JPRS ID: 10659 USSR REPORT ENERGY

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• Sequence Number: 33
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 10659
16 July 1982
USSR Re ort
p
ENERGY
(F4U0 11 /82) .
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JPF~S L/10659
15 July 1982
USSR REPORT
ENERGY
(FOUO 11/82)
CONTENTS
FUELS
Economic Feasibil i ty of Ueing Natural Bitunren, Seavy Oils,
Oil Shale, Brown Coal
(I. I. Tuchko~v, T. A. Alekperov; NEFTYANAYA PROMYSHLENNOST',
SERIYA ERONOMIRA, No 1, 1982) 1
Oil Proepecting, Drilling Guids for Engineers
(N. Ye. Bykov, et al.; SPRAVOCHIdIK PO NEFTEPROMYSLOVOY
GEOLOGY, 1981) 7
Determination of Oil, Gae Well Conatruc ti~n Coete
(P. A. Bere zovakiy, et al.; NEFTYANAYA PROMYSHLENNOST',
SERIYA EKONOMIRA, No 5, 1982) 15
Handbook Provides Information on Well Drilling Equipment
(Konatantin Vladimirovich Iogansen; SPUTNIR BUROVIKA,
1981) 20
College Text on Radioactive Raw Material Depoeita
(Vladimir Ivanovich Danchev~ Tat'yana Alekeandrovna
Lapi.nakaya; 1~STOROZ~ENIYA RADIOAKTIVNOGO SYR'YA~ 1980) 26
PIPELINES
Optimal Control of a Marine Oil Depot and Port Following a S torm
(A. A. Do taenko, L. G. Stepanets; NEFTYANAYA PROMY3HLENNOST'~
SERIYA TRANSPORT I KHItANENIYE NEFTI I NEFTEPRODUKTOV,
No 4, 1982) 3~
- a - [III - USSR - 37 FOUO]
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FUEIS
UDC 622.753s658.155
ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF USING NATURAL BITUMEIJ, HEAVY OIIS, OIL 5HALE~ BROWN COAL
Moscow NEFTYANAYA P1mMYSHLENNOST', SERIYA EKONOMIKA in Ruasian No 1, 1982 pp 15-18
[Article by I. I. Tuchkov and T. A. Alekperov, All-Union Scientific Reaearch Insti-
tute of Organization, Control and Economics of Petroleum and Gas Industry]
[Text] Considerinq the qrowing demand for petroleum products and qrowth in their
world prices, the prob�lem of developinq and utilizing alternative nontraditional
sources of crude hydrocarbons is acquiring increasinqly qreater iinportance.
This is why there is so much urgency to the task of achievinq national economic use
of crude hydrocarbons contained in natural bitumen, heavy oils, brown coal and oil
shale in the Ural and Volga river basins, the Komi ASSR, Kazakhstan, the Ukraine,
Azerbaijan, Estonia, Siberia an4 other reqions of the country.
Known accumulations of natural bittaaen exist in basins of the ancient Russian and
Siberian continental plateaus and, primarily, on their monoclinal slopes and in
depressions (Mel~kesskiy, Anabarskiy, Olenekskiy, Uchuro-Mayskiy-Aldanskiy and
Timano-Pechorskiy regions). Three basic types of accumulations of natural bitun?en
are distinguished: Blanket and lenticular-blanketj surface brea and blanket effu-
sions (including asphalt lakes); and, finally, veins.
The first type is of the greatest interest.
The regions characterized by deposits having the most favorable qeoloqical anc~
economic parameters are Yuzhno-Tatarskiy and Melekesskiy (Tatar ASSR, Kuybyshevskaya
and U1'yanovskaya oblasts); Tsentral'no-E~nbenskiy (Gur'yevskaya and Aktyubinskaya
oblasts); Mangyshlakskiy (Western Kazakhstan)~ Priiorskiy (Western Azerbaijan,
Eastern Georgia).
Trne following regions may be of interest to the country as its asphalt raw material
base: Malo-Kinel'skiy and Zhigulevskiy (Kuybyshevskaya and Orenburqskaya oblasts)=
Varandey-Adz'vinskiy (Arkhanqel'skaya Oblast)= Izhma-Omrinskiy (Komi ASSR).
~ Deposits of highly viscous, heavy and residual oils are contained in practically
all oil-bearir.g reqions of the USSR. We know of more than 300 petroleum deposits
located at a depth of up to 1,200 meters that would favor development by mines,
open pits and wells (from the surface).
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Oil shale is known to exist in the USSR in Cambrian (the Siberian continental
plateau) , Ordovician (the Baltic basin) , Devonian (Belorussia) ,(Domanik) (Ural foot-
hills, Kuznetsk Basin) , carboniferous (KazaY.h SSR), Jurassic (eastern Russian continental
plateau, Central Asia), and Paleogenic and Neagenic deposits (iAcraine, Central Asia
and the Transcaucasus).
'i'hirty coal basins and more than 50 isolated deposits (not contained within basins)
are known to exist in the USSR. In the aspect of interest to us, brown coal basins
in the ~uropean USSR, the Urals and Southern Siberia are fuel and power bases:
Podmoskovsky, Dneprovskiy, Chelyabinskiy and Kansk-Achinsk, containinq ooal beds
suited to development as larqe open cuts. The Yuzhno-Ural'skiy, Ubaganskiy
_ (Turgayskiy), Maykubenskiy (Kazakhstan), Lenskiy and Tungusskiy brown coal basins
are promising sites of expanded coal mining. Coal from these basins is concurrently
a fabulous raw material from which to acquire synthetic liquid fuel.
~ Let us dwell in somewhat qreater 3etail on one of the brown ^oal basins--the
Kansk-Achinsk.
The coal reserves lie near the surface, in many places they emerge onto the aurface,
and they may be worked by the cheapest and most productive method--open cut mining.
Relatively low ash content (5-10 percent of the mineral ~natter) and a high concen-
tration of volatile components are typical of Kansk-Achinsk coal. It can be used
as a raw material in many sectors of.chemistry and co~l chemistry, and it is the
best raw material for synthesizing synthetic liquid ~uel and for obtaining refined
solid fuel and industrial heating ya=.
However, research on their development and utilization for the needs of the nati~nal
economy, on the problem of developmental and refining technoloqy, and the economic
aspect of their development is still in its initial stage.
An analysis of information on the geoloqy of shallow natural bitumen and heavy
oils and an evaluation of the available resources would reveal that exploratoxy
drilli,^.g for these materials is now being conducted only in the Tatar ASSR. In the
country as a whole, the v~olume of exploration and prospecting aimed specifically at
bitumen does not correspond to the complexity of the prAblem.
At present only a few reqions of the country (Melekesskiy, O~enekskiy; Embenskiy,
the Komi SSR, the Azer~aijan SSR) may be of interest to detailed exploration and
prospectinq. Others would first require regional and exploratory stu~les.
The main thing to consider light of t.'~e problem under examination here is to
create economically effective methods of working these deposits on an industrial
basis. An investigation of the Sovi..-et and foreiqn experience would ahow that
development and improvement of the technology and methods of extracting petroleum
from bituminous rock is proceeding in the �ollowing three directions:
quarry and mine extraction systems in which rock is brought to the surface for
extraction of bitumen (with solvent, hot water and so on) to produce so-called
synthetic petroleum=
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Mine drainage systems, in which bitwaen (or high-viscosity heavy petroletua) is
extracted within a mine shaft, without removal of bitwmen-containing rock to the
surface, by wag of a drainaqe system consistinq of wells drilled into the mined
rocks
in situ well method, in which bituminous oil is extracted by wells drilled from
the surface, using a thezmal or some other influence upon the bitwnen-containinq
bed.
The results of laboratory research and experimental industrial op~rations showed
_ that it is fundamentally possible to extract petroleum fran terrigenic bitumen-
containinq rc~ck using in situ well methods. The solution of the problem is closely
associated w~.th qeological, qeophysical and hydrodynamic researcb and with the
methods of thezinal power engineerinq and economics.
'I'he mine method is being used today on an industrial scale only at the Yareqskoye
deposit; e.cperimental well extraction operations have been started on a limited
scale at certain deposits of the Tatar ASSR.
In addition, extensive industrial application of quarry and mine extraction eystems
for developing bitumen and high-viscosity oil deposits is associated with a siqni-
ficant unfavorable effect upon the environment: the pilinq of sizeable quantities
of surface rock and of extracted and processed bituminous rock. But the advantaqes
of cQnducting mininq operations by this method are obvious: extraction of a large
quantity of crude hydrocarbons from the mined rockf the poasibility for using
existing mining equipment and for multiple use of ail of the extracted rock, since
following extraction of bitumen, the waste rock can be used to produce construction
and road building materials.
- Research shows that development of natural bitumen and hiqh-viscosity oils may be
of practical interest in a number of regions of the Ural and Volga basins, Western
Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan.
The most ~romising and best studied cieposits of natural bitumen can be found in the
Tatar ASSR. About 170 deposits have been r~vealed here, with bituminous beds from
1 to 15 meters thick lying at ~P~g from 0 to 400 meters.
The total outlays on obtaining heavy oil imported into this region at the time of
~he beginning of industrial development and the corrected outlays on production of
1 ton of "synthetic" petroleum from bituminous rock were used to detenaine the
economic effectiveness of developinq bittuninous rnck.
' The corrected outlays on extracting natural bitumen by the in BZtu method using
steam injecti~n are the highest: They are comparatively lees than the outlays on
open cut and mine development of bituminous rock, and 50-65 percent of the ostlays
on well extraction usi.ng steam.
