JPRS ID: 10658 USSR REPORT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY

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• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 10658 ~
15 July 1982
.
USSR Re ort
p
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY
CFOUO 3/82)
,
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J~RS L/10658
15 July 198~
.
USSR REPORT
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOQY POLICY
(FOUO 3/82)
CONTENTS
Finan~ing S&T Programs
(P. Sedlov, T. Sletava; VOPROSY EKONCI~iIKI,Mar 82) 1
Effectiveness of S&T Programe Reflected in Econaaar
- (V. Fel~zenbaum, et al.; VOPROSY EKONQ~IIKI~ Apr 82) 13
Overcoming Obatacles in Research-Produation Cyole
(Yu. S. Lipatovs L. V. Denieenko; VESTNIK AKADF~III NAIIK SSSR,
Mar 82) 26
Legal Regulation of Scientific Workere Improves Rssearoh Qual.ity
( L. F. Petrenko; VESTNIK AKADII~III NI~TJK SSSR, Jan 82 32
Soviets Actively Participate in Interriatior~ ~Man and Bioephere~ ,
Program
(V. Ye.� Sokolo~v, G. V. Nizhnik; VEST~iIK AKADII~III NAUK SSSR~
Apr 82) 39
~ Academiea of Soience and Rspublic W2~a Tc ~Stren~hen Tiee
(VFSTIJIK AKADII~IIII NAUK SSSR~ Dec 81) 48
New Edition of ~Multilateral Coope~ation of tk~e Academies of
. Sciences of the Socialist Couatri.es' Is~u~d �
~ (S: Q~. Kara~Iurza; YESTNIK AKAD~III ~AIIK SSSR, Apr 82)...... 53
S&T Policy Being F~nphaeized in CII~IA Countri~e
(G. Vlaakin, et al; VOPROSY II{ONQ~SIK~, Dec 81) 5a
New Acadenr~ of SciAncea Members PrAfiles
(VFSTNIK AKAD~III NAUK SSSR, Apr 82) 72
P
- a- jSII - USSR - 21o SiT FOUO]
FOR 0[+'~[~iAI, U~ pNI~Y
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FINANCING SbT PROGRAMS .
Moscow VOPROSY EKONOMIKI in Russian No 3, Mar 82 pp 13-22
[Article by P. Sedlov and T. Sletova: "Financing Scientif ic and Technical
Programs"]
[Text] Scientific and technical programs are a specific form of intersector
planning and control of scientific and technical progress. They are formulated
for the resolution of such complicated problems which require the involvement
of a large number of scientific organizations and enterprises of various
sectors, the concentration of scientific forces, material and financial
resources.
The creation of effective systems for controlling programs was acknowledged
by the 26th CPSU Congress as one of the primary tasks. The systems for con-
trolling them should be organically entered into the economic mechanism. The
complexity of solving this problem is that on the one hand, it is necessary
to strengthen the centralized basis for solving the intersector and inter-
re~ional problems in order to concentrate resources on solving the most
important of them, and on the other hand, broader development of cost
accounting. The economic mechanism for controlling intersector programs
can be effective if it stipulates equal economic conditions for all links
which are participating in the implementation of the "science-production-
application" cycle.
The system of controlling scientif ic and technical progress and its component,
- the financing system, still do not permit complete realization of the advan-
ta~;es of the program-target method since they are primarily oriented on the
sector pr~nciple of control. Planning and control are organieally separated
into different stages of a unified scientific-produc*_ion cycle which is
encompassed by comprehensive programs. In particular, the GI~NT [State
Committee for Science and Technology] coordinates the NIOKR [~cientific
research and experimental design work] and plans financial resources
for the fulfillment of this work by programs. Planning of the production
st~i~e which is assoeia~ed with the develapment and introduction of new equip-
ment, incli,ding ttie preparation and development of production facilities, is ,
the function of the USSR Gosplan.
Rapid control of scientific and technical programs has been decentralized.
The main ministries and organizations which are responsible for the ful-
fillment of the program as a whole, practically do not have lever.~ for
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influencing the co-executors beyondthe limits of their sector. They do not
have ac~thority, do not have a control apparatus for solving questions of
financing and material-technical support for the entire set of interdependent
~ sectors and industries covered t~ the programs. Consequently, the chief
ministry is not capable of overcoming the disagreements which go beyonlthe
framework of sector planning, financing, and material and technical support
by using their own forces. All the interdepartmental disagreements are
placed at the level of the USSR Gosplan and the GKNT which overloads their
resolution of these questions. They could be and should be solved rapidly
at the level of program supervision.
T}ie experience of realizing integrated scientific and technical programs,
sector, intersector and regional in the 9th and lOth Five-Year Plans indi-
cated their profitability. Among the 208 intersector scientific anri technical
programs developed under the supervision of the GKNT, a number of progr~ms
have been successfully fulfilled for the development of the country's fuel
and energy base which stipulated the creation and development of series
production of units of 1.ncreased unit output, production of compact engines
with power of 8,000-10,000 hp, more advanced energy consuming equipment and
technology, accelerated development of atomic machine construction, etc. As
a res~ilt of fulfilling these programs, the indicators for conservation of
consumed resources and the qua~ity characteristics of the created samples
were considerably improved as compared to the 'uase. For example, the metal
consumption of boiler units created from one of them ;aas reduced by 40% ,
the periods for installing the equipment were cut in half, the capital
outlay:~ wete decreased by 30%,etc.
Work has been intensive on the~program of creating and usfng in production
automatic manipulators with program control (robots). The Kovrovskiy
mechanical plant was the iirst to broadiy introd.~ice industrial robots. Now
ro~ots are operating there of the models "Tsiklon-3B," "Universal-15M,"
\ "Universal-S" in the stamp;ng, machining and other industries. As a result
of their use~ labor productivity rose an average of 3-fold, and at individual
uperations using robots, S-6-fold. The labor intensity of ~rocessing the
parts diminished on the average by 43%.
~
'Phe development of a nuinber of programs indicates the successful cooperation
~ uF academic science and production. For example, in order to solve tasks
c~f intensive development of the economy of Siberia, the Siberian department
' c~f the USSR Academy of Sciences in cooperation with the sector institutes
nncl rroduction is reaiizing a long-term ir.tegrated pro~ram "Siberia" which
inclucles 35 tar~et ~~rograms to investi~ate and use the fuel and energy and
mii~c~r~~i-raw material resaurces, develop the territorial-prod~~ction complexes,
;ind create the equipment and technolog; with regard for the climnte conditions
of ~ppl.ication. 'rhe Ural scientific center of the USSR Acade:ny of Sciences
hr~;ids up the long-term target integrated program "Intensification of Indus-
trial Production of the Urais." The implementation in the Latvian SSR of a
regional integrated program for mechanizin~ manual and heavy labor in
industry. in transportation and in other se~::tors made it possible to con-
, clitionally release about 16,000 workers engaged in manual labor. Accorciing
C~ t=tie scientific and technical programs developed in the lOth Five-Year Pl~n,
,ihc~ut 1900 new types of machines, equipment and instruments, and over 100~
:~clv~nced production processes were made. Analysis of the realizatior? of
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some of them made it possible to reveal a number of shortcomings and diffi-
culties governed both by economic and organizational reasons. We will
examine them~in the example of one of these programs.
A~cording to the integrated program for the creation of automated control
systems for production processes, units~and industries headed by the Ministry
of Instrument Making , 292 types of new electronic computers, devices and
instruments were developed and introduced into production. For the develop-
ment and organization of series production of sets of technical and program
resources SM3, SM4 of the international system of small computers (SM EVM),
the collective of developers of the program was awarded the State Prize for
scienCe and technology in 1981. About half of the complexes obtained by
the national economy have been supplied to~the machine construction sectors
for control of production processes, automation of design aperations and
control of the complexes of inetal-working equipment; 22% in the sector of
the extracting and processing industry for control of pro~uction processes;
14% of. the complexes are being used for control of experiments in the
sphere of science. The use of SM3 and SM4 complexes for automation of the
planning of new items permitted a 2-2.5-fold acceleration of this labor-
intensive process.
A large Economic effect is yielded by the use of the system of small computers
in the preparation of controlling programs for machines with numerical pro-
gram control. These programs were previously prepared on large computers whose
cost is considerably higher than the scr.all computer system. The transition
to the system of small computers reduced the periods for compiling the control-
ling programs several times and signi�i~antly diminished the outlays for
their development.
However the scales of production of small computer systems does not meet the
national economy's demand for them. What is preventing the rapid increase in
vol~mes of production of minicomptlters? The fulfillment of the aforementioned
program, like others, was associated with a number of difficulties due to
various reasotYS, including departmental barriers, incomplete order for finan-
cing and material-technical supply. The Ministry of Instrument Making which
is responsible for the program as a whole did not always succeed in concluding
a contract in time with the co-executors for including in their plans of
individual assi~nments.of ttie program and the allocation of the appropriate
resources. Great efforts were required to arrange the orders for development
and series production of the developed models at the enterprises and produc-
tion associations which sp~~cialize in the production of computer equipment.
Tlie chief developer could not, by by-passin~ the sector sections of the USSR
Gos~~tan, correct the plans of loading thP production facilities of the manu-
facturers so that produ~tion was guaranteed of the programmed product in
the schedules set in the approval of the program. The course of its ful-
fill.ment was also affected by the circumstance that neither the financial
su~,~c~rt, nor the material incentive of the executors took into consideration
tl~e Ceatures of pro~ram and interdepartmental inCeraction.
In total complexity, about 40 percent of the work to create and introduce
experimental and experimental-industrial samples stipulated by the scientific
and technical programs of the GKNT was removed or transferred to other periods
hecause the assignments of the programs for construction, installation and
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shipments of set-forming items and equipment were not always agreed upon
by periods, or were not included in the sector plans for capital ~onstruction,
production and material-technical supply of the correspondir~ executors. For
rx~~mple, the pro~ram f~r creation of chemical resources for the urotection
of plants stipulated the start-up of eight industries at the enterprises of
the Ministry of Chemical Machine Construction. Beca~~se of the urttimely finan-
cing or insufficient volumes of it, the lack of aspecific organization that
w~is responsible for the start-up of the facilities, and for other reasons,
the periods for the start-up of three industries was shifted to 1979 and 1980,
and the others to the llth Five-Year Plan.
The order for financing work for new equipment that was active in the se~tors
was used without any changes for financing the scientific and technical programs.
Eac}~ ministry which participates in the fulfillment of program work used for
financing the work stipulated in the program capital which was mainly intended
for ensuring the scientific-technical development of the in-hous~ production
base of the sector and updating of the manufactured product, as well as for
financing work on intersector programs. This order generally does not create
interest in rapid and high-quality fulfillment of the intersector work, since
the diversion of resources of each ministry (department) for these purposes
can contradict the primary interests of sector development.
'rl~e urcler for listing the resources for financing programs and calculation of
their spending are also incomplete. The capital allocated for financing work
on programs are listed on the calculated account of the organization-executor
and are depersonalized in the total sum of income. This impairs the calcula-
tion of their target use for program needs. Undercalculation of the specific
nature of interser_tor division of labor, departmental separation of the execu-
tors, the large number of sources for financing work for new equipment, and
the lack of the necessary correlation between the assignments of the program
and the plans for production and capital investments contradicted the require-
ments of the target control of scientific and technical programs, and
essentially became a drag an their broad and effective application.
In evaluating the important role of scientific and technical programs in
acce?_erating scientific and technical progress, it should be noted that they
do not completely reflect the requirement of directivity for the achievements
of science and Cechnology to final national economic results. In the ma3ority
of tl~em. for example, there was no stipulation of assignments for series
~~rod~~ction and the use of innovations. The programs for the creation of new
m,~c~liines. equipment and itlstruments ~enerally ended with the fabrication and
t~~stin~; of the m.zin sr~mple or the manufacture of an adjustment series, the
?irst batch of a produ~~t with the use of the new technological process. Con-
s~~uently, at best they stipulated the initial development of the created
c~qui~~ment, but did not plan its broad applicztion.
'fhe ~~u~~stion of the need to include completing stages of s~ries production
into the scientif.ic and technical programs an~ the use of new equipment has
been r~ised many times in the economic press. In the last five-year plan,
individual elements were worked out for a program-ta*_-~et method of planning
~Sc~~~, for example, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences L.
C:~~c~vskiy, "Stren~lhening the Orientation of Plans and Stimuli at Highly Effi-
cient New F.q~iipment (VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No S, 1977); D. Bobryshev, V. Pokrovskiy
"Control of Scientific-Technical Development" (VOPROSY 1:K~NOMIKI, No 12, 1977)
ancl others. ~
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.~n~l c~~ntrol at inter5ector .ind sector levels. The accumulated experience
w:~s generalized, and in the decree adopted by the CPSU Central Committee and
~ the USSR Council of Ministers "On Improving Planning and Intensification of
the Effect of the Economic Mechanism on Improving the Efficiency of Preduction
and Quality of Work" measures were stipulated for the development of the
system of programs, inclusion in them of assignments for organization of
series production of new equipment and introduction of the leading technology.
The inclusion into the target scientific-technical programs of the completing
stages of series production of new equipment and the introduction of techno-
logy makes it necessary to create an efficient organizational-economic
mechanism of control which meets the requirements of intensifying scientif ic
and technical activity and orientation of all the economic links on high final
results. It is apparently necessary to raise the status of the agencies of
pro~ram control and ~ive the main organizations the right to independently
eliminate the current intersector discrepancies for each program.
The creation of a mechanism for planned control of intersector programs is
impossible without the solution of such an important problem as their financing.
The time has come to centralize and regulate the financial planning at higher
and middle levels of control.
Financing of scientific-technical programs must, in our opinion, be implemented
on an indepenent plan which will distribute and calculate the resources. It
is very important that the unified integrated plan define from the very begin-
ning the financial resources for the entire cycle of work covered by the
programs, and dlstribu~ted at the stages of work, for scientific research,
experimental design, technical preparatiori of production, development, etc.
This distribution must be supplemented with efficient monitoring and calcula-
- tion of the target spending of capital. It is also important to eliminate
the multiplicity of sources and multiple-stage nature of distribution of
finances.
The financing system must be aimed at timely provision of capital to the planned
volumes of work and it_s rapid concentration on the most strained sections.
Therefore, financing of work done on intersector scientific-technical programs
should be done with regard for the main principles of program-tarnet method,
as well as the active statutes on the order for using state budget resources,
r.redit, resources of the unified fund for development of science and tech-
noto~y and other sources of financing work on new equipment at enterprises,
associations.and organizations.
The founding principles for this system, in our opinion, should be the ~ollow-
ing. First, the functions of financial control of programs should be centra-
lized on higher c~nd middle levels, and more precisely delimit according to
levels of contral the responsibility of the managers of financial resources.
It is expedient to provide for more active participation of the agencies of
the USSR Ministry of Finances in selecting the forms of financing and control-
l.i.ng the financial resources. Secondly, financing of problems, topics and
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workl must be target. Thirdly, there should be guarantee o~ flexible comhi-
n~tion of the perc�entl~e f.inancing from resources of the ministries, depart-
m~,nts wliicl~ are intcrested in the results of the irograms,and resources of
tl~e stlte budget and credit allocated for fulfillment of definite work.
Fourthly, it is important to regulate the processes of formulating financial
plans, establish control and calculation of the speading of resource~ from �
the active sources of financing work on the new equipment, having ouara?~teed
in this case the priority of allocating resources for programs from all
sources.
The system for financing integrated scientific-technical programs constructed
with regard for the stated principles, in our opinion~ wi11 permit target and
timely financing of the work planned according to the programs, scientific
research. experimental design, fabrication of experimental and experimental-
industrial sampl~s and units, test stands, development of experimental samples
in production, technical preparation of production for series manufacture
of products, including work on reconstruction and expansion of production
facilities.
The introduction for all ministries and departments participating in
Cinancing the corresponding programs on percentage principles. o~ a unified
order for deductions of financial resnurces and their primary allocation from
t}~e corresponding sources will create definite guarantees for the fulfillment
af assignments on schedule. In this case it becomes possible in limits of
the e:tiaral limit allocated for the program to distribute beforehand the
financial resources according to stages of work, to implement a t~alanced
correlation of financial resources with material--technical supply of the
work. rapidly correct the distribution of resources in limits of the
estimated cost and use the reserve (if it is stipulated) with regard for
actual fulfillment of the work. Finally, expansian of the use of credit,
giving the main organizations the right to dispose of the capital allocated for
the program (and if necessary to involve enterprises and organizations of
different departments in the work on economic contracts) will create an effi-
cient mechanism of control over the programs based on a new progressive system
of payment for completely finished work which has been handed over to the
customer.
Es4~e~�ial attention should be concentrated on the executive (mana~inq and stimu-
ln~in~;) [~~nctions of the control .~gencies �or intersector pro~rams. Depending
~~n tlic~ sr~~le of work, its spatial and temporal Uoundaries, various solutions
r~~ tf~is ~~rohlem are possible. In those cases where the functions of rapid
rontroi are placed on the main organization, its authority should be expanded
Cc~r disposin~ of the c~ipital allocated for the needs of the program and setting
up control over the fulEillment of work and stimulation of the groups of exe-
cutur5. For rapi~l control of large-scale programs, special intersector
_ a~;enc~ies may be set up. In eacti specific case it is necessary to regulate the
~1'hr usr oC the system of tar~et or problem planning for orders .znd the corres-
~~oncling Einancin~ of the sector scientific-technical organizations made it pos~-
sihlc~ to regulate the intraministry thematic planning, and abandon some tradi-
tiun;~l~ Uut not very promising trends in research and concentrate scientific-
trchnical r.esources on problems important for the sector and national economy.
- In ~~cidition to accelerated introduction of innovations into production, an
important,result of this system was the improvement in use of speicalists in
scientific an~ technical organizations.
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the economic and legal status of the control agency , determine the nature
of its interrelationships with the higher planning agencies, with the
linear-staff and funcational subdivisions of the organizations who are
participating in the work on the programs.
In order to improve the order for financing scientific and technical programs
it is first expedient to formulate an ~nterrelated system of plans for finan-
cing them which includes state, sector and financial plans for specific
programs. It should be correlated to the entire system of plans, having
pinpointed the trends for using the active sources of financing work for
new equipment in the sectors and at the enterprises. This does not require a
basic review of the rights and functions ofthe apparatus for the sector systems
of control of scientific-technical progress and the significant changes in the
organization of forms of interaction of several sectors in the realization of
~ inteRrated programs.
The formation of a system of plans for f inancing scientific and technical
programs is dictated by the expanded use of program-target method for solving
the most important and large-scale problems, and increasing the volume of
allocations for development of programs. In addition, the sp~tial and tempo-
ral boundaries for realization of the programs rise, there is an increase in
the number of co-executors. All of this requires a more precise control and
calculation of the allocated resources at all levels of control. In other
words, the time has come to strengthen the functions of the centralized
plannin~ and control in solving large-scale intersector problems.
The state plan for financing scientific-technical programs should be compiled
for the five-year plan based on calculations of the estimated cost of work
l~resented by the main ministries and departments responsible for tt~e fulf ill-
ment of specific programs. Its structure can approximately be the following.
In the first section of the plan "Volume of Financing Intersector Scientific-
Technical Programs by Sectors" it is expedient to reflect the volumes of
financial resources allocated for each sector for the fulfillment in the
planned five-year plan of work on intersector programs according to the
approved list of programs of the state plan for the development of science
and technology.
The first section of the ~lan for financing must indicate the total allocations
of the sector for the entire seti of fulfilled programs both target and for the
resolution of the most important scientific and technical problems regardless
of whether the sector is the main or the co-executor. The total must
isolate expenditures for scientific research and capital investments needed
for t}~e "sector's fulfillment of the corresponding assignments for intersector
scientific and technical programs.
' In the second section, "Trends of Target Financing," it is necessary for each
pro~ram to isolate the ministries and departments which are responsible for
thc fulfillment of the main assignments and financing this wor'c, as well as
the sources of financin~. For each program, the first indicates the main
ministry (volume of allocations allocated to it for fulfillment of the assign-
ments of this program. sources of f inancing the work, state budget, unified
fund for scientific and technical work, etc.). Say that for the program of
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creating automated control systems for production processes, units and
prcductions in industry, the first indicated is the Ministry of Instrument
M~~kin~ and the resources allocated to it for the five-year plan, then the
Ministry of tl~e Llectronics Industry, Ministry of the Radio Industry and
other executors.
It is important for the plan to stipulate allocations for the development and
final stages of work associated �:~irh mastery and series production of a new
product. This order will make it po~sible to avoid those difficulties that
are now encountered by the developers at the stages of production and intro-
duction of innovations where for 1-2 years they have to include the develop-
ments in the production plan through sector departments of the USSR Gosplan.
The state plan for financing scientific and technical pxograms which will
become an integrated financial document should determine in advance, accor-
ding to the active techr~ique, the dimensions of the deductior.s to the fund
for economic stimulation of the enterprises and organizations from the prof it
obtained from realizing the product, created according to the program, and
deductions to the funds for economic stimulation which are includen in the
estimated cost of work.
It is expedient for the main ministry to be charged with the obligation uf
controlling the compilation (co-executors) of local estimates for individual
stages of work or assignment, summary estimate of outlays for the program,
control of the observation of ecor~omic discipline by all participants of the
financing. In necessary cases (with regard for the actual fulfillment of
the work), the main ministry can make its suggestions for the change in
schedules and volumes of financing, as well as material incentive for the
collective-exectors for examination of the ministries (departments)-coexecu-
tors. If discrepancies develop for the suggestions made, then the main
ministry can appeal to the higher agencies the GKNT and USSR Gosplan. Each
ministry(department) which participates in the fulf illment of the work for
intersector scientific. and technical programs wiZl compile its draft of the
five-year plan for financing intersector scientific-technical programs which
should be formulated in the directed periods.
At the first stage of creating the financial mechanism for scientific and
technical programs it is important to precisely def ine the sources of
firiancing in the functional section depending on the nature of the wcrk done
rind to make them stable for the entire period required for full completion
oF tfie a~~propriate stage or type of work. This measure is especially neces-
s:~ry in those cases where the periods for fulfillment of the work, especi-
.~lly, the concluding, exceed a year.
� Tl~c~ pro~;rams of the llth Five-Year Plan stipulate as concluding the work
f.or series production of new equipment and the introduction of progressive
teci~iioto~y. This me~ins that the set of program measures must include the
technical preparation of production, expansion, reconstruction of shops and
sections, sometimes new construction, etc. Expansion of the spectrum for
~ro~;ram work also increases the number of sources for their financing, defined
by tl~e active statutes ~n financing work for new equipment in the sectors.
In p~~rticular, the am~~rtization deductions, funds for development of pro-
duction and their reserves, and credit should be used for financing the
pro~;rams more actively and more purposefully.
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For or~anizations which have been switched to a system of payment for complete-
ly finished and accepted work, an important source of financing scientific
research in addition to the unif ied fund for scientific and r.echnical woric
is the bank credits. The decree ~f the CPSU Central Coimnittee and the USSR
Council of Ministers for improving the economic mechanism has set up favorable
conditions for expanding the use of the credit-calculation mechanism. The
current outlays of organizations up to the full period of completing the work
are covered by means of bank credit tn limits of the resources freed up by
the custom.er. In addition, the L'SSR Gosbank presents to the ministries and
departments loans for scientific research on programs in the case of non-
~ correspondence during the year of income into the unified fund for scientific
and technical work (YeFRNT) and the sizes of outlays from it.
'fhe associations and enterprises of the USSR Gosbank can issue loans for payment
of work financed through the resources of the YeFRNT) if it is done in shorter
periods than outlined by the plan, as well as tne implementation of highly
ef.fective measures for new equipment not stipulated by the plan ~on the
condition that credit and precentages have been liquidated in the space of
2 years from the day uf issu~e through YeFRNT resources).
F.xpansion of the sphere of credit for work on the new equipment will make it
possible, in our opinion, first of all to realize the principles for target
financing of planning and organize economically harmonious activity of the
main organization an3 the organization-co-executors working on a unified order
and credit-financial plan; secondly, guarantee in practice equal economic
conditions and responsibility of the developers and customers for the new
equipment.
Formation of an interrelated system of integrated plans for financing inter-
sector scientif ic and technical programs with indication of the resources
~llocated to each sector for specific target programs and for definite types
of work for them will considerably improve the order of planning the financial
resources at all levels of control Qf the national economy. In this case,
the program section will be isolated in the state budget and in the credit
_ plan in the areas of science and scientific services, capital constri~ction
and production. This will considerably improve the system of control and
calculation of the target outlays and the effect from the scientific and
t~c.hnical programs.
The pro~osed centralization of planning financial resources on the state and
sector levels, of course, does not solve all the questions of overcomin~
lhe departmental barriers in realizing programs and reducin~ the number of
Cinancin~ sources. It must be suppl~mented with another series of ineasures.
'Tl~e system of financing inter.sector programs can become more efficient if,
Cir.st, the allocated resources are concentrated in the hands of the agency
which is responsible Eor scienttf ic and technical policy in the country, and
secondly, the level.s of responsibility of the managers of the financial
resources are clearly defined and the rights of the main organization are
~xpanded.
(:~~ntralized reso~irces for financing intersector scientific-technical programs
tih~~uld be set up on two leve].s: on the upper level of control, an intersector
unified fund can be set up to provide for scientific and technical programs
(MY~P'ONTP), and on the lower, financial resources allocated from the MYeFONTP
to the main organization. It is expedient to form this fund in each planned
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ruK ur t~ ~t:~ ni. uS~: ~)NI,Y
= tive-year plan from the resources of the state budget, capital investments and
credits of the State Bank and the Construction Bank, YeFRNT, funds for
~ development of production and their reserves, amortization deductions and
, their reserves, deductions from the net cost of products and other sources
of the participants in fulfillment of the programs for the corresponding
enlarged standards.
