contingents)
intersovkhoz-kolkhoz secondary general educational schools. As for the per-
missibility of nonoptimal types and structures of general educational schools
for the subzones, research shows that in the first subzone, on the basis of the
character of distribution of the population and number of inhabitants in settle-
ments, it is~necessary to plan in additional to optimal schools two-complement
elementary schools, 8-year and secondary schools in a makeup.of.twa parallels of
4th-Sth-year,4th-9th(llth)-year classes. In the second subzone, in addition Co .
optimal schools, there would be permissible one-and-a-half complement elementary
schools and secondary schools without parallels of 4th-8th-year classes with two
parallels of 9th-lOth(llth)-year classes. In view of the demographic conditions,
it would be inadvisable to plan 8-year schools in this subzone. It would be possi-
ble to have in the third subzone three-complement schools, 8-year schools with two
parallels of 4th-8th-year classes and secondary schools with two-three parallels
of 4th-8th-year classes and two parallels of 9th-lOth(llth)-year classes.
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A most important condition of perfecting the organization of public e3ucdtion is
assurance of accessibil~ty of general educational schools in the territory. The
state has established a radius of walking accessibility of 3 km f or rayons of
elementary schools. For rayons of 8-year and secondary schools, no official de-
ci~ion on radius exists and school accessibility for pupils in the territory
is provided by school cegionalization, free rides of pupils of rural localitieg
ro school and from sc.::~l and well-provided dorn~itories attached to schools
{"Osnovy zakonodatel ~tva Soyuza SSR i soyuznykh respublik o narodnom obrazova-
nii" [Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics on Public Edu-
cation], t�Ioscow, 1973, p 21). School boardin~ facilities now occupy a lasting
place in the solution of this problem. But, as shown by practice, this form of
provision of school accesaibility in the territory has to be improved and devel-
oped on the basis of the ~.oca.l conditions of each economic-geographic region.
It would be advisable to improve model plans of buildings of schooi dormitories
and to bring the plannin~ and reserves of buildings into accord with the number
of pupils and needs of their mode of life. Of important significance to pro-
viding accessibility in the territory is organized transportation~of pupils
from home to school and back again. Economists have calculated Chat with the .
establishment in 1965 of free transportation of pupils of rural localities to
school and back a~ain, an annual saving of state funds of up to 20 million
rubles has been achieved for the RSFSR (Basov, V., "Certain Questions of the
Economics of Public EducaCion," I~'INANSY SSSR, No 5~ 1967, pp 15-19), inasmuch
as transportation makes it possible to reduce a significant number of nonprom-
ising elementary schools. Comparable data were obtained in Kalininskaya ObTast
--for the rayons of Goritskaya and Il'inskaya rural secondary schools.
We made an attempt to establish the optimal norm of accessibility of general
educational schools in Che Nonchernozem Zone of the r.ussian Federation. For
the study, we took one rayon apiece with different density of population of
the zone, deCermining in them the radius of walking accessibility of the .
- sct~ools. In this connection, we took into consideration the condition and im-
portance of roads, organization of availability to the schools of special motor ~
transport directly at the disposal of the school or other organization and, on
the basis of a formula developed by V.A. Zhamin, calculated the time of moving
the school children from home to school and back again (see: Zhamin, V.A.,
"Optimizatsiya razmeshcheniya seti obshcheobrazvovatel~nykh shkol" [Optimiza-
tion of tne Distribution of the Network of General Educational Schools), Mos-
cow, 1975, p 100). Calculations showed that the time of motor taansport ac-
cessibility o� schools in rural localities of the Nonchernozem Zone is on the
avera~e equal to 40 minutes.
An inportant direction in perfecting the organization of public education in
rural localities of the Nonchernozem Zone is strengthening and development of~
secondary ~eneral educational evening (shift) and correspondence schools. In
1980, more than one mi.llion workers of the Nonchernozem Zone studied in them.