Comparative analysis of the parameters of different extraction methods would demon-
strate tne economic feasibility~ of introducinq the open c:ut and mine methodc of
extracting bit~ami.nous oils. Thus qiven the conditions for extracting petroleum
by the mine method at the Balakhany-Sabunchi-Rpmaninskoye deposit (Azerbaijan SSR),
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the technical-economic indicators of extraction would be commensurate with the
current indicators for petroleum extraction in the "Azneft Association. Accord-
ing to corrected figures, the planned cost of extracting 1 ton of petroleuta from
the Yaregskoye deposit is cominq close to the outlays of the "Dagneft Association.
Z'he most important feature of the mine and quarry methods of developing petroleum
and bitumen deposits is multiple use of the extracted carboni~ferous rock and the
practically complete utilization of the organic maes. This is why these methods
can be thought of as economically promising.
The complexity of the production process, sizeable outl.ays on extraction, pulveriza-
tion and transportation of rock and the problems of environmental protection--the
negative aspects of surface mining of oil shale--qave birth to the idea of in situ
distillation relatively lonq ago. The in 8itu method is simpler in organizational
respects. All production operations, with thE exception of producing synthetic
oil, do not differ in principle fro:a those traditional to petroleum extraction
industry--drilling the wells, breaking down the bed by hydrostatic pressure,
injectinq workinq agents, in situ combustion, removal of liquids by pumping and
so on. The in situ methods are now at the stage of laboratory and field research.
An analysis of the results of this research made it possible to formulate and
plan measures which would make the in eitu method of developir.y oil bbale deposits
profitable.
The need for hiqhly productive large-scale processinq of coal, mainly to obtain en-
riched fuel, including liquid, has become increasinqly more obvious in the last
10-15 years.
There can be no doubt that qasoline, kerosene and synthetic petroleum from cheap
coal obt~ined by the open cut n?ethad can already yompsz:e with natural petroleum and
its processing products.
Today the procedures of transforming coal into liquid fuel are still far from
perfect. We need to solve many fundamental and purely engineering problems to
make the process simpler and cheaper. We will have to develop various production
processes applicable to different kinds of coal rind to different kinds of end
products. The new processes will have to be thorouqhly checked out with experimental
and experimental industrial facilities.
It should be noted that the total corrected outlays on acquirinq liquid fuelg are
significantly influenced by the outlays on coal, since 1 ton of liquid fuel requires
the expenditure of 3-4 tons of the orqanic mass of coal, which in terms of Kansk -
Achinsk coal is about 6 tons.
In the more remote future, "synthetic" patroleum will become competitive with con-
ventional petroleum in terms of outlays per unit of product.
It is entirely obvious that to solve the problem of producing "synthetic" liquid
fuel, we need to turn attention to the following aspects: replacing fuel oil (pro-
duced in large quantities from petroleum) by low-sulfur coke (coals, oil shales)
and deeper processing of conventional oil to obtain additional quantitiea of
lighter productsj direct acquisition of liquid motor fuels from coal and tar through
the pyrolysis of shale.
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According to tentative estimates, a significant savinqs of traditional fuel, in-
cluding boiler and �urnace fuel, can be achieved by makinq extensive national
economic use of crude hydrocarbons from oil shale, coal and bitwainous rock.
Inasmuch as the problem of creai:inq a stable base of crude hydrocarbons in the
country is acquirinq special urqency, it would now be feasible to initiate forced
development of shale industry and to organize an industry to process bituminous
rock, oil shale and brown coal with the purpose of puttinq these additional hydro-
carbon resources to use in the national economy.
The decisions of the 26th CPSU Conqress attach important siqnificance to this
problem. Z"he "Basic Directions of the USSR's Economic and Social Development in
1981-19~5 and in the Period to 1990" state: "Develop and introduce effective methods
of multiple use and processing of solid and heavy liquid fuels, and of acquisition of
synthetic fuels; ...improve the processes of extractinq high-viscosity oils and
bituminous petroleum."
Conclusions and recommendations:
1. Acquisition of synthetic liquid fue~s from nontraditional sources of crude
hydrocarbons is associated wi.th development of specific-purpose integrated prograzas
coordinated with scientific research and experimental design projects, with con-
struction of pilot and experimental industrial facilities, and with the planninq,
erection and operation of the first enterprises producing ayr.thetic fuel from bitu-
minous and oil-hearinq rock, oil shale and brown coals.
Scientific organizations of the USSR Academy of sciences and the scientific research,
planning, desiga 3nd production organizations of the ministries of geology, petrole-
um, chemical, petroleum refining, coal, instrument makinq and tnachine building in-
dustry and nonferrous a?etallu~gy must take part in solution of this problem.
2. Purposeful efforts to find and explore deposits must ~e orqanizedj the develop-
ment of inethods of industrial and field geophysics must be continued with the
purpose of revealinq accumulations of these mineralsf a mandatory complex of scien-
tific research must be developed and approved, and qeochemical studies must be
broadened; detailed maps showing tiie distribution of industrial, geoloqical and
predicted reserves of the indicated minerals on the territory of the USSR must be
drawn up, showing the depth at which such minerals lie, the thickness of the pro-
ductive horizons and the types of country rock.
3. Research should be conducted on the production processes and conditions of
effective use of the quarry, mine and Zrt 8~tu (well) methods of developing depositsf
integrated theoretical, laboratory and full-scale studies must be performed on
various physical and chemical methods of extractinq liquid hydrocarbonss effective
equipment and procedures to be used with the mine, mine-drainaqe and well methods
of extraction must be created; bittnaens and heavy oils, oil shales and coals must
be classified in relation to their nature and their chemical and technology proper-
ties, with a consideration for th~ir subsequent deeper processing and multiple use
in the national economy; effective liquid hydrocarbon collection and transport systems
must be developed within the mining regionsj attention must be turned to the con-
centration of organometallic compounds in liquid hydrocarbons, and the possibili-
ties of their extracticn for the purposes of engineerinq and economic evaluation
of their subsequent use must be examined.
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4. It would be unportant to develop the criteria of economic effectiveness of
extracting and obtaining petroleum from bituminous and oil-bearinq rock, oil shales
and brown coals obtained by the quarry, mine and in situ (well) methods, depending
on the mining, qeoqraphic and economic conditionsf the criteria of the economic
effectiveness of ~rocessinq nontraditional crnde hydrocarbons and of evaluati.nq
their usefulness as raw materials, depending on their natural properties, the depth
to which they are processed and the ways they are used in the national economy, must
be developed; an economic forecast must be made of the schedule and order of intro-
duction of experimental industrial facilities (producing liquid hydrocarbons) at
deposits of natural bitumens, heavy oils, oil shale and brown coals.
OOPYRIt~iT: Vsesoyuznyy nauchno-issledovatel'skiy institut organizatsii, upravleniya
i ekonomiki nefetqazovoy promyshlennosti (VNIIOENG), 1982
11004
CSO: 1822/206
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FUELS
OIL P1~JSPECTING, DR[LLING GUIDE FOR ENGINEERS
Moscow SPRAVO(~iNIK PO NEFTEPROMYSLOVOY C~OLOGII in Russian 1981.(siqned to press
25 Auq S1) pp 1-8, 52E
[Annotation, table of contents and foreword frosa book "Hancmook of Oilfield
Geoloqy", edited by N. Ye. Bykov, M. I. Maksimov and A. Ya. Fursov, Izdatel'stvo
"Nedra", 4,700 copies, 526 paqes]
[Taxt] This handbook comprehensively illuminates problems of oilfield qeology en-
countered during preparations for exploitation and development of an oil deposit.
Part One presents the methods of oilfield geological analysis. Special attention
is devoted to methods ensurinq maximian detail in studying the oilfield and its
properties, and to the methods used to procese the results, observations and
measurements. Pa~rt Zt~vo examines the main objectives of oilfield geological analysis
in the sequence followed in practice. Ways of integratinq the research methods
. and the procedi:res for processing infoz~a~ation usinq mathematical geoloqical models
and computers are discussed.
This handbook is intended for petrolevm geoloqists and oil prospectors working
for production and scientific research orqanizations. It may be useful to in-
structors, qraduate students and~students of petroleum engineering WZs and schools.
Fifty-four tables, 164 figures, 158 bibliographic references.
CONTENTS Paqe
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Part One
Methods of Oilfield Geoloqical Analysis
Chapter I. Detailed Study of the Material Composition and Types of Rock
in Productive Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
gl. Methods and Techniques of Sampling R~ck From Productive Deposits
(A. N. Petrovskaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
�2. Analysis of the Material Composition, Texture and Structure of
Productiv~e Terriqenous R~ck and of Interstitial Spaces Within It
(A. N. Petrovskaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
�3. Analysis of the Material Composition, Texture and Structure of
Productive Carbonate Rock and of InterstitiaL Spaces Within It
(Yu. I . Mar' yenko) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
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Chapter II. Methods of Detailed Breakdcx~rn of Cross Sections of Productive
Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 40
�1. Objectiv~es of Breaking Down.the Cross Sections of Productive
Deposits (A. N. Petrovskaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 4u
52. Breakinq Dawn Cross Sections on the Basis ~f Research on the
Material Composition of Rock (A. N. Petrovskaya) . . . . . . . . . . . 40
�3. Oilfield Geoloqical Methods of Detailed Breakdown of Productive
Deposits (N. V. Mancheva) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
�4. Mathematical Geoloqical Methods of Detailed Breakcbwn of a Cross
Section Usinq Corinq Data (A: Z. Gorin, 8. N. Yenikeyev) 47
�5. Derivation of a Summary Geoloqical-Geophysical Cross Section
(N. V. Mancheva) . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter III. Detailed Correlation of Cross Sections of Productive Deposits . 53
�1. Correlation Principles (A. N. Petrovskaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
�2. Features of Beds Used in Detailed Correlation of Cross Sections
(A. N. Petrovskaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
�3. Featurss of Correlatinq Productive Carbonate Strata
(Yu. I . Mar' yenko) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
�4. Detailed Correlation of a Bed on the Basis of Well Loqs
(V. V. Voinov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
�5. Mathematical Geoloqical Methods of Detailed Correlation (V. A. .