Tl~e rnanager of the MYeFONTP, in our opinion, could be the GKNT which implements
centralized planning, control and calculation of the spending of resources
allocated by the state for scientific and technical programs. It is expedient
for each program to open up a special account with the number of the pro~ram
in the institutions of the USSR Gosbank and the USSR Construction Bank, and
to transFer to it the resources from the MYeFONTP according to the proposed
approach to financing the intersector programs.
T}~e main organization should be given the right to dispose of the resources
transferred to the special account of the program, and its responsibility
- shoulcl be increased for observance of the financial discipline, compilation and
spending of the estimates, calculations with the co-executors�of the ful-
filled work, and payment of credit, that is, make this organization the
main manager of resources from the special program ~eeount. It should also be
given the right to redistribute the financial resources in limits of the
approved estimate between the executors with regard for the actual course of
work regardless of their interdepartmental subordination, as well as ~the
volumes 111C~ periods for income of resources deducted by the ministries and
departments for the MYeFONTP for the corresponding types of work.
It is important for all the ministries and departments involved in fulfilling
the integrated programs to establish a unified order for deducting the resources
to the MYeFONTP from the active sources of financing work for new equipment
with regard for their target purpose according to the corresponding plan.
It is expedient to set up in the MYeFONTP a centralized strategic reserve of
resources and to use it for financing the previously unforeseen work, as well
as for maneuvering the resources in order to guarantee the assigned rates of
work done by different sectors and departments. This reserve can be used
even for target stimulation of the results which considerably exceed the
E~lanned, etc. The creation of reserves of financial resources can become an
imporrant condition for improving the efficienty of control of scientific-
technical programs, the timely bringing of innovations to practical application.
'fl~ese reserves are especially necessary in developing programs for new
trc:ncls in the development of science and technology which are at the junction
c~f ~liC~erent sciences ~~nd are based on discoveries, inventions which can be
wi Because the socioeconomic
result is the aggregate of va'rious material and nonmaterial benefits to human
beings, they are objectively incompatible, like different use values, and can-
not be reduced to one benefit. "A comparison of such use values as an apart-
ment, a car, or a trip," Academician T. S. Khachaturov writes, "seems completely
impossible at first glance. But in practice they are regularly compared. At
the same time, because of inadequate study of tfie methods of such comparisons
and the lack of necessary data, these questions are often answered superficially
and mistakenly. We must work out the ob~ective bases for making dectsions on
the priority of different needs in the interests of socialist society.i9
A rise in the socioeconomic efficiency of new technology compared to the technology
existing today is tTie socioeconomic effect of the new technology Therefore, just
like the result of using the new technclogy, its socioeconomic effect is a factor,
but it contains one additional element: savings of expenditures for the given
result. The evaluation of the effectiveness of scientific-teclinical programs is
also conditioned on the time factor. Becauae of its large scale, realization of
a program takes a long time. For example, the scientific-technical programs
ratified for the llth Five-Year Plan are figured for 5--8 years. It we consider
here that most of them conclude with production of a pilot model or test run, it
is obvious tfiat large-scale introduction of new machinery and technology developed
under these programs will go beyond the current five'year plan. For this reason,
the savings of expenditures for realizatioii of programs must be determined on a
dynamic scale, that is, by a calculation of the cumulative effect for the en-
tire period of operation of the program. The complex protilem of adding effects
together arises when determining the socioeconomic effectiveness of programs.
In the first place, it is necessary to add together the effect of realization of
the program in the sectors that produce and use the new technology. For example,
the production and use of inetal powders gives a savings of expendttures, elimi-
nates accumulations of inetal shavings that are Tiarmful to human healtfi in machine
building, and eliminates the noise of inetalworking machines, but leads to tfie
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production of inetallic dust in metallurgy. How can the different results. which
have social significance be compared?
In the second place, it become~ more important to add togetfier the effects of
using technology created undPr a program in different spheres of s~ocial ac~
tivity and different sectors of material producti:on (for example, the areas of
application of laser technology are very broad).
' In the third place, it becomes necessary to ada together the effects from
realization of subgoals or subprograms by the sutiject principle of breaking down
the goal (for example, the effect of different types of machinery under a pro-
gram for development and production of technical means to mechanize and automate
labor-intensive jobs).
The difficulties of adding effects together increase with the conversion of the
economic eff ect of new technology to a socioeconomic effect because the latter
is expressed by a vector (an ordered set of numbers), :ot by a scaiar quantity
(number). For example. the vector of the socioeconomic effect oi new models of
tractors designed to replace base models will include the following elements:
growth in productivity in hectares of standard plowing; reduction in specific
fuel e~cpenditurP in grams per horse power; increase in service life in years;
savings of expenditures in rubles; and, reductions in frequency of vibration in
hertz, noise level in decibels, and concentration of dust in the cabin depending
on the content of silicon oxide in milligrams per cubic meter of air, and so on.
The fundamental principles of adding up the socioeconomic effects of different
types of technology or the same technology used in different spheres amount to
the following. Only the savings of expenditures is qualitatively similar so
that the corresponding vector elements can be directly added together. Some
vector elements which are formally similar, for example increase in produc-
tivity and service life of various machines, cannot be added together because
they relate to different use values (these elements can be added togethA~
only for one machine used in different spheres). Other vector components with
similar names, those which are not directly merged with the use values being
produced and whose usefulness (harmfulness) consists in an influence on human
beings, can be added together when it is necessary to consider the effects of
their interaction with one another.l0
C:iven the specific character of the output of a program, fundamentally new
technology whose development involves heightened risk and uncertainty, the
methods oC considering risk and uncertainty in calculating preliminary and
pro.jected effectiveness become especially important. Expenditures and re-
sul.ts For most programs that envision the development of fundamentally new
technology cannot be unambiguously forecast as a definite figure; it is
only possible to determine an interval of values within which there is a
given probability that they will fall. This was reflected in the fact that
the target norms of most of the ratified programs were set in the form of
(for example raising the petroleum yield of layers to 55-60 percent, raising
suRar content of sugar beets to 17.5-18.5 percent, development and incorpor-
ation of open-cut coal mining processes with labor productivtty surpassing
tl~e present level by 3-4 tons, and so on). In addition, altliougfi programs
are developed after the completion of pure research, uncertainty tn relation
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to the feas3bility of accomplishfng the suhgoals as such is not eliminated in
some of them.
A typtcal e~cample ts the target s.cientific-~technical program for tfie develop-
ment and wide use of the set of techniques and technical means for raising the
petroleum yield of layers to 55-60 percent. The first subgoal of this program
is to develop, refine, and incorporate new metfiods of phqsicocTiemical and
thermal influence on petroleum layers. It envisions parallel development of
several technological methods of achieving this goal: incorporating tech-
nology for use of surface active agents; developing technology for pumping
polymer solutions into petroleum layers; developing a technological process for
forcing petroleum out with micellar--polymer solutions; and working out the
theoretical foundations and conducting a searcfi for microbiological methods of
extracting residual petroleum after a layer is flooded, and so on. Although
these techniques can be used for different petroleum regions and sectors, for
some of them they are alternatives.
Realization of each of these techniques, of course, demands different expendi-
tures whose quantities vary depending on the location and nature of the petroleum-
bearing sections. Thus, the problem of selecting the optimal combination of
techniques arises. Unlike "subject" and "technological" programs, in these
"alternative" prugrams it arises and is decided not only during formulation of
the program but also in the process of its realization. For tfiis type of pro-
gram, therefore, calculations of effectiveness must be refined constantly during
the realization process. The contribution of the particular techntque to at-
taining the goal or subgoal, that is the result of realization of the program,
and the expenditures required for this must also be refined. During the
process of carrying out an alternative program the probability of attaining the
goal (subgoal) for each of the alt~rnative techniques must be evaluated and the
program adjusted on the basis of such evaluations. The probability of success-
ful development of a particular technology in the assigned time can be evalu-
ated by experts or by using well-known formalized met6ods of technological fore-
casting.ll
The effect of programability, a concept which has been l:~ttle developed in the
economic literature, deserves special treatment. Determining the programability
effect is not a purely academic problem. The fact is that developing scien-
tific-technical programs and building them into plans of economic and social
development complicates the "technology" of planning, poses the problem of
insuring realization of programs and thus increases social costs for management.
For this reason, identifying the programability effect would make it possible,
by comparing it with additional expenditures, to establish the effectiveness of
applying the target program method of planning to the particular scientific-
technical problem. Because tfie target program method involves the use of the
systems approach in planning while the scientific-technical program itself is a
"system" the organized interaction of elements of this system produces the spe-
cific system effect of program organization.
The occurrence of an additional effect as the result of the tnteraction of
program elements has already been noted in the economic literature.12 This kind
of effect of "system organization" (pos,itive or negative) arises ob3ectively in
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any system as the result of interaction of its elements. Hecoming aware of it
and singling it out as a definite variation and part of tfie overall effect in-
volves development of tfie systems. approach. Tfiis type of effect is called the
synergetfc effect or the effect of system organization.
K. Marx gave tfie methodological foundations of analyzing tfie effect of system
organization in "Das Kapital." Thus, analyzing cooperation as a form of labor
organization in which many people work together in a planned manner and inter-
act with another, Marx wrote the following: "Just as the force of an 3ttack by
a cavalry squadron or the force of resistance by an infancry regiment differ sig-
nificantly from the sum of the forces of attack and resistance which individual
cavalry men and infantry men are capable of developing, so also the mecTianical
sum of the forces of individual workers differs from that social force which de-
velops when many hands participate simultaneously in performance of a single
undivided operation, when for example it is necessary to lift a weight, turn a
winch, or remove an obstacle from the road. In all these cases the result of
the combined labor either could not be achieved atall through individual ef-
forts, could be achieved only over a much longer time, or only on a minute
scale."13
The fundamental objective of comprehensive target programs as a crucial form of
planning is to improve cooperation among different types of activity, phases of
the reproduction cycle, regions, and participants in social production. The
effect of system organization is a part of the overall socioeconomic effect,
measured by the difference between the effect of its functioning as an inte-
grated system aiid the sum of the effect of the isolated functioning of its
elements on the assumption that there is no interaction. In tfie particular case,
if such an assumption has no meaning because the isolated activity of system
elements does not produce any useful results, the entire socioeconomic effect
of tFie system is synergetic. Therefore, the programability effect as a mani-
festation of synergy in planning is part of the socioeconomic effect of at-
taining the program goal. It is measured by the difference in effects when tae
goal is realized under the pr.ogram and when it is done by traditional planni~~g.
I3ut what are the sources of the programability effect? To answer this question
we may use the scheme proposed by corresponding member of tlie USSR Academy~l4
Sciences L. M. Gatovskiy for formulating the "effect of comprehensiveness.
According to this scheme, comprehensiveness presupposes, in the first place,
a coordinated combination of all the types of technology necessary to realize
the final result and, in the second place, ~ coordinated combination (in the�
plan) of all participants in the cycle "science - technology - production -
consumption" for eacfi type of technology.
[ndeed, camprehensiveness is the fundamental trait of scientific-technical
pro~;rams. But in addition to it the occurrence of the programability effect re-
sults Erom the target orientation. In large part this determines the necessity
of bringing together different performers in a program of action. If each of
them were to seek its own partners by the trial and error method and set up
interactian witl~ them on the basis of cost accounting relations, expenditures
of time and capital to attain the goal would increase suhstantially.
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Tfie savings tFiat occurs is also one o# tfie. sonrces of tfie prograa~tTitlitp~ eff~ct~
to sap nott"iing of tfie fp:.t tfiat tfie programs zoake it possifile to real~ze: goals
whicfi isolated peacformers could not even be a~are.of aud ~hicfi. could not fie. at--
tained witfiout adorting a centralized decision. Furtiiermore, ~oiaing isolated
performers togetTier in a program produces an addi.ti~aal effect because tfie
general aad particular optimums do not coincide. An increase in tfie dimension-
altty of tfie system produces aa additi~aal optimizatioa effect: tfie value of
the system fmnctional is always leaa (if expeaditures are minimized) or more
(if results are maximized~ than the corresponding sums of the functionals for
isolated optimtzation of its suTaspstems.
An equally important characteristic of the program ~ia concentration of tfie re~
sources necessarp to realize it, ~b.icfi. is also done on a centraltzed basis.
Therefore, the source of the program effect is not onlp comprehensiveness but
also tTie target orientation. Both the one and the otfier are secured by c~ntral-
izing planning decistons. Tiierefore, in terma ~of~ its organizational-economic
essence, the program effect ia a ceatralization effect.l5
The problem of considering the program effect ariaes not only for interaction
among the measures of a particular program (we will call it intraprogram), but
also wfien different programe interact (interprogram). The program effect as
tfie ob~ ective result of interaction durin.g impl.ementation of programs or pro-
gram measures should not be confused witi~ repeated counting of tfie effect or
undercounting of it as the result of sub3ective mistakes in tfie calculation
metfiodologq wbicfi often occur in adding the effecta of particular measures or
programs.
Metfiods for singling out the properlp synergetic part of the overall socio-
economic effect of solving scientific-technical problems deserves further
study. rlethods have not been developed yet for solviag this problem in tfie in-
verse formulation: adding together tfie effects of particular program measures
and fin3ing tne overall socioecoaomic effect of a ecientific-tecFinical pro-
gram ~rtth tfie aid of the size of the synergetic component.
It is possiBle to find the necessary basea to calculate the synergetic effects
of many economic sqstems. For euample, if a production association is formed
on the ~iasis of several enterpriaea, the results of its activity can still be
compared with tfie results of the aeparate functioaing of these enterprises.
As for management methods, here there is usually no kind of general basis for
calculating tbe effect. Therefore, it ia only poasible to measure tfie pro-
gramability effect if a solution to the particular scientific--technical problem
is~developed outside the program as a b~aais ~ithin tFie economic suBstantiation
of the program. This map increase the estimated cost of compiling tfie program
itself, but at tfie same time it mai~,es it poasil~le to estafllish tbe liat of pro-
gram goals in a more profound aad substaatiated manner, o~hich.~311 pap off
ultimately vtien tfiey are realized.
Metfiods of modeltng programs that mak,e it po~ifile to reduce sucii additional
expenditures to a minimum are no~rfleing developed: B[e are referring to alteraa-
tive crttical patfi. models in whicfi efie magnitude of tfie programabilitp effect
is determined directly during tFue selection of tFie opttmal program alternative.l6
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Alternatives tFiat are not included tn ths opt~mal pxogram var~ation iaay fie the
basis~ for determining tfie programability e:~fect~ Ih additi~n to results of op-
timizing tha sy~tem Cprogram) as a oiTiole on a_criti.cal patfi scFiedule, tfiere will
tie variation~ formed for separate.optimi.zat~on of suFsgstetns CsuTBoals, ass~gn--
ments~, and su~iass~gnments~ . TCi:is i:s ess~ential information for a quantitative
evaluation of, for example, tTie additinnal effect from increastng the dimen-
sionality of a spgtem, tfiat is, from coordinatiag tfiese aseig~ents into a
s~ingle integrated program.
The met~iodolagical problems of determiniag program effectiveness have in many
respects not been solved yet. Economic science sfi~uld concentrate its efi~rts
on working out these new and complex pro~ilems ~fitcfi.are extremelp timely in
practical affairs. Tfie approacnes presented iiere to methods of determintng tTie
effectiveness of sctentific-technical programs do not exliaust all issues, but
tfiey can be a definite step forward in study of tfiia pro~ilem.
FOOTNOTES
1. Total expenditures for carrytng out programs in the llth Five Year Plan will
be 38 billion rubles, including 11.5 billion for scienriftc research and
experimental design ~rork aad 5.3 billion for building ekperimental indus-
trial installations (see Ya. Rpabov, "Questions of Deve].opment of Compre-
hens~ve Target Programs," PLANOVOYE KflOZYAYSTVO, No 10, 1981, p 5).
2. The nature of target programa leads to certain features of calculating their
economic effectiveness which have been little studied. This prevent?~ us
from achieving essent3alresults (see V. Krasovskiy, "The Effectiveness of
Target Economic Programs," VOPROSY EKONOMIKI No 12, 1976, p 40).
3. Experience with 208 nationwide ecientifi,c-technical programs and 11 re-
gional programs tn the Latvian SSR during t~e years 1976-1980 showed that
the main reason for failure to fulfill tfiem was that they were not fully
converted into assignments in the plan for economic and social develop-
ment.
4. See B. A. Rayzberg, Ye. P. Golubkov, and L. S. Pekarskiy, "Sistemnyy
Podkhod v Perspektivnom Planirovanii" [Th.e 5ystems Approach in Future Plan-
ning], Izdatel'stvo "Ekonomika", 1975, p 34.
5. The analysis was made by junior scientific associates of the Institute of
Economtcs of the USSR Academy of Sciences. V. S. Farbirovich and L. A.
Demidova.
6. See "Metodicheskiye Ukazaniya k Razrafiotke Goeudarstvennykh Planov
Ekonomiclieakogo i Sotaial~nogo Razvitipa SSSR~~ jMethodological Instructiona
for Development of Plans of Economic and Socisl Development of the USSR],
Izdatel~stvo "Ekonomika", 1980, p 13; "Raz`~pasnentya po Zapolneniyu Kartochek
Naucfino Tekfini.chesktkh Profilem (NaucFino Tekfinic~ieskikh Programm~
Gosudarstvennogo Pyattletnego Plana Ekonomicheskogo i SotsialTnogo Razvitiya
SSR" [Explanatory Notes to Filling out Cards oa Scientific--Tecfia. ~al Problems
(Scientifi.c-Technical Programa~ of the US~R State Five Year Plan of Economic
and Soctal Development], Moecoar, 1980.
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7. Substantiation of tFie indicator o~ aet profit as tfie cost eccountiag e#fect
of ne~v- tecfiaology i~ contained ih tfie a~nograpfi_ "Naucfino~Tekfinicfl,~ski~r
Progress i Ekonc~miIca Sots~,alizmaM .jScienti.fic-,Tecfinical Frogress and tTie
Economy of ~ocialism], Izdatel''stvo "Ekcnomika'~~ 1979~ pp 27-3U, 185-196.
8. See "Osnovaype Metodicbeskiye Polozfieniya Opredeleaipa Sotsial ~no-
Ekonomictiea&op Effektivaostit Novop Tekfinilr.i" [Fuadanental Met~iodological
Principles of Deteraaining tfie Effectiveness of Nev Tecfinologp], Moscow, 1980.
9. S~ee T. S. Rhachaturov, "Intensifi&atsipa i Effektivaoet~ v Usloviyakh
Razvitogo Sotsializma" [Inteneification and Effectiveness in Conditions of
Developed SocialismJ, Izdatel'stvo "Nau~Ca", 1978, p 29.
10. The problem of adding together the vectors of tfie socioeconomic effect is set
fortfi in greater detatl in tTie book "Nauchno-Tekfiaicfieskip Progress:
Programmnyy PodkTiod" [Scientific-Technical Progress: The Program Approach],
Izdatel'stvo "Mysl"', 1981, pp 114--137.
11. See V. A. Lisi.chkin, "Otraslevoye Nauchao--Tekhnicfi,eskoye Prognozirovaniye"
[Sectorial Scientific-Technical Forecasting], Iadatel'stvo "Nauk.a", 1971;
DzTi. Martino, "TekhnologicTieslwpe Prognoairovaniye" [Technological Fore-
casttng], Izdatel'stvo "Progreas", 1977.
12. See "Nauchno-Tekhnicheskiy Progress i Ekonomika Sotsializma" [Scientific-
Teciinical Progress and the Economy of Sociali~mJ, Izdatel'stno "Ekonomika",
1979; M. Vilenskiq, "Technical Progrese in the lOth Five Year Plan,"
VOPROSY EKONOMIK~ No 11, 1976; V. Krasovskiy, "TEie Effecttveness of Target
Economic Programs," VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No 12, 1976.
13. K. Marx and F. Engels, "Soch." [Works], Vol 23, p 337.
14. See "Nauchno-Tekhnicheakiy Progrese..." op. cit. FN 12, pp 39-41,
15. In his analysis of cooperation K. Marx noted that its advantages are not
realized automatically. A necessary condition for it to be effective is con-
trol which "performa the general functions that arise from the movement of
the entire production organism as distinct from tfie movement of its inde-
pendent organs" (K. Marx �~:d F. Engels, "Soch.", vol 23, p 342).
16. See, far example, "SovErshenetvovaniye Me.todov Opredeleaiya Effektivnosti
Naucfino-Tekhnicheskogo Progress" [Refiniag the Methods of Determining tfie
Effectiveness of Scientific-Techni.cal Progresa]~ TsEMI AN SSSR, 1980.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Pravda", "Voprosy ekonomiki~', 1982.
11,176
- CSO: 1814/78
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UDC 001.89
OVERCOMING OBSTACLES IN RESEARCH-PRODUCTION CYCLE
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Rusaian No 3, Mar 82 pp 42-47
[Article by Academician of the UkSSR Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Lipatov and
L~. V. Denisenko: "Science-Production: Efficacy of Mutual Ties"]
[Text] As analysis has shown, we atill have lengthy periods for the realiza-
tion of the achievements of science. According to a special study made by the
authors in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology (OKhKhT) of
the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences, 62X of the finished research and develop-
ment does not have practical application for a long time, despite the high
potential eff iciency of the completed work. Therefore the institutes of the
OKhKhT, like the entire UkSSR Academy of Sciences, have advanced to the fore-
front the questions of accelerating theuse of the results of scientific
research in different sectors of the national economy, search for new and
improv~ment in the existing forma of tiea between science and production.
The detailed examination made by the authors of the eff icient activitiy of
the institutes of the OKhKhT to realize scientif ic developments has shown
that often the obtained results are introduced at one-two enterprises and are
not widespread in the sector (works of the Inatitute of Organic Chemistry,
Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry and Institute of Colloid Chemistry
and Chemistry of Water). It is obvious that this introduction does not lead
to a noticeable improvement in tHe.efficacy of a certain industry as a whole
and does not permit concentration of resources on solving strategic questions
of developinR enterprises, associations, sectors, although a lot of attention
aad forces,are required from the'scientific collectives and production
engineers.
At the same time, purposeful developments as applied to specific seGtors of
the national economy and in close contact with the interested organizations
(for example, the work of the Institute of Chemistry of High-Molecular
Compounds for the Oil, as well as the Fishing Industry, the Institute of
Orga;nic Chemistry for medical, the Institute of Phyeical Chemistry and the
Institute of Colloid Chemiatry and the Chemistry of Water for the oil
extracting, Institute of Gas for the metallurgical industry) made it possible
to significantly accelerate the "science-~3roduction" cycle and expand the
scales of introduction. For example, the introduction of "Sprut" and "Styk"
type glues developed in t~ie Institute of Chemistry of High Molecular Compounds
for repair of ship decks, decking and b~alkheads made it posssible to red~ice
the time that the ships are in repair, dimin#sh the outlays for materials by
65, l~bor intensity by b0, and total_cqst.o.f xepaix.:Qpexati.ons by~61 pereent.
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Consequently, the output to a specific sectox must become decisive for the
academic science in sett3ng up its ties to production and must encrnapass an
ever greater number of sectors of the national economy. However, the specific
nature of research done by academic institutions is such that c+ne cannot
always state in advance which sector the results will be used in. Because
of its multiple-plan nature, the same work can be realized at enterprises of
different ministries. This beg~ns the most difficuit stage of introduction:
it is necessary to "penetrate" into the ministry, w'hich often takes more
time than the development itaelf. The tie bett~een the institute and the.
ministry plays a special role in this case. Its efficiency can be improved
by target financing, as well as by setting up certain intenaediate links
(permanent or temporary) which connect the academic science with applied.
The intersector laboratories which are set up in the ~cademic institutes for
completion of target developments and technical assistance to the enterprises
in mastering innovations may be one of these links. In addition, the
appropriate applied work should be simultaneously in the plans of both the
scientific institution and the enterprise of the intexested tainistry.
The probability nature of scientific research does not allow us to raise
the question of introducing its resulta on all topics without exception.
However there are frequent cases where the institutes re�use to recognize the
iriexpediency , of using certain developments and from year to year continue
to suggest them for realization in the national econo~ay. Tt�ere are also
frequent cases where during the basic research the.scientist obtains unPore-
seen va~uable results of an applied nature which may not be considered in
the fn~egrated programs and coordination pians which have already been approved,
often for a lengthy period. The in~erdepartmental commissions whic4 include
representa'tives of institutes and interested ministries could ob~ectively
an3 with economia substanti,ation solve�the fate of~'the work proposed for
introduction,.and annually review and correct the coordination plans and
programs, excluding not very promising work from them.
Many tasks of introduction can be solved espec~ally successfully if there is
initiative on the part of the enterprises themselves who have placed their
tasks before the scientists or who have suggested using the results obtained
in ti}~ scientific institutions. This cooperation wi11 be fruitful of course
if the tasks set by industry have sufiicient scal~ and are well substan-
tiated with regard for the outlook for developtnent of this sector. One can
cite corresponding examples from the pra.,tice of creative ties of a number
of institutes of the OKhRhT and the industrial enterprises.
The composites developed in the Institute of Chemistry of High-Molecular
Compounds based on large-capacity polymers have been used at the Syzran'
plastics plant to make sheet items of thertnoplasts fox automotive taanufacturing
(without considerable outlays and change in the existing production processes).