But contingents of these types of schoola h ave f ar from been exhauated.' Cal-
culations show that in all of the rayons of the Nonchernozem Zone a consider-
~abJ.e number of young men and women do not have a secondary education. For
example, in Kimrskiy, Kashinskiy, Kalya2inskiy, Sonkovskiy, Krasnokholmskiy
and Penovskiy rayons o~ Kalininskaya Oblast 8-10 percent of rural working
youth of up to 20 years of age do not have a secondary education. Study of
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this problem shows organiz~tional pedagogic reasons primarily lie at the basis
of ne.gative features in the operation of evening (shift) general educational
schools. The fact is that existing conditions of operation of evening (shift)
~ t.^hools with compulsory attendance of classes 4-5 tiu~es, a week do not take into
a4Cdunt the real possibilities of working youth. In rural localities, educa-
tion of the youth is hindered by the remoteness of evening (shift) schools from
place of residence for a significant portion of the students, a shortage of
ever~in~ classes at day schools, lack of development of correspondence schools
anri education consultation~ centers and also the seasonal �character of the la- '
hor of workers of agricultural production who study. For the purpose of im-
proving the education of working youth at evening (shift) and correspondence
schools and overcoming existing difficulties, it is first of all necessary to
create optimal organizational conditions of study, which would maximally take
into consideration the interests and possibilities of the students, the specif-
ic character of their product~on activity, living conditions and the budgeting
of their spare time. The network of intramural and correspondence education
of the working youth must be oriented toward maximal proximity of corre-
spondence and evening schools to enterprises and a combination of study of the
fundamentals of the sciences wiCh improvement of qualific;ations.
A study of this problem permits making the following conclusions. In the
first subzone, which has a rather higli density of population--an average of 46
persons per square kilometer (the calculations were made without taking Moscow
Oblast into account, inasmuch as it has a very high density of population), it.
would be advisable to plan evening (shift) schools on the base of several kol-
khozes and sovkhozes. It is essential to have in each rayon a correspondence
school with affiliates (education consultation centers) at each secondary
general-educational school. In the second subzone, which has compared to the
first a relatively low population density (23 persons per square kilometer),
it would be advisal~le to plan per rayon one-two evening (shift) schools, a
correspondence school with groups (of not less:than 9 persons) and affiliates
(educat~.on consultation centers) at each day secondary general educational
school. In the third subzone, which has together with low population density
(4 persons ~er square kilometer) large population places, it would be advisable.
to plan at each secondary day school classes and groups of working youth (of
not less than 25 personsj with a correspondence form of study. There where no
possibility exists for the creation of such classes and groups, it would be
possible to have education consultation centers. At the same time, it should
be emphasized that in accordance with the plan of development of public educa-
tion in the USSr. ta 1990, evening (shift) schools ~nust play the role of centers
for the provi.~ion of assistance to young people not studying regularly
following completion of secondary school and contribute to the realization of
the principle of continuity of education not only of the youth but also of the
entire adult population.
Together with general educational achools, a significant contribution to the
attainment of universal compulsory secondary education is made by secondary
vocational-technical schools and secondary specialized educational institu-
tions, which have aims and tasks in common with secondary schools in the ful-
'fillment of a provision made by the USSR Constitution of providing youth with
universal compulsory education and training them for socially useful and
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V~� V~ ~ ~~I ~?LI V~ ~L �
_ productive labor. In 1980, as provided by the program for development of the
Nonchernozem Zone, the training of qualified workers solely within the sys~em
of the RSFSR State Committee f.or Vocational and Technical Education has reached
120,000 persons a year. But the network of vocational-technical schools and
secondary specialized edue.ational institutions was formed here without adequate
consideration of the needs of the national economy for qualified cadres of
agricultural production workers and middle-echelon specialists. Most of the
zone's rayons do not have such educational institutions. For the purpose of
rational distribution of vocational-technical schools and secondary specialized
educational institutions while taking into account the requirements of the
~ economies of the zone's republics, oblasts and rayons for training of workers ~
for agricultural production and of middle-echelon specialists, they must be
improved. Let us examine certain possibilities of their further improvement.
In rayons of social-economic and culCural development of the first subzone,
there was already provided in 1980 a significanC volume of construction o� pub-
lic education facilities. Thus, for example, solely through the.means of state
capital invest~menC more than 280,000 places have been made available. Output
of qualified workers for agriculture in the system of vocational-technical �
schools has increased to a yearly 50,000. The USSR State Committee for Voca-
tional and Technical Education proposes that each administrative rayon have one
rural vocational-technical school. AnaZysis of these secondary apecializzd ~
education al institutions of this subzone shows that they do not provide for
the training of a sufficient number of specialists for new sectors of the econ-
omy, that is, such persons as technicians for hydromelioration, mechanization
and electrification of animal husbandry, construction and operation vf motor
highways and so forth. Calculations for middle-echelon cadres confirm the con-
clusion that this problem can be solved without an increase in the number of
specialized educational institutiona by opening in them new divisions for
training middle-echelon specialists f or the most needed agricultural vocations.