Bad' yanov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chap�~er IV. Methods of Determining the Physical Properties of Reservoirs 67
�1. Laboratory Methods of Determininq Physical Properties of Reservoirs
(A. G. 1Lovalev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
�2. Oilfield Geophysical Methocs of Determininq Physical Properties of
Reservoirs (N. V. Mancheva, T. A. Sultanov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SS
_�3. Hydrodynamic Methoc7s~of Detenaininq Physical Properties of Reservoirs
(Yu. P. Gnttenberqer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter V. Methods of Detailed Analysis of the Physicochemical Properties
of Bed Fluids and Gases (Yu. P. Gnttenberger) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
�1. Phyeicochemical Charact.eristics of Bed Fluids and Gases Used
in the Development of Oil Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
�2. Specific Features of Takinq Samples in Different Conditions to
Acquire Rsliable Data on the Properties of Oil, Gas and Water 125
g3. Methods of Predicting Chanqes in Properties of 011 and Gas Durinq
Development of Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � 129
~4. Chanqe in Chemical ~n~poaition of Byproduct water When Developing
Oil and Gas Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
�5. Prediction of Deposition�of Suspended Solids During Oilfield.
Development . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Chapter VI. Methods of Studying Oil and Gas Forn~ation Energetics 156
gl. Molecular Forces Influencing the Distribution of Oil, Gas and Water . 156
in a Bed (M. I. Makaimov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
�2. Forces Propelling Oil Within a Bed During Its Exploitation . 158
(M. I. Maksimov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g3. Lffective and Relative Phasal Permeability (M. I. Maksimov) 159
�4. Ths Nature of Reservoir Preasure and Temperature in Subsoil . 161
' (Yu. P. Gattenberqer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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_ �5. Determination of Reservoir Pressure in kells (Y~~. P. Gattenberger) 165
�6. Determination of Reseryoir Z~emperature in W~lls (Yu. P. Gattenberger) . 167
~7. Oil and Gas Formation Worki.ng Conditions (M. I. Maksimov, Yu. P.
Gattenberger) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Chapter VII. Methods of Geometric Analysis of Oil and Gas Formations 174
�l. General Premises (A. Ya. Fursov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
�2. Methodoloqical Pxinciples of Geometric Analysis of Oil and Gas
Formations F. Dement'yev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
�3. The Nature of Changes Occurring in Field Properties.in ~esponse to
Geometric Analysis of Oil and Gas Forn~ations (A. Ya. Fursov,
R. A. Yeqorov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
�4. Forms and Methods of Graphical Simulation of the Distribution of
Fozmation Properties (I. Ya. Fursov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
~5. Methods of Computer Mappinq (0. P. Ioffe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Chapter VZII. Methods of Studyinq the Heterogeneity of Praductive Beds 212
~1. Basic Objectives and Levels of Analysis of Heteroger~eity (L. F.
Dement' yev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
�2. Methods of Graphical and Analytical Representation of Bed Hetero-
geneities (Z. K. Ryabinina, V. V. Voinov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
�3. Methods of Detenaining the Bed Displacement Factor Using Zonal Maps
(Z. K. Ryabinina, V. V. Voinov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
�4. A Statistical Method of Eaaluatinq the Discontinuity and Ccefficient
of Influence (V. A. Bad'yanov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
�5. Specific Features of Studyinq Heterogeneities in Oil and Gas
Formations (V. S. Kerum-Zade) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
�6. Evaluation of Bed Heteroqeneity by Different Statistical Coefficients
(E. K. Ryabinina, V. V. Voinov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Chapter IX. Methods of Determining the Parameters of Oil and Gas Formations . 239
�1. General Premises (I. Ya. Fursov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
g2. Methods of Determining Maximum Values of Petrophysical Properties
of Rr~ck When Calculatinq Oil and Gas Reserves (V. K. Gomzikov,
Yu. A. Kuz'michev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
. . .
�3. Specific Features of Detezmini~ig Parameters Characterizing Reservoir
Properties of Productive Beds (A. Ya. Fursov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
�4. Specific Features of Determining Parameters Characterizinq Physical
Properties uf Oil (A. Ya. Fursov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
g5. Specific Features of Geometric Analysis and�Determination of the
Volume of Oil and Gas Formations (A. Ya. Fursov) . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Chapter X. Methods of Determining the Planning Coeffici.~nt of Oil Output
on the Basis of an Anal~gy With Geological Conditions of Oilfield
Development (V. K. Gomzikov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
~1. Detexmination of the Oil Output Coefficient for a Hydros~:atically
Exploited Bed Using Graphical Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
g2. Determination of the Oil Output Coefficient Using Multidimensional
Statistical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
g3. Foreign Data on Determininq Oil Output Using Multidimensional
Statistical Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
�4. Determination of Oil Output of a Bed Wo~ked With Dissolved Gas Usinq
the Physical Properties of Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
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Chapter XI. Methods of Calculating 0i1 and Dissolved Gas Reserves
(V. K. Gomzikov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
�1. Volumetric :tiethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
~2. Material Balance Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
g3. Empirical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
y4. Calculation of the Reserves of Gas Dissolved in Oil 283
Chapter aII. Methods of Evaluating the Reliability of Forn~ation
Parameters and the Development Indicators Used in Planning 284
�1. General Remarks on Accuracy Evaluation (R. A. Yegorov, A. Ya.
.Fursov, K. S. Taldykin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
- g2. Principal Sources of Systematic Error in Parameter Determination
(R. A. Yegorov, A. Ya. Fursov, K. S. Taldykin) . . . . . . . . . . . 285
g3. Calculation of Random Errors Associated With Determining Oil
Formation Parameters (R. 8. Yegorov, A. Ya. Fursov, K~ S. Taldykin) . 287
�4. Evaluation of the Accuracy of Determininq the Planned Oil Yield
of an Oilfield (R. A. Yegorov, A. Ya. Fursov, K. S. Taldykin) 305
�5. Evaluation of the Accuracy of Calculatxng the Cost of Oil Extraction
(R. A. Yegorov, A. Ya. Ftirsov, K. S. Taldykin) . . . . . . . . . . . 307
�6. Permis s ible Limits for R4unding Off Parameters (R. A. Yegorov,
A. Ya. Fursov, K. S. Taldykin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
~7. Methods of Evaluating the Reliability of Parameters Based on Infor-
matioa Measures (L. F. Dement'yev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Chapter XIII. Methods of Information Support to Oilfield Geological
Analysis (V. R. Voronovskiy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
�1. General R~equirements on Systems Providing Information Support to
Solution of Oilfield Geological Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
�2. Automated Data Retrieval Systems in Oilfield Geological Analysis 324
Part ~vo
Basic Problems of Oilfield Geological Analysis and the Methods of Their Solution
Chapter XIV. Preparation of Oilfields for Development (A. Ya. Fursov,
R. A. Yegorov and N. Ye. B~kov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
�1. Objectives and Problems of Preparing Oil Formations for
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Q2. Basic Requirements on the Raw Data and on the Volume of Infortnation
Available on Parameters Used in Planninq Oilfield Development 333
�3. Systems for Exploring Oil ai~d Gas Formations and Fields and
Systems for Locating Exploratory Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
�4. General Premises of a Sensible Procedure for Preparing Oil and Gas
Fields for Develop~nt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34~
' ~5. Supplementary Exploration of Oil and Gas Fields . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Chapter XV. Isolation of Exploitable Entities in Multiple-Bed Oilfields
(V. G. Kanalin, L. F. Dement'yev, N. Ye. Bykov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
�1. Basic Factors Accounted for When Isolating Exploitable Entities 363
�2. Selection of Quantitative Criteria for Evaluating the Suitability
of Combining Several Beds Into One Exploitable Entity 366
�3. Consideration of the Influence of the Deqree of Differences Between
Beds on the Results of Their Joint Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . 372
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y4. Methods of Evaluating the Mean of the Productivi~ty Coefficient When
Plaiir~ing Joint Exploitation of Several Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
�5. Example of Quantitative Evaluation of the Suitability of Combininq
Beds Into One Exploitable Entity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Chapter XVI. Consideration of Geological Conditions When Selecting Systems
of Development (M. I. Maksimov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
�l. Classification of Commonly Employed Systems of Oilfield Development 389
~2. Consideration of the Geoloqical Structural Features of Formations and
of the Planned 0i1 Extraction Level When Selecting Flooding Systems 393
~3. Systems of Locating Producing Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
~4. Geological Grounds for the Systems of.0i1 and Gas Formation Development 399
~5. Characteristics of the Productivity of Oil Beds and the Principles
of Establishing the Nornis of Liquid Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Chapter XVII. Basic Stages of Planning of Oilfield Development and
Derivation of the Geological Grounds for Planning Docuiaents (Z. K.