The economic effect from introducing theta has been obtained by increasing
the strength indicators by 10-20X, conserving the main n?aterial by 82X and
- in 1978-1979 was R 800,000,
The seientists from the Institute of Gas af the UkSSR Academy of Sciences have
been involved in cooperation by the leadership of the Kaut~ass plant "Pi~nunas"
wi~ere in 1978 the f irst shop in the USSR fox drying and roasting of eaamel
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coatings was opened. All the heating equipment of the shop was made from
developments of the institute.
However the appeals of production to science often have a particular nature and
are determined by tasks of the present moment and the striving to eliminate
tight places in its production instead of setting long-term pro6lems for its
development. Experience has ahown that fulfillment of the majority of these
assignments is within the capability of the workers of the actual indus~rial
enterprises who often have firat-ciass scientific equipment and their own
highly skilled specialists wfth scientific degrees.
An important factor in the fruitful tie between production and science ia
a~so the creation by the enterprises of favorable conditions for solving
the tasks set for them. This is primarily the presentation of an induatrial
base for ma~or experiments, equipa~ent and specialists. Although this system
of interrelations has not yet been widely used, however, even now there are
excellent examples of realizing this type of ties between acience and pro-
duction. ~his is, for example, the integrated program "UkSSR Academy of
Sciences-association 'AvtoZIL'." A whole aeries of the most important pro-
duction tasks has been effectively solved in a short period as a result of
fulfilling it.
It should be noted that the in~egrated programs are one of the new forms of
creative cooperation between the institutes of the UkSSR Academy of Sciences
and industry which encompass the production process of the sector as a whole.
the enterprise or its main subdivisions. Experience has ahown that for
more efficiency of these programs, the rights of their leaders should be
broadened, target financing of the promising work and material encouragement
should be provided 5or their timely completion and high-quality execution
The difficulties of the academic institutea fn realizing their developments
are often explained by the fact that the fulf illment of the plans for the
development of new equipoment is controlled much less at the enterprises than
the fulf illment of plans for the n?ain production. In addition, in a number
of cases, the use of an innovation is economically unprofitable for the
enterprise. The interest of the enterprise in using new progressive develop-
ments whose economic advantages are evident on the scales of the national
economy can be increased by improving the syatem of economic indicators of
the enterprises associated with introducing the ne~w equipment.
The analysis made by the authors has indicated that in the period of 1971-1979,
the chemical scient~sts of the UkSSR Academy of Sciencea suggested 1718 in-
ventions of which only 31 percent were introduced at the country's enter~
prises. It turned out in this case, in particular, that over SO percent of the
indicated inventions remained unuaed in the national economy 4-5 years after
completion of the work on them. The mastery of highly eff icient inventions
is very often delayed for many yeara. However ob~ective analysis of all the
aspects of utilizing the inventions in the national economy is diff icmlt aince
in the majority of cases when an invention is introduced the enterprises
do not at all report on the set form, and the work does not figure in the
accounts as an introduced invention. For example. the Institute of Chemistry
of High-Mo3~ecular .Compounds asked the Central Scientific Research Institute
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of Patent Information and Technical-Economic Research for information on the
use by the enterprises of the inventions of the inetitute scientists. It
was found that in 1978 nine enterprises had reported on the set form about the
introduction of f ive inventions with economic effect of R 275,800. However it
followed from the documents that were given to the institute by the enter-
prises themselves that during this year 38 inventions were introduced at 48
enterprises with economic effect of R 9.4 million. The enterprises do not
bear responsibility for distorting the account data. They also do not atlo-
cate the necessary resources for rewarding the authors of the inventions.
Responsibility of the enEerprises that"have introduced the inventions should
be increased to supply timely and correct accounts on the set form. It is
also necessary for the enterprises to be obliged to report to the authors
abbut the use of their work in production.
The conditions for economic contracts for the fulfillment of scientific
research concluded between the sc:~entif ic organization and the enterprise
also do not stipulate either specific dutfes of the parties or responsibility
for incomplete introduction. On the average, of the 40 contracts concluded
per year by each institute of the ORhKhT, 75 percent stipulate completion of
work with the introduction into production of the acientific results, but only
30 percent of them end with introduction.
Thus, the time has come to change the con~ract relationships between the
research organizations and it~dustry. The object of the contract must be
not only the topic of the study, but also efficiency from introducing its
results guaranteed-by ~he enterpfise if they correspond to the technfcal
assignment. It is expedient to consider the end of the research work not the
compilation and delivery of a report, but the achievement of the economic
effect stipulated by the contract. The size of thie effect must be confirmed
by. the act of introduction. It is also neceesary'fot ~he de~artmen!'^ to
control the use by the enterprises of the reaults of economic contract work,
as.well as sanctions for violation of the introduction schedules.
We note in addition that the sizes of bonuses now depend to a small degree on
the real contribution of the worke~s in the sphere of science to technical
progress. The degree of rewarding the colleagues from the research insti-
tutes for successful completion of a contract topic is not def ined anywhere.
The development and introduction of a syatem for additional rewarding of the
participants of the work done on the basis of economic contracts for their
succeseful and timely introduction will also improve the efficiency o~
introducing the developments of scientific organizations into the national
economy.
~ It is also expedient to disseminate the.available experience of contract
relations of the institutes from the Siberian Departtaent of the USSR Academy
~ of Sciences with the ministries and directly~with the enterprises. The
~ system introduced into the Siberian Department createa a guarantee for broad
introduction of a new scientific idea into the sector and must be used
among the other academic institutea.
Such a form of cooperation as the fulSi~lment of contracts for the transfer
of scientif ic and technical documents makes it possible to consider the
features of a spec~fic enterprise and to bring the process of introduction
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at it to completion. However, the reaponsibility of the entexprises
stipulated by the legislation for the Pailure bf individual points in the
conditions of this contract is currently inaignificant. For example. the
enterprises in order to reduce the size of the reward to the developers of
the documents underestimate the volumes of product output in the first 2 years
of use of the development, and refuse to introduce it altogether, while the
institutes are deprived of any levers for influencing the enterprises. In
addition, sometimes the customers avoid paying the banuses atipulated by
the condiitons of the concluded contract.
The introduction of developments of the institutes implemented in acoordance
with the contracts for creative cooperation is not included in the current
plans of either the scientif ic institutions or the entexprises. Lacking
3uridical force, these contracts do not completely eliminate such negative
phenomena as prolonged periods for agreeing upon develaped problems, cases
of interruption in the program, etc.
Questions of the industrial mastery of results of scientific research are
closely tied to evaluating the efficiency of work ~f the acientific insti-
tutions, especially academic. ~
The institutes of the UkSSR Academy of Sciences introduced a n~w form 4f
accounting starting in 1977, the so-called percentage economic effect. How-
ever definiCion of this indicator ur.til now has retnained one of the moat
complicated and least worked out problems of evaluating the economic
eff icacy of scientific research.2 Detenaination of the percentages of
economic sffect between the institutes and plants by agreetaent is now be-
coming more widespread. These percentages are most of ten selected equal.
Certain institutes of the UkSSR Academy of Sciences, for example. the ~
Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry afad Institute of Organic
Chemistry define their percentage for certain developments as 90 or 100 per-
cent. This distribution of the percentage participation has a purely formal
nature and does not reflect the real ~ontribution of the participants to the
introduced development. .
In the opinion of the authors, in order to evaluate the economic efficiency
of the wo'rk of the academic institutes for which funds of economic stimu-
lation have not been provided, it is necessary to take into consideration only
1See: "Metodika opredeleniya ekonomicheskiy effektivnosti nauchno-isaledova-
tel'skikh rabot v uchrezhdeniyakh Akademii nauk Ukrainskoy SSR" [Technique of
Determining the Economic Eff icien.cy of Scientific Research in Instittutions of
the UkSSR Academy of Sciences]. Kiev, Naukova dumka, 1978, p. 22
2See: Kurenkov, Yu. "Experience of Evaluating and Stimulating Scientific
Research in the Textile and Ligh~t Industry~""Upravleniye. planirovaniye i organi-
zatsiya nauchnykh i tekhnicheskikh issledovaniy" [Control, Planning and
Organization of Scientific and Technical Research~ (Proceedings of International
Symposium of CEMA Member Countries and the Socialiat Federated Republic of
Yugoslavia). Vol 4, Moscow, VINITI, 1970; pp 238-241; Golo~sovskiy, S. I."Eko-
nomicheskaya effektivnost' is~ledovaniy i razrabotok"[Economic Efficiency of
Research and DevelopmentJ, Moscow, Moskovakiy rabochiy, 1973; Dobrov, G. M.;
Zadorozhnyy, E. I.; Shchedrina, T. I. "Upravleniye eff ektivnost'yu nauchnoy
deyatel'nosti"[Control of Eff iciency of Scientific ActivityJ, Gen. ed. Dobrov,
G. M., Kiev, Naukova dumka, 1978, p. 240.
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the total national economic effect from introducing the research results, while
it is inexpedient to compute~the percentage economic ePfect. In fact, if the
production engineers are very interested in some development, then they can
develop it ~even without the help of the institute. Consequently, the per-
centage effect of the institute will formally be equal to zero or will be
an insignificant part, while this will actually indicate the increased value
of the development. Further, the plants generally on their own initiative
do not report to the institute what economic e�fect was obtained as a result
of the introduction of its development, and moreover~ What percentage goes to
the institute. They are not interested in this because the enterprises are
rewarded for the new equipment completely and not bq the percentage economic
effect. There has not been a single case in the ORhKhT of the UkSSR Academy
of Sciences where the plant appealed to the institute With a request to ~
agree upon their percentage in the economic effect. Finally, if three and
more partners participate in work associated with introduction, it becomes
especially complicated to agree upon the sizes of the percentage economic
effect.
Difficulties arise in confirming the percentage economic effect by the
ministry whi~h;can hardly determine the degree of pnrticipation in introduc-
tion of its subdivisions on the one hand. and the developing inati*.utes on
the other hand.
As a result, determination of the percentage participation in intrvducing
~ innovations has a conditional nature. The fortns for statistical accounting
of the enterprise indicate the actual economic effect. The authors there-
fore believe that it is more expedient to consider the total national
economic effect obtained from introducing the developments of the institute
in the repoarts of the academic institutes without consideration for the
percentage participation of the executors, but with mandatory indication of
the total number of organizations involved in the ~ork on the topic and in
its introduction.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1982
9035
CSO: 1814/73
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UDC 378.23
LEGAL REGULATION OF SCIENTIFIC WORKERS Il~IPROVES RESEARCH QUALITY
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 1, Jan 82 pp 41-46
[Article by Head of the ~uridical department of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
Candidate of ~uridical sciences L. F. Petrenko: "Competition and Certifi-
cation of Scientif ic Cadres"]
[Text] Since the first years of Soviet power, in addition to general norma
for labor legisiation which have covered the scientific workera, a broad
circle of special norms has been active which set a special order for the
development, change and halting of legal relations of scientific workers,
their wages, pension payments, etc. In analyzing the legislation on the
labor of scientific workers it ia impoasible not to note that many of its
features are governed by ob~ective prerequisites, and primarily, the impor-
tance of scfence and the transformation of it into a direct productive force.
The specific nature of the legal position of the scientific workers is also
tied to the creative, research nature of their work.
Features of the legislation regarding the labor of the scientific workers
are very clearly manifest in the development of labar.~legal relationa between
them and the scientific institutions. There is currently an active unified
order for selecting scientific cadres in all the acientific research inatitu-
tions regardless of their departmental subordination. According to the decree
of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers of 12 May 1962
No 441 "On Measures for Further Improvement in the Selection and Training of
Scientific Cadres" and with the inatruction approved by agreement with the
AUCCTU by the decree of the Preaidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences of
14 December 1962' vacant positions of the acientific workera of the
scientific research institutions of the USSR Academy of Sciencea. academies
of sciences of the union republice, sector academies. ministries and depart-
ments are filled only by competition.
The competition serves as an additional condition which precedes the emergence
of labor legal relations. In this case the decision of the acientific
council (eliciting definite juridical consequences) is the chdef and manda-
tory act for the administration in the competitive syatem of selecting
cadres. The labor legal re~ations with the participant of the competition
must only be set based on the decision of the scientif ic council and in
accordance with them by the adminstration of the scientific institution.
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The mandatory nature of the decision of the scientific council for the competi-
tion for the legality of establishing legal relations with the scientif ic
workers is confirmed by the requirement of observing this ~uridical act in
relation to reaolving the question of awarding the scientific titles according
to the statute on the order for awarding scientific titles. Consequently, only
the observance of the competition guarantees complete rights of the dcientif ic
workers. The scientific workers who have been included for the position in
violation of the active legislation without competition do not have the right
to participate in the competition.
Before the selection by the scientif ic council, the scientific workera are
considered temporary represantatives in their offices, and the peridd for
temporary execution of their duties cannot alter their legal position. However,
these individuals may be discharged only because they were hired without the
compe~ition. According to the explanation of the State Committee of the USSR
Council of Ministers on Questions of Labor and Wages and the AUCCTU Secretariat
ofr 29 December 1965 No 30/39, an acting official (appointed to~a vacancy) can
only be r~leased for grounds stipulated by the legislation. References in the
order for temporary execution of the duties do not provide the grounds either
~ for announcement of a competition or for discharge.
The competition for filling positions of scientific workers is aimed at
guaranteeing the selection of the most qualified pereonnel for the work in
scientific research institutea and laboratories. Observance o~ tite competi-
tion procedure must create guarantees for an ob~ective approach to evaluating
the~baainess qualities of the scientifia worker and hia cor~espondence to the
occupied position,and exclude sub~ectivism in this matter. Many years of
practice have confirmed the effectiveness of this system: competition ~as the
main form of selecting scientific cadres promoted the attraction of skilled
scientific workers to the scientific inatitutions of the USSR Academy of
Sciences. But, unfortunately, the competition system is not sufficiently
utilized in some scientific research inatitutions. This often results in
hiring of random personnel for the positions of scientif ic workers. Hiring
without competition alsca entails a violation of the labor rights of the
scientifid workers.
I recall that according to the existing legislation, the hiring of temporary
workers for a period of up to 2 months, including retirees,~.is done not for
a vacant position but for a temporarily absent scien~if ic worker (because of
leave of absence, business trip, illnese, etc.). Without announcement of a
competition, individuats 8re also accepted to replace workers who have been sent
for a lengthy business trip abroad. Acceptance for woric in these instances
is done on the condition of an emergence labor contract according to point 2 of
article 10 of the Fundamentals of Legislation of the USSR and the union republic
republics on labor.
In holding competitions, proper attention is not always given to the procedure
for evaluating the cadrea. At the same time, the observance of thie procedure
is necessary for the implementation of the Leniniat principles of selecting
and placing cadres. The lack of clearly formulated and juridically decreed
requirements for each category of scientific colleague cotaplicates the
solution of problems associated with the hiring of scientific colleagues. It
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is therefore necessary to supplement the instructions on the order for
replacing the positions of the scientific workers with a list of basic require-
ments made for the competition participants. This needs to be done because
in a number of scientific institutions attempts are made to stipulate these
requirements by orders ~nd instructive lettera.
The system for evaluating the activity of scientific colleagues which exis~s
in our country generally has a common nature, is limited to listing the number
amount of work done and statement of its brief contents. The official
qualification characteristics approved by a decree of the State Committee of
the USSR Council of Ministers for labor and social questions of 8 February
1978 No 38 only plays an auxiliary role in the competition process. It would
be more correct to link the development of off icial qualification charac-
teristics with the updating of legal norms regarding the order for replacing
the offices of scientific workers.
Taking into consideration the positive experience of the competitive system
of selecting cadres, it is time to pinpoint and expand the list of positions
which must be filled by competition. A number of scientific research insti-
tutes have introduced positions of leaders of groups of scientific research
s~bdivisions. The time of working in this position is counted in the length
of servi~e of acientif ic research work. The leader of the group very often
heads the collective of senior and junior scientific colleagues. The queation
of the order for appointing to the position of the leader of the group, his
election or recertification has not been answered in any one of the etandard
acts. It seems that this leader should be elected by competition. For
these reasons, the instruction on the order of replacing the offi~ns of
scientific workers in scientific research institutions must be supplemented
with the following statute: the list of positions sub~ect to election by
competition must include positiqns of leaders of the groups of scientific
research subdivisions.
The list of positions of scientific workers that are filled by competition
should also be pinpointed because in recent years (after the publication of
instructions on competitions) in order to strengthen the material interest of
the scientif ic workers in improving the eff iciency of scientific research
in individual scientific research institutions of different departments, new
systems of paying the scientists were introduced as an experiment. (We are
speaking of the Scientific Research P1~ysical-Chemical Institute imeni L. Ya.
Karpov, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute for Organization,
Control and Economics of the Oil and Gas Industry and other institutiona).
Consequently, a number of scientific research institutions have introduced
additional titles for positions of scientific workers: head of the section,
head of the sector, chief epecialist, leading researcher, senior researcher,
scientific colleague, ~unior s~:ientifio colleague, etc. In this case, the
positions "chief specialist," "leading researcher," "senior researcher,"
"scientific colleague" are not stipulated in any of the standard acts which
define the order for hiring and firing scientific workers.
By a decree of the USSR Council of Ministers of 22 March 1967 No 237, the
leaders of the scientific research institutions are given the right to
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formulate and confirm the structure and staff of the scientific-research
institution as applied to the model structures and staffs. In the decision
(order) on reorganization, the ds for eliminating and organizing subdi-
visions or individual positions are indicated (with complete listing of their
titles). The fact of selecting scientific workers according to the old
(eliminated) structure loses i~s ~uridical value from the date of reorganiza-
tion (elimination.of the given subdivision or position) and does not provide
the grounds for noncompetitive filling of vacant pos~tions of the scientif ic
workers according to the new structure.
The scientific colleagues of the eliminated subdivisions (positions) which
during reorganization will not be accepted in the competition for vacant
position in~~ the new structure are released to cut down on the staff (point 1
of article 33 of the RSFSR Code of Laws on Labor) with payment of two-week
severance pay. The release of scientific workers to cut down on the size of
the staff is done with observance of the norms of labor legislation. Dis-
solution of the labor contract for point 1 of article 33 of the RSFSR Code of
Law on Labor is not permitted without preliminary agreement of the local
trade union committee, and the offer to participate in the competition equals
~ an offer for specialized employment.
The 26th Party Congress has set high assignments for 1981-1985 for the develop-
ment of science and technology. The USSR Gosplan, State Conanittee for
Science and Technology, and USSR Academy of Sciences have formulated 160
scientific and technical programs, including 30 target intregrated programs
which stipulate large-scale realization in the national economy of the most
signif icant achievements of science. It consequently becomes necessary to
rapidly change the structure and staffs of the scientific research institu-
tions. Increase in work efficiency of the scientific organizations without
increase in the number of scientific cadres is of especial importance.
It has been proven long ago that the�successful development of scientific
research depends not on the simple increase in numbers of scientif ic workers,
but primarily on their correct selection, optimal placement and the most
expedient use. This also determines the task of re-examining the formed
principles of competitive selection of scientific cadres and their certifi-
cation in order to convert this system into an efficient tool for improving
the efficient of work of the scientifid research institutions. This means
the establishment of a clear order for changing the organizational structures
of the scientific institution to bring them into correspondence with the
changing sub~ect matter, for elimination and reorganization of small and
ineff icient subdivisions, for concentration of scientific forces on the main,
' key trends in scientific and technical progress.
It is expedient to change the periods for selecting the scientific workers
and to take them on for a period that coincides with the planned period for
fulfilling the scientific work.
The active instructions for the order of filling positions of the scientific
workers of scientific research institutions have established that every
S years these workers (~unior scientific colleagues every 3 years) should be
appointed for a new period by the scientif ic council. The decision of the
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council in this case has the same 3uridical force as the decision on the
results of the competitions. Thus, the individuals who have been hired
without competition and who have passed selection at the scientific council
acquire the right of the scientif ic workers hired by competition. (The
agreem.ent of the scientific worker for selection is not required; if he does
not want to observe the order of selection (certification) established by the
legislature, he can file for release or switching to another position where
certification is not held).
The procedure of selecting for a position significantly differs from the
holding of the competition. The competition is only held to fill a
vacant (not occupied by anyone) position, and several applicants for one
position generally participate in the competition. The selection of
scientific workers for a new period is done by a schedule approved by the
administration with the agreement of the local trade union committee and
the higher organization. The schedule is approved in the beginning of each
year and the scientific workers are informed. In addition, the leader of
the scientific institution is obliged to notify in advance, but no later than
. 10 days before the meeting of the scientific council (section) the individuals
selected for the new period, the date and place of the council (section)
meeting. It is not recornmended that more than five-aeven scientific workers
be selected at one meeting of the scientific council.
Before the scientific workers are selected to a position, they must report on
the results of their scientif ic activity in the past period (five-year or
three-year for the junior scientif ic colleagues). The heads of the scien-
tific departments, laborator~es, sectors re~ort at the meeting of the
council, the senior and junior scientific colleagues report in the
scientific department, laboratory or sector. The scientific worker provides
a report in written formfor the period indicated by the administration. In
addition, the meeting of the council or scientific subdivision hears his
`r~rnr~: --~T~te "riature of the oral report is determined by the scientif ic council
which may be limited to answers of the scientif ic worker to individual
questions.
The council of the~scientific institution makes a decision about selecting
the scientific worker for the position for a new period by secret vote. The
decision is considered effective if no less than two-thirds of the council
members participated in the voting. The scientific worker is considexed
selected if over half of the council members ~o participated in the selection
voted for him. The scientif ic workers who are selected for the new term _
have the right to be present at the meeting of the scientific council to
discuss their questions. If the scientific worker is absent from the meeting
without valid reasons, the question of selection can be examined in his
absence. In this case, the council hears a report of the leader of the
subdivision where the scientific worker works , and makes a decision by
voting.
The scientific worker can ask for a secondary examination by the council of
Che question of his selection to a position if he was not present at the
meeting of the council for a valid reason (for example, sickness, leave of
absence, business trip) or if he was not notif ied of the time and place of
the council's examination of the question of his appointment to the position.
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The scientific workers that are not selected by the council for the new term
are released from work in the scientific institution or are transferred to
lower offices (noncompetitive). The following is entered in the work book
of the released workers: "geleased because of lapse of work term set by the
legislature on competitions."
It would have been useful to ~ake the statufie standard which states that

~ during the selectinn for a new term, as the suitability of the scientific
colleague for the nex~ h~gher positio~ is clarified, the scientific council
could make a suggestion about transferring him to this higher position. This
requires the introduction of several ranks both for ~unior and for senior
scientific colleagues with a difference in the position salaries.
The active instructions for the order of filling positions of scientif ic
workers also stipulate a special, exceptional case for release: the leader
of the scientific institution has the rfght to fire or~demote a_ ~
scientific worker before the end of the five-year or three-year period if he
has not shown a positive side in its scientific work. The basis for this
firing or demotion is the decision of the council about the noncorrespondence
of the worker to the occupied position made by secret vote. The resolution
of the question must generally be preceded by verification of his work by
a special commission appointed by the director of the scientific institution
from the members of the council, as well as representatives of the social
organizations. The commission pro�~ides the council with its motivated con-
clusion, and the workers must be acquainted with its contents and the materials
of the check before the meeting of the council.
The order for firing a scientific worker because he does not fit the
position also needs pinpointing. It is extremely important to define the
sample list of grounds for firing a scientific worker, including cases where
he did not show a positive side in scientific work, and also when his non-
correspondence is determined by amoral behavior, especially in educational
functions (supervision of post-graduate students or scientific subdivisions).
According to the decree of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council
of Ministers of 24 September 1968 No. 760, a number of ineasures were adopted
to improve the results of scientific activity. The USSR Academy of Sciences,
sector academies, academies of sciences of the union republics, ministries
and departments have been entrusted with evaluating no less than once every
3 years the activity ~~f the scfentific research institutions under their
jurisdiction. 't'he rp.sults of this evaluation muat be used to make a decision
on their futther development, additional material incentive for the
collectives. The evaluation of the activity results of the scientific insti-
tution should be considered in the certification, and material stimulation
should be more widely used to increase the efficiency of the scientific work.
It is necessary to considerably strengthen the efficiency of the economic
levers and stimuli, having placed material incentive in direct dependence on
the efficienty and quality of work and the fulfillment of the planned assign-
ments.
Legal regulation of the labor of the scientific workers is one of the most
important methods of state supervision of science. From here we have the
need to improve the order for filling positions of the scientific workers and
other statutes on their labor. The legal grounds for training and certifying
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need to improve the order for fulfilling the positions of scientific workers
and other statutes on their labor. The legal principles for training and
certification of scientific cadres must be secured in legislation and at
the same time promote an improvement in the efficacy of scientific research.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1982
9035
CSO: 1814/76
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UDC 207.2
SOVIETS ACTIVELY PARTICIPATE IN INTERNATIONAL 'MAN AND BIOSPHERE' PROGRAM
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SS$R in Russian No 4, Apr 82 pp 77-84
[Article by Academfcian V. Ye. Sokolov snd Candidate of biological sciences
G. V. Nizhnik: "In the Soviet Committee on the Program,'Man and the Bio-
sphere ] �
[Text] In 1970 the 16th Session of the General Conference of UNESCO adopted
the international program "Man and the Biosphere" (MAB from the English Man
and the Biosphere). This program which was instituted by UNESCO because
of the ever increasing effect of man on the environment was called upon to
guarantee on the basis of comprehensive basic researdh the production of
scientific data needed for the efficfent use of natural resources and con-
trol of processes occurrin g in nature.