~ Certain measures have been specified for the further development of educational
and training institutions in rural localities of the second subzone. Thus, the
general growth of construction of public-education f acilities in it during
1975-1980 with state caPital investment compri~ed about 300,000 places. Local
soviets plan ta increase the output of qualified agricultural workers for this
subzone within the system of vocational-technical schools to 60,000-65,000
annually. Calculations for the network of vacational-technical schools and
secondary specialized educational institutions up to 1990, based on a f~:e,cast
of the RSFSR State CommitCee for Vocational and Technical Education, shca that
it is necessary to increase here the number of rural vocational-technical
sctiools to 2-3 per rayon; it would also be advisable to have on the base of
each farm an educational course center for raising the class level of machine
operators and animal-husbandry workers. Prospects for the development of the
producti.ve forces of the third subzone to 1990, aside from orientation toward
development of natural wealth, propose in an agricultural oblast to take s~eps
for increasin~ and expanding reindeer breeding, fishery and hunting operations.
In accordance with this there will have to be built a network of vocational-
technical schools and secondary specialized educational institutions.
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The fulfillment of the entire complex of enumerated measures will contribute to
the satisfaction of the requirements of the economy of each subzone and the
Nonchernozem Zone as a whole for cadres of workers and second-echelon
specialists.
- COPYRIGHT: ''Sovetskaya pedagogika", 1982
7697
- CSO: 1828/58
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DEMOGRAPHY ~
LEGAL REGULATION OF DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES DISCUSSED
Moscow PRAVO I DEMOGRAFICHESKIY PROTSESSY V SSSR in Ruesian 1981 pp 1, 200,
30-35, 40-41, 48-49, 62-63, 65-67,~ 114- 115
[Title page, table of contents, and selected passages from book "Law and Demo-
graphic Processes in the USSR" by Galina I1'inichna Litvinova, Izdatel'stvo
"Nauka", 3,100 copies, 200 pages]
[Text] Pravo i Demograficheskiye Protsessy v SSSR (Law and Demographic
Processes in the USSR)
Signed to press: 25 August 1981
Number of copies: 3,100
Pages: 200
- Tab.le of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1. Law and Demographic Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1. The Origin and Development of Ideas on Controlling Population 7
2. Methods of State and Legal Influence on Demagraphic Processes 14
3. Demographic Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 2. State and Legal Influence on the Birth Rate 37
1. Controlling the Level of the Birth Rate: the Historical Aspect 37
2. Causes and Consequences of the Decline in the Birth Rate 43
3. Legal Influence on the Birth Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4. Social-Legal Status of Women and the Birth Rate 81
Chapter 3. The Role of the State and Law in Increasing Longevity and
Reducing the Mortality Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1. The Right to Preservation of Health and Social Security 103
2. The Human Right to a Healthy Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Chapter 4. Migration and Labor Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
1. Control of Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2. Legal Influence on Labor Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
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'Refinement of legislation, which developed broadlp in connection witfi'ad~op~
tion of the new constitutions of the USSR and tfi~. re.puhlics, cannot be' done
witfiout rigorous consideration of the demogxaphic s~tuation that has come about .
in both the USSR as a whole and in eacfi particular Unton and sutonomous republic,
oblast, and kray. Many legal norn~s tliat affect demogrs.phic processe~ ~ere
adopted 30-40 years ago wlien the demograpTiic s~ituation in tfie couatry was dif-
ferent, and tfiey now need to be updated. Demograpflic correlations have not yet
been fully reflected in legislation. Specifically, the relationships discovered
by researchers between the level of the birthrate and satisfaction with housing
con3itions is still not fully considered by houaing legislation.
Legal support for demographic policy presupposes the following:
- determination of the place of law in the system of other
- (nonlegal) measures to influence the demographic behavior
of citizens; interdependence of legal methods of influence
and others (economic, psychological, and the like);
- adequate reflection in the law of the requirements of op-
timal influ?nce on demographic processes;
- a we11-founded selection of concrete forms of legal enact-
. ments to influence particular demographic processes;
- the elimination of "gaps" in legal influence on specific
demographic processes;
- as mucfi as possible, giving nondemographic le~al norms a
_ demographic character;
- refining the forms of legal regulation (passing laws in-
stead of adopting decrees and so on).