Ryabinina, V. V. Voinov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
�1. Basic Stages of Planning Oi7field Development, and the Purpose and
Content of Planning Docwaents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
g2. Derivation of the Geological Grounds (Drawing Up the Geology Section)
for Planning the Development of an Oilfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Chapter XVIII. Oilfield Geological Analysis in the Initial Period of
Oilfield Development (A. V. Chernitskiy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
gl. Basic Problems of Oilfield Geological Analysis in the Initial
Period of Oilfield Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
~2. Collecting and Processing the Raw Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
g3. l~thodological Features of Geological Analyses Performed on Exploited
Deposits With the Purpose of Improving the Development System 426
�4. Examples of Integrated Geoloqical Analyses Performed at the
Uzen' Deposit With the Purpose of Improving the Development System 432
Chapter XIX. Oilfield Geological Analysis and Control of Oilfield
Development (Yu. P. Gattenberger) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
�1. Control of Development as an Integrated Oilfield Geoloqical Problem k37
~2. Control of Well Output and Injectivity, the Floodinq and Gas
Factors of Production and the Status of Bottom Hole and Reserv~oir
Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
�3. Control of the Movement of Oil-Water and Gas-Oil Interfaces
and Flooding of Oil Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
�4. Control of the Extent to Which Productive Beds are Influenced by
the Displacing Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Chapter XX. Oilfield Geological Control of Complete Exploitation of
Productive Beds (V. K. Gomzikov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
�1. Reasonably Complete Exploitation of Productive Beds--The Most
Important Prerequisite of Development Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . 468
~2. A Method for Controlling the Current and Final Oil Output of Beds
Worked by Hydrostatic Pressure Using pisplacement Characteristics 469
�3. A Method of Controlling a Gtiirrent and Final Oil Output of Beds
Worked by Hydrostatic Pressure Entailing Evaluation of Output in
Flooded Portions of Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
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4. Method of Controllinq Current and Final Oil Output of Beds Worked
- by Hydrostatic Pressur~ iJsing the Initial and Residual Oil Saturation
Levels of the Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
5. Determination of Current and Final Oil Output of Beds Worked With
Dissolved C ~ s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Chapter XXI. Methods of Increasinq the Oil Output of Beds, and the
Geological Condi~ions of 'I'heir Application (A. A. Bokserman) . . . . . . . ~72
1. Basic Reasons for Incomplete Extraction of Oil From the Subsoil 472
2. Methods of ]Cncreasinq the Oil Output of Beds, and Their Classification
and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
3. Methods of Increasing the Degxee of Oil Displacem~nt 477
4. Methods of Increasing the Bed Displacement Factor . . . . . . . . . . . 482
5. Methods of Increasing the Bed Displacement Factor and the Degree
of Oil Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
6. Conditions for Using New Methods of Increasing the Oil Output of
Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
7. Basic Requirements on Geological�and Physical Investigation of
Beds to Which the New Methods of Increasing Oil Output Are Applied 497
~ Chapter XXII. Oilfield Geological Documentation of Oil and Gas
Extraction Processes (V.R. Voronovskiy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
1. Well Docua?ents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
2. Bed Development Docuinents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
3. A System of Automated Collection of Oilfield Information 504
Chapter XXIII. Protection of the Subsoil and Environment of Oil and Gas
Fields (A. Ya. Fursov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
1. General Premi.ses of Protecting the Subsoil and Environment 507
2. Protecting the Subsoil and Environment During Exploration and
Prospectinq of Oil and Gas Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
3. Protecting the Subsoil and Environn?ent.Durinq Development of
Oil and Gas Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Foreword
In recent years the country's oil industry entered a period of its development
in which the necessary levels are ensured not only by the development of new oil-
fields but also by fuller extraction of oil from the subsoil. Solution of this
complex problem would be impossible without broad use of oilfield geological methods
of studying oil and gas deposits. ~
As a response to the needs of the industry, the traditional methods of oilfield
geological analysis have been improved, and enriched with new procedures of ob-
taining arb3 processing information. When we study the n?aterial composition of rock,
in addition to using the usual lithological-petroqraphic characteristics we often
obtain the characteristics of the rock's microstructure so that we may evaluate the
possibilities of usinq different methods of physicochemical influence upon a bed
and predict chanqes that would occur in the rock in response to the development
processes.
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Liquids and ga:.~es contained within a bed and pumped into it by art~.ficial means are
studied with the purpose of determininq not only the physicochemical ~+roperties of
these fluids but also their interaction with one another, since this interaction can
cause certain negative consequences.
It would be unimaginable today to break productive deposits down into their parts
and subject them to detailed correlation--especially in large oilfields, where the
loqs of many hundreds and sometimes even thousands of wells must be processed--without
the automated computerized data processinq aystems that are naw operating successfully
in a number of the country's regions.
Geanetric analysis of oil and gas deposits--that is, creation of their models--re-
quires a detailed knowledge of the variability of characteristics (properties), which
must be accounted for when s~electinq a particular model with which to reflect obser-
vation data. Methods of accountinq for the heterogeneity of productive beds when
planning oilfield development--diverse methods which adapt themselves rather well to
local conditions--have now appeared and are enjoying practical application. A cer-
tain amount of development has occurred in the methods of calculatinq the parameters
of oil and gas deposits with a consideration for the lower limits of reserv~oir proper-
ties, and methods of evaluating the reliability of parameters and reserves takinq
account of the variability of a particular characteristic, the amount of information
on it and so on.
All of this has made it necessary to generalize the information on modern methods of
geological oilfield analysis in a single publication, such as the handbook offered
here. Part One of the handbook presents the basic method.c of oilfield geological
analysis. Special attention is turned to those methods which promote fuller study of
a deposit and which provide more reliable information on its parameters, since these
factors predetermine the quality of problem solution.
Part Ztao uses examples of solving concrete problems in preparinq oil and gas deposits
for development and in developing them in order to demonstrate how different methods
of oilfield geoloqical analysis may be integrated with hydrodynamic, economic and
other methods. Emphasis is placed on the reliability of conclusions made in differ-
ent stages of a formation's study. Thus the process of preparing an oilfield for
development is presented from the standpoint of satisfying optimum quantitative
requirements associated with the completeness of analysis and the reliability of
determining all parameters needed in drawinq up the flow charts and plans.
Isolation of exploitable entities within the cross section of a multiple-bed forma-
tion is viewed as an optimization problem which can be solved by using the procedures
of quantitative evaluation of differences in the geological and physical properties
of productive beds intended for combined exploitation, and by accounting for the
influence the degree of these differences exerts on the well productivity coefficient.
In order that efficient solutions could be found to the problems associated with
geological oilfield analysis in the oilfield drilling stage, it would be suitable
to obtain the information for such analysis from automated systems that can process
the large volinnes of raw data. The procedures of such analysis are presented, using
development of a multiple-bed oilfield as an example.
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The problems of oi~field qeological analysis associated with controlling development
of an oilfield a.re exami.ned both in relation to tne reliability of determining the
current oil or water saturation level of a bed from inforn?ation provided by wells,
and in relation to organizing an effective system by which to control the stat+as of
_ developa?ent and so on.
Thus modern qeoloqical oilfield analysis represents a system of procedures for
studying and creating models of oil and qas deposits and of processes occurring
within them durinq their development. Such analysis is performed in all stages of
preparing an oilfield for ~~avelopment and exploitation, and it is typified by a
gradual increase in the number of problems addressed and by growth in the stringency
of requirements imposed on the quality of problem solution--that is, on the reli-
ability of the obtained par~azneters and conclusions and of the decisions made on
th~ir basis. The methods practically employed for so:~ving oilfield qeological pr~o-
blems are highly diverse; therefore the appropriate sections of the handbook reflect
those procedures that are best suited to typical geological conditions. Recommenda-
tions concerning other cases involving unique features of qeological structure and
development conditions may be found in the suggested literature.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nedra", 19~1
11004
CSO: 1822/203
.
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FUELS
UDC 622.24
DETERMINATION OF OIL~ GAS WELL CONSTRUCTION COSTS
Moscow NEFTYANAYA PROMYSHLENNOST', SERIYA EKONOMIKA in Russian No 5, 1982 pp 20-23
[Article by P. A. Berezovskiy, 0. G. Generalova, S. A. Ponomarev, F. I. Sirazetdinov
and N. L. Leqostayev, "Bashneft'" Associatioa and BashNIPIneft:') ~
(Text] The system for estimating the costs of drillinq is essentially a system of
forminq the prices on the producte of drillinq organizations.
While prices have been stable in industry and constzuction (at least for a number of
years), in drillin3, which is a variant of construction work, this is canpletely
untrue (in connection with yearly chanqes in planned drillinq rates), since there
are no stable, scientifically grounded standards to serve as an operating base.
Z'hus the comu~rcial drilling rate must be planned more accurately on the basis of
well grounded standards. In our opinion we could solve the prAblem of planning
commercial drillinq rates if we calculate the per-aneter drilling time with a con-
sideration for natural and geological factors and if we establish labor outlay
norms in relation to different cateqories of rock drillinq difficulty that could
remain stable over a number of years. ~
The labor-intensiveness of breaking down one meter of rock, or the drilling diffi-
culty, lies at the basis of stable time norms used to detezmine commercial drilling
rates necessary for drawing up the planninq and estimate documents and for deter-
mining the estimated cost of completed operations.
The method proposed here is beinq successfully applied to time norms used to draw
up estimates for structural exploratory drillinq. A special study was conducted
with the purpose of analyzing the theoretical and practical possibility of using
this approacr. to determine the cost of drilling oil and gas wells in the "Bashneft
Association.
Breaking down well orofiles into stratiqraphic subdivisions has become a widespread
practice in oil and gas well drilling. In our op~.nion when we draw up estimates
for well drillin~g, it would be more proper to deal not with stratigraphic divisions
of rock (the difficulty of drilling rock of the same age may vary), but rather with
the lithological homogeneity of rock beds having identical mechanical properties.
This would make it possible to conq~are, in terms of drilling difficulty, both the
rock of specific deposits and the rock of entire drilling reqions irrespective of
their geographical location.
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Lithological-stratigraphic profiles were ~3etermined for 67 3reas being drilled by
the "Bashneft As~?ociation's Adtainistration for Drilling Operations in order to
establish distinquishing features of rock composing a particular area and responsi-
ble for the differences in rock categories. Using stratiqraphic subdivisions of
the profiles of all of the areas, we isolated the basic forms of rock and determined
the indicators describing their hardness, drilling distance per run, and the rate
of inechanical drilling. After ana~yzing these indicators we arrived at a classifi-
cation of typical representatives of rock related to 12 cateqories of drilling
difficulty. Specific litholoqical-petrographic characteristics of rock and specific
indicators of drillinq distance per run and mechanical drilling rate correspond to
each category.