The program stipulates the use of the experience of certain other interna-
tional programs, in particular the International Biological Program. But in
contrast to it, the new program, in a~dition to study'ing the changes in the
natural processes occurring in the biosphere under the influence of human
activity, also focuses attention on investigating the effect of these
changes on man himself. Specialista of the most diverse fields of knowledge
have been involved in the work, including representatives of the humanities
(sociologists, economists, etc.), that is the program has a clearly pronouncPd
interdisciplinary nature. It stipulates the organization and conducting in
different regions of the world of comprshensive studies on the investigated
problems. Supervision of the work and observation of its fulf illment has
been entrusted to the International Coordination Council which includes
representatives of 30 states, including the USSR. At the last Seventh
Session of the council which took place in Paris from 30 September to
2 October 1981, the following were elected to its staff: chairman Balla
Keyta (Ivory Coast) and four vice-chatrmen V. Ye. Sokolov (USSR), D. King
(United States), R. Neto (Brazil) and Yan Hanshi (Chinese People's Republic).
The first session of the council in November 1971 suggested 13 projects for
international cooperation, and in 1974 upon the inltiat{ve of the Soviet
scientists the progr.am was supplemented with a'14th project: "Study of
Environmental Pollution and Its Effect on the Biosphere." In addition,
according to the recommendations of the firat conference on coordinating the
activity of the national committees on the program "Man and the Biosphere"
(Moscow, March, 1977), four working groups were additionally set up: for
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environm~ntal protection education and training of cadres; for socioeconomic
problems of tt~e interaction of man and the biosphere; for systems analysis
and mathematical modeling; for scientific and technical information.
The UNESCO program "Man and the Biosphere" currently includes the following
pro~ects.
Pro~ect 1--"Ecological Effect of Increasing Human Activity on the Tropical
and Subtropical Forest Ecosystems." Project 2--"Ecological Effect of
Different Types of Land Use and Management Practice on Forests in the
Temperate Zone and Mediterranean" (subproject 2a--"Ecological Effect of Man
on Taiga Ecosystems"; subpro~ect 2b--"Effect of Humar. Activity on Vegetation,
Environmental Protection Properties and.Productivity of Forest Ecosystems of
the European Sector of the USSR.") Pro~ect 3--"Effect of Human Activity and
Methods of Land Use on Pasture Land: Savanna and Grassy Landscapes (from
Moderate to Dry Regions".) Pro~ect 4--"Effect of Human Activity on Dynamics
, of Ecosystems of Arid and Semiarid Zones, Including Use of Pasture Lands and
Consequences of Irrigation." Project 5--"Ecological Effect of Human Activity
on Resources of Lakes, Swamps, Rivers, Deltas, Estuaries and Coastal Regions."
Project 6--"Effect of Human Activity on Mountain and Tundra Ecosystems"
(subpro~ect 6a--"Effect of Human Activity on Mountain Ecosystems"; sub-
project 6b--"Effect of Human Activity on Tundra Ecosystems.") Project 7--
"Ecology and Efficient Use of Island Ecosystems." Pro~ect 8-~Preservation
of Natural Regions and Genetic Material Contained in Them "(subpro~ect 8a--
"Biospheric Preserves"; subpro~ect 8b--"Species and Its Productivity in the
Geographic Ranges.") Project 9--"Ecological Evaluation of the Control of
Agricultural Pests and Use of Fertilizers in Surface and Water Ecosystems"
(subpro~ect 9a--"Ecological Evaluation of the Consequences of Using Ferti-
lizers in Surface and Fresh Water Ecosystems"; subproject 9b--"Ecological
Consequences of Systematic Use of Pesticides and Other Means of Controlling
Harmful Organisms in Surface and Fresh Water Ecosystems.") Pro3ect 10--
"Effect of Main Types of Engineering Operations on Man and His Environment."
Project 11--"Ecological Aspects of the Municipal Systems ~aith Special
Emphasis on the Use of Energy ("Ecological Aspects of Settlement")." Pro-
ject 12--"Interaction between Transformations of the Enviroment and Adaptive,
Demographic and Genetic Structure of the Population." Project 13--"Under-
standing of the Condition of the Environment." Project 14--"Study of Environ-
mental Pollution and Its Effect on the Biosphere."
Over 100 countries participating in the work on the program have set up
national committees which select the most urgent trends in ~esearch for their
countries and guarantee international cooperation for their implementation.
Work was done 2 years ago on 396 scientific topics, but now the number of
developed topics has risen to 906 and a considerable number of them cover
the effect of human activity on the main types of natural communities: tundra,
forests of the temperate zone, subtropics, tropics, savanna, steppe and
desert, islands and mountains, basins and coastal regions. Ways are also
being sout~ht for oreser~~atjon of the different natural regions and geno-
fund of animals and plants. The effect is being est$blished of pesticides,
herbicides and mineral fertilizers on the environment~ reasons are being
specified for the decreased efficiency of chemical control of agricultural
pests, etc. As a result of the studies, scientifically substantiated fore-
casts should be made for changes in the biosphere and recommendations should
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be made aimed at guaranteeing wiae economic activity of man and permitting
the combination of material and apiritual welfare of people with normal func-
� tioning of the biosphere.
The Soviet committee on the UNESCO program "Man and the Biosphere" was set
up at the end of September 1975. But it actually began to operate in 1976,
therefore 1981 became sort of an anniversary for it since the committee
summarized its activity for 5 years. This article should present an idea
about these results, but a~ournal article is not a report, therefore it
will only name indivfdual results as examples characterizing the committee!s
activity.
The basic tasks of the Soviet committee on the UNESCO program "Man and the
Biosphere" are to coordinate and direct the scientific research on this
program in our country. and also provide a link to UNESCO and other inter-
national and national organizations involved in problems of studying and
protecting the biosphere and the efficient use of i~s resources. The
committee consists of an office, secretariat, scientific coordination
council, working groups and republic committees which directly organize work
for the program. The chief institutions for almost all pro~ects on which
work is done in the Soviet Union are the institutes of the USSR Academy of
Sciences and the academies of aciences of the union republics, and only for
two projects (1 and 14), as well as for one working group (for education
and training of cadres) the institutions of other departments (USSR State
Commi~tee on Forestry, USSR State Commit~ee on Hydrometeorology and the
Moscow State University respectively). The organizational support for work
of the commit~ee has been entrusted to the Institute of Evolutionary
Morphology and Ecology of Animals imeni A. N. Severtsov of the USSR Academy
of Sciences.
A tot~l of 22 working groups have been formed and are actively working. They
plan and monitor the fulfillment of ~esearch in the Soviet Union in the
framework of their pro~ect or problem, and some guarantee cooperation and
coordination of research on a regional level for all the countries of
socialist cooperation: they develop model research programs, pinpoint the
technique, hold meetings of experts on the most urgent problems. The
republic committees Set up in all the union republics and work~ng on in-
house programs of scientific research programs under the supervision of the
Soviet commnittee play an important role.
In the past period~ many regions of the USSR have evolved comprehensive
studies which investigate the changes occurring in the biosphere and its
components under the influence of human activity. It should be said that
only 2 countries are working on all 14 international pro~ects, the USSR
and Australia. UNESCO took an inventory in July 1979 of the scientif ic
research topics whose development had begun in 1976. Our country registered
246 of these topics that referred to all 14~pro~ects. This is the greatest
number of topics for one separate countzy. Australia, for example, regis-
tered 64 topics and the other countries considerably fewer.
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The pro~ects which are included in the program cover the most diverse '
problems. For example, the main task of the pro~ect "Ecological Effects
of Different Types of Land Use and Practice of Management on the Forests in
the Temperate Zone and the Medite~ranean" (we have 45 topics) is to formu-
late fundamentals for the efficient use of the taiga and mixed forests and
to establish ways to increase their productivity, and special attention is
focused on creating methods for forecasting the nature of the response of
the forest ecosystems to anthropogenic intexference.
According to this pro~ect, the USSR has completed the first stage in
studying the cedar forests of the Urals and the West Siberian plain. The
basic laws have been revealed which cover the restoration and age dynamics.
The ages of maturity of the cedar forests of varying biological and
economic importance have been defined. Basically new statutes have been
preliminarily formulated for managing the cedar forests with regard for their
restorative-age dynamics. There are a number of suggestions and devPlonme*+ts
for efficient use and restoration of the taiga ecosystems. In particular,
methods have been suggested for studying the post-fire dynamics of forests
with the use of aerial and space photographs, as well as a technique for
mapping this process. The results of studying the water protection role of
forests of the Lake Baykal basin have been the basis for forestry manage-
ment in this region. ~
A no less amount of work has been done in relatian to the mixed and broad-
leaved ecosystems. Information is primarily accumulated and generalized
regarding the productivity of the forest ecosyatems in the European secter
of the USSR depending on their composition, age, type of forest, etc. Ranges
of fluctuation in the most important environmental factors have been
revealed, and correlations have been defined between them and the horti-
cultural composition, structure and produEtivity of the communities. Pro-
cesses of differentiation and falling of adult trees in the climax taxons .
hav~ebeen stt~died in special detail as a reaction to the high population
- density, and as a result of competition for solar energy, water and food
resources of the ecosystem. The nature has been revealed of adaptive re-
arrangements in the structure of the assimilation apparatus and suction roots
of spruce'stock in crttical weather situations.
The mate~tials of these and other studies were the basis for a flowsheet and
practical measures for protecting the apruce forests of the large state
sanctuary Verkhenvol'zhye (Central Forest State Preser~e of the USSR
Ministry of Agriculture) where a system was set up for sample reference
areas to organize studies on the program of biosgheric preserves.
An important part of the work is to evaluate the effect of ineliorative syatems
on the productivity of forest types. It was found that decrease in the
level of subsoil water during meliorative operations to 0.5 m in the ma~ority
of cases does not reduce the productivity of forests. but can cause
temporary reduction in their growth. With a decrease in the level of
subsoil waters in limits of 0.5-1 m, the change in productivity can,depending
on other conditions, be positive, neutral and negative. Wi~h a decrease in
the level of subsoil waters by more than 1 m, the productivity of tree
stocks diminishes. As a result of the conducted studies, an approximate
scale has been compiled for the effect of reclamation on the productivity of
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phytocenoses and recommendat#.cns have been worked out for the establishment
of biological productivity bfi forest communities depending on their water
supply. Recom~endations have been drawn up for isolation and preservation
in the natural state of valuab~e landscapes and ob~ects of vegetation (land-
scape sanctuaries, botanical sanctuaries and monuments of nature)during
meliorative construction.
Work has also been active for the pro~ect "Effect of Human Activity and Methods
of Land Use on Pasture Land" (seven topics~. Scientific fundamentals have
been formulated for the efficient use of pasture land in different climate,
social and economic conditions. In particular, the economic processes have
been investigated in the Ukrainian steppes, the role of human economic
activity in the evolution o:F modern biogeocenoses has been evaluated, and
specific suggestions have be:en made for itnproving the natural stegpe vege-
tation and its protection. Procedures for radical and surface improvement
of the natural feed crops of Lhe Donbass have been developed and introduced
using local species and forms of perennial feed plants and those from other
regions.
Recommendations have been introduced into~ practice for the eff!.cient use
and improvement in pasture lands which stipulate the regn#.ation of cattle
grazing by seasons, standardization of the load, introduction of fallow
pastures, planting of valuable feed grasses, application of fertilizers,
irri�ation ~f the steppe plots, etc.
A technique has been formulated for evaluating the degre~ of anthropogenic
degradation of the ecosystems. This is of great.practical importance.
Maximum permissible loads have been set for ~ndividual categories of eco-
systems. Studies have been made of the structure, dynamics and anthzopo-
tolerance of populations of a number of endemic plants in the Urals and
tlral region. Scisntific fundamentals have been formulated for protecting
rare plants in these regions (the mater~.a3~s have been included in the
regional "Red Book"). A ser~.es of forecasting charts have been prepared for
the forest-steppe Ural region on changes in the nature of the vegetation
in the next 20-50 years under anthropogenic.loads o�~ varying strength. In
the development of the procedures for improving productivity of the mountain
pasture lands and hay fields of Ta~.fkistan it was establi~shed that the
surface use of mineral fertilizers improves the productivity of low-grass
and large-grain semisavannas, mountain steppes, meadows and prickly grasses
2-4-fold. It has been shown that each plant species has a unique reaction
to the application of ferti~izers and as a consequence the atructure of
the herbage changes.
The work on the pro~ect "Effect of Hua?an Activity on the Dyaamics of the
Ecosystems of Ar#d and Semiarid Zones, Including the Use of Pasture Lands
and the Oonsequences of Irrigation" (22 topics) is very important for our
country. Basic research on the project is aimed at clarifying the laws
governing the structural-functional organizat~~nn of the desert biogeo-
cenoses, dynamics and evolu.tion of their mein components, as well as the
development of fundamentals for the efficient use of the desert resources
and improvement in its productivity. In particular, the morphological
differentiation and multiple-year dynamics of the landscapes in the east
Karakumy have been investigated.
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Within the framework of the pro~ect, experimenta are successfully being
carried out to use space equipment to investigate the natural conditions
of the desert. It is understandable what importance the space methods have
for studying territories of the desert of difficult access, eapecially if
one considers that an increase in the rates of development of new lands
and intensification of the anthropogenic effect on the~nature of the desert
requires an effective system of rapid monitoring of the changes in these
territories and control of their natural procesaes.
Studies of the spectral reflectivity of the vegetation, soils and other natural
components in different regions of Turkmenistan made it possible to determine
the optimal seasonal periads and informative spectral intervals for aeror
space photographs to solve a number of scientific and praCtical tasks.
A lot of attention is focused on the development of basic methad conclu~ions
for mapping the natural processes from large-scale aerial photographs. These
maps make it possible to qualitatively evaluate the condition of the
environment and obtain quantitativp data on the intensity of certain pro-
cesses occurring in it. New thematic maps have been compiled: landacape
map of Turkmenistan (scale 1:2,500,000), soil (1:1,000,000) and map of
vegetation in the zone of influence of the first phase of the Karakum canal
and the adjoining territories. Theae maps are viewed as the first stage in
implementing the ecological monitcring of desert ecosysteina.
Scientific fundamentals have been formulated for enriching the existing
natural and creating artif icial desert biogeocenoses. Work is underway to
improve the methods of securing moving sands and comprehensive development
of low-productive sandy soils. A total of 426 species and types of feed
crops have been introduced from the�cauntries of Asia, Africa and Latin
America. T~n:~ of them proved to be the most stable under the harsh conditions
of Karakumy and yield high harvests of grain for si~os.
Social and economic studies of the consequences of the effect on arid eco-
systems of anthropogenic factors, including those associated with irrigation
and interbasin redistribution o� run-off are becoming more widespread. Cal-
culations have been made for this purpose to determine the economic efficiency
of transferring part of the run-off of the Siberian rivers into the central
region. According to preliminary data, implementation of the first phase of
run-off transfer developed by the planning organizations will riot result in
considerable changes in natural conditions on large-regional scales, although
it will significantly affect local features of the environment, and the
nature of local changes may vary in fairly broad limits depending on the
specific technical solutions, local natural and economic conditions.
It should be said that the problem of transferring part of the run-off of
the northern rivers of the country occupies a large place in the studies on
the project "Effect of Main Types of Engineering-Technical Work on Man and
- His Environment" (14 topics). At the current stage of development of
productive forces, this complicated ecological-economic problem is an
important part of the general problem of efffcient use of nature, while i~s
resolution is aimed, in particular, at scientific substantiation for the
measures to control water resources of the dry land as the most important
component of the biosphere and element of productive forces of society.
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A comprehensive analysis has been made in the pro~ect of the negatiue conse-
quences of territorial redistribution of water resources and specif ic recom-
mendations have been drawn up for their maximum possible prevention. Engin-
eering-economic solutions have been analyzed for the project of territorial
redistribution of run-off from the viewpoint of guaranteeing protection of
nature, impnovement in the use of natural resources and imprn~rement in the
living conditions, state of health and activity of the ~population. The
appropriate recommendations have been formulated.
One of the projects especially covers the problems of water resources, "Eco-
logical Effect of Human Activity on the Resources of Lakes, Swamps, Rivers,
Deltas, Estuaries and Coastal Regions"(16 topics). Primary attention here
was aimed at investigating the biolog~? of aquatic organisms and the effect
of pollution on the composition and production processes ~f aquatic bio-
cenoses. Recording has been done and a cadaster has been compiled for 414
of the largest lakes in Belorussia and this was the basis for recmmmendations
for their eff icient use and improvement in their water regime. The results
of these studies were considered in the development of a unif ied neEwork of
protected territories of Belorussia and organization ~of lake sanctuaries.
It has been shownthat the effect of economic activity has been felt by the
absolute ma3ority of lakes of Belorussia, and this entails the development
of processes of eutrophication because of the influx of biogenic substances,
primarily phosphurus and nitrogen. Practical recommendations have been
prepared for decreasing the rates of eutrophication ofthe republic'~s basins.
Method principles have been formulated within the pro~ect for forecasting
the changes in the resources of surface waters of Belorussia, the Ukraine
and Moldavia, and a quantitative evaluation has been made of these changes
for the calculated levels of 1980, 1985, 1990 and 2000.
New criteria have been formulated for removal and use of water resources
with regard for the hydrological features.of the water ob~ects. In addition
to this, a survey has been made of the Soviet and foreign experience for
comprehensive evaluation (bonitation) of the nattsral resources of the river
ecosystems for their most effic~ent economic use. The bonitation was
carried out for the balance of phosphorus and nitrogen, and based nn an
estimate of the main natural elements of the river ecosystems: lowland
meadows, fish resources and comnercial hunting fauna. The results of this
work have been transferred from practical uae.
The Soviet scientists have done a lot on the project "Preservation of the
Natural Regions and the Genetic Material Contained in Them" (25 topics).
The main goal of the pro~ect which is quite new and has not figured in the
previous programs of work is to create a world network of biospheric sanc-
tuaries and to guarantee protection of the genofund of the main types of
ground and fresh water ecosystems.
Biospheric sanctuaries are a component part.of the syatem of global ecological
monitoring. Their tasks include the preservation of the genofund of living
organisms and reference ecosystems, observation of the condition of the
ecosystems and their individual crnnponents both on territories whose natural
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resources are not exposed to direct economic use, and on territories which
are under anthropogenic influence, development of inethods for predicting
the changes in the condition of the environment, forms and strategies for
contr.olling natural processes, as well as methods of ecological education,
that is, training in a correct attitude towards nature.
In the past period, the USSR has created the first phase of biospheric
sanctuaries (Caucasus, Repeteksiy, Central Chernozem, Sikhote-Alin'skiy,
Prioksko-Terrasnyy, Berezinskiy and Sary-Chelekskiy), which have been included
in the world network by a UNESCO decision. The first samples of Che
future unified monitoring system have been successfully set up on the basis.
of some of these preserves. In order to fulfill the monitoring program in
each bioapheric preserve, not only are studies made which are common for all
sanctuaries which clarify the effect of pollution on the environment, but
regional tasks are solved which are associated with clarifying the effect
on certain ecosystems of different types of economic activity. This trend
in thE work will considerably foster the conducting of zonal-regional
measures for environmental protection, and at the same time provide the
most Important material for development of the most effective ways of
realizing complicated and multiple-plan tasks associated with the observance
of the condition of the environment, its protection and efficient use.
Improtant studies are being made in the framework cf this pro3ect on the
problem "Species and Its Productivity." It is ,prc~posed,it~ particular, that
the solution to the tasks of environmental protecti.on and the efficient use
of biological resources be based on data obtained fr^m studying individual
animal species. Thus the studies of the earthworm of the species Eisenia
nordenskioldi indicated that it may prove promising for settlement in isolated
f oci of farming in the European northern USSR where there are practically
no dead organic residuea in the arable lands because of the lack of earth-
worms. The species of pincher tick Nothrus palustris will probably prove
suitable for bioindication of industrial and radioactive pollution. The
species Chironomus plumosus L. (midges) are a convenient subject for
studying the effects of an anthropogenic factor on the environment: it was
found that the adaptation of thd:s species to changes in the environment is
accompanied by the appearance in its karyotype of additional chromosomes.
Investigation of the distribution and ecology of the roe deer Capreolus
capreolus will significantly improve its hunting.
The introduction of a unif ied system for collecting, processing, accumulating
and issuing data on species of animals and organization of "banks" of
biological information will have great significance for solving questions
of preservation and efficient use of resources of the animal world. A'proto-
type has currently been set up in the Institute of Zoology and Parasitology
of the Lithuanian SSR Academy of Sciences, the main institute for work in
this area.
Finally, it is impossible not to stress that the initiators for including
into the pro~ect such a project which is exceptionally urgent in our time
as "Study of the Pollution of the Environment and Its Effect on the Bio-
sphere" (19 topics), the Soviet scientists, made a weighty contribution to
its realization as well. For example, mathematical model~ were formuiated
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for the dispersal of poilutants, several levels of pollution of basins, soil,
vegetation and atmospheric air of populated areas were established, far the
f irst time in the practice of hygienic studiea a systematic characterizatior~-.
wae made of the main types of industrial sources of environmental pollution
with carcinogenic hydrocarbons, measures have been formulated to decrease
the degree of pollution of the atmosphere, soil and water in regions of
a number of ma~or industrial facilities, etc.
It is already obvious from the listed diverse examples that the author of
this article had to be limited to that the reaearch conducted on the program
generally not only has great scientific, but also practical importance. This
is characteristic for the work of the Soviet scientists on all the projects,
and many results of the work have already been introduced or are being intro-
duced into practice.
The Soviet scientists continue, expand and deepen studies on the in~ernational
program "Man and the Biosphere." It should be noted that they take an active
part in the work on all aspects of the program, including economic, socio-
logical, legal, c~itural, etc. The main feature of this program is that
specific problems are resolved in its framework which meet the requirements
of the participating countries. The Soviet committee for the program "Man
and the Biosphere," in formulating plans for activity of our scientists,
started from and start from the decisions of the 25th and 26th CPSU Congresses
who have set the ecological prob3.em, the problem of environmental protection
and the efficient use of natural resources among the most important state
tasks.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1982
9035
CSO: 1814/74
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UDC 001.89
ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE AND REPUBLIC WZ'S TO STRENGT~N TIES
Moscow VESTNIR AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Ruasian No 12, Dec 81 pp 32-35
[Report by Academician A. A. Logunov, vice-preaident of the USSR Academy of
Sciences, presented by Academician N. G. Baeov: "Concarning the Further Develop-
ment and Strengthening of Relationthipe Between the Union-Republic Academies of
Sciences and Higher Educstional Inatitutions"]
[Text] The 26th CPSU Congress laid out a vitally important program for the economic
and social development of our country for the llth Five-Year Plan and for the period
up to 1990. In his report at the congreas, Comrade L. I. Brezhnev especially
stressed that, for the aucc~asful implementation of this program and the fuller
development of our economy in the 1980's, it i~ neesssary to accelerate ecientific-
technical progress in every way poeaible and, coneequently, increase the output of
Soviet science even more. The "Basic Directione for the Economic and Social
Development of the USSR for 1981-1985 and for the Period to 1990," adopted by the
congress, also planned for increasing the effectiveness of utilizing the acientific
potential of the country's WZ's, along with the development of science within the
system of the USSR and union-republic academieo of aciences.
Our country's higher schools at present have a large acientific potential. In them
there are over 30,000 departmento, 60 acientifie-reaearch institutes, about 1500
laboratories oriented toward problema or economic aectore, and about 450 scientific-
research aectors, computer centers, botanieal gardene, observatories, museums, and
experimental design buresus. The staffs include over 500 academiciana and corre-
sponding members of the USSR and union-republic academiea of aciences who actively
participate in the training of specialiats and in the organization and conduct of
scientific research. About 60,000 studente of formal poatgraduate programs and a
significant number of undergraduates are actively engaged in acientific reaearch in
higher schools.
The USSR Acadenry of Sciences attachea a great deal of significance to interaction
with WZ's and to the development of creative relationahips with tnem. With close
contact wlth che USSR and RSFSR Miniatriea of Higher and Secondary Specialized
Education, the presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciencea for many yeara has given
practical aseistance to WZ'8 in training apecialiat� and has given methodological
assiatance in developing scientific research in the moet urgent areas of preeent-
day science.
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According to a plan approved bq the presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, over
400 scientiate go out to WZ'a around the countfy enery year to give lectures and
provide sid in scientific-m~thodological work. Juat during the yeara of the lOth
Five-Year Plan, about 2000 seientiets, including over 200 acade~icians and corre-
sponding members of the USSR Academq of Sciences, went out to the country's WZ's.
Fruitrul relationehipa in the training of apecialiats and in the cultivation in them
of scientific-research work habits have been established between the USSR Academy of
Sciences and the Moscow Phyaical-Technical Inatitute. The dietingui~hing feature
of these relationehips ia provision bq the academy to the Physical-Technical Insti-
tute of inetitute facilities wh~re atudents of senior couraes obtain deep epeciali-
zation and the possibility of mastering new areas of science.
A special department, organized jointly with the Phyaica In~titute imeni P. N.
Lebedev of the USSR Academy of Sciences, has operated at the Moscow Engineering-
Physics Institute for over ten years. This department prepares undargraduates and
graduates, using current achievdmenta.of academy phyaics inatitutea in individual
programs with consideration for the intereats of the institute that sent the atudent
~here.
Experience in creative relationahipa betwQen the USSR A~cademy of Sciencea and the
Moscow Phyaical-Technical and the Moacow Engineering-Phqaics Institutes could be
usefully transferred to the union republica. In a number of aaademies of aciencea
it is already in use to a certain degree.