Consideration of these criteria by Soviet legislation will promote ef�icient
demographic policy.
It should be kept in mind that the potential for legal (just as economic,
medical, and the like) influence on demographic processes is not unlimited.
For example, with respect to influencing the birth rate the law is not all-
powerful, and this is even more true of the mortality rate. In the first
stage, it appears, we can only speak of preventing a trend toward decline in the
birth rate in certain regions and the growth of t~ie mortality rate in certain
age groups.
Legal influence on demographic processes may be either direct and planned (for
example, banning abortions by law influences tfle level of the birth rate, while
legislation opening up new regions to development and giving privileges to
settlers tfiere influence the direction and vigor of migratory streams) and in-
direct, mediated by nonlegal relationships, for example economic, psychological,
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and moral relationships.* It must Be considered that this is an arb~itrary di-
vision and tfiat tfie realizati.on and degree of effectiveness of legal norms
depend on tfie level of sophtstication, tfie extent of female laFior, historical,
ethntc, and moral factors, and the like. Sometimes tTiese factors can nullify
the impact of particular legal norms on the demograpfiic Behavior of the citi.-
zens, especiallq with respect to~migration processes and the b~irtfi rate. There~
fore, tfie degree of influence of a particular legal norm on a concrete demo-
graphic process cannot always be establiahed with sufficient accuracy.
The effect of various legal norms on demographic processes is an interdependent
and interrelated phenomenon, ~ust as the demographic processes themselves are
interdependent and interrelated. A change in the course of one process is usu-
ally reflected in the course of others, and stepe aimed at improving certain
demographic cfiaracteristics can have a negative effect on others. Thus, the
active migratory flows of young people from the rural regions of the RSFSR to
the citiea help supply labor resourcea to fast-developing induetry, and at the.
same time led to an "eroaion" of the reproductive etrata of the rural population.
It has b~en established that there are conflicts not only between the trend
toward population concentration in large cities and changes in the age structure
of the rural population, but also between other processes, in particular between
the tendency toward maximum involvement of women in public production and the
}iirth rate. The norms of constitutional, labor, and other fields of law which
envision a guaranteed, equal right to labor and wages for men and women, pro.-.
tection of female labor with due regard for the diatinctive characteristice of
the female organism, labor and pension advantages for women, and the like helped
draw women into public production and promoted comprehensive development of the
individual woman. But the level of employment of women in the child-bearing
ages in public production has an inverse effect on the level of the birth rate.
The extstence of conflicts between trends in the development of demographic
processes demands that any legal enactment intended to stimulate (or discourage)
a particular demographic process be adopted with due regard for the goals and
general lines of demographic policy of the Soviet State, so that the influence
on the particular process promotes optimal development of the aggregate of all
demographic processes.
The growing importance of demographic problema made it essential to work out a
plan for population development as a constituent part of the plan of social
development.
This pattern is reflected in the developmental trend of legislation on plarining:
in the transition from plans for development of the national economy to plans
* For example, the ma~or advantages in tax policy and state purchases prices and
- the faster rates of economic, cultural, and material development that the
Soviet State gave to certain Union republica to make the peoples more even in
development were one of the reasons for the extremely low rate of migration
of the rural population in these regions and caused a surplus of labor in
the countryside while it was scarce in the cities.
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for economic and social development. "Under conditions of mature socialism,"
L. I. Hrezfinev empfiasizes in tIie Accountability Report to the 26tt~ Congress of
the CPSU, "tfie interdependence of economic progress witfi societp''s social- t
political and cultural progress is Fiecoming closer and closer;"'~8
The problem of working out criteria for evaluating social and demographic de-
velopment and devising ways to insure coordination and balance in t6e plan of
demographic development of a republic as a part of the~plans for economic and
social development of the USSR is becoming a timely issue.
Working out the basic directiona of demographic development and fixing them in
- law demands a clear orientation ~o the final impact: establishment of a commu=
nist type of population development. As D. I. Valentey observes, tbis concept
covers many components, each of which must have optimal characteristics from
the standpoint of the long-term interests of society.4 9
Working out and implementing comprehensive, scientifically founded demographic
policy presupposes taking interrelated steps at all levels of the state and
social organism, and this cannot be done without resolving a number of organi-
zational questions.
.