Experimental general estimate time norms were developed for drilling operations
in relation to all cateqories of rock and intervals of wel7. depth. These time norms
were related to the drilling method, the size of the drill bit, to whether or not
core samples were taken, to the form of flushinq ~luid employed and to the type of
drilling rig. The nozms were tailored to all cateqories of rock in relation to
specific intervals of well depth (every 100 meters) with the purpose of penaitting
their use to draw up planning and estimate docutaents for well construction (for
determination of commercial drilling rate and the estiniated time of drilling opera-
tions).
Although the well drilling process includes a large quantity of different operations,
in keeping with the standardization principle it would be best to g~oup them as
shown in Table l.
~
Table 1
Group of
Operations Fornis of Operations _
I Mechanical drilling, as characterized by the time
required to drill 1 meter of rock and by the distance
drilled in a sinqle run of the drill bit
II Lowerinq, raisinq and other auxiliary operations
associated with well depth and drill bit running
time. Adding drilling ~ipe.
III Supplementary operations
I~ Securing wells with casinqs
~ Correcting problems arising not at the fault of the
workers, and interruptions in work for reasons
for which aclministrati.ons for cirilling operations
cannot be held responsible
Mechanical drillinq (operation qroup I) directly determines the correlation be-
t�~aeen rock drilling difficulty (the time standards for mechanical drilling of
1 meter, in hours, and the drilling distance per slot, in meters) and the well
drilling equipment and procedures. This correlation is reflected in the flow
charts for drill bit processinq.
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Tl~e time outlays on operations in group II are determined from the drillinq distance
per run of the dril]. bi* in specific forma of rocks, using the unified intersector
time norms presently :n effect. Thus the duratian of operations in groups I and YI
is directly associat~:d with the lithologi,cal-petrographic characteristics of the
rock beinq drilled.
The duration of operations in groups III and IV depends on the drilling conditions
and on the desiqn and purpose of the well, and it is determined from unified inter-
sector time norms presently in effect.
Time outlays on operations in qroup V reflect the general conditions of drilling
operations (climatic, social and c~eoloqical, as well as the economic and industrial
level of development of the region); therefore they are calculated on the basis of
an analysis of the statistics for each reqion. After tentative general time nosZns
were drawn up, they were tested by all of the aseociation's administrations for
drilling operations in order to reveal the sort of corrections and additions that
would have to be made in the tentative norms.
In order to rev~eal the acceptabili~y of the norms we devel~ped, we compared the
drilling rates shown in the planning and estimate documents with the actual well
drilling rates and the rates calculated from the tentative general time norms.
The results of testing the first experimental general time norms in the "Bashneft
Association are shown in Table 2(1980 data).
Table 2
Drilling Purpose
Indicator Operational Exploratory Total Volume
Tested
Wells 417 112 529
Meters 745,944 218,553 964,497
Nianber of wells for which drilling
rate determined from general
time norms is closer to actual
drilling rate than is the drill-
ing rate determined from
planning-estimate documents
Wells 266 59 325
~ 63.8 52.7 61.4
Drilling distance for wells
for which drillinq rate deter-
mined from general time norms
is closer to actual drilling
rate than is drilling rate
determined from planning-
estimate documents
Meters 525,591 122,783 648,374
$ 70.5 56.2 67.2
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It may be concluded from just the first test that it is fundamentally possible to
, dispense with th~ existing system of compilinq the planning-estimate documents and
to begin calculation of commercial drillinq rates and time on the basis of the
qene~al time norms we developed. However, it has been found necessary to continue
the effort of improving the collection of general time norms, to make certain correc-
tions and additions with the purpose of raising the accuracy of the norms.
In order to evaluate the quality of the general time norms u?ore deeply, we also
applied statistical methods for evaluating the significance of the correlation
between the com~nercial rates calculated using the general and conventianal nozms
- and the actual rates. In particular we used Pearson's conqruence test to verify
the normality of the distribution of the mean com~nercial drilling rates in different
drilling areas= we also used Student's tests to determine the sufficiency (represen-
tativeness) of the sample and to evaluate the significance of the correlation between
the actual well drillinq rates and the comaaercial rates detexmined from the qeneral
time norms and between the actual well drilling rates and the rates determined from
planning and estimate documents used in the financing of the drilling operations.
Our evaluation of the significance of the correlation between commercial rates showed
that in the ovexwhelming majority of cases there were no significant differences be-
tween actual commercial rates and the rates calculated on the basis of the general
time norms. The duration of drilling operations, as determined from the genetal
estimate time norms, reflects the existing level of the drillinq equipment, proce-
dures and organization to a greater degree, since this indicator is closer to the
actual value than is the duration of drilling operations that was determined from
the planning and estimate documents. Al1 of this confirms the correctness of the
principles and methods of deriving general time norms with a consideration for the
use for which they are intended. ~
The general time norms for drillinq operations are convenient to use in planning
and estimate documents as a means l~or objectively determininq the duration of drilling
operations and the coma?ercial drilling rates, for creating a stable base from which
to determine the cost of oil and gas well construction and for ensuring that the
cost estimates arrived at for different oil drillinq regions are equitable.
The estimate time norms per u?eter of drilling must be reviewed as well drillinq
equipment and procedures improve. But their review should not require any special
additional outlays, since the introduction of new equipment into drilling operations
is always accompanied by a special analysis conducted to reveal the effectiveness
of the new equipment and to correct the norms.
After the general time norms are introduced; estimates for drilling operations will
be made on the basis of the commercial drilling:rate calculated using these noxms
with a consideration for the geoloqical profile of the well but without considerinq
the previously encountered rates. This will ensure that the estimated per-meter
drillinq cost would remain stable over a number of years for wells drilled in con-
stant natural and qeoloqical conditions.
A firm per-n?eter drillinq cost estimate, one determined with an eye on socially
necessary outlays that can be compeneated and intended to remain constant over a
number of years, would be a dependable basis for planning capital investments and
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for financing drilling operations. It would also mean that 'che collectives of
drilling organizations would have a dependab].e bnsis for determining the financial
end result of their work.
Under these conditions the savings in outlays enjoyed due to qrowth in drillinq
rate would be reflected as an increase in the profits of the drilling orqanizations,
rath~r than as a reduction of the estimated cost of planned work, as is the prac-
tice today.
Crea~ian of a foundation of proqressive standards based on a rock classification,
on general time norms for drillinq operations and on objectively calculated drilling
operation times would be a necessary prerequisite of increas'zxig the drilling rates,
reducing the time and coat of well construction and improving the technical-economic
indicators of drillinq operations.
COPYRIGHT: Vsesoyuznyy nauchno-issledovatel'skiy institut orqanizatsii, upravleniya
i ekonomiki neftegazovoy promyshZennosti (VNIIOENG), 1982
11004
CSO: 1822/193
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FUELS
HANDBOOK P1ipVIDES INFORMATION ON WELL DRILLING EQUIPMENT
Moscow SPUTNIK BUROVIKA in Russian 1981 (siqned to press 17 Nov 81) pp 1-2, 196-200
[Annotation and table of contents from book "Drill Operator's Guide" by Konstantin
Vladimirovich Ioqansen, Izdatel'stvo "Nedra", 35,000 copies, 200 pages]
[Text] Brief descriptions are given of series-produced turbodrills, bits, drillinq,
casing, pump and compressor pipes, core extractors, drilling column components,
grabs, packers and blowout preventers. Well flushing and cementing are examined,
and information on oilfield geophysics is presented. 7.'he handbook i.s laid out in
the form of tables. Strength characteristics, formulas, procedures, nomograms and
qraphs required for calculations are provided.
This quide is intended for enqineers and technicians em~loyed in well drillinq
associated with all forms of minerals--oilmen, gas drillers and geologists.
Tables--173, figures--108, bibliography--26 references.
Contents Page
I. Drill Bite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Conditions for Using Rock Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Number of Hard Alloy Pins in Drill Bite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Imck Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Drill Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Industrially Produced Core Drill Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Industrially Produced l~cck Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Weiqht and PesZnisaible Load on Rock and Drill Bits 6
Rock Bit Wear Coding (Al1-~nion Scienti~ic Research Institute for
Drilling Techniquea) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Modification of Soviet and Foreiqn Bitb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Bladed Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Crude Diaawnda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
. Diamond Drillinq Tools (Natural and Synthetic Diamonds) . . . � � . . . . . 15
Area of Application of Diamond Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Drillinq Zbols Reinforced With Slawtich Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conditiona for Usinq Graphs og Profftable Working of Diamond Bits 16
Using Graphs of Profitable Workinq of Diamond Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
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Specific Moments of Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Actual Values of Specific Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
II. Core Extractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
lmtary Core Extractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3
Core Extractor Desiqns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
III. Turbodrills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Turbodrill Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Turbodrill Threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
iV. Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Steer Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Drilling Pipes for Electric Drillinq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Strenqth Characteristics of Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
� Aluminum Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Strenqth Characteristics of Aluminum Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Permissible Wear of Pipe Outer Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Permissible Tension on Class II and III Aluminum Drillinq Pipes 33
Pezmissi.ble Tension on C1ass~II and III Steel Drillinq Pipes 34
Square Kelly Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fxtra-Strong Drilling Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Layout of the Bottom of a Drillinq Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Strength Testinq of a Zwro-Dimensional Drillinq Column . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Indicators a, b and h for Tubes of Different ~?pe-Sizea 39
Ratios of the Squares of Variables k2sD2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Cal~ulation of the Durability of Drillinq Pipea . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . 40
- V.. Drillinq Column Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Locks for Drilling Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Adapters for Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Adapters for Urive Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Square Centerinq Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Imlling Cutter Calibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Bladed Spiral Calibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Expander-Calibratars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Calibratar-Centerinq Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Safety locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Flexible Stabilizers : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Rubber Rings for Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
~
. . .