An important role in the further development of sciance in republic higher edu�a-
tional institutions was played by the decree of the CPSU C~ntral Co~ittee and
USSR Council of Ministers No. 271 of 6 April 1978 "On Inexeasing the Effectivenesa
of Scientific-Research Work in Higher Educational Inati~utions." A large amount of
attention is being given to thia problem also bq fl i~ective bodi.es o� union repub-
lics' reflecting this in sp~cial deciaion~. In many republias, couneils or commis-
sions for relations with higher achoola have been created under the academies
(AzSSR, ArSSR, GSSR, LaS6R, MSSR, UzSSR, and ESSB).
The measures that have been introduaed have made it p0asible for creative relation-
ships between republic WZ's snd republic aeadamies of eciences to grow and
strengthen significan~ly. At the present time, forms of creative cooperation have
evolved and proved themselve~, auch as W~ participation in joint reaearch with
academy inatitutions in ~he nstural~and social sciencea, agreements for creative
cooperation, work accorSing to unified eoordination plane and inter-VIJZ special-
purpose scientific-teehnical programa, joint publication of acientific worke and
- teaching aids, and conduct of joint acientific conferencea. Many ecientists from
the republic aeademiea take part in the training of specialiats at WZ's, give
special couzses of lectures, and provide ecientific-methodological asaiatance.
About 300 scientiate from republic hi~her echool~ are active mamber~ or correspon-
ding members of republic acaiemies of eciences and, in a number of republica, their
number reaches 20 to 30 percent of the total number of aeademy memberahip. Many
WZ scientista work actively in problen councils. The practice of joint projecte
between WZ's and academy institutiona on imporCant scientific and ecientific-
technical problems has begun to ezpa~ad; the numb~r of W2 projecta in coordination
plans of academies has increaaed; and certain WZ's have begun to participate in
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the development of long-term complex programa. Thus, the coordination plan of the
Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciencea at the preesnt time haa up to 300 research projects
of republic WZ's; the Latvian SSR Academy of Scienc~e plan has over 120 projecta;
and the Lithuanian SSR Academy of sciQncea plan has 240 projecta (which conatitutes
about 50X of all projects in the coordination plan of thi~ academy). Scientists of
Moldavian W2's are co-performers in 15 republic multi-sector scientific-technical
problems and 20 problems in the natural and social scienees. The Kazakh SSR
Academy of Sciencea is having good sesults in joint reeearch with WZ ecientists in
projects in the fi~lds of chemistry, m~etallurgy, biology, and mining. The Turlasez~
SSR Academy of Sciences is succesefully conducting complex research in cooperation
with soil-science pereonnel from the Leningrad and Ta~hkQnt Agricultural Inatitutes
in developing measuree directed toward the e~fec~ive use of land resourees,
espe cially deserts. The Uzbek SSR Academy of S�ienees has developed practical
measures for joint utilization with WZ's of unique s�ientific equipment. During
the last three years, it has tranBferred acientifie equipment and inetruments
worth a total of about 500,000 rublea to WZ's wi~hout compensation.
Scientists of the Latvian SSR Academy of Scienaea are cooperating ~ucceaefully with
republic WZ departmenta in urgent projects in organic ayntheaie, physica of solids,
problems in machine building, and in other fields of research.
The program for scientific cooperation for 1980-~981 bstween the Moldavian Academy
of Sciences and the republic Ministry of Higher and Secondarq Specialized Education
provides for joint work on 70 ecientific developments, 53 special lecture courses'by
academy scientista, and more than 20 joint conferenaes and meetings; proposals are
being developed for joint creation and operation of scienti�ic-experi.mental
facilities and nonstandard equipment.
A large amount of attention is being given to the d~vel.opment of creative relation-
ships between academy institutee and WZ's by the preaidiuma of the acadQmies of
sciences of the Ukraine, Belorussia, and Tajikiatan. In the Armenian SSR Academy
of Sciences, this question has become a aubject for diecu~sion at a special aession
cf the republic Council for Coordination.
The tr~nsition to special-purpose-program planaing of scientific developments has
had a positive influence on the development of cooperation between republic a~ad-
emies of sciences and republic WZ's. As a result of this, creative relationships
between academies and WZ's in individual republica have acquired a long-term basis,
concentration of forcea and resources on the most important areas of ecientific-
technical progress has been intensified, and th~ degree of complexity and level of
research has been raised. As an example, one can cite the Belorussian SSR Academy
ot Sciences where, under the lOth Fine-Year Plan, over 20 W~'s took parc in the
development of 20 most-important republic complex programs. In Rirghizia, republic
WZ's accomplished, together with the AcadQmy of Sciences, the dev~lopment of four
complex programa as well as 116 topice in the general coordination plan.
Close scientific cooperation between institutions of the union-republic academies
of aciences and WZ's was planned alao for the llth Five-Year Plan and undoubtedly
will facilitate the further development of fundamental and applied resaarch,
increase ita effectiveness and, at the eame time, fulfill the directives of the
26th CPSU Congrese.
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In evaluating the atatus of creative relation~hips between higt?er schoole and
union-republic academies of sciences~ it muat be recognized that, in this important
matter, far from all exicting reaerv~a are being exhatisted.qet.
VIJZ's in the republics do not eufficiently utiliZe the capabilities of republic
academies for training, especialiy special-purpoae poatgraduate trai~ing programs.
The capabilities of the U~Sx Academy of Sciences alao are not fully used for this
purpose. On the other hand, acientiet~ of republic academies ~till do not partici-
pate sufficiently in educational-taaching work in WZ's and give special lecture
courses too infrequently. Considering the rapid development of seience and ita
practical application, it seema important that the content of educational programs
and lecturea in WZ's reflect the maximum in latest scientific achievement. This,
in turn, presuppoaee serious work in systematic examination and renewal of
curricula, programa, lecture courses, and laboratorq work. In correspondence with
this, the subject matter of studento' courae and diploma projects aleo should be
changed. Hence, it followa that conetant direct~ partieipation by leading scien-
tists from republic academies in the scisntific-educstional proceas and in the
preparation of textbooks and te~ching aid~ is extremely neaessary. Speaking of
educational work and, especiallq, of inculcating atudants with the interest in and
habits of research, it would be advisable to recommend to W2's and union-republic
academies of sciences that they utilize more widely the experience of the USSR
Academy of Sciences and the Moscow Physical-Technical Inetitute, the Moacow
Engineering-Physics Inetitute and Novosibirsk University, and also the UkSSR and
BSSR Academies of Sciences, for combining the teaching proceas with scientific-
research work at institutea of the academiea of aciencea. At the Ukrainian SSR
Academy of Sciences, at several academy in.titutea, depar~ments of the Moscow
Physical-Technical Institute have been created that allow the training of
specialists for new, growing areas of acience and technology. Up to 500 students
annually undergo production practice in institutea mf the t?kSSR Academy of Sciences.
As for creative scientific relationships between union-republic academies of
sciences and WZ's, it ehould be noted that, although aueh relationahips have
achieved a rather high lenel (UkSSR, BSSR, LaSSR, LiSSR, MSSR, and othera), they
cannot be called satisfactory as $ whole. WZ's of union republica are still not
sufficiently enlisted in active participation in the ~cientif ic research process of
republic academies, and the capabilitiea of WZ's, their intellectual and scienti-
fic-technical potential is insufficisntlq utiliaed. Insuffiaient also is the
interaction between scientific problem councila of the ac~demies of sciencea and
the corresponding WZ departmanta. Scientiata of tihe academiea of sciences do not
participate activ~ly enough in the acientific rasear~h of WZ's, espe~ially on those
problema for which WZ's are the head organizatione. The right forma have not been
set up for the cooperation of librariea, patent servicee, and scientific-technical
information between union-republic academies and WZ's. Academy-~VtTZ joint research
related to fulfillment of special-purpo0e complex programs ia atill rare in the
republica; insufficient also is cooperation on apecific developmenta between
departments of higher schoola and corresponding ecientific institutiona of their
republic academiee, and also coordination in planning and conducting joint topical
conferences and symposia.
The improvement of creative and practical relationohips between academy inatitutes
and republic WZ'e and raising the level of reeearch conducted by them also
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require th~ unification of their efforta to d~~~lop eollective utilization of
expensive and vnique equipment, and, in tl~is connection, systems for acquiring
, this equipment without unnecesaary dnplicstion.
Thus, in summary, it must again be atated that the expansion, deepening, and
improvement in the creative relation~hips between republic academies and higher
schools are extremely urgent at ~he present time, since they represent a powerful
hidden reserve that we should utilize to increase the effectiv~ness of science
under the llth Five-Year Plan and to accomplieh the ta~ka placed before ecience
by the 26th CPSU Congresa. ~
COPYRIGHT: Iadatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik.Akademii ~auk S.;SR", 1981
9645
CSO: 1814/48
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NEW EDITION OF 'MULTILATERAL COOPERATION OF THE ACADEMISS OF SCIENCES OF THE
SOCIALIST COUNTRIES' ISSUED
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Rueaian No 4, Apr 82 pp 112-115
[Review b,y S. G. Kara-Murza, candidate of ch~m~cal aci~ences, of book "Mnogo-
storoneye sotrudn3chestvo~akademiy~.aauk ~,otsialistYcheskikh stran"[N:ulti--
lateral Cooperation of the Academies of Sciences of the Soc~alist Countries],
collection of articles and documents edited by Academician G. K. Skryabin,
Moscow, Izdatel'svto "Nauka," 1981, 2000 copies, 368 pages]
[Text] The st~ategic principle of a coordinated scientific policy. of the
socialist countries to guarantee a solid front of research in all directioas
of scientific and technical progress hae become urgent as never before in the
recently developed international situation. A task of this scale can only
be solved by the joint efforts of the states, and therefore requires all
possible activation of scientif ic cooperation among the countries of socialist
cooperation. This also determined the interest of the researchers, workers
of nhe adminstration and broad circles of scientific public in works treating
methodological and organizational problems of scientific cooperation which
generalize the accumulated experience.
The Administration of Scientific Eooperation with the Socialist Countries of
the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Institute of the Histvey
of Natural Science and Technology of the USSR Academy of Sciences recently pre-
pared a second, considerably revised and supplemented edition'of a collection
- of articles and decuments "Multilateral Cooperation of "the Academies of
Sciences of the Socialist Countries" (first edition in 1978). The need for
the revision was explained by the fact that in the last 3~.~ears; the ties be-
tween the academies have signif icantly deepened. New agreements were con-
cluded, the circle of their participanta was�expanded and the Program for
Multilateral Cooperation of the Academies of Scien�es for 1981-1985 and
the draft of the Long-Term Program for Multilateral Cooperation in the A~ea
of Natural Sciences to 1990 were approved.
By tradition, the main fund for basic reaearch in the social#.st countries goes
to the academies of aciences, and the ~is~:between them essentially determine
the condition of cooperation in the sphere of basic sciences. These ties are
an organic part of the entire system of international scientific and techninal
cooperation in the framework of socialist cooperation, and at the same time,
they reflect the specific nature of the academies of sciences as a special
form of organization of science.
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The circle of questions touched upon in the collection is very broad: the
principles for development of science and the scientific cooperation under
socialism, the history of cooperation of the academies, extensive ~~lformation
about the exchange and mutual help in specific scientific areas. We find rich
factua~ material in the documents which show the real practice of organizing
multilateral scientific cooperation based on the use of a developed complex of
original methods and resources. This mater~al which is diverse in its nature
was successfully united into a comparatively small book ar~ it mas successfullq
presented in a compact form because of the well-thaught ast structure of the
collection.
The first section presents the test of the speech of L. I. Brezhnev at a
meeting with the leaders of the academies of aciences of the socialiat coun-
tries on 17 February 1977, where the modern concepts regard~ng the role of
science in the socialist and communist construction, and the tasks and prin-
ciples of scientific cooperation cf the socialiet countries which are the basis
for Sov#et scientific policy were formulated. The basic atatutes of the
Communique on the Conference of Presidents of the Acadmies of Sciences of the
Socialist Countries (15-18 Eebruary 1977) presented here are ~n common with
these concepts.
The next section is articles which cover the specific areas of multilateral
cooperation of the academies and development of ite organizational forms.
The authors of a number of materials are ma~or Soviet scientists who have
participated in the establishment and the deepening of cooperation. It is
apparent from their stories haw the formation of the scientific ties occurred,
- how the selection of the organizational forms was influenced by the cognitive
= situation in a certain trend of research or in a discipline, the presence of
a scientific sCockpile, condition of the infrastructure of research of the
partners, how the initiative and potentialities were considered not only of
individual scientific schools, but even the individual prominent researche~s.
In fact, even with a unit of that organizational-legal basis on which inter-
national scd.entif ic and technical cooperation is built among socialist
countries, each specific international community of scientists which developed
in a specific area of science is an unrepeatable social organism. The descrip-
tion of the history of formation and development of these communities is
successfully supplemented by documents collected in the third section regarding
the muttilateral cooperation of the academies. The publication of these
documents is of scientific-cognitive importance, and in the context of the
book, the indifferent articles of the agreements and the charters acqutre a
new sound: they convincingly show the fraternal and equal-rights nature of
the relationships between the partners in the area of scientific cooperation
based on socialist principles of international solidariry. This is the great
merit of the collection.
Comparison of the facts of apecific history of cooperation of the academies
of sciences of the socialist countries with organizational-legal documents
generates inCeresting methodological questions. The long-established concepts
acquire new content, especially the concept of mutually advantageous coopera-
tion. It is known that from the very beginning of multilateral cooperation in
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the sphere of basic r.�esearch, the USSR Academy of Sciences has made such
investments of material-technical and cadre reeources to the common buainesa
that they have become a systems-forming factor which creates the basis for
further ~oint activity. Of great importance, for e$amg~e, was the transfer
of a first-class experimental base to the United Institute of Nuclear Reaearch.
This made it possible in short periods to guarantee a high level of research in
nuclear physics and elementary particles, and for the scientists of all the
socialist countries offered the possibility of participating in the develop-
ment ofone of the most important trends in scientific and technical progress.
The technical resources presented by the Soviet Union permitted cooperation in
an~ther sphere of science, space research.
The countries who are participating in the program "Intercosmos" do not make
mutual payments and calculations. The USSR is offering gratuitous resources
of space rocket equipment and services of the command and measuring complex
to its partners in cooperation. The USSR Academy of Sciences takes upon it-
self comprehensive testing of the satellites with the apparatus of t~ie
interested organizations and conducts prAliminary processing of the:tele-
metering info~mation from on board the satellites. It is then sent for analysis
to the countries participating in the experimant. Intensified work to study .
space has joined the large international collective of scientists, engineers,
cosmonauts and workers. The effett of each joint experiment is not limited to
the "scientific advan~age" of each of the participants, but creates a common,
indivisible value. When the satellite "Intercosmos-Copernicus-500" was put
into o~bit in honor of the SOOth anniversary of N. Copernicus with scientific
apparatus developed by the Polish scientists, the entire socialist comiaunity
expressed ite respect for the great scientist: There is also an immeasurable
ef~ect from the manned flights of citizens of the socialist countries in
international crews on Soviet spacecraft and atations which was suggested by
the USSR.
The organization of international cooperation in nuclear and space research,
which, as is known is distinguished by great specificity associated with the
unique technical base, is sufficiently completely covered in the collection.
In addition, the history and current state of cooperation of the academies of
sciences of the socialist countries are shown in a broad spectrum of disciplines
and scientific trends that are not strictly tied to the unique and expensive
equipment.
The book reports on the different "centers of crystallization" which developed
as a result of the unif ication.of scientists of different fields of science,
the mutually supplementing co~?bination of efforts of different scientif ic
schools, and the coordinated study of the object with the help of different
approaches. An eloquent example of this, molecular biology, is an area where
because of the successful harmony of the joint efforCs of a very large number
of scientific institutions of many countries, signifdcant resul~s have been
achieved in a short time. They are determined a great deal by the extensive
scientific-organizational experience accumulated from the moment that the
international problem commission "Chemistry and Biochemistry of Nucle3c Acids"
was set up in 1962. the authority dt has won in the scientific community,
and the convincing demonstration of eff~.ciency of multilateral cooperation.
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The problem commission for the comprehensive problem "Molecular Biology" was
set up in 1975. Now there are 30 institutes of the USSR and about 70 scien-
tific institutions of the socialist countries participating in multilateral
cooperation coordinated by this comanission. T hey are ~ointly working out
over 20 topics.
The project "Revertase" (leades of the wor�k Academician V. A. Engel'gardt and
DocCor of biological sciences L. L. Kiselev) indicates the enormous potentia-
lities which have been afforded during the joint studfes. The main purpose of
the project is to master ~ynthesis of the genetic material by the so-called
reverse transcription (synthes~s of DNA on the RNA matrix by the revertase
enzyme). Studies on the project expand the concept regarding the basic
features of living systems, and at the same time afford new paths for work in
the field of genetic engineering wh~ch have great applied importance for
medicine and agriculture.
A large number of organizations of the Third World countries participated in
implementing the project. The administerial experience indicates that in order
to coordinate such a complicated system, strong admin~strative and economic
levers are needed, however the pro~ect "Revertase" was implemented without the
creation of any supranatdonal agency which possessed such levers. Common
interest, mutual confidence of the participants and high scientific authority
of the leaders proved to be suff icient factors to guarantee close cooperation,
and in compressed schedules implemented a ma~or scientific and technical pro-
gram. The group of scientists led by Academician V. A. Engel'gardt was
awarded the USSR State Prize for this in 1970. Among the laureates were
Academician of the Czechos~ovakian Academy of Sciences I. Rzhiman and Acade-
mician of the GDR Academy of Sciences Z. Ro~en~hal.
The cooperation of the academies of sciences of the socialist countries for
basic scientific problems implemented within the framework of the problem
commissions is supplemented by work done under the aegis of the coordinatf.dn
centers. These centers coordinate the effor~s on an interdepartmental basis
and unite different stages of the scientific and technical cycle, from
forecasting to expertmental-design developments. In recent years the func-
tions of the coordination center have been place more on the academic institu-
tions. In particular, the Institute of Biophysics of the USSR Academy of
Sciences coordinates the researc~ in the area of biological physics of 137
organization-executors fram the socialist countries. The collection damon-
strates well the combination of the most importatit forms of organizing
the cooperation in academic science and the methods of including this
cooperation into the general system which unifies the institutions and organi-
zations of all types.
A lot of space in the collection is given over to the area ~f social sciences.
The features of these studies, the continuity of basic knowledge and its direct
use i:~ controlling social processes, political-educatiox~al work and the
~ ldaological struggle, and the need for a fast response to the urgent questions
which the complicated and rapidly cnanging political situation in the world
raise--all of this has governed bhe special forms of coordinating the coopera-
tion of social scientists. The collectioa aovers the role and the activity
of the permanent management agencX, the Conference of Vice-Presidents of the
Academies of Sciences of the 3ocialist Count~ries for Social Sciences from the
moment of its signing in 1971.of the Agreement on Multilateral Scientific
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Cooperation. Re~rospective analysis of this cooperation shows a trend towards
increase in it of the specific weight of the major "monograph" studies. This
has been organizationally reflected in the transition to the five-year planning
and the adoption of long-term programs which unite a number of target programe.
They have been developed by international research groups set up on a temporary
basis.
Ma,jor joint measures are also being taken in the sphere of setting up scientific-
information servicing of the scientists. A specfa~ article in the collection
covers an analysis of the joint efforts of the socialist countries to set up
the International Information System for Social Sciences (MISON). The
Institute of Scientific Information for Social Sciences of the USSR Academy
of S�iences has become the leading agency in the MISON.
On the whole, familiarity with the collection makes it possible to conclude that
i~.s authors and editors did extensive and useful work. It only remains to be
hoped that this book has opened up a whole seriea of works on the problem of
the cooperation of socialist countries ~n the area of fundamental science at
the current stage which is urgent in a practical and theoretical sense.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1982
9035
CSO: 1814/75
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S&T POLICY BEING F~'HASIZED IN CEMA COUNTRIES
Moscow VOPROSY EKONOMIKI in Russian No 12~ Aec 81 pp 83-92
[Article by G. Vlaskin, Yu. Naido and 0. Yurygin: "Trends of Scientific-T.echnical
Policy in CEMA Countries (Survey)"~
[Text] In the transition to intensive type of economic developtaent, scienti-
f ic-technical policy begins to play a larger ro~e in the economic policy of
the socialist countries. The measures taken in the framework of scientific-
technical policy for state power and_control are aimed at:
selection of ways for optimal develapment of national scieatific-technical
potentials ~financing of scientific research and experimental deaign develop-
ments, ~SREA~i, their structure, foruiation o~ the cadre potential of science
and its staff, strengthening of the material--technical base of science);
accelerated introduction of results of scientific research and development
into the national economy and their ntaximum dissemiriation (improvement in
planning, control and economic atimulation a~ scientif ic and technical
progress, STP, questions of organizational and econotnic unification of science
and production, etc.);
improvement in the efficiency of the country's participation in the interna-
tional separation of labor in the area ~f science and technology (scientific-
technical cooperation, STC, of the socialist countries among themselves, with
the developed capitaliat and with the developing countriea).
Financing of SREDW is viewed in the CF~IA countries as the most important con-
dition for expanding the scale and inteneifying scientific research and
development, increasing capital investments to the tnaterial and technical base
of science, acquisition of foreign licenaes, etc. In the 1960's-1970's, the
growth rates for expenditures for ecience and technology considerably out-
stripped the growth rates for the national income. As a result, in the
countries of socialist cooperation there was a continuous rise in the percentage
of expenditures for SREDW in the n~tional income. In the second half of the
1970's, the indicated percentage for the European countries of the CEMA
(minus Romania) was in limits from 2.2 to 4.6X, and in the Socialist Republic
of Romania, 1.35~. This means that for this indicator, the socialist states
currently occupy the leading place in the world. This refers in the first
place to the USSR, CSSR and GDR. The expenses for SREDW in all the CEMA
countries reached an impressive amount, about R 40 billion. 1
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In the last 20 years, the CEMA countries have focused a lot of attention on
the formation of cadre poteatial for science. Now the total number of those
involved in the sphere of science and scientif ic servicing has already
exceeded 5 million people, of them 1.6 million are scientific workers.
Roughly 80X of the total potential of scientif ic cadres in the CEMA countries
is in the USSR (4.35 million people). The CEMA countries now occupy one of the
leading positions in the world for this indicator as well.
The process of forming the cadre potential for science in the.countries of
socialist cooperation was accompanied by the creation of a developed network
of scientif ic reaearch institutians of both academic and sector profile (cur-
rently over 10,000). The scientific workers of the higher educational insti-
tutions of the fraternal countries have also made a considerable contribution
to the development of the scientific problems.
An important result of the development of scientifie and technical potentials
of the socialist countries was the growth of inventor act�ivity (see table 1).
In 1978, the CEMA countries recorded over 84,000 inventions, including 54,600
in the USSR. There was also a cone~derable growth in the effec~ from intro-
ducing inventions into the national economy. Thus, in 1970-1978,. it increased
in Bulgaria 8-fold, in the CSSR fj.6. and in the USSR 5.6~-fold. The average
amount of economic effect for one invention rose in the same period in
Bulgaria 2.5-fold, in Czechoslovakia 2.8 and in the USSR by more than 3-fold
(see table 2). On the whole, the CII~1A countries considerably surpassed the
countries of the EEC and the United States in the nwaber of inventions.
Table 1. Dynamics of Patenting of Inventions in the European Countries of the
CEMA
1970
People's Republic of Bulgaria 534 1,750
Hungarian People's Republic 481 1,529
GDR ~ 5,308 5,017
Polish People's Republic 2,180 5,845
Socialist Republic of Romania 1.440 7,838
USSR 30,636 54,593
CSSR 3,224 7.550
Total 43,803 84 122
The scientific-technical policy conducted by the countries of socialist coopera-
tion has as its goal the further development of national scientific-technical
potentials. Their primary focus is high-quality iiaprovement, increase in
the output of those involved in the scieatific-technical sphere. Problems
associated with an improvement in the structure of the cadre scientif ic
potential, structure of financing of the SREDW, etc. acquire especial urgency.
One of the most important questions is improving the fund- and technical�
equipping of thase involved in the aphere of acience and scientif ic servicing.
In the USSR, for example, in 1950-1977,the epecific weight of the wages fund
for the payment of labor rose roughly l0~fold with a rise in alloc~tions for
technical equipping of the scientific research inatitutes 50-fold. There is
a similar situation in the other CEMA countries. Nevertheless, the problem of
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improving the fund supply and the technical equipping in the sphere of SREDW
continues to remain urgent and requires further change in the structure of their
finsncing in support of an increase in the percentage of capital investments.
Table Z. Economic Effect of Introducing Inventions in Certain CEMA Countries
~ 1970 1978 1978 Effect on one
in millions o t e ersus invention
. national currency) 1970 1970 1978 1978
(times) n t ousan s versus
of national 1970
currency) (times
People s Repu lic o
Bulgaria 9.8 80 8 18.3 45.7 2.5
USSR 261.8 1467 5.6 8.5 26.8 3.15
CSSR 184.1 1224 6.6 57 162 2.84
Modern STP places before industry higher requirements from the viewpoint of
1 the technical level and quality of the manufactured product. It is obvioua
that satisfaction of these requirementa will become impossible without inte-
gration of science and production. However, as noted at the CPSU congresses
and congresses of other fraternal communist and workers' parties, in the chain
connecting science and production, the weakest link is the introduction of
scientif ic and technical achievements into industry. Consequently the general
trend of the scientific-technical policy conducted by the socialist states is
becoming more effective introduction at the current stage of scientific and
technical achievements, and namely, this is primarily associated with the
resolution of tasks of intensifying the economy of the fraternal countries.
The CEMA countries for a number of years already have been implementing a
set of various economic experiments aimed at realizing this complicated,
multifaceted problem. In the 1960's-1970's they accumulated rich collective
experience in this area which resulted in positive shifts.