Thus, tfie questions of labor resources, including migration, are under the
authority of the USSR State Co~ittee for Labor and Social Problems and tfie
labor committees of the Union republics; the questions of improving the statua of
women are in the ~urisdiction of the standing co~cmissions on questions of labor
and e~reryday conditions for women of the Soviets of Peoples Deputies. The
family divisions which have now been established in the executive committees of
certain city Soviets are expected to play an important part in strengthening
tFie family. Their working experience deserves generalization and broad dissemi-
nation. Public organizations can give more help in solving demographic problems;
the potential of these organizations has not been fully used yet. The activities
of all these organizations must be coordinated and subordinated to attaining
basic demographic ob~ectives. ,
The ministries and d~partments that manage economic development in their ac-
tivities sometimes not only fail to consider the interests of demographic de-
velopment, but act in conflict with them. For example, it is common knowledge
that enterprises and departments whose activities are ultimately evaluated by
volume of output produced do not have an interest in female emploqees who have
three or more children, because this makes it more difficult to fulfill plan
assignments since women with many children are abaent from work for reasons of
illness and child care more often than women with no children or oae child. But
the state and society as a wfiole,,as alreadq mentioned, do have an interest in
wide distribution of families with three children.
There must be a single fully empowered state body to manage the development of
a comprehensive demographic program and the conduct of demograpfiic policy and
to coordinate the work of all ministries, departments, and organizations that
have any influence on demographic processes. Most countries today have such
governmental bodies. They also exist in the sociatist countries. It would seem
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wise to establi.s~ such a USSR-repuhlic body at the USSR Council of Ministers
and in the Councils Ministers of tfie Union republics, with a definiti.on of
its ob3ectives, tasks, ~urisdtcti:on, and autfiority~ Thts Bodp could insure
the development of tlie basic lines of demograpfiic policy and its implementa-
tion and work out steps to bring the demograpfiic cfiaracteristics of the popula-
tion of dtfferent republics closer together, whicFi would fielp strengthen tfie
unity of tfie Soviet people.
The fact that the factors whtch influence particular demographic processes have
not been adequately studied and the fact that they exist on many different levels
and are interdependent require special caution and prudence in adopting legal
norms that influ~nce change in demograpfiic processes. In this respect, the �
demographic legislation of the European socialist countries, especially laws
adopted in the late 1960's and early 1970's to encourage a higher birtfi.rate
- is of great theoretical and practical interest. During this time the birth rate
in most of the European socialist countries rose. But we should realize that
with a clearly defined trend toward decline in the birth rate even a stabiliza-
tion of the level of birth can be viewed as a positive result.
Needless to say, the demographic legislation of the European socialist countries
cannot be mechaaically transferred to the USSR with its enormous population
which differs sharply by demographic characteristics both on the regional and
on the ethnic levels. At the same time, we muat not overlook the existence of
many common features in the nature and course of demographic processes, above
all in the area of increasing the economy of population reproduction: because
of the sharp decline in the mortality rate,.natural population growtfi occurs
with a lower birth rate. The existence of common features not only in the
course of demographic p~ocesses in the USSR and the other European socialist~
countries but also in the effect of a number of factors which have caused par-
ticular changes in the demographic characteristics of the populations of these
countries enhances the significance of the experience of demographic legisla-
tion in the European socialist countries and broadens the opportunities for
using it with benefits in our country.
1'he precepts of Islamic law (the Shariat), which determine the family law of
most of the Eastern countries and until the October Revolution also prevailed
in the territory of Central Asia and parts of the Volga region, Caucasus, and
Crimea, aim at maximum encouragement of large families. According to Islamic
law women without children are the most important reason for divorce and for
taking a second wife. Abortions and any limitations on birth are strictly pro-
hibited. In its operation through the centuries Islamic law, by encouraging
the birth of children, reinforced the tradition of large families whicfi were �
supported by the belief that Allah himself takes care of children, who have come
into the world by his will, and will provide them with food.
But Islamic law also contains rules that can lower the birth rate. This refers
above all to polygamy. The Shariat ~iermits Islamic men to have as many as
four legal wives, and this does not count slave-concubines. Ricii Islamic men
have had dozens and even hundreds of concubines. Although the woman in a
polygamist family has less work, which has a positive effect on her health and
may be beneficial for reproduction, polygamy in general has a negative effect
i
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on the birth rate. The number of wives in a polpgamous family usuallp in~-
creases as the husband grows older and his soc~oeconomic s.tatus ~nfproves~
But men of middle and advanced age. are less sexually active.* Tt sfiould be
observed that polygamy is not tli~ predominant form of marriage tn tfie Tslamic
countries. In Iran at tfie beginning of the 20tfi Century, for example, ftve
percent of the population lived in polygamous families.s Polygamy today is
profiibited or restricted by special laws in many Islamic countries such as.