~ Reflux Valves for Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Metal Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Sludqe Extractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Distance to Bottom Hole From First Centering Guide When Drilling
Slant Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Distance From Bottom Hole to First Centering Guide in Rotary Drilling 53
Distance From Bottom Hole to First Centerinq Guide in Turbodrillinq 54
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VI. Pump and Compressor Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Technical Characteristics of Pump and Compressor Pipes . . . . . . . . . . 56
Couplings For Pump and Com~ressor Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Strength Characteristics of Ptunp and Compressor Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . 59
VII. Casing Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Casinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Couplings for Casinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . 63
OG-lm Coupling-Free Casing Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Welded Casinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Contact-Welded Casinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Coding of Foreign Casing Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Strenqth Characteristics of Casinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fi6
Permissible Tension for Casinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Casing Pipe Moldinq Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Strenqth Characteristics of Casinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Steel Seamless Hot-Rolled Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Casinq Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Testing Wells for Imperviousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Calculating Casing Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Deternuning Casinq Perviousness of Casings During Discharge 86
Drop in Casing Level in Response to Extraction of Pipes Without Air Lift . 87
~7III. Casinq Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Templates for Casing Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Stop Thrust Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Reflux Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
~ Refl~ix Choke Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
R~eflux Ball Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Automatically Replenished Reflux Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Milling and Smooth Shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Shoes for Casing Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Column Shces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Crown Scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
~ Double-Action Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Spring Masts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Spring Centering Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Distance Between Centering Guide~ in the Compressed Segment of a Casing 98
Piercing Mandrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9~
Zt~vo-Section Piercinq Mandrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
IX. Well Flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Delivery of U8-6M Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . 100
Pressure Losses in Drillinq Pipes Due to Flow of Drilling Fluid 101
Pressure Losses in Drilling, Pump arxd Con~ressor Pipes in Response
to the Flow of Drf llinq Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Pressure Losses in Rinq Space in Response to Flow of Drillinq Fluids
Between Walls of the Well and Drillinq Pipes . . 103
Pressure Losses in the Rinq Space in Response to Flow of~Drilling Fluids
Between Well Walls in Extra-Strong Drilling Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
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Pressure Losses in ~.~sponse to Flow of Drilling Fluids in Extra-Strong
Drillinq Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Pressure Losses in Response to Flow of Drilling Fluids in Rpck Bits 104
Pressure Losses in Jet Drilling Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Pressure Losses in Drilling Rig Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
X. Flushing Fluids and Chemical Reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Classification of Flushing Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Chemical Reagents Used in Well Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Materials Used in Well Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Classification of Chemical Reaqents in Relation to Salt Tolerance and
Heat Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
XI. Well Cementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
_ Delivery and Pressure Generated by Cementing Units . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Columnar Cementing Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Properties of Cement Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Determination of Bottom Hole Temperature Prior to Cementation 117
Values of Coefficients A, B and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Methods of Calculatinq Cement Bridqes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Calculation of Buffer Fluid Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Hydrodynamic Cementing Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Inner Volume of Lock-Equipped Drilling Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Inner Volume of Pump and Compressor Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Inner Voliure of Casing Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Inner Volume of Casing Pipes Made According to ANI Standards 123
Volume of Space Between Well Walls and Gasing Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
XII. Troubleshooting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
General-Purpose Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Special Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Special Grabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Grabs Used in Geological Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Slip Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Bells for Retrieval of Drilling Pipe Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Bel~s for R~etrieval of Pump and Compressor Pipe Columns 131
~ Through Slip Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Slip Sockets Used in Geological Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Releasing Internal Pipe Catchers for Pump and Compressor Pipes 133
Nonreleasing Pipe.Catchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
TVO Internal Pipe Catchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
TVU-UBT Internal Pipe Catchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
External Releasing Threading Die Catchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
' C~tting-Abrading Milling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Cutting-Abrading Ring Milling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
End Milling Cutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Intercolumn and Milling Cutters . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Bottom Hole Milling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Tapered Column Milling Zbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
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(Rayber) Milling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Pilot Milling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Column Scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
General-Purpose Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Magnetic Catcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L46
Magnetic Milling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fishing Rpds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Determination of Catching Depth From Length of Free Piping 148
XIII. Oilfield Geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Technical Characteristics of Geophysical Well Instruments 150
Technical Characteristics of Clamp-Equipped Instruments . . . . . . . . . 151
Technical Characteristics of Clampless Well Instruments . . . . . . . . . 152
Axial Shaped Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Nonherntietic Shaped Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
TDSh Shaped Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Detonating Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
ZTShT Shaped Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Using Nomograms to Determine the Quantity of Explosives Required to
Unscrew or Break Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Hollow-Charge Housed Perforators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Hollow-Charge Perforators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Strip Perforators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
XIV. Packing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Packers Used to Seal Off Spaces in a Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Hydraulic-Mechanical Packers Used to Seal Off Space External to Piping
When Cementing Up Absorption Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Mechanical Packers Used to Seal Off Column Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Sleeve Packers Used to Seal Off Column Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Anchors Holding Packers to the Places of Their Installation 164
Packers Used to Prevent Gas Leakage Outside Piping . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Packer-Filter Used to Improve the Quality of Casing Cementation 165
Drillable Packer Used to Plug Absorption Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
XV. Blowout Preventers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Lower Column Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Intermediate Column Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Casing Bracing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Completeness of Blowout Prevention Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Blowout Prevention Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Blowout Prevention Equipment Preventers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Blowout Prevention Equipment Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Flanged Adapters Used to Connect Sealing Heads to PPG Preventers 176
Sealing Heads Used in Lowering and Raising Pipes Under Pressure 176
Gusher Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
XVI. Types and Dimensions of Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Lock Thread Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
~ Threaded Locking Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
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Lock Thread With Blocking Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Rounded Pipe Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
R~ounded Threaded Pipe Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
1rIIC, RK and RKT Tapered Thread Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
MK and RKT '1"hreaded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Trapezoidal Piping Thread for Steel Drilling Pipe . . . . . . . . . . 190
OTTM-1 and OTTC~1 Casing Pipe Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
OCrlm Casing Pipe Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2'hreading Torques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nedra", 1981
11004
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FUELS
COLLEGE TEXT ON RADIOACTIVE RAW MATERIAL DEPOSITS ~
Nbscow Nff:STOROZHDENIYA RADI014KTIVNOGO SYR'YA in Russian 1980 (signed to press 8 Feb
80) pp 1-8, 252-254 ~
[Annotation, foreword and tab12 of contents from book "Radioactive Raw Material
Deposits", by Vladimir Ivanovich Danchev and Tat'yana Alexsandrovna Lapinskaya,
2d edition, revised, Izdatel'stvo "Nedra", 2,400 copies, 254 paqes]
[Text] Information is presented on the earth's radioactive elements and on the con-
ditions of migration and concentration of uraniwn, radium and thorium. A brief
examination is offered of the earth's radiogenic heat and of the principal methods
of determining the absolute age of minerals and rock. Z'he most important uranium
~ and thorium minerals are described; a classification of their deposits is provided.
Attention is devoted mainly to describing uranium deposits--the principal sources of
raw materials for atomic industry and atomic energy. Among them, exogenous deposits
associated mainly with sedimentary and sedimentary-metamorphic rock are described in
the greatest detail, and endogenous deposits--mainly hydrothermal deposits, which
provide a sign'ificant proportion of industrial uranium--are discussed somewhat nnre
briefly. Special sections of the book are devoted to the relationship between uranium
and carbonaceous and bituminous matter and between ore-forming processes and the
stages of farmation of ore-bearing rock.
The book is intended as a training aid for WZ students specializing in geology and
geophysics. It may also be useful to geologists, geophysicists and other workers
of geological prospecting parties having radioactive raw materials as one of their
incidental objectives.
Eleven tables, 90 figures, 22 bibliographic references.
CONTENTS Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter I. Z'he EartY.'.'s Radioactive Elements and Their Principal Types
of Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
General Information on ~'adioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
�2. Uranium, Thorium and Radium; 7.'heir Properties, Geochemical Features 19
and Areas of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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� 3. The Problem of Radiogenic Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
�4. Utilizing the Radioactive Properties of Elements to Determine
the Absolute Aqe of Minerals and Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
�5. Principal Uranium and Z'horium Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
56. Classification of Uranium and Thorium Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . 39
�7. Uranium and Thori~ Production in Capitalist and Developing
Countries; the Raw Material Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter II. Endoqenous Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
g8. Uranium and Thorium in Magma Rock and Magma Deposits 48
~ 9. Pegmatitic Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
g10. Deposits of Radioactive Metals in Carbonatites . . . . . . . . . . . 60
�11. Contact-Metasomatic Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
~12. Hvcirothea~aal Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
P1�utonogenic Hydrothermal Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Volcanoqenic Hydrothermal Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Amaqa?atoqenic or Stratiformic Hydrothermal Deposits . . . . . . . . 98
Hydrothermal Deposits Dominated by Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter III. Exoqenous Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
�13. Uranium and Z'horium in Exogenous Conditions; Lithoqenesis and
Uranium Ore Forn~ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
~14. Behavior of Uranium in Response to Wind Erosion of Rcck 112
g15. Migration and Accumulation of Uranium in a Sedimentation Zone 114
~ 16. Uranium and Diagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
g17. Uranium in the Presence of Hyperqenesis and Catagenesis . 128
�18. The Role of Orqanic Matter in Sedimentary R~ck in Concentration
of Uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
�19. Classification of Uranium Deposits in Sedimentary Cap Rock 136
Chapter IV. Principal Genetic Types of UraniuQa and Thorium Deposits
in Sedimentary Cap Fmck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
�20. Uranium Deposits in Fraqmental R~ck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Diagenetic, Exodiagenetic and Polystadial Deposits . . . . . . . . . 141
Epigenetic Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
�21. Uranium-Bitumen Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
g22. Uraniiun Deposits in Carboniferous Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
�23. Uranium Deposits in Carbonaceous Rpck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
~24. Uranium-Phosphate Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Uranium in Phosphorite and Alumophosphate Rpck . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Uranium in Accumulations of Osseous Detritus . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
�25. Alluvial Uranium and Thorium Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
�26. Examples of the Polygenicity of Uranium Ore Forniation in
Sedimentary Cap R~ock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Chapter V. Sedimentary-Metamorphic Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Chapter VI. Laws Governing Distribution of Radioactive Raw Material Deposits 239
Appendix. Principal Minerals Containing Uraniinn and Thorium Ore 248
Biblioqraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
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:oreword
Our country's industry and agriculture require tremendous quantities of raw minerals.