The efforts of the socialist states have been primarily focused on the con-
vergence of science and ind~istry. Thus, in the framework of the scientif ic-
technical potential, a mass transition has been observed in all the countries
of SREDW to cost accounting.3 In the last fwo-three ~ive-year plans in all
European countries of the CII~tA there has been a significant reduction in
the percentage of budget financing of SREDW with a rise in the percentage of
capital from the special funds of the sectors and enterprises. The transfer
of the scientific research institutes to the subordination of the sectors has
become widespread. Considerable att~ntion is concentaated on the creation
of an experimental base for science.
In a more specific examination of the scientific-technical policy of the
socialist countries it is necessary to primarily 3solate the main trends to
improve the planning, control and economic stimulation of STP. During the
solution of these problems in individual CEMA countries a national specific
nature appears which ~nriches tHe joint experience. At the same time, this
specific nature primarily concerns the specific methods of realizing indi-
vidual measures, while the main trends have mainly a common nature.
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Planning and Control of STP
The basis for integrated control of STP in a planned economy is the agreement
of a plan for development of science and technology with t8e other sections
of the national economic plan. The transition to program~target method in ~
which attention of the research organizations was oriented on the solution
of specif ic scientific-technical tasks promoted the improvement in the metho-
dology of planning STP in the socialist countries. This strengthens even more
the "start-to-finish" planning in the cycle "research-production" and
guarantees synchronization and mutual correlatioa oP the proczsses for the
development of science, technology and production at different levels. The
main link in planning science and technology becomes the target integrated
programs for the most important scientific-technical problems. ,
The plan for development of science and technology in the GDR began to
include questions of introducing the results of SREDW into production in 1972,
and in 1973, the section "Science and Technology" was introduced into the
national economic plan for the first time. For the integrated preparation
and realization of the assignments in the state plan for 1976-1980, coordi-
nation plans were compiled for this section which encompass the entire pro-
cess, from research to practical use of scientific--technical results. The
basic form of planning science ax~d technology in the GDR has become the f ive-
year plan. The annual planning is limited to assignments for the intro-
duction of scientific-technical results into production.
In the CSSR, starting in 1973, the plan for realization of the concluded
SREDW was included as a mandatory part of the national economic plan and
production plans of industrial enterprises. Ro~uania compiles detailed annual
plans (schedules) for introducing SREDW results into material production. The
STP is controlled in Bulgaria through a unified plaa of socioeconomic deveLop-
ment of the country. The section of this plan "Science and Technical Progress"
covers the entire sycle "research-production."
The Soviet Union in the 1960's-1970's developed xoughly the same general
trends in planning and control of STP as in the other CEMA countries. These
questions acquired especial importance because of the decree.of the CPSU
Central Comaaittee and the USSR Council of Ministers on improving the economic
mechanism. The basis for the formulation and the component part of the USSR
national economic plan for 10 years is the integrated STP program developed
by the GKNT, Gosstroy and USSR Academy of Sciences which is designed for 20
years and which is sub~ect to revision every 5 years. As in other CEMA coun-
tries, in the Soviet Union the importance of integrated target scientific-
technical programs is rising. They ~ust conclude with the introduction of
SREDW results in the optimal scales.
The organizational forms of controlling STP are also being improved. They
foster a strengthening of the tie between science and production and accelera-
tion of the introduction process. The most effective form is the large
associations and combines set up in the CEMA countries. They have a powerful
scientific-production, cadre and material-financial base. The process of
integration in one economic complex of scie~tific research institutes, planning
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offices, technological and experimental enterprises included in these
complexes is continuing to evolve.
In the USSR, merging of science and production in the form of scientif ic-
production associations has become the most popular. These associations
began to be set up in 1969. There are currently about 200 of them, and in
the next 2-3 years, according to estimates, there is the possibility of
setting up another 200-250 associations of this type. The Institute of
Electric Arc Welding imeni Ye. 0. Paton of the UkSSR Academy of Sciences has
verified and conf irmed the high efficiency of the new form of organizing
research, academic scientific-technical associations which include institutes,
large design offices, experimental production and experimental planr.s. The
USSR is also testing other forms of combining science and production, for
example, complexes of design offices and scientific-technical institutions
of double subordination (ministries and departments solve organizational-
financial questions, while the academic institutes provide the scientif ic
supervision), educational-scientific-production associations, territorial
scientific-production associations, etc.
_ The most popular form of combining science and industry inthe GDR is the
cambines. There are currently 129 of them. The GDR also has interesting
experience of creating within the framework of the Academy of Sciences a
"potential of introduction" which includes facilities for the production of
scientific apparatus and experimental plants. There are organizations of
this type in one-third of the institutes of a natural-science profile, and
in the next 5-10 years, it is plann~d to set them up in another one-third of
the scientific research institutes.
Other CEMA countries have accumulated fai~tly diverse and useful experience
on solving problems of combining science and production. Despite the specific
nature of these countries, it is common that in all countries, the scientific
research, planning design and technological organizations which are included
in the associations are directly indolved in the sphere of material production.
Economic Stimulation of STP
- In the socialist countries, the questions of planning and control of STP are
viewed together with economic stimulation. This problem has not yet been
properly resolved. However, a broad and intensive economic search is underway
_ which has already been crowned with many positive results. This problem
- is being resolved in the CEMA countries from the viewpoint of economic stimu-
lation bath of science and production.
As for science, the transition of scientific research organizations to the
- contract form of fulfilling work played an important role here. This form
is being developed especially intensively between the scientific-research
_ institutions and the enterprises that are organizationally separate.
In terms of economic stimulation of production, in addition to the funds for

_ devel~pment which have primarily an investment nature, the associations and
- enterprises of the socialist countries have set up special funds for technical
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development (new equipment). Although the methods Of ~orming these funds is
not the same in diffexent socialist countxies, their general economic function
consists of compensating for the increased outlays during the development,
mastery and introduction of new equipment and technology into~~production. In
addition, these funds f inance SREDW associated with new equipment.
The most important means of stimulating STP in a11 countries of socialist
cooperation is improvement in price formation. Usiag prices, the develop-
ment of technically more improved products, removal from production of outdated
items, compensation for outlays for improving quality and the technical level
of the manufactured products are encouraged. The main task of price formation
is to guarantee the interest of the producers in the output of leading equip-
ment and the consumers in using it.
The trends noted here and the new aspects of planning, control and economic
stimulation of STP in the CEMA countries far fxom completely reflect the diver-
sity of the practical measures in this area. At the same time, they indicate
that the scientif ic-techniea'1 policy of the socialist countries is constantly
being developed and improved and promotes the subordination of the internal
resources of the countries totthe resolution o� tasks gor reconstruction of
the structure of production in accordanc~e with the requirements of STP.
At the same time, one of the most important tzends in the modern scieritific
and technical policy of the socialist states, as previous].y noted, is the
improvement in eff iciency and degree of participation of the country in the
international division of labor in the area of science and technology. The
modern structure of production in the CEMA countries is characterized by a
very broad range. For example, Czechoslovak~a which produces 70-80% of the
world nomenclature of machines and equipment has only 1% of the world
scientific-technical potential. This significantly complicates the task of
maintaining a high technical level for the entixe range of nomenclature of
the manufactured products. The most important condition for the growth in
rates of STP for the socialist countries is the conducting of a selective
production policy with simultaneous increase in the degree of participation
in international division of labor. Comple~e utilization of its advantages
in the sphere of science and technology will improve the efficiency of
the total scientific-technical potential of the CII~IA countries as a whole
by roughly 30%, and in certain socialist states several times. The inter-
national factors of intensifying the economy of the socialist states in their
potentialities are no longer merely comparable to the national, but in a
number of cases even surpass them. Consequently, under modern conditions,
the role of the "foreign" aspect of scientific-technical pol.icy is immeasurably
rising.
In the last 10 years, the volume of joint SREAW in the CEMA countries has
risen 5-6-fold. Over 3,000 scientific research and planning design ~rganiza-
tions, VUZ's, including about 200 scientific institutions of the academies
of sciences of the countries of cooperation participate in them on a multi-
lateral and bilateral basis.
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The development of STC of the CEMA countries is accompanied by qualitative
changes. Whereas in the 1950's-1960's the leading form of STC was free
exchange of technical documents and experience, subsequentl~ inEensification
of STC occurred through the transition to multilateral and bilateral coordina-
tion of research, contract cooperation, joint research and exchange of the
results of scientific research with the use of elements of cost accounting.
The holding of mutual consultations by the CEMA countries on the main
questions of scientific-technical policy in order to determine problems for
the current f ive-year period, development and agreement of plans of multilateral
and bilateral cooperation has f irmly entered the practice of cooperation.
New forms in the development of STC were: the formulation of a coordinated
plan of multilateral integrated measures, including in the area of science
and technology for 1976-1980, where 600 million transfer rubles were invested;
compilation of plans for the long-range future (several f ive-year plans) in
the framework of DTsPS [expansion unknown]; transition from the sector principle
to comprehensive resolut3on of the ma~or tasks of STP (STC program for envi-
ronmental protection and efficient use of natural resources, program to
solve fuel and energy problems, etc.); development of direct ties between the
ministries and departments of the CEMA countries, among whom about 400
agreements and contracts for STC have been concluded.
About 3000 scientific research institutes and planning design organizations and
VUZ's participate in measures for fhe fulf illment of the c~mprehensive program
for integration, and about 200 academic scientific institutions and 16C0
~ organizations cooperate on 800 topics on a multilateral basis.8 About 4,000
problems and topics are being worked out on a bilateral basis.
An important trend in the development of scientific-technical ties is the
international cooperation in the area of standardization. Fifteen sector
permanent commissions of the CEMA and 11 international organizations of the
cooperating countries participate in the standardization work. A total of
2724 standards of the CEMA heve currently been approved.9
The cooperation of the socialist countries in the area of science and tech-
nology made it possible to solve a number of ma~or national economic problems.
The CEMA countries have attained ~onsiderable success in tt?e area of power
engineering. Thus, the unit power of electric generators in these countries
rose in the last 20 years 5-8-fold, and today they have block's with power of
500 MW. The USSR has made the world's largest turbo-unit with power of 1200 MW
and is designing one with power of 1500 MW. For specif ic consumption of fuel
for the generation of electricity, the last 10-15 years have been characterized
by a trend for its rapid decrease. The USSR and other CEMA countries are
on the level of a number of leading capitalist countries for this indicator,
and even outstrip them.
The CEMA countries occupy one of the first places in the world for the trans-
mission of large quantities of energy superlong distances. The USSR was the
pioneer inti~e area of ultrahigh-voltage power transmission lines, and now
power transmission lines are being built here for 1500 kV for distances of
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2400 and 5300 km which are unprecedeated in world practice and power
transmission lines are being designed fro 2000 kV. Based on the unified
energy system and the central dispatcher control of the CEMA countries, a
ring power system has been set up which.is unique in the world. It unites
21 power transmission lines (PTL) with voltage from 220 to 400 kV. The intro-
duction of the PTL Vinnitsa-A1'bertish with voltage of 750 kV which is the
largest in Europe will liberate the CEMA countries from building additional
power plants with total power of almost 2000 MW.
In the area of superhigh-voltage equipment, progresgive developments have
appeared in recent years: for the first time in the world, higi~-voltage
thyristor valves were used for the PTL transformer stations of superhigh-
voltage, and an original laser system of control and regulation was made.
The CEMA countries occupy leading positions for a whole series of trends in
the realization of alternative and nontraditional energy sources. Here they
are making joint studies to create and develop power units with water-cooled
reactors with power of 1000 MW, breeder reactors on fast neutrons (the USSR
operates the world's largest reactor of this type). The Soviet Union is also
building the world's largest uranium-graphite.channel reactor for 1500 MW and
plans for 2400 MW. Among the prrnninent achievements in this area, one
should include the creation of the world's first unit of the type "Tokamak"
with superconducting magnetic system and the world's largest NI~ID-generator
for open type power plants (this is the world's only industrial M~ID-unit).
A great step f orward has been taken on a collective basis in the area of
electrical technology. For the firs~ time in the world, the specialists
of the USSR and GDR have made�a plasma furnace with capacity of 30 T for
smelting high-alloy steel, in which a temperature of 15,000 �C is reached.
This made it possible to bring the degree of assimilation of the alloyed
elements alnost to 100X. As one of the last successful ~oint developments,
one should name the unified semiautomatic unit "Intermigmag" for arc welding
- by melting electrode in a medium of protective gases that was made by the
specialists of the Socialist Republic of Bulgaria, GDR and USSR. One should
also make mention of the units of electron-beam welding "Paton-tsis/77" that
were developed ~ointly by the CEMA countries. The CEMA countries are
responsible for roughly one-third of the total world flow of scientific-
technical information on questions of welding science, equi~ament and pro-
duction.
One can name a whole series of examples where, by uniting their efforts on
an integration basis, the CEMA countries were able to solve the most compli-
cated national ecpnomic tasks. Thus, the method they created for obtaining
high pressure polyethylene "Polimir" exceeds the best technological processes
abroad,and the largest chemical concern in the FRG "Zaltsgitter", having
bought a license for it, even now proposes organizing thgOmarketing of
the appropriate technology in the Third World countries.
Considerable advances have been made by the CEMA countries in the area of
metallurgy. It is enough to name if only those universally recognized,
basically new technologies as casting with counter pressure and technology of
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shiny copper plating (People's Repuhlic of Bulg2ria), the technology for
producing forged crankshafts (Polish PeopZe's Republic), evaporation cooling
of blast furnaces, production of multilayer pipes for gas pipelines, production
of tungsten-free solid alloys (USSR).
The unification of scientif ic and technical potentials of the countries in the
area of computers was very important. According to expert estimates, in 5-6 years
years, advances were made here which are equivalent to the previous activity in
countries in 25 years. An intergovernmental agreement united the potential
of 300 enterprises and 350,000 employees. As a result, the percentage of
jointly developed computer equipment in the total computer stock of the CEMA
countries rapidly rose: in the CSSR, for example, in 1971-1975, 44~ computers
entered the national economy (of them 160, that is ~5%, from the "Ryad" system),
and in 1976-1980, 880 computers 880 computers (of them 750 of the system "Ryad"
that is. ^lready 85%).
Prominent results were obtained in certain areas of basic research, among which
research on the orogram "fntercos:nos" occupied an important place. The CEMA
countries occupy leading positions in the world in the area of synthesis of
drugs and antibiotics, and the formulation of theoretical fundamentals for
gene engineering.
At the same time, in recognizing the undoubted advances in the development of
STC of the CEMA countries and strengthening of their scientific-technical
potentials, it :;hould be stated that the reserves of international division of
labor in science and technology are still not being completely utilized. The
main content of cooperation of our countries is still the resolution of a
certain problem according to the development of a new design, and the intro~
duction and assimilation of results of joint research and development are done
at the discretion of each cooperating party. At the same time, cooperation
at the concluding stages of the cycle "science-technology-production-marketing"
exactly makes it possible to realize the necessary effect of joint scientific
and technical developments. According to the available estimates, already in
the 1980's, the ratio of outlays for SREDW and introduction will change from
1:10 at present to 1:12, and even 1:15, that is, the percentage of costs for
SREDW in the total volume of expenditures for scientific research, develop-
ment and introduction will not be 10% as occurs now, but 6-8% with an increase
in costs for introduction from 90% to 92-94%. Consequently, today, and
the more so in the future, cooperation of the CEMA countries not on indivi-
dual stages of the cycle "science-technology-production-marketing" will be-
come promising from the vi~wpoint of the national economic effect, but for
the entire cycle with emphasis on the last stage, on the condition of a
comprel~ensive approach to this problem. It is precisely for this reason
that in CEMA countries ther�e is clearer trend towards concluding comprehen-
sive agreements in which questions of STC are closely linked to questions
of international specialization and cooperation of praduction. As indicated
by a whole series of positive examples, international division of labor which
begins from the stage of joint SREDW with the creation of new types of machines
and equipment, and concludes with the ,joint development of production and
post-sale servicing of this equipment, permits each country to reduce by 50-70%
the expenses that it would carry alone, and results in the reduction in .*.he
periods for development from 6-7 to 3 years. In this case if the line fnr
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effective international separation o~ labor, started at the stage of creating
the equipment finds the appropriate continuation in production in the form of
a well-thought out system of specialization and cooperatian, then labor produc-
tivity can be imprY~ed 3-5-fold, series production 6-8-fo1d, and the net cost
reduced by 30-SO%.
Within the CEMA framework, there are currently 120 multilateral agreements in
effect for international specialization and cooperatioa of production, in-
cluding 90 in the area of machine construction, radio engineering and electro-
nics industry, as well as over 1,000 bi].ateral. These agreements on the whole
encompass about 10,000 types of items.
In the formation of a coordinated structure and scientific-technical policy,
whose special importance for intensifying theFrocess of reproduction in the
CEMA countries was stressed at the 35th meeting of the CEMA session (July 1981),
the countries of cooperation concentrate their scientific-technical poten�~ial
on priority trends in scientific ~nd production cooperation for the resolution
of the most important national economic problems: automation of production
processes based on the use of promising resources of computer equipment and
primarily, micro- and minicomputers, development of systems of program control,
creation of a unified element base; introduction of robot-manipulators and
other means of inechanizing labor-intensive processes; creation of complexes
of powerful equipment for the working of fuel and raw material fields and
their transporting; development of machines and equipment which guaiantee
economical use of fuel and energy; updating of the taachine construction stock
by highly productive precision equipment; creation of comprehensive unified
series of hydraulics and pneumatics. These general priorities in the
structural and scientific-technical policy of cooperation as a whole are
organically combined with the priorities of the national scientific-technical
policy of each CEMA country, which, by guaranteeing its needs as a result of
certain research and development through the use of the profiled potentials
of other countries can thus concentrate its scientific~tec~t~ical potential on
a limited number of strategically important trends of STP.
Within the framework of the scientific-technical policy conducted by the
socialist countries, the development of STC with no:isocialist states occupies
an important place.
The USSR and other socialist countries are invariably in support of expanding
scientific-technical ties with the developed capitalist countries. At the
endcf the 1970's, over 1000 agreements were concluded between the organizations
_ of the CEMA countries and Western f irms for scientif ic-technical and production
cooperation. Currently about 4U% of all the contracts for cooperation are
for license agreements and 20% are agreements on cooperation for the purpose
of transferring technology.13 At the same time, in recent years the scientific
and techical exchange has become more of an independent type of cooperation.
Production cooperation is~beginning to have a def inite effect on the improve-
ment in the structure of East-West trade. Thus, in machine construction, about
14Z of~all the trade is done on the basis of scientific-technical and pro-
duction cooperation.l4
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Many modern problems generated by STP are counnoa �or all countries and
require collective international efforts. In this respect, the CEMA countries
have always supported the expansion and deepening of international cooperation
with all countries of the world. For example, the initiative of the USSR
to conveneT~ll-European conferences for transportation and power engineering
is urgent. ~n the future, the economy of Europe could be developed to a
greater degree on the basis of mutual supplementing of the structures of
individual national economies and their scientific-technical potentials, and
not only on the sector, but also on the intrasector level.
Among the prerequieites for organizing cooperation among the CEMA countries
and the developing countries, the primary is the mutual supplementing of the
economic resources and industries available in both groups of countries.
The production and scientific-technical potentials of the CEMA countries are
capable of providing organization of production in the majority of sectors at
the modern level. At the same time, many developing countries, possessing
not only large reserves of fuel and raw materials needed by the CEMA countries,
tiut also resources of unemployed work force and not completely utilized
production facilities, still remain insuff iciently developed both in an
economic and scientific-technical sense (although 70% of the world's population
lives in them, they have only 3-5~ of ~~1 the world's expenses for SREDW and
10-15% of all the scientific workers).
The objective interest of the developing states in STC with the CEMA countries
is explained not only by the potentialities of the latter from the viewpoint
of transferring technology. It is our opinion that those advantages which
are characteristic for cooperation with CEMA countries in general are no less
important. In particular, the cooperation with socialist countries promotes the
the creation in the ~e~veloping states of a material-technical base of inde-
pendent development.
According to the estimates based on U.N. publications and individual states,
over 300 cooperation agreements have been concluded between the CEMA countries
and developing states which stipulate the transfer of technology as a component
part (they include, according to the data of UNCTAD, over 140 agreements on
trilateral cooperation). In the beginning of 1980, the CEMA countries had
agreements with the developing countries for construction of 4400 facilities,
of which over 3,000 have been put into operation. According to the data of .
UNIDO, the developing count~~es have over 100 mised enterprises with parti-
cipation of CEMA countries.
A significant contribution to the development of the economy of the
developing countries is the training of national scientific-technical cadres,
their education and placement in the educational institutions of the CEMA
countries. Currently over 40,000 s:~.~dents from 100 developing countries are
being trained in the VUZ's of the CEN'iA countries. Over 30 higher and second-
ary educational institutions have heen built and are u~~er construction in
these states with the help of the socialist countxies.
One of the types of multilateral ties between the countries of different
socioeconomic syster~s is trilateral scientific-technical and production coopera-
tion which involve fiYms and enterprises from the socialist, capitalist and
developing countries. According to the data of the UNCTAD Secretariat, in
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the middle 1970's already 53 countries had becotne participants in 453 tri-
lateral pro3ects with total cost of $29 billion (in current prices). The
Soviet organi~~tions participated in the realization of 21 projects in a
certain form.
Thus, the CEMA countries are actively participating in international scientific-
technical cooperation. At the same time, in this area there still remain a lot
of unused reserves, and they are especiall~ great in.cooperation with the
developed capitalist and developing countries. However, their more complete
utilization de~ends not only the the scientific-technical policy conducted by
the socialist states, but also the good will of the other countries in the world.
FOOTNOTES
1. Recomputed according to the official rate.
2. See, V. I. Duzhenkov. "Problemy organizatsii nauTci" [Problems of Organizing
ScinnceJ, Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1978, p. 165; PRAVDA, 4 January 1979.
3. In the Hungarian People's Republic in 1964, in the Socialist Republic of
Romania and the People's Republic of Bulgaria in 1967, the sector scientific
and planning organizations were removed from the budget financing and
switched to complete cost accounting.
4. In the national economy of the USSR, there are over 5,000 experimental
industries in operation (Ministry of Chemical and Oil Machine Construction
annually allocates about 8y of the capital investments for construction of
experimental bases and experimental industries).
5. The USSR has already accumulated definite experience in the area of develop-
ment and realization of scientif ic-technical programs. In the state plan
for 1976-1�80, the basic assignments were approved for programs to solve 200
of the most important scientific-technical problems, general of an inter-
sector nature. It was planned to create abnut 2,000 new types of equip-
ment of production purpose and ~onsume'r goods total for these programs, of
which 60~ was planned for the lOth Five-Year Plan. For the remaining
ob~ects, a stockpile was created for concluding in.the next five-year plan
and further (thus, in the programs for the lOth Five-Year Plan, a large
volume of scientific research was provided for problems of using the
principle of superconductance, creation of MHD-generators, new types of
gas transportation, development of pneumatic container transportation,
and protection of inetal from corrosion). The development of about 1,000
new production processes, over 900 names of economical materials and about
700 automated control systems was also stipulated.
6. See, R. S. EKONOMIKA PROMYSHLENNOSTI, No 2, 1981, abstract No 2E4; PRAVDA,
~ 23 March 1981.
7. See, VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No 4, 1976, p 92.
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8. During the realization of the comprehansive program, over 16,000 theore-
tical and applied works were completed,.over 1600 new designs of machines,
mechanisms and instruments were made, over 1200 production processes, and
over 1300 types of new materials, products and preparations.
9. In the USSR, about 15% of all the GOST's [state standard] are developed
with regard for the CEMA recommendations. This permitted a 10-12y reduC-
tion in outlays and 30-40X in the periods of their development. The
total economic effect from introducing the CEMA recommendations into the
national economy of the USSR exceeded R 750 million (see VOPROSY EKONOMIKI,
No 8, 1979, pp 100, 102; EKONOMICHESKOYE SOTRUDNICHESTVO STRAN-CHLENOV CEV,
No 3, 1981, p 102).
10. See, PRAVDA, 28 June 1980.
11. See, "Agrarno-promyshlennaya integratsiya stran SEV" [Agrarian-Industrial
Integration of CEMA Countries], Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1976, pp 99-100;
PRAVDA, 31 October 1978 and 19 March 1979.
12. For example, the CSSR in accordance with this coordinated policy for
specialiaation of scientific-technical potentials could send to research on
nuclear energy in the second half of the 1970's over 20y of all the capital
for SREDW, while in the 1960's, it only allocated slightly more than 1%
for research for all power engineering (see, EKONOMICHESKOYE SOTRUDNICHE~
STVO STRAN-CHLENOV SEV, r~o 2, 1976, p 21; "Veroffentlichungen des Osteuropa-
Institutes," Munich, Reihe: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Heft 14. "For-
schung und Entwicklung in sozialistischen Staaten Osteur~pa" von Osers,
Duncker und Humblot, Berlin, 1974),
13. According to the evaluation of the experts from the U.N. ECE, 83% of all the
contracts on cooperation have been concluded in scientific sectors, in-
cluding 23.8y in the chemical industry (o� the total number of contracts
between the East and West), 22y in machine construction (including machine
tool manufacture--25.5%), in the electronics and electrical engineering
industry--13.5%, in transpor~aeion equipment--12~6y, in metallurgy--7.9%.
Agriculture, food industry, construction, tourism and other spheres of
economic activity account for 17% of the concluded agreements (ECE/Trade/R
Document, 355/Add, 2, table 1; see also VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No 6, 1977, pp
83,88).