Palcistan and Turkey and exists chiefly in concealed form.
Islamic law has certain precepts which can restrict the birth rate even though
they are not directly intended to do so. One of these is "Kaitarma,".the
right of parents to keep a married daughter in their own home until the bride-
money for her has been fully paid. Ths "Kaitarma" period may be quite long.
Polyandry (having many husbands) as a form of marriage is much more unusual
than polygamy. It was found in Tibet, chiefly among the impoverished strata
of the population, and in the Himalayas and Soutfiern India. The effect of
polyandry on reproductive rate has not been carefully studied. In any case,
there is no data which showed that the birth rate in regions where polyandry
ts found is higher than in neighboring regions. At the present time polyandry
has given way to monogamy almost everywhere. In large part this was fostered
1iy the institution of legal bans on destroying newborn daughters, which miti-
gated the existing disproportion between the sexes.
The widespread belief that the main reason for the decline in the birth rate
the remote consequences of World War II is doubtfu1.21 This explanation for
the decline in the birth rate is illogical, if for no other reason, because the
_ birth rate in the last 20 years has become lower and lower, and if we were to
tie its decline to the remote consequences of the war we would have to assume
that the negative consequences of the war ~are becomi~g str~nger with each
decade of peace. Is there any need to show that this proposition is wrong?
The hypothesis that the consequences of the war are the most important reason
for the decline in the birth rate can divert attention from the search fnr the
true causes of this phenomenon and eliminating or mitigating their effect.
Moreover, if we analyze the impact of the remote consequences of the war on the
level of the birth rate,their effect today is more beneficial than negative.
In fact, during the 1970's the generation born in the so-called compensatory
postwar period,** the period of the peak birth rate after the war, entered the
child-bearing ages, in fact the ages of highest fertility (20-35 years). In
other words, the most numerous generation was in th.e age of greatest fertility
in the 1970's, which should have led to a growth in the birth rate. Considering
this factor, the current level of the birth rate must be recognized as alarming.
* In certain cases polygamy can raise the birth rate by increasing the per-
centage of married women. Heavy losses of inen as the result of war in some
cases forces European peoples to resort to polygamy. In 1650, for example,
after the Thirty Years' War in wliich many men died, the District Council of
Nuremburg adopted a resolution permitting men to have two wives. See E.
Westermark, "The History of Human Marriage," London, 1925, Vol 3, p 25.
It has been observed that the birth rate rises sfiarply after all ma~or wars,
which is the so-called compensatory period in which population is restored.
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TYeis does not mean that we can deny the negative cons,equences of the war.
They are enormous, but we should not today see them as the matn cause of
the comp'licated demograpfiic situation.
The marriage rate, and tfirougfi.it the birth rate,depend on the ratio of inen
and women living in a particular region. The law is capable of effecting an
improvement in tliis ratio. It has already Been pointed out in the literature
that demograpliic requirements are often disregarded in planning industrial
enterprises. There appear "cities of girls" wfiere female labor predominates
at the enterprises and "cities of boys," with enterprises using chiefly male
labor.* It would be desirable for legislation on the fundamentals of planntng
to provi~e for this aspect and for the law to contain a requirement of an op-
timal ratio between male and female labor in the community, city, or region.
The 12 September 1974 decree of th.e CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of
Ministers entitled "Further Increasing Material Assistance to Poorly Supported
Families with Childreni46 envisioned a monthly grant of 12 rubles a montfi per
child to families where total per capita income wae less than 50 rubles. This
will unquestionably bring the material situation of large sad small families
closer together, play a large p$rt in improving coaditions for raising children,
and possibly foster a rise in birth rate in certain families. But this applies
mainly to large families.