Recent technological progress and the introduction of chemistry into all areas of
science and production are promoting extremely swift expansion of the range of
minerals and of the complex of elements extracted from them. With very minor excep~
tions, almost all of Mendeleyev's table is "working" for man today. In addition to
elements that are widespread in the earth's crust--iron, gold, copper, tin and lead,
the history of the use of which numbers in the mill~nia--rare and dispersed metals
and metalloids that are quite "young" in terms of their utilization--lithium,
beryllium, boron, indium, germanium, seleniiun, cadmium, rare earth metals and many
others--have gained importance in connection with the developtaent of automation,
electronics, rocket technoloqy and other forms of modern industry.
Some of them have enjoyed broad application in the acquisition of special alloys
made from ferrous and nonferrous metals, and heat-resistant glass and ceramic, and
- in the produc~.ion of new synthetic materials, solid chemical fuels, semiconductors
and so on.
Owing to the remarkable successes of physics, which have made it possible to control
the nuclear fission reaction, yet another qroup of minerals, referred to as nuclear
fuel, has acquired extremely great significance. This qroup contains natural radio-
active elements--uranium and thorium--which, when used in atomic reactors, produce
colossal qu~.ntities of energy exceedinq the possibilities of all enerqy sources known
to date. At present the main nuclear fuel is uranium, but introduction of new types
of reactors into industry in the next few years will make broad use of thorium for
similar purposes economical as well.
One of the greatest discoveries of mankind--development of the means for liberating
energy locked within the atom--made itself known through a terrifying disaster--the
explosion of atomic bombs dropped by American military pilots in 1945 on two Japan-
ese cities. In the course of a few seconds, tens of thousands of inhabitants were
annihilated, and people who had been subjected to lethal radiation more than 30 years
ago are still dying today. �
The Soviet Union proposed the first paths of peaceful use of atomic enerqy. Re- ~
search of exceptional scope and depth conducted by a group of 5oviet physicists led
by I. V. Kurchatov resulted in the creation of the world's first atomic electric
atomic power plant on 27 June 1954. Soviet scientists shared their experience at
the Geneva Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in 1955, after which con-
struction of atomic power plants began in the USA, England, France and other coun-
tries. Sixteen countries of the world now possess more than 100 operatinq atomic
power plants with a total output of about 60 million kw, and there are plans for
increasing their number and output further.
Atomic power enqineerinq has gained a firm foothold in our country's life. As of
1975 the output of atomic electric power plants (AESs) in the USSR attained 4.7
million kw (20). The lOth Five-Year Plan foresaw preferential development of atomic
power engineering and introduction of AESs with a total output of 13-15 million kw,
which would siqnificantly reduce consumption of gas, petroleum and coal for enerqy
production purposes. To reduce the cost of enerqy and ensure fuller use of nuclear
fuel, reactors are being improved continuouslys systems operating on the basis of
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i
I
i
fast neutrons, which m~.ke possible the use of not only the highly radioactive iso-
tn~e ?351) but also the naturally more widespread 23aU, are being introduced. A
i.~::~_ r,c:ucron reactor is already operating successfully in the city of Shevchenko
in support of a plant desalinizing water from the Caspian Sea.
We are continuing our efforts to create low power AESs which may be broken doWn into
modules and shipped by all fonns of transportation, including airplanes, which would
have great significance to industrial development of remote reqions of the North
deprived of their own sources of fuel.
Z'he icebreaker "Lenin"--the world's first surface vessel with an atomic propulsion
unit--was launched on 5 December 1975; a larger icebreaker, the "Arktika", was
launched in 1975. On 17 August 1977 the latter was the first in the entire history
of navigation to reach the geographical location of the North Pole. At the end of
1977 yet another atomic icebreaker appeared--the "Sibir The work of these vessels
has very great national economic saqnificance, makinq it possi.ble to lenqthen the
navigation season in the northern seas of the Soviet Union. This will pave the
way for providing new industrial centers and populated regions presently developinc;
in the Arctic with everythinq they need.
Nuclear explosions are beinq used to build carials and reservoirs and to support
stripping operations in mining :ndustry.
The reactors of various designs used in our co~:ntry not only provide energy but also
permit hiqhly important scientific research digging deeper into the secrets of the
structure of matter, and develo}~ment of new, economically more advantageous facili-
ties. In its form of numerous radioactive isotopes, the peaceful atom is being
extensively used in various areas of science and technology, helpinq us to trans-
illuminate metals, to subject minerals and rock to highly detailed analysis, to
observe the movement of water and of biocurrents in plants, to study wells and to
treat severe illnes~es. Scientific rrsearch in atomic seience and tectuiol~gy has
enjoyed extensive development in the Soviet Union. Soviet scientists now possess
large thexmonuclear facilities and a network of scientific research institutes.
7.'he United Institute for Nuclear Studies, in which scientists of many countries are
laboring over the problem of the peaceful use of atomic enerqy, was created on the
Soviet Union's initiative. Atomic energy is no longer the energy of the future,
as it was not that long ago at all; it is making an enorn~ous contribution not only
to the country's defense but also to supporting the main task posed by the 25th
CPS U Congress--raising the welfare of our people.
The great successes of ~oviet atomic physics and power engineering owe a great deal
to the labor of workers in the geoloqical service, who have manaqed to provide atomic
industry with the reserves of radioactive raw materials it needs.
Research on the laws qoverning formation of deposits of radioactive elements,
started on the initiative of one of the greatest Russian scientists--Academician
V. I. Vernadskiy, was continued and developed by D. I. Shcherbakov, A. P. Vinogradov,
A. A. Saukov, V. V. Shcherbina and many other scientists. It should be noted that
the last few decades have been marked by serious research on the geochemistry,
mineralogy and cjeology of atomic raw material deposits in other countries as well.
The data that have been accumulated have made it possible to signifieantly improve
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prospecting and pinpoint its efforts more accurately. Moreover the data have demon-
strated how great an influence natural radioactive decay processes have on many
geological phenomena--magnetism, regional metamorphism, tectonic processes and the
thermal regi.me of remote territories and of the earth as a whole, and so on.
A new branch of geological knowledge has come into beinq--radiogeology, or nuclear
geology, together with its specific research methods. Radioqeology is making it
possible for us to approach prospecting for deposits of radioactive elements with
better grounds. And this is one of the most important problems of modern geology
in connection with the continually increasing role nf atomic energy.
The geochemical features of the principal nuclear metal--uranium--are such that its
ore concentrations may be formed in various conditions, beginning with the stage of
- the cooling of magma and ending with the latest stages in the life of sedimentary
rock. Therefore industrial deposits of uraniwn are known to be contained in ex-
tremely diverse surrounding rock.
While in the first stage of development of atomic industry the bulk of the uranium
was obtained from endogenous deposits, mainly hydrothermal, in the last 20 years ore
concentrations in sedimentary and sedimentary-metamorphic rock have begun to play a
distinctly more important role, and the center of qravity of uranium extraction and
reserves is gradually shifting in the direction of exoqenous deposits. In some
types of these deposits, thorium, rare earth and other elements having industrial
significance are satellites of uranium. These may be interpreted as complex deposits.
Because the range of geological conditions in which industrial accumulations of
radioactive raw materia~s may form is relatively broad, at least some testing for
such raw materials should be conducted in all geoloqical studies, especially in
relati�~ely unexplored reqions. Such incidental prospecting sometimes leads to the
discovery of major industrial deposits of uranium and thorium.
In this respect great possibilities are opening up before geologists and petroleum
geophysicists, who conduct regional studies in vast, often very poorly studied
territories in connection with their search for oil and gas fields.
Detailed geophysical and geological analysis of core samples from numerous wells
will doubtlessly be an aid to revealing new deposits of radioactive raw materials
and to clarifying the behavior of radioactive elements in different types of sedi-
mentary and sedimentary-metamorphic rock. Of course, if the quality of such research
is to remain hiqh, the prospectors must become acquainted with the fundamentals of
the geochemistry, mineralogy and geology of radioactive elements.
This book is a traininq aid for the qeology section of the course "Nuclear Geo-
physics and Radiometric Prospecting" for WZ students specializinq in qeophysics
and geology. It is also recommended for a number of sections of the course "Princi-
ples of Mineral Geochemistry and Geoloqy." Following publication of the first edi-
tion of this book (1965) a vast new literature dev~oted to the geology of uraniian
and thorium deposits appeared. This was associated with the enormous scope of
explorations and prospecting being conducted in all countries of the world, elicited
by the need for providing raw material to intensively developinq atomic energy produc-
tion and owing to siqnificant exhaustion of the reserves of traditional sources of
energy--combustible minerals.
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A symposium on formation of uranium deposits, which was attended by 220 scientists
from 40 countries, was organized in Athens in 1974 for the purposes of inforn~ation
exchange by the International Agency for Atomic Energy. A symposium with just as
broad a representation was held in Vienna in 1976 with the purpose of discussinq
the methods of exploring for uranium deposits. In the last 10 years the Soviet liter-
ature has been supplemented by extensive summaries on the geology of ~ndogenoue 6~nd
exogenous uraniwn deposits in both the Soviet Union and foreign countries (worka by
P. Ya. Antropov, F. I. Vol'fson, V. N. Kotlyar, N. P. Laverov, V. I. Smirnov,
A. I. Tugarinov and others). The need for considerinq these data in the traininq of
geological engineers and geophysicists led to the creation of new textbooks. The
training aid "Mestorozhdeniya radioaktivnykh i redkikh metallov" [Deposits of Radio-
active and Rare Metals] edited by V. N. Kotlyar (7) was published in 1973, and in
1976 a laboratory manual intended for the same course was published under the
editorship of N. P. Laverov (8). These books devote their greatest attention to
formation, classification and characterization of e ndogenous deposits.