14. See, MIROVAYA EKONOMIKA I MEZHDUNARODNYYE OTNOSHENIYA, No 3, 1979, p 102.
15. For purposes of a more efficient use of energy resources of the countries
of East and West Europe and setting up of cooperation in exchange of
electricity, it was acknowledged that it was necessary to set up in the
framework of the World Energy Conference a working group to study the
problems of unification of the power systems of these countries, that is,
those problems in whose realization the CEMA countries have accumulated
unique experience. The same goes for the successful resolution of
ecological problems on an integrated basis.
16. See, A. N. Bykov, D. A. Lebin, "Sotsialisticheskaya integratsiya i
nauchno-tekhnichekaya revolyutsiya" [Socialist Integration and the Scien-
tific-Technical Revolution], Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1981, pp 330, 296.
70
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17. The main volume of help of the CEMA countries is associated with sectors
of material production, and three-�ourths is for industry and power
engineering (see PRAVDA, 17 December 1979).
18. See, VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No 11, 1979, pp 81-83; PRAVAA, 17 December 1979.
19. A. N. Bykov, D. A. Lebin, "Sotsialisticheskaya integratsiya i nauchno-
tekhnicheskaya revolqutsiya, p 302.
20. U.N. Document, TAD/SEM, 1/2, pp 11-13.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Pravda", "Voprosy ekonrnaiki", 1982.
9035
CSO: 1814/72
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NEW ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MII~IBERS PROFILES
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 4, Apr 82 pp 122-143
[Article: "New Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences"]
[Text] On 25 September 1981, the USSR Academy of Sciences announced the
selection of active membera (academicians) and corresponding-members of the
USSR Academy of Sciences. For the announced and additionally isolated
vacancies by the councils of scientific institutions and h igher educational
institutions, state and public organizations, active members and corresponding
- members of the academies of sciences. the USSR Academy of Sciences advanced
and recorded 183 candidates for active members (academicians) and 909 candi-
dates for corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
At the general meeting of the USSR Academy of Sciences on 28 December 1981,
according to its Charter, 44 active members and 91 corresponding-members of
the USSR Academy of Sciences were elected.
Active Members (Academicians) of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Department of Mathematics
Mikhail Mikhaylovich Lavrent'yev (mathematics)
He was born in 1932, and is a specialist in the area of mathematical physics,
- deputy director of the Computer Center of the Siberian Department of the
USSR Academy of Sciences.
The results that M. M. Lavrent'yev obtained in studying incorrectly stated
tasks of mathematical physics are widely known. He suggested effective
numerical algorithms for solving such problems as evaluating stability for
linear and nonlinear operator equations.
M. M. Lavrent'yev has obtained a number of prominent results in theh theory of
multidimensional inverse problems for differential equations, including for
the inverse problem of the theory of the potential. These studies afforded the
possibility of creating new methods in geophysics to study the structure of
the earth which have great national economic importance.
M. M. Lavrent'yev is a Lenin Prize laureate.
72
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~
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M. M. Lavrent'yev V. A. Mel`nikov N. A. Borisevich
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S. P. Novikov Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin
Vladimir Andreyevich Mel'nikov (mathematics, including applied mathematics).
He was born in 1928 and is a specialist in the field of computers.
V. A. Mel'nikov developed a device for control and a system of commands for
computers in the series BESM wh~.ch practically all the computer centers in
our country are equipped with. The most famous is his development of the
BESM-6 computer whose structure and architecture included promising solutions
widely used in the creation of modern computers.
The module principle of constructing information~computer complexes realized
under the supervision of V. A. Mel'nikov, his basic theoretical developments
73
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in the f ield of ideology of architecture and technology of computers, and
the construction of operational systetas and progras~aing systems determined
a great deal the current direction of the development of powerful domestic
computers.
V. A. Mel'nikov is a two-time laureate of the USSR State Prize.
Sergey Petrovich Novikov (mathematics, including applied mathematics).
He was born in 1938 and is a specialist in the field ot modern geometry and
topology of manifolds, including the related sections of algebra, theory og
dynamic systems, variational calculus and mathematical physics; he is head
of the sector of the Institute of Theoretical Physics imeni L. L. Landau of
the USSR Academy of Sciences.
S. P. Novikov created the method of classifying single--bond smooth manifolds
and established the topological invariance of basic topological characteristics
on single-bond manifolds. Together with his students, he developed alge-
braic methods for computing homotopic grqups, as well as methods of so-called
stable algebra. He created the qualitative theory of layers of codimen-
sionality alone and proved the theorem on the existence of closed solutions
of the tore type.
Involved in studies in different fielda of modern mathematical physics, S. P.
Novikov developed a qualitative theory of spstial-hotnogeneous solutions to
Einstein's equations (cosmological models) around singularity (at the early
stage of evolution), constructed techniques for finding period solutions to
the Korteveg-de Frieze, developed the spectral theory of Shroedinger's opera-
tor in periodic fields, obtained an analog for variational calculus on the
whole for multivalent functionals needed for qualitative study of the peri-
odic orbits of a number of systems of classic and taodern mathematical physics.
S. P. Novikov is a Lenin Prize laureate.
Department of General Physics and Astronotqy
Nikolay Aleksandrovich Borisevich (general and applied physics).
He was born in 1923, is a specialist in the field of molecular spectroscopy
and luminescence, quantum electronics and infraxed technology, and is presi-
dent of the Belorussian SSR Academy of Sciences.
N. A. Borisevich developed a new scientific trend, spectroscopy of free com-
pl~x molecules. He constructed a statistical theory for photophysical
processes in these molecules, introduced new spectral characteristics of
molecules, and suggested methods for their experimental determination. He
found and investigated thermally activated and laser radiation-initiated,
slowed-down ~luorescence of complex molecules in a gas phase, and solved the
problem of antiStokes' luminescence.
In the area of intermolecular interactions in gas phase systems, he discovered
the phenomenon of stabilization-labilization of electron-excited mutliple-
atom molecules by outside gases which is used in apectroscopy, photochemistry
74
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and quantum electxonics. N. A. Borisevich was the firat to obtain generation
of radiation of complex molecules in the gas phase and to develop a new type
of laser with smoothly ad3ustable radiation fr.equency. Based on the study
of the scattering of radiation by dispersed sqstems, he created cut-off,
wide-band and narrow-band dispersion and dispersion-interference infrared
filters which are widely used in different areas of science and teehnology.
N. A. Borisevich has been elected an outside member of the Czechoslovak Academy
of Sciences and the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He is a~~.
Hero of Socialist Labor, laureate of the Lenin Prize and the USSR State Prize,
member of the Belorussian Connnunist Party Central Connaittee and deputy of the
USSR Supreme Soviet.
Yuriy Yefremovich Nesterikhin (physics).
He was born in 1930 and is a specialist in the area of experimental physics,
physics of plasma and automation of scientific research. .He is the director
of the Institute of Automatics and Electrometry of the Si~erian Department of
the USSR Academy of Sciences.
His research was the basis for a number of effective methods for diagnoging
plasma. Jointly with R. Z. Sagdeyev, he found and studied "noncolliding"
shock waves which defined a new direction in plasiaa physics. With the help
of the physical methods he developed, a basic change was made in the technique
for studying rapidly occurring processes in space physics, ggs dynamics and ~
plasma.
Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin developed optic-electronic and laser systems which are used
in physical experiments. He has ma~or achieveraents in the development nf
structural methods of integsating resources of computer equipment in the
construction of automated experimental complexes. Under hts supervision, and
based on KAMAK, standard problem-oriented eystems were created both for
scientific research and for the needs of the national econoary.
Among the works of Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin are study of tti~problem of the develop-
_ ment of hydrodynamic turbulence, discovery of the photogalvanic effect in
crystals, light-induced drift of at~ms and molecules, and selective photo-
modification of biological molecules
Yuriy Andreyevich Osip'yan (general and applied physics, including astrpnomy,
radio astronomy and astrophysics).
He was born in 1931, and is a specialist in the area of solid atate physics,
in particular the physics of dislocations, and is the director of solid state
physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Yu. A. Osi'yan theoretically studied the effect of quantum effects on the
kinetics of nondiffusion phase conversions at low temperatures. The experi-
� ments he conducted to study the mechanical properties of filiform monocrystals
indicated that their real strength approaches the theoretically computed values.
Heading the development of a new basic scientific direction in solid state
physics, the study of the interaction of dislocations and electrona in crystals,
75
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_ ' R t .
k
k ,tir
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r~.
_
Yu. A. Osip'yan A. M. Baldin G. T. Zatsepin
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V. V. Sobolev 0. K. Antonov
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R. A. Belyakov
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he discovered and studied the effect pf the significant effect of light on
plastic deformation of semiconductors which he called the photoplastic effect.
Iie further found the reversible effect of an electric f ield on plastic
deformation of semiconductors, as well as the development of an electric
current during their plastic deformation. In experiments to study the effect
of disolocations on electric properti.es of semiconductors, Yu. A. Osip'yan
discovered the specific electrical conductivity along dislocations, as well
as inversion of the type of conductance with the introduction of dislocations
of varying polarity which is very important for technology. He experimentally
found and comprehensively studied electronic resonance on dislocations in
semiconductors, as well as the effect of dislocations on optical properties
of semiconductors.
Viktor Viktorovich Sobolev (general and applied physics, including astronomy,
radio astronomy, astrophysics).
He was born in 1915, is a specialist in the area o~ theoretical astrophysics
and is the head of the depart~nent of Leningrad University.
In studying the physics of gas nebulas and stars with shells, V. V. Sobolev
proposed a method for determining the temperature of the nebulas and clarified
the role o� light pressure in their dynamics. He created the theory of
luminescence of a moving medium, providing the basis for interpreting spectra
with emission lines. He formulated the theory of nonstationary field of
radiation and applied it to an explanation of the phenomena occurring in
flares of novas and supernovas.
He created new methods in the theory of radiatior. transfer which mad it possible
to solve many important astrophysical problems. He explained the formation of
spectral lines in the redistribution of radiation by frequency (development
of this work by Soviet and foreign astrophysics resulted in the construction
of the modern theory of stellar spectra). He solved the problem of multiple
scattering of polarized radiation. He developed a general theory for aniso-
tropic scattering of light and applied it to the optics of planetary atmospheres
and optics of water basins. The methods he proposed are widely used not only
in astrophysics, but also geophysics and other areas of physics.
Department of Nuclear Physics
Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Baldin (nuclear physics, including applied).
He was born in 1926, is a specialist in the ~rea of nuclear physics, high
energy physics, elementary particles, and accelerators, and is the director
of the high energy laboratory of the Unified Institute of Nuclear Research.
A. M. Baldin created the method of envelopes. the theory of almost periodic
. movement of charges in random magnetic fields. He participated in the
physical substantiatioa for the technical pro~ect of the Dubno synchrophaso-
tron. Under his supervision, the synchrophasotron was transformed into the
first and world's largest accelerator of relativistic nuclei. He developed
a program and technology for creating superconducting synchrotrons.
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A. M. Baldin constructed the theory and predicted all the main laws governing
near-threshold photoproduction of pions, studied coherent photoproduction of
mesons. The work of A. M. Baldin jointly with colleagues of the Physics
Institute imeni P. N. Lebedev was the basis for the development in our country
of the physics of electromagnetic ~nteractions of adrons. He and his colleagues
have two discoveries: electric and magnetic polarizability of elementary
particles and direct transition of the photon-vector meson.
Among the scientific achievements of A. M. Baldin are the development of the
theory of tensor electric polarizability of nuclei, prediction of the optical
anisotropy of atomic nuclei, discovery of a new`direction in high energy
physics, relativistic nuclear physics. He predicted, and together with his
colleagues discovered the cumulative.effect of the.formation of particles,
revealed and studied a number of universal lawe governing the extreme behavior
of nuclear matter, manifestations of multiquark atates and quark plasma.
A. M. Baldin is a USSR State Prize laureate.
Georgiy Timofeyevich Zatsepin (high energy physics, physics of elementary
particles).
He was born in 1917, is a specialist in the area of the phsyics of space rays
(in the aspect of interactions at high energies) aad neutrino astrophysics,
and is the head of the department of the Institute of Nuclear Research of the
USSR Academy of Sciences.
G. T. Zatsepin developed and constructed a unit which is based on a new
principle for correlation detectors, and conducted a study of broad atmospheric
showers (BAS). The results he obtained compiled the generally acknowledged
cbncept of the phsyics of space rays and elementary particles. G. T. Zatsepin
participated in planning major Soviet units to study BAS in Moscow State
University and at the Pamir station, and later headed the conducting of
experiments on the physics of mu-mesons in cosmic rays.
In the area of theory, he has the prediction of the phenomena of high-energy
cut-off of the spectrum of inetagalactic protons which is the basis for the
modern theory of the origin ot space rays of superhigh energies, new ideas
in the area of neutrino astcophysics of high energies, etc. Under his super-
vision, experimental methods were developed for recording cosmic neutrinos
of low energies, and a set of work was done associated with the construction
of the Baksan Neutrino Observatory, a unique complex of underground labora-
tories and giant neutrino detectors.
G. T. Zatsepin is a USSR State Prize laureate.
Department of Mechanics and Control Processes
Oleg Konstaninovich Antonov (theoretical and applied mechanics, machine
construction and mechanical engineering).
He was born in 1906 and is a specialist in the field of aircraft construction.
78
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The directions of research activity of 0. K~ Antonov axe the development of
scientif ic fundataentals for planning medium and heavy transport airplanes,
scientific principles for aer~dynamic and design layout of multiwheeled
chassis of high passability, methods of improving reliability and the
servic~ life of airplanes, methods of air landing of monoloads, designs of
wings made of unique monolithic elements. Re is the direct eaecutor and
scientific leader of a number of pro~ects which concluded with the introduction
irito series production of the airplanes in the series "An."
0. K. Antonov is a Hero of Socialist Labor, Lenin Prize, US~R State Prize,
Ukrainian SSR State Prize laureate, member of the Ukrainian Communist Party
Central Committee and deputy of the USSR Supreme Soviet.
_ Rostislav Apollosovich Belyakov (theoretical and applied me~hanics, machine
construCtion and mechanical engineering).
He was born in 1919 and is a specialist in t~le area of airplane construction.
The scientific and technical activity of R. A. Belyakov is dedicated to the
creation of new aviation complexes and airplanes of varying purpose. The
studies he made are associated with the investi9~tion of aerogas dynamics,
control systems, strength, aerial strength and differe~t systems of on-board
equipment of flying vehicles, design materials and technological processes
of aircraft construction. �
Under the leadership of R. A. Belyakov, tasks have been solved in the area of
control systems for supersonic aircraft, the creation of designs operating
under high temperature conditions at great flight speeds, the use of wings
with sweep changeable in flight, considerable inrease in~~the power=to-weight
ratio and maneuverability of airplanes, and ~iighly economical power units
and effective complexes of on-board equipment have been worked out.
R. A. Belyakov is a two-time Hero of Socialist Labor, Lenin and USSR State
Prize laureate and deputy of the USSR Supreme Sov#:et.
Georgiy Sergeyevich Byushgens (theory of control, computers).
He was born in 1916, i~ a specialist in the field of stability, controllability
and applied aerodynamics of flight craft, first deputy head of the Central
Aerohydrodynamic Institute imeni N. Ye. Zhukovskiy, head of the departm~ht
of flight mech~nics of the Moscow Physical a~td Technical Institute.
The basic directions for scientific research of G. S. Byushgens is the
dynamics of jet sirplanes and otl?er flight craft, automation of control of
the airplane and applied aerod~?namics. He has created methods for calculating
and has studied the basic struc'tures of autotaated control for near-sonic and
supersonic aircraft, invesrfosted aerodynamic characteristics of stability
_ and controllability ot t}~e jet airplane and conducted studies on the fbrmation
of its appearance. He has done work on tt~e outlook for the development bf
aviation.
G. S. Byushgens is a Hero of Socialist l..~bor and Lenin Prize laureate.
79
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F'nR O~'FI('IA1, t~SF. (1NI.V
Sergey Nikitich Kovalev (theoretical and applied mechanics, machine con-
struction and mechanical engineering).
He was born in 1919 and is a speeialist in the area of ship-building.
Under the supervision of S. N. Kovalev and with.his direct participation,
scientific research was conducted and design developments were made which
concluded with the creation of ships which meet modern requiremants. The
creation of these ships became possible because of the solution to a number
of complicated scientific-technical problems in the area of construction
mechanics, general planning, propulsive performance, controllability, vulnera-
bility, habitability, and power engi~eering of ships, as well as in the area
of navigation and automation of basic operations.
Aleksandr Davidovich Nadiradze (theoretical and applied mechanics, machine
construction and mecha~lfcal engineering).
He was born in 1914 and is a specialist in the field of applied mechanics and
machine construction.
The main trend in the scientif ic research of A. D. Nadiradze is the mechanics
of flight craft. He has developed theoretical and technica~ principles for
constructing complicated systems of flight craft , has proposed the apprQ-
priate planning and design solutions, and has organized the~r. collective
development and introduction into the national economy. The scientific
research and experimental design work of A. D. Nadiradze and the collective
he heads in cooperation with other c,rganizations represents ma~or scientific
and technical achievements.
A. D. Nadiradze is a two-time Hero of Socialist Labor and Lenin prize laureate.
Vladimir Semenovich Pugachev (theory of control, computers).
He was born in 1911, is a specialist on the theory of control, head of the
laboratory:of the Institute of the Problems of Control (automatics and tele-
mechanics), and head of the department of the theory of probabilities and
mathematical statistics of the Moscow Aviation Institute imeni S. Ordzhoni=
kidze.
The sphere of scientific in~erests of V. S. Bugachev is the statistical theory
of the processes of control, mechanics and applied mathematics. He has
created the fundamentals for the statistical theory of systems which are
described by differential equations, the satistical theory of linear systems
and systems which lead to linear, the general theory of optimization of linear
and nonlinear systems,the theory of conventional-optimal evaluation in sto-
chastic systems. V. S. Pugachev has developed methods o� studying the dynamics
of controllable flight and the theory of accuracy of control of flight
apparatus. The methods he has created are widely used in many fields of
science and t~chnology, in particular in the designing of svstems for control-
ling the production processes and flight craft.
V. S. Pugachev is a two-tirne laureate of the USSR State Prfze.
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Gorimir Gorimirovich Chernyy (theoretical and app].ied mechanics, machine
construction and mechanical engineering).
He was born in 1923, is a specialist in aerodynamics and gas dynamics, and
is director of the Institute of Mechanics of the Moscow University.
In the area of aermdynamics of~h~;gh velocities, G. G. Chernyy has proposed
a methcd for inte~rating equations of.:gas dynamics which was the foundation for
establishing the main qualitative laws in"aerodynamics of hypersonic velocities.
The genc.ralization he made of the classic theory of the boundary layer in
the case of currents when there is a surface of rupture within the layer served
as the theoretical basis for solving many technical prob~ems of gas dynamics.
In the theory of detonation and combustion, G. G. Chernyy studied the asymp-
totic laws of dispersal of detonation waves, theoretically studied the question
of stabilization of detonation waves and stationary supersonic fluxes, and
experimentally confirmed the possibility of this stabilization.
G. G. Chernyy is an active memeber of the International Academy of Astronautics.
He is a two-time USSR State Prize laureate.
Department of General and Technical Chemistry
Khristofor Stepanovich Bagdasar'yan (physical chemistry).
He was born in 1908, is a specialist in the field of photochemistry, radiation
chemistry and kinetics of radical reactions, and is the head of the laboratory
of the Scientific Research Physical-Chemical Institute imeni L. Ya. Karpov.
Kh. S. Bagdasar'yan developed experimental and theoretical methods for
studying elementary stages of radical reactions. He suggested a general
theory for the dependence of the rate of these reactions on the structure of
the molecules and radicals. He made a very ~ignificant contribution to the
theory of radical polymerization. In the area of radiation chemistry, he was
the first to prove the existence of ion processes and an this basis, explained
the protective action of aromatic additives against radiation destruction.
The most important achievement of the scientist in the field of photochemistry
was the creation of the fundamentals for a basically new section of this
discipline, two-quantum photochemistry. His laboratory proved the existence
of two-quantum photochemical reactions which occur as a result of absorption
of a light quantum by a molecnle which has already absorbed one quantum and
which is in an excited state. This results in the formation of ghighly
excited molecules which enter into the reactions whi~h are impossible in
standard, one-quantum photochemistry.
Vitaliy Iosifovich Gol'danskiy (physical chemistry).
He was born in 1923, is a specialist fr. the field of nuclear chemistry and high
energy chemistry, and is the head of the sector in the Institute of Chemical
Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
His works provided the beginning for nuclear chemistry as a new field of
physical chemistry. He developed new nuclear and radiation methods for
82
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studying the chemical structuxe at~d propertiea of matter, kinetics and
mechanism for chemical reactions. He taade an important contribution to the
development of a method for chemical gamma-resonance (Mossbauer) spectroscopy
which is successfully employed in various areas of ~cience and pra~tice. For
the first time in radiochemistry, he made a comprehensive quantitative study
of the chemistry of positronium and created a method of early.diagnosis of
radiation damages of solid states that is a record in sensitivity.
The studies of V. I. Gol'danskiy had decisive importance for the creation of
quantum kinetics of low-temperature chemical reactions. The most popular
~aas his discovery of the quantum low-temperature limit for reaction rate, as
well as the subsequent cycle of work to describe the solid phase chemical
reactions as nonradiating electron~- transitions and analysis of the role of
these reactions in the chemistry of interstellar space. He also found the
phenomenon of inechanochemical explosion of irrgdiated mixtu~es of solid
reagents initiated by their brittle destruction.
V. I. Gol'danskiy is chairman of the Commission on Synchrotron Radtation in
the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, chaix~nan of the Scientif ic
Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences on High Energy Chemistry, and the
chief editor of the journal KHIMIYA VYSORIKH ENER~IY. He is a Lenin Prize
laureate.
Yuriy Nikolayevich Molin (chemistry).
He was born in 1934, is a spe�~:alist in the field of chemical physics, and
director of the Institute of Chemical Kinetics and Combust~an of the Siberian
Department of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
~ In the field of chemical magnetic radiospectroscop~, Yu. N. Molin developed
the application of the method of electron parenuagnetic resonance (EPR) to
study the radical stages in the radiation-chemical reactions. The result of
the large cycle of his studies was the detection of general laws governing
the tra~sfer of spin interactions in molecules, free radicals, in complexes
of transitional metals, as well as the development of inethods for the use of
the phenomena of spin exchange for studying the elementary act of interaction
of particles in solutions. He was one of the initiators of the development
of work in the area of infrared laser photochemistry.
Yu. N. Molinaiaade a fundamental contribution to the investigation of a new
phenomenon, the effect of magnetic fields on ~hemical reactions. Together
wf.th his colleagues, he discovered the effect of an external magentic field
on the reaction of free radicals in solutions and explained this phenomenon.
He observed the magnetic isotope effect, and on the basis of these studles
developed highly sensitive methods for recording spectra of magnetic resonance
of short-lived particles in so?.utions.
Yu. N. Molin. is the chief editor of the ,jourtlal ZHURNAL STRUKTURNOY~KHIMII.
Vladimi~ Stepanovich Shpak (technical chemistry).
He was born in 1909, is a specfalist in the field of teahnical chemistry, and
the head of the Leningrad Scientific-Technical Center for coordination of
scientific research on chemistry of the USSR Ministry of the Chemical Industry,
83
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N. A. Vatolin V. A. Legasov
The basic and applied studies made under the supervision and with the
participation of V. S. Shpak made it possible to set up the manufacture of
a number of substances, as well as to guarantee the issuing of data needed to
create new equfpment. The extensive study of new representatives of different
classes of chemical compounds, oxidizers, elastomers, surfiactants, made it
possible to isolate the most effective of them, develop-the technological
processes for their production and organfze industrial production of these
compounds.
V. S. Shpak is corducting research in the f ield of direct trans~ormation of
chemical energy into other types. His ma~or success is the results of studies
in the field of chemical synthesia of different amfno acids. The technical
solution of the task of separating optic isomers of these products afforded
the possibility for industrial implementation of this process.,
84
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De~~artment of Physical Chemigtry and Techno].agy 0~ Is~or$anic Materials
Nikolay Anato].'yevich Vatolin (physical chemistry and technology of inorganic
materials).
He was born in 1926, is a spec~alist in the field of physical chemistry of
metallurgical processes, deputy chairsaan of the Presidium of the Ural Scientific
Center of the USSR Academy of Scieaces, aad director of the Institute of
Metallurgy o� the Ural Scientific Center of the USSR Anademy of Sciences.
The scientific activity of N. A. Vatolin is linked to the investigation of
physical and chemical properties and the detection of the structural featccres
of liquid metals and alloys at high temperatures in order to improve the
corresponding technological processes. He has made a significant contribution
to the main sections of the theory of liquid metallurgical state: model
lattice theories, statistical method of correlative functions, method of pseudo-
potential, and has used the method of machine modelingcf this state.
N. A. Vatolin and }ais school made a vast cycle of experimental studies on
the structure and physical-chemical properties of liquid-metals and alloys
based on iron, mangar_ese, palladium, silver and silicon. H~s fundamental
works comprised the scientifie basis for creating a number of materials with
assigned properties and made it possible to~explain more deeply the nature of
_ high-temperature meits.
Under the supervision of N. A. Vatolin, a series af work was done which con-
cluded with the creation of physical-chemical fundameatals for new metal-
lurgical processes, which include, in particular, the processes of compre- .
hensive use of raw material in ferrous and nonferrmus metallurgy, complex
alld~~s; metallized and wustite-magnetite pellets, as well as hot leading of
steel sheet were obtained.