Let us recall that the average wages ~f workers and employees in the USSR are
more than 160 rubles a month.47 The average wages in a family where the husband
and wife work (almost all able-bodied women in childless and small families
work) are 300 rubles a month. Therefore, a family whicfi has one, two, or even
three children will not receive a grant under this decree. Thus, this decree
mainly improves the position of large families and will stimulate a further
rise in the birth rate in precisely such families.**
In other words, existing legislation is in fact aimed at encouraging the maxi-
_ mum number of children in certain families, whereas the demographic situation
in the country for a long time has dictated the need to direct it to insuring
an optimal number of children in most families. Achievement of this goal will
be promoted by carrying out the'resolutions of the 26th Congress of the CPSU
on institution of an outright grant for the first and second children and a
significant increase in the grant for the third child. The amount of the grant,
100 rubles for tfie second and third children, is larger than the grants for
other children in the order of birth.48
In the contemporary world large families can hardly be the standard or even the
norm encouraged by the state. In the opinion of demographers, with the decline
* Disproportions in the employed population by sex are especially pronounced
in small and medium-sized cities. In the RSFSR, for example, there are 70
small and medium-sized cities with very high percentages of inen in the labor
force. See A. E. Kotlyar and S. Ya. Turchanova, "Zanyatost~ Zhenshchin v
Proizvodstve" [Employment of Women in Production], Moscow, 1975, p 120.
The first year of operation of this decree showed that most of the money
spent under it went to regions with high birtfi rates.
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in the mortality rate, espec~ally for children, in the USSR and society's oriea-
tation toward full development of productive forces and compretieasive develop-
ment of tfie Fiuman individual, the large family is Becoming an outdated demo-
grapfiic type whose continuance cannot be successful and could fiardlp~be desir~-
able.4 9 A woman burdened by 1-10 children canriot Fiecome actively involved in
socialist production.* Raising children and caring for tfiem demands~a great
deal of time. It is difficult to give children in a too-Iarge family tfie -
opportunity for comprehensive development and upbringing. But tbe state is in-
terested not just in the number of citizens, but also in their quality. The
state does care about the kind of populatton growth and growth in labor force
under discussion, whether the people are highly trained or not, highly mobile,
and numerous other circumstances (including traditions of large families and
language barriers) linked to a certain region.50 .
Beginning from the tasks of optimizing demographic processes in the world in
order to avert an ecological crisis and considering that too frequent births
are harmful to the health of both the mother and child,sl in 1975 the U. N.
Human Rights Committee adopted a resolution to add to the Declaration of Human
Rights a restriction on human rights to reproduction because "the right of a
baby to be born physically and mentally healthy outweighs the right of parents
to reproduction."52
The arguments and studies of demographers whieh have been cited illustrate once
again the wisdom of using legal, economic, and other levers to encourage the
optimal family with two or three children. It is precisely the birth of the
second child, and especially the third child, that should be encouraged by maxi-
mum benefits and grants.
Because the birth rate in families with high incomes is frequently (but not al-
ways) lower than in familfes with low incomes, made demographers believe that
raising family income by paying grants for children is hardly likely to raise
the birth rate. But such arguments often confuse cause and effect. One fre-
quently meets families today which put off having children or decide not to
have another child in order to avoid a worsening of their material situation.
Steps which bring the material situation of families with two and three children
closer to those of families with no children or one child will unquestionably
promote a rise in the birth rate in small families. The effectiveness of such
legislation has heen tested and confirmed by the experience of other countries,
above all the European socialist countries.
When we are discu~sing giving material aid to families to raise children, of
course, we must not overlook the fact that the Soviet state as a whole spends
more than many other countries in the world to protect motfier and child. The
* It appears tfiat A. G. Vishnevakiy is correct when he writea: "How can a
- woman be free and equal when she is forced (ob3ectively forced!) to devote
20 years of conscious life to pregnancies, birth, breast-feeding, and the
like? Tfie demographic revolution radically changes the entire life cycle
of the woman, and thus creates the key material conditions for her complete
and final social liberation." (See A. G. Vishnevskiy, "Demograficheskaya ~
Revolyutsiya" [The Demographic Revolution], p 233).