As in the first edition, this training aid turns its main attention to exogenous
and metamorphic deposits owinq to their increasinqly greater industrial siqnificance,
and in connection with the fact that it is intended primarily for geologists and
geophysicists prospecting for minerals in sedimentary cap rock and in metamorphic
rock underlying the former to one deqree or another. All of the sections of the
book have been significantly revised. The description of e ndogenous deposits is
based wholly on published literature; exogenous deposits are described in greater
detail on the basis of the results of research conducted by the authors themselves,
in addition to published sources, making some sections of this book original.. New
subsections have been introduced--"Lithogenesis and Uranium Ore Formation" and
"The Role of Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rock in Concentration of Uranium." These
subsections focus attention on the relationship of uranium ore formation to different
stages of the lithogenesis of sedimentary rock, and on the ore-forming role of
organic matter, which is such a frequently encountered component of sedimentary
formations. The limited volume of the book would not permit description of many
kinds of deposits. This is why either the larqest deposits or those which most
clearly represent a particular genetic group were selected. Despite the long time
that uranium deposits have been subjected to study, a number of problems associated
with their classification and genesis remain debatable, as is noted in the appro-
� priate sections.
The authors are extremely grateful to their colleagues N. P. Strelyanov and V. A.
Shumlyanskiy for their assistance in gathering some of the material on the qeology
of exogenous deposits, which made it possible to significantly supplement and update
the descriptions of these deposits qiven in the first edition. The authors are also
deeply grateful to Prof V. Ye. Boytsov and to instructors of the Department of
Geology, Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Rare and Radioactive Element Deposits of
the Nbscow Geological Proepecting Institute imeni S. Ordzhonikidze, who acquainted
themselves with the manuscript of the traininq aid and made suggestions which were
taken into account in the final draft.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nedra", 1980
11004
CSO: 1822/205
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PIPELINES
UDC 622.692:629.123
OPTIMAL CONTROL OF A MARINE OIL DEPOT AND PORT FOLLOWING A STORM
Moscow NEFTYANAYA PROMYSHLENNOST', SERIYA TRANSPORT I I~iRANENIYE NEFTI I NEFTEPIip-
DUKTOV In Russian No 4, 1982 pp 25-27
[Article by A. A. Dotsenko and L. G. Stepanets, Black Sea Administration of Main
Petroleum Pipelines]
[Text] Z'he irreqularity with whiah tankers arrive at port to unload their oil is
mainly the product of weather and the freightinq conditions. In thia case the most
typical cause of irregularity in the arrival and processing of tanke~cs is storms.
Durinq a storm, a large quantity of tankers can accunulate at a roadstead. When
the weather returns to normal, they must be processed quickly. The experience of
operating marine oil depots ahows that the way the first batch of tankers to be
processed is orqanized after a storm has fundamental significance to the control
of an oil depot and port.
Because tanke rs must be processed quickly after a stona, the throughput of the oil
d,epot must be increased,and a certainoptimum atrategy of operational control must be
implemented duri.nq this period.
The possibilities for acceleratinq tanker processing are limited by the loading
capacity of the oil depot in inteqration with that of the treatment facilities
and the moorinq apace of the port. The traditional way to arrive at the tactics
of operational control followinq a stona is to etandardize the number of tankers
siiaultaneously underqoinq processing at the naorings of the oil laadinq port.
The existing approach to establishing the norm for simultaneous vessel processinq
entails settinq the norm in accordance with the quantity of loading lines connecting
the oil depot to the moorinqs. For practical purposes a branched flow and discrete
control of the branches of this flaw are used to simulate the transition from a con-
tinuous inflaw of carqo (oil) to the oil depot to a combined discrete-continuous
form of onloadinq of the cargo at the moorinqs. This model does not account for, a
siqnificant form of onloading of the carqo at the moorinqs. This nwdel does not
account for a significant feature of the oil transloadinq process at an oil depot:
Transloading proceeds from one reservoir at a time--that is, the transloading
process is continuous-discrete. This creates objective difficulties in the on-
loadinq of oil at the moorinqs, where the continuous-discrete flaws from several
reservoirs must be distributed amonq the onloading lines in such a way that the time
of continuous flow in the onloadinq lines is qreater than the reservoir emptying
time. The reason for theae difficulties lies in the fact that the unit capacity of
a reservoir at existinq Soviet oil depots is less than the capacity of a tanker as
a rule.
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In some cases the situation is aggravated by the fact that the reservoire at port-
~ side oil depots located in hilly terrain are at different elevations, which severely
limits the possibilities for joining the reservoirs toqether, awing to the danger
of overflaws. We should add to this t1-.at when cargo is pumped from the reservoirs at
an accelerated pace, the whirlpool effect intensifies, which reduces the use coeffi-
cieiit of reservoir capacity and makes control over the reservoir park as a wholp
siqnificantly more difficult.
It follows from this that the number of onloading lines at the m4orinqs must corres-
pond to the maximum loading capacity of the oil depot, which is limited by the design
features of the oil depot and by the ratio between the unit capacity of a reservoir
and the capacity of a tanker. The deqree of this limitation is rather difficult
to calculate, which is why the number of onloading lines is planned as a rule to be
deliberately greater than the possibilities of the oil depot. Inasmuch as the on-
~ loadinq capacity at the moorings is calculated on the basis of the number of on-
loading lines, it would not be difficult to understand that the loading capacity of
the oil loading depot imposes the greatest limitation on the possibilities for
hastening the operations.
Assuwe that it is known from the experience of o eratinq a marine oil depot that its
maximum loadinq capacity is 7~m. We know from th~ vessel processinq standards the
the loadinq capacity of a vessc?1 of class i(i = 1,2,...,n). Then the limit on
the loading capacity of the oil depot may be expressed by the inequality
~m F1NZ ai,y, (1)
where Ni is the number of vessels of class i undergoing processing simultaneously
(that is, it is the vessel simultaneous processing norm for vessels of class i).
Research has shown that the number of different structural classes of vessels is
usually larger than the number of moorinqs, and therefore vessels of different
structural classes are grouped into classes Z correspondinq to the onloadinq and
offloading capabilities of the vessels, and the moorings are correspondinqly dis-
tributed with respect to classes i.
In a period followinq a storm, vessels of all n classes can usually be found at a
port. The priority of vessel processing is regulated by the existing international
shipping regulations. Thus to avoid the possibility of slighting the flag of a
foreign vessel, the rule adhered to strictly when servicing foreign ships is to
process them on a first come, first served basis. When processing domestic vessels,
there are various alternatives for the priority of vessel processinq, and they are
entertained on the basis of economic considerations associated with the fleet's
operation and cargo transport. '
One known way of handling the problem of optimum operational control of tanker
processing at a marine oil onloading port* entails establishment of the processinq
*Dotsenko, A. A., and Alibekov, B. I., "Optimal Planning of Tanker Processing at
a Marine Oil Onloadinq Port," RNTS. TRANSPORT I KHRANENIYE NEFTI I NEFTEPRODUKTOV,
No 2, Moscow, VNIIOENG, 1981.
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sequence in relation to a certain operational time interval ~T, on the basis of the
considerations indicated above. In a period following a storm the situation is such
that the economic grounds for changing the order of vessel processing are signifi-
cantly diminished owing to the long time the tankers had stood idle (up to 5-9 days).
Consequently the criterion used in the solution described above cannot be used to
make a sufficiently qrounded c1ecision as to the priority of processing a certain
qroup of tankers imnediately after weather returns to normal. Assume that 1~IZ vessels
of each class have accumulated at the port during a storta. Next assume that the poxt
possesses N~ moorings for each class of vessels. By solving the problem indicated
above (that of optimizing the long-ranga plan), we can isolate from NZ a certain
quantity of vessels NZ with an equal.right to inclusion in the first batch of
vessels to be processed. This creates different alternatives for defining NZ such
that inequality (1) and inequalities
NZ~ ~Z; (2) Ni~ N~y (3)
are observed.
The effectiveness with which an oil depot and an oil port operate following a storm
may be evaluated either directly from the size of am reached or indirectly from the
level of satisfaction of the norms for NZ, as is rra'itionally done. In the latter
case, however, we would have an additional linutation which would not always pernut
us to select the most advantaqeous alternative of NZ in relation to the criterion
of achieving
And in fact, the actual onloading capacity ENZary depends strongly on the correctness
Z
with which NZ is defined, since in view of the discreteness of ZNia~.y, it cannot be
equated exactly to a~r. But when control is organized properly, the shortfall in
utilizing the oil depot's onloading capacity following the storm may be minimized.
Therefore the tactics of operational control of a complex consisting of an oi~L depat
and an oil port follawing a storm should be established not by the traditional
method indicated above, but rather on the basis of the criterion of minimum shortfall
in~the use of the oil depot's onloading capacity during the processing of the first
batch of tankers.
0 =min(J1~FNiarL)� (4)
2
Thus problem (1)-(4) is formulated as a problem of optimum forn~ation of the first
batch of tankers to be processed in the period followinq a storm. This problem is
in the class of mathematical whole-number programaninq problems. It must be solved
by the appropriate methods at the level of an automated tanker processing control
system in combination with the problem of optimum operational control of tanker
processing at a marine oil onloading port.
COPYRIC~iT: Vsesoyuznyy nauchno-issledovatel'skiy institut organizatsii, upravleniya i
ekonomiki nefteqazovoy promyshlennqsti (VNIIOENG), 1982
11004
(SO: 1822/194 E~
34
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