Askar Minliakhmedovich Kunayev (physical chetaistry and technology of inorganic
materials)
He was born in 1929, is a specialist in the �ield o~ metallurgy of ferrous
and non~errous metals and the comprehensive use of mineral raw materials,
president of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, and director of the
Institute of Metallurgy and Enrichment of the Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences.
A. M. Kunayev made basic research in the field of physical-chemical funda-
mentals of inetallurgy of nonferrous and raxe metal~s. He showed the
possibility of using electrochemical methods to investigate the compounds~~6f
rare refractory metals.
Based on theoretical studies under the supervision of A. M. Kunayev, a number
of highly efficient processes were created for reprocessing mineral raw
material of Kazakhstan, the ma~ority of which have been introduced into
production. They include a basically new kivtsetnyy process of smelting
polymetallic raw material, process of electrothermal reprocessing of inter-
mediaEe'products of lead production, as well as comprehensive production
processes making it possible to involve the largest �ields of balance ~res uf
a number of nonferrous metals in the sphere of industrial use.
85
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A. M. Kunayev is the chief editor of the ~ournal of the USSR Academy of
Sciences and the Kazakh SSR Acadetny of Sciences KOMPLEKSONOYE ISPOL'ZOVANIYE
MINERAL'NOGO SYR'YA. He is a candidate for membership to the CPSU Central
Comm~ttee, member of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan Central Committee,
deputy of the USSR Supreme Soviet and USSR State Prize laureate.
Valeriy Alekseyevich Legasov (physical chemistry and technology of inorganic
materials).
He was born in 1936, is a specd:alist in the~~.ield of physical, inorganic
chemistry, and.is deputy director of the Institute of Atomic Energy imeni
I. V. Kurchatov.
The scientif ic activity of V. A. Legasov is tied to solution of important
chemical and chemical-technological processes of nuclear power engineering.
He made a fundamental contribution to the creation of the latest section of
inorganic chemistry, the chemistry of rare gases. He developed industrial
methods for the production of some of the compounds of these gases which
have found practical application.
V. A. Legasov developed a new direction in the technology of inorganic
materials which made it possible to use highly intensive atomic fluxes to
produce a broad class of effective inorganic oxidizers, synthesize a number
of new compounds with high molecular ta~~ght, as well as compounds of chemical
elements in anomalously high degrees of oxidation.
Under his supervision, extensive studies were made in order to determine the
areas oi most expedient use of the sources of nuclear energy in energy-inten-
sive sectors of industry. He studied a number of thermochemical and combined
electrothermal cycles for the break,down of water and carbon dioxide in
order to study hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
V. A. Legasov is the chief editor of the ~ournal ATOMNAYA I VODORODNAYA ENER-
GETIKA and the annual ATOMNO-ENERGETICHESKIYE PROTSESSY I TEKHNOLOGIYA. He
is the USSR State Prize laureate.
Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Chemistry of Physiologically
Active Compounds
Dmitriy Georgevich Knorre (chemistry of natural compounds).
He was born in ].926, is a specialist in the f ield of chemical kinetics, bio-
organic chemistry and molecular biology, and head of the department of the
Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry of the Siberian Department of the
USSR Academy of Sciences.
The extensive use of spectroscopy of NMR of 31~ allowed D. G. Knorre and his
colleagues to reveal a number of important intermediate compounds in the
reactions of phospharylation used in chemical syntihesis of oligonucleotides
and in the production of their derivatives, study the reactivity of these
intermediate compounds, record certain side products and evaluate their efi2ct
~ 86
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87
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ca,nc vrr~a.iAL U~~, UIVLY
on the accumulation of target products, and to outline a number of wags to
overcome the side canversions. He obtained a broad set of reaation-capable
derivatives of transport ribonucleic acids, olfgonucleotides. He suggested
a simple universal method for synthesizing derivatives of nucleoside tri~
phosphates, developed the theoretical fundamentals for the kinetics of
affine modification with the help of reagents forming active intermediate
particles, and modified the nucleic acids within t'treFCell. The results of
wo~k on affine modification of the most important components in the system
of biosynthesis proteins-ribosomes and aminoacyl-tRNA-synthetases mades it
possible, in parricular, to localize a number of sections of thei~ribosomes
which are responsible for bonding of transport and messenger ribonucleic
acids.
Under the supervision of D. G. Kr~orre, fundamentals were developed for the
technology of producing monomers for chemical synthesis of oligonucleotides.
Ivan Aleksandrovich Terskov (biophysics).
He was born in 1918, is a specialist in the field of controllable biosynthesis
and biophysics of populations, and is director of the Institute of Bxophysics
of the Siberian Department of the USSR Acadenitiy of Scfences.
The studies of I. A. Terskov made it possible to theoretically substantiate
and experimentally implement stably functioning systems fo continuous control-
lable biosynthasis for populations of a varying level of complexity: single-
celled algae, hydrogen bacteria, photobacteria, Protozoa, cellular cultures
of tissues and organs of animals, and higher plants.
Based on the theory of control of biosynthesis developed by I. A. Terskov,
experimental ecosystems of a high degree of closure were set up. A new
direction is successfully developing under his supervision;~ biophysics of
ecosystems based on the detect{~n of exchange bonds and physical-chemical
analysis of mass- and energy exchange in natural and artif icial ecological
systems. Methods and apparatus have been formulated for remote determination
of the productivity of aquatic and ground ecosyatems �ron mobile carriers
" (ship, airplane) on large territories and water areas. A number of processes
have been proposed for industrial biotechnology. including chemosynthesis
of feed protein which is c~ose in composition to animal.
I. A. Terskov is the editor-in-chief of the ~ournal IZVESTIYA SO AN SSSR.
SF.RIYA BIOLOGICHESKIKH NAUK.
Department of Physiology'
Natal'ya Petrova Bekhtereva (human and animal phyaiology).
She is a specia~:ist in the field of phyaiology of the hutnan brain, and
director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine of the USSR Academy of
Medical Sciences.
N. P.. Bekhtereva is the author of the comprehensive method for study~Ag-~he
human brain. Based on experimental-clinical work, she advanced the concept
~8
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of the development during chr�onic cerebral diseases of a stable pathological
state which is maintained by definite changes in the long-term memory, and as
a result of interpreting the premfse~�a~dscomponents of this state,she
proposed new methods for treating cerebral diseases aimed at activation of
its latent reserves, formation of new links in the cerebral systems and
strengthening of its protective mechanisms.
The concept of N. P. Bekhtereva regarding the physiological foundation for
the human thinking process as a dependent syatem o� rigid and flexible neuron
links made it possible to reveal the mechanisms fo reliability and optimization
o~ work of the human brain. This is of great intportance for medicine and
pedagogy.
N. P. Bekhtereva is the chief editor of the 3ournal FIZIQLOGIYA CHELOVEKA,
chairman of the Scientific Council of the USSR Acadetay of Sciences on Problems
of Applied Human Physiology and the Scientific Council of the USSR Academy of
Medical Sciences on Physiology and Pathology of the Nervous System, as wll
well as the Connnission for Psychophysiology of the International Union of
Physio3ogical Sciences. She is a foreign member of the Austrian Academy of
Sciences and has been awarded medals of Berger (ODR), McCullough (United
States) and Mario Negri (Italy).
Department of General Biology
Artemiy Vasil'yevich Ivanov (zoology)
He was born in 1906, is a specialist in the field of comparative anatomy,
embryology, phylogenetics and systematics of invertebrate animals, and head
of the laborabbry of the Zoological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
A. V. Ivanov has a number of major scientific diecoveries and generalizations.
He substantiated and made a detailed investigation of a new type of inverte-
brate for science, pogonephor, and developed the science of A. N. Severtsov
on modes of procedure of evolution of organs. He revealed the laws governing
the transition to parasitism (in the example of parasitic mollusks). I~is
theoretical works regarding the origin of multicelled animals developed and
reinforced the hypothesis of I. I. Mechnikov on the phagocytel~e~: The concept
he advanced on the origin arid phylogeny of flat worms provides new grounds
for a resolution of the problem of the evolution of lowest invertebratea.
A. V. Ivanov analyzed the organization and origin of the primitive repre-
sentative of Metazoa, trichoplax. Based on the studies he made, he suggested
his system of the animal world.
A. V. Ivanov is an active member of the Gextaan Acadetny of Naturalists "Leo-
pol'dina."
Leonid Petrovich Tatarinov (zoology).
He was born in 1926, is a specialist in the f ield of zoology, paleontology
and evolutionary biology, and director of the Pa],eontological Institute of
the USSR Academy of Sciences.

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The basic direction for the scientif ic activity of L. P. Tatarinov is
research dedicated to the origin and early evolution of the largest groups of
vertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and especially mammals. Analysis of the
vast paleontological and zoological material permitted him to reconetruct
many previously unknown features of biological organization of the precursors
of these animals, reveal the role of parallelisms in their evolution, governed
not only by the similarity of adaptations, but also'the common nature of the
morphogenetic mechanisms of closely related forms. He examines such general
questions of evolutionary theory as morphophysiological progress, monophily
and polyphily, diff erent aspects of the corr.elation of clasatfication and
evolution.
The paleontological work of L. P. Tatarinov is important for formulation of
a stratigraphy of continental deposits of the Permian and Triassic in the
Russian Platform.
L. P. Tatarinov is chairman of the Scientific Council of the USSR Academy of
Sciences for the problem "Ways and Laws Governing the Historical Development
of Animals and Plant Organisms," and chief editor of the PALEONTOLOGICHESKOGO
ZHURNAL. He is a USSR State Prize laureate.
Department of Geology, Geophysics and Geochemistry
Mikhail Ivanovich Agoshkov (mining sciences, development of minera~s).
He was born in 1905, is a specialist in the f ield of working mineral f ields,
and head of the department of the Institute of Problems of Comprehensive
Development of the Depths of the USSR Academ~ of Sciences.
M. I. Agoshkov is the creator of the scientific school in the field of
optimizing the development of ore ffelds. His scientific works have had a
great influence on the improvement in equipment and enhancement of the
economic efficiency of working ore f ields, promoted a considerable improvement
in the indicators for complete extraction.of minerals from the depths, the
creation of the scientific ~undamentals for planning mining enterprises,
generation of a numerical evaluation for technical and economic conseqnences
of losses and measures to reduce them, creation of inethods for national
economic evaluation of the efficien~y of geological exploration and the cost
of estimating mineral fields. M. I. Agoshkov proposed a scientific c3dssifi-
cation of systems for working ore fields which has Feceived general recogni-
tion.
M. I. Agoshkov is the chairman of the 9cientific Council of the USSR Academy
of Sciences on Broblems of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly. He is a USSR State
Prize laureate.
Vladimir Vasil'yevich Rzhevskiy (mining sciences, development of minerals).
He was born in 1919, is a specialist in the field of open pits of coal, ore
and nonore fields, and is head of the Moscow Mining Institute.
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The basic trends in the research of V. V. Rzhevskiy are the theory of the
regime of mining operations, theory of stripping working levels of quarries
and freight flow of rock, theory of the systems of comprehensive mechaniaation
of ope~i pit,m~n~ngtdpesations, studq of phyaical and technological processes
of the mining industry and extraction of solid minerals from the bottom of aeas
and oceans. He has proposed Cti~e~principles of the fonaation of mining operatione,
systems of working, stt~pping deep levels, completion of tnodern thick quarries
With mining and transport equipment, as well as the uae of physical phenomena
(acou$tic, physical-chemical, etc.) for intensification of the processes of
mining.
Lev Vladimirovich Tauson (geophysics, geochemistry.).
He was born in 1917, is a specdalist in geochetnistry of endogenous processes
I and scientific fundamentals for geochemical methods o~ sesrching for and
evaluating ore fields, geochemistry of rare elementa, and ~irector of the
Institute of Geochemistry imeni A. P. Vinogradov of the Siberian Department ,
of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
The studies of L. V. Tauson treat the investigation of laws governing the
geochemical history of rare elements in the processes of crystallization and
differentiation of the granitoid magmas. He made an important contribntion to
the concepts regarding the forms of finding elements in rocks and the theory
of isomorphism. He was the first to establiah that the structure of a�:mineral
is one of the main factors of the:.~somorphous distribution of rare elements
in tifie proceases ot crystallization of magmatic ~elts.' ~fle created the first
geochemical classification for granitoids and basaltoids and the theory of
their potential ore-content, and also.revealed the primary petrogenetic and
metallogenetic role of potassium basaltoids (latites) which significantly
expands the outlook for many regions in tertqa of their ore content.
Nikolay Vasil'yevich Cherskiy (mi,ning).
He was born in 1905, is a specialist in the f ield of geology, exploration and
working of gas and oil fields, technology of drilling and testing of we~~s,
mechanics of the earth's crus~, chairman of the Presidium of the Yakutsk
branch of the Siberian Department of the USSR Academy of Scfences, and
director of the Institute of Mining of the North of the Yakutsk branch.
Together with other scientists, N. V. Cherskiy discovered the capacity of
natural gas to be present in the earth's crust in the solid phase in the form
of gas hydrates and formulated the acientific fundamentals for working gas
hydrate formations which should become an intportant source for hydrocarbon
fuel. He is one:of the authors of the technique for industrial exploration
and evaluation of the reserves of gas fielde based on the drastic difference
in physical properties of oil and gas. Jointlg with other researchers, he
developed basically new models for the transformation of the extracted
organic matter under ttre~inf luence:of natural seismotectonic processes. As a
result of this work, a previously unknown natural factor was.:revealed which
determines and controls the processes of oil and gae formation. This
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V. Ye. Zuyev P. I. Mel'nikov A. M. fiamsonov
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supplements the theory of organic ortgin of oil, corrects and expands the
concepts on oil and gas content of the little-studied regions.
N. V. Cherskiy is a Hero of Socialist Labor.
Department of Oceanology, Physics of the Atmosphere and Geography
Vladimir Yevseyevich Zuyev (physics of the amotphsere).
He was born in 1925, is a specialist in the f ield oP atmospheric physics and
atmopsheric op~ics, and director of the Institane of Atmospheric Phy~~cs of the
- Siberian Department of the USSR Academg of Sciences.
The basic directions in the scientific research of V. Ye. Zuyev is the
dissemination of laser radiation in the atmosphere, laser spectroscopy of the
atmosphere of high and superhigh resolution, laeer sounding of the atmosphere.
He has resolved the problem of a quantitative determination of the energy
losses of laser=radiation disseminated in random directions in a real
atmosphere under different meteorological conditions. A characteristics
feature o~�the work of V. Ye. Zuyev is a comprehensive approach to sblving
the problem of interaction of laser radiation and the atmosphere which in
combination with the development of the appropriate theories and unique
complexes of apparatus promoted the ob~si~ot~r.of important results both in
basic and in applied research.
V. Ye. Zuyev is a deputy of the USSR Supreme Soviet.
Viktor Ivanovich I1'ichev (oceanology).
He was born in 1932, is a specialist in the field of oceanology, hydro-
acoustics, hydrology of the sea, and director of the Pacif ic Ocean Oceano-
logical Institute of the Far East Scientific Center of the USSR Academy of
Sciences.
V. I. I1'ichev received basic results which are of primary�importance for
hydroacoustics, physics of acoustical and hydrodynamic cavitation, hydro-
dynamics of fields of perturbations, as well as for a comprehensive study
of the hydrophysical fields of the ocean. Among theae results are the dis-
covery of laws governing the distribution of cavitational strength of a
re~l liquid, development of statistical theory of hydrodynamic c~vitation,
study of the mechanism and creation of the theory of variability in spatial-
temporal and informative characteristics of acoustic �ields of the ocean
w~th the use of inethods of pattern recognition, creation of .models for
recognition automatic machines, and modeling the phenomenac~on a computer.
Pavel Ivanovich Mel'nikov (geocryology).
He was born in 1908, is a specialis~ in the field of geocryology, and director
of the Instttute of Geocryology of the Siberian Department of the USSR
Academy of Sciences.
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Thc sc:ientific interests of P. I. Mel'nikov are concentreted on questions of
general and regional geocryology, groundwater in the frozen zone, geothermy,
and the interaction of frozen rocks with foundations of structures. Based on
these studies, he made major theoretical ger.eralizations and isolated the
laws governing the development of pennafrost rocks which made it possible
to introduce into the natioaal economy of the north new advanced methods for
stable construction on permafrost ground, as well as methods of searching for
and operating groundwater of the frozen.zone. One of the results of theore-
tical generalizations of P.'I. Mel'nikov is the first geocryological map of
the territory of the Yakutsk ASSR. As a result of analyzing geothermal con-
ditions of the Siberian platform and the Verkhoyanskiy mountain-folded region,
he di$covered one of the largest positive froaen-geothermal anomalies
confined to sedimentary rocks of the Predvekhoyanskiy marginal trou~h and
the Vilyuyskiy syneclise.
P. I. Mel'nikov is the chairman of the Scientific Council of the USSR Academy
of Sciences for Cryology of the Farth.
Aleksey Fedorovich Treshnikov (oceanology).
He was born in 1914, is a speetalist in the field of oceanology and geography
of the World Ocean, and head of the department of T,enirgrad University.
Under the supervision of A. F. Treshnikov, many large pol.ar expeditions were
made which brought ma~or scientific results and ~iscoveiies. In all the
expeditions, he conducted f ield studies, analysis of the obtained materials,
and on this basis developed practical recommendations for the needs of the
national econom}r and science. He has discovered and made a detailed study of
the penetration of Pacific Ocean.~zater into the region of the North Pole,
shown the dissemination of deep Atlantic water, given their hydrobiological
characteris*_ics,as well as an evaluation of the circulation of water and its
effect on the ice regime and navigational conditions of the route of the
north sea paasage.
Under the supervision of A. F. Treshnikov, a comprehensive program was
developed "Polar Experiment aimed at studying the interaction of the ocean
and the atmosphere, and representing a compnaent part of the interna~_ional
program for studying the sot~thern ocean which is currently being implemented.
A. F. Treshnikov is the president of the Geographical Society of the USSR. He
is a Hero of Socialist Labor, and USSR State Prize laureate.
Department of History
Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Samsonov (history of the USSR).
He was born in 1908, is a specialist in the area of the history of Soviet
society and mili~ary history, and the senior scientific colleague of the
Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
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Z'he works of A. ?I. Samsonov study the problems of the history of World War II,
esepcially the decisive critical stages of the Great Patriotic War, provide
a critique of the antiscientif ic conventions of the bourgeois authors,
comprehensively show the deeisive contribution of the Soviet Union and its
Armed Forces to the defeat of Hitlerite Germany and imperialist Japan, cover
the activity of the Sovit: rear, and reveal the laws which governed the
~ historical victory of the Soviet Army and p~ople in the Sta~ingrad battle.
A. M. Samsonov is the chief editor of the journal ISTORICHESKIYE ZAPISKI.
Sergey Leonfdovich Tikhvinskiy (general history).
He was born in 1918, is a specialist in histcariography, source study, history
of international relations in the Far East, new and laLest history of China,
Japan and other countries of the East, and is head of the Dipl,omatic Academy
of the USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
S. L. Tikhvinskiy is the initiator of the development of problems associated
with the history of formation of the Chinese nation and ideology of nationalism,
movement for reform in the Tsin empire in the earl~ 19th century, bourgeois-
democratic revolutionary movement under the leadership of Sun ~at-sen, the
ideology of the natinnal-liberation movement. S. L. Tikhvinskiy has consider-
able merit for his crftique of the Maoist concepts of historical development of
China which have been called upon to "substantiate" the great power hegemo-
nistic course of the modern leaders of the People's Republic ofi China.
He made a major contribution to the study of the history of Japan, Russo-
Japanese and Soviet-Japanese relations, questions of the policy of the USSR,
national-liberation movement in the developing countries.
S. L. Tikhvinskiy is the chief editor of the journal NOVAYA I NOVEYSHAYA ISTORI-
YA, and chairman of the National Committee of Historians of the USSR.
Department ~f Philosopy and Law
Viktor Grigor'yevich Afanas'yev (philosophy).
He was born in 1922, is a specialist in the field of the theory of ~;cientific
communism, theory of ~on~rol and methodology of systems study, and is the
chief editor of the newspaper PRAVDA.
i~fany works of V. G. Afanas'yev have covered the problem o~ ~ystams and control
of a socialist society. They give special importance to the development of
ways to solve the historical task set by the CPSU, unification of the achieve-
ments of ~he scientific-technical revolc~r.ion and the advantages of socialism.
The works of V. G. Afanas'yev contain an analys~s of the coneepts of the
system, its composition, structures, functions ard dynamics. They study
the systems nature of the forms of knowledge, a~ well as the means of knowing
systems. They analyze ways to improve control and in this case special
attention is focused on program-target planning and control. V. G. Afanas'yev
made a significant contribution to the develonment of problems of dialetical
materialism and philoso~hical problems of biology.
.
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V. G. Afanas'yeW is a member o� the CPSU Ce~tral~ Couwtfttee and deputy oi~ the
USSR Supxeme Soviet.
Teodor I1'ich Oyzerman (philosophy).
He was born in 1914 and is a specialist in the ~ieTd of the history of
philosopy, dialectical material~am, general theory o� th~ hiatorical-philo-
sophical process, and head of the sector of the Institute of Philosopy of
the USSR Academy of Sciences.
T. I. Oyzerman has deeply analyzed the structure of historical forms of
dialectics and materialism, and made a comprPhensive and systematic analysis
of the philosoph~cal concept of alienation. He has taade a detailed study of
the basic stages in the historical establiehtaent of the philosophy of Marxism.
His works in the field of the theory of historicai philosophical process are
a new tren~i in the research process. His numerous studi~s covering the
teachf~tgs tif ~sltt, Fichte and .Hegel.
T. I. Oyzerman is a foreign member of the ~DR Academy of Sciences.
Department of Economics
Oleg Timofeyevich Bogomolov (economics).
He was born in 1927, is a specialist in tha field o~ pxoblems of the develop-
ment of the economics of socialism and the world socia7.ist system, and is
director of the Institute of Economics of the World Socia,list System of the
USSR Academy of Sciences. _
0. T. Bogomolov made an important contribution to the development of theore-
tical and methodological fundamentals for the study of the development of
the world socialist economy and socialist economic integration. Under ihis
supervision, a number of urgent scientific directions were developed, in par-
ticular, comprehensive study of the economic, political and ideological
processes in socialist countries, study af the genera], economic and sector
problems of socialist integration, generalization of experience of~:the
countries of socialism inthe development of socioeconomic strategy, and
study of the role of socialist countries in the reconstruction of the world
economic relations.
0. T. Bogomolov is the chief editor of the journal IZVESTIYA AN SSSR. SERIYA
EKONOMICHESKAYA.
Tat'yana Ivano�vna Zaslavskaya (economics).
She is a specialist in the f ield of economics and socio].ogy of labor, and the
head of the department of the Institute of Economics and Organization of
Industrial Production of the Siberian Department of the USSR Academy of
Sciences.
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The works of T.I. Zaslavskaya treat the theoretica~ prablems and methods of
systems study and forecasting of socioeconomic procesb~s, as well as the
practical investigation of inechanisms f or the distribution by labor, laws
governing the migration of a population, mobility of the labor resources,
development of the city and village. These works made it possible to con-
struct a systems variant forecast for the socioeconomic developmen~ of the
agrarian sector of the USSR up to the year 2000, reveal passible contradic-
tions in the future and disproportions in a c:ertain variant of development,
and make a comparative evalua*_ion of the efPiciency of various variants.
T. I. Zaslav~kaya also developed methods of a typo].ogical analysis of
developing social objects. Using the procedures of pattern recognition, she
constructed a generalized muZtidimensional typology for regions of the USSR
which can be used to formulate long-term forecasts for the development of
the agrarian sector which are differentiated by zones of the c~untry.
Abram Gerasimovich Mileykovskiy (economics).
He was born in 1911, and is a specialist in the field of worl economics and
international relations.
The basic trends in L'i~e scientific research of A. G. Mileykovskiy is the world
capitalist economy and international re~ations, the basic aspects of the
political economy of state-monopolistic capitalism, problems of deepening
inti~e general crisis of capitalism, critique of bourgeois economic theories,
the leading trends in the development of the econotay of tha main capitalist ~
powers, militarization of the economy of the c~pitalist countries, structural
shifts, and problems of reproduction and cycles in the economics of
capitalism.
A. G. Mileykovskiy is a USSR State Prize 1.aureate~
Department of Literature and Language
Georgiy Vladimirovich Stepanov (linguistics).
He was born in 1919, is a specialist in the f ield a~ general and Roman
linguistics, literary criticism, and is directox of the Institute of Linguis-
tics of~the USSR Academy of Sc~ences.
The works of G: V. Stepanov treat urgent problems of ~.inguistics and 1lterary
criticism, linguistic theory, history of language, sociolinguistics and
stylistics, history of literature and poetics. He has developed the theory
of language variance, including historical-cultural, social, structural and
functional-stylistic parameters needed to characterize the forms of existence
and functioning of languages, for the discovery of the laws governing their
historical development. He substantiated the new solution to the problem
of the systematic natnre in language by introducing the concept of an
external system which interacts with the in2ernal language structure, and has
proposed a new technique for deacribing it.
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G. V. Stepanov has significantly enriched the principles for describing
languages which function outside the territories of their initial dispersal,
and has constructed standard models for the formation of a number of national
literary languages.
- G. V. Stepanov is the chief. editor of the ~.ournal IZVESTIYA AN SSSR. SERIYA
LITERATURY I YAZIKA. He ia a foreign member of *he Spanish Roysl Azademy
and the Lisbon Academy of Sciences.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel~stvo "Nsuka"~ "Veatnik Akadetaii riauk SSSR"~ 1982
9035
CSO: 1814/77 END
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