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decree of th.e CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Ministers entitled
"Steps to StrengtTien State Aid to Families wi.tfi CFiildren"' envisioned tnsuring
allout development of tfie system of nursery schools, daycare ~enters, extended-
day scliools and groups, Pioneer camps, and other summer instttutions in the
llth and 12th five-year plans. The Soviet State assumes virtually all ex-
penditures for construction and maintenance of cfiildren's prescfiool instttu-
tions, sanitariums for children, and Pioneer and other healtfi camps for
children. But as has been correctly noted in tbe ltterature, the question
should be raised of restoring its paramount position in direct material aid to
the family for maintenance of children. "This ie not just a question of the
prestige of the world's first socialf.st state," writes N. G. Yurkevich. "It
is also a question of simple necesstty, and at the same time fairness.ii53 An
increase in expendttures for public forms of family service is certainly
necessary, but considering that public upbringing must be combined with family
upbringing, expenditures by society should be increased in both directions,
harmoniously com~lementing one anocher.
The strengtTi of marriage and the reproductive goals of the family also depend
significantly on provision with housi,ng. The lack of housing and poorly or-
ganized housing create difficulties for the young family which many spouses
did not experience before entering marriage. Fear of tliese difficulties is
often a reason for refusing to marry, and the encounter with them often leads
to disintegration of the family. ~
Housing conditions are important not only for deciding whether to get married,
but also for deciding whether to have children. Sociological studies show
that the paramount reason compelling spouses to decide not to have children or
to postpone them is dissatisfaction with housing conditiona. A study done in
Moscow illustrates the relationship between the level of the birth rate and pro-
vision with housing. It showed that there are 29.7 children per 100 women of
child-bearing age living in communal apartments; for women of the same age
living in separate apartments there are 32.1 children per 100. In new resi-
dential areas of Moscow where most familiea live in separate apartments, there
are 839 children per 1,000 families; in old residenzial areas where most of
the families do not have separate apartments tfiere are 476 chi.ldren per 1,000
families.4
In~uries, including fatal in~uries, are often the result of intoxication by
alcohol. Improving legal steps to combat alcoholism are another possible
way to influence the rate of decline in the mortal.i..ty rate. Medical scien-
tists believe that abuse of alcohol shortene lif~~ by 20 years. One out of
three deaths from cardiovascular illnesa is caused by abuse of alcoho1.15
Alcoholism leads to moral and social degradation of the individval. Drunken-
ness and the scandals that go with.it are one of the main reas~~ns that mar-
riages Tireak up. Practically all cases to terminate parentai rights are occa-
sioned by the drunkenness of the parents.l6
In view of all these factors the state devotea great attention to measures. to
combat alcoholism, including legal measures. The Fundamentals of Legislatton
of the USSR and tfie Union republica envision the possibility of mandatory
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treatment of chronic alcoholics (Article 3b~. This rule of USSR laa~~has been
included concretely in repuBlic legtslation. For exompl~, a 1 Marcfi 1974
Ukase of tfie RSFSR Supreme Soviet entttled "Mandatory Treatment of Alcofiolics"
provides~ a procedure for mandatorytreatment of persons wfi~ afiuse alcofiolic
beverages.l~ Tfie Councils of Ministers of the USSR and tfie Union Republics
have issued decrees that envision conditions for and the possibility of
employing mandatory treatment of chronic alcoholics and procedures for sending
them to preventive health institutions for treatment and labor indoctrination.
Article 62 of the RSFSR Criminal Code and the corresponding articles of the
criminal codes of otlier Union republics give courts the rigfit to assign persons
who abuse alcohol to mandatory treatment.
On 7 December 1974 the Plenum of the USSR Supreme Soviet adopted a decree which
urged the courts to make full use of the opportunities given them by 1aw to
combat drunkenness and alcoholism.18 It seems that it would be wise to
modify the procedures for examination of persons suspected of abuse of alcohol,
not restricting them to persons wfio have been in a medical sobering-up institu-
tion two or three times within a year.
One cannot disagree with V. N. Kudryavtsev and other participants in the round-
table meeting of the ~ournal SOVETSKOYE GOSUDARSTVO I PRAVO devoted to the
social and legal problems of combattinb drunkenness and alcoholism. They be-
lieve that we need a program of ineasures figured for the medium and long run
to combat drunkenness and alcoholism with the emphasis on preventing these phe-
nomena, especially among young people. According to data from medical exami-
nations, 95 percent of the persons who abuse alcohol began drinking before the
age of 15. It has been proposed that the Society to Combat Drunkenneas and
Alcoholism, which existed in our country in the 1920's, should be re-established.
It could be very useful today as well, as the experience of Bulgaria and other
socialist countries illustrates. It is possible to adopt local legal norms
which institute "dry laws" in certain territories.l9
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1981
11,176
CSO: 1800/320 END
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