ASSOCIATION OF SCIENTIFIC WORKERS IN INDIA

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 444
• Document Creation Date: December 14, 2016
• Document Release Date: May 30, 2001
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: September 6, 1950
• Content Type: REPORT

COUNTRY Indiv
0
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006106A50-7
CLASSiFICATION O0rFTErTITIAL/C0Y7R0T4- U.. 01171CIAiS mT
CENTRAL iNTELLIGENCE AGENCY REPORT NO.
rliFOMATIlkii E POT
SUBJECT Association of Scientific Workers in India
25X1C
PLACE
ACQUIRE
25X1A
DATE OF
INFO.
RE
25X1A
DATE DISTR 6 Sept. 1950
Na OF PAGES 1
NO. OF ENCLS.
(LIMB BELOW)
SUPPLEMENT TO
REPORT NO.
25X1X
The following scientific bulletins, published in Calcutta, have been received
by the CIA Library, and are available upon request.
1, Silver jubilee, published by the Indian Chemical Socie4y.
2, Lists of Officerli Sectional Corrittees, nnd Ordinary Members in the
????//aliMM?pmffa? ?I??????M
Marein?Science Congress Association. OMAN.
???*.nomarrom./
3. Indian Journal of Physics and Proceedings of the Indian Association
for the gatiya'-ion of g.elgraeft7MFRE7517,19-4787--------------------
4.
).
6,
The Indian Association for 'he Cultivation of Science, Calcutta.
PII".????
lainan-Karmee, eficial organ of the Association of Scientific Workers
of India, Vol. Il, No. 6, June, 1950.
lawniAllon or Scientific Workers of India Memorandum on he Central
Collw,e of Uriculture Government of India New Delhi,
7. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society, Vol. XXVII, No, 2, February,
1950.
8. Scicnce and Culture, Vol. 15, No. 10, April, 1950.
9. Science and Culture, Vol. 15, No. 12, June, 1950.
CLASSIFICATION CONFIDErTIAL COPTROL U.S, 011CIALS-Oilk?
FFA:CE ...80/4 X I NAVY XT NSRBET D ISTRI StITI ON _
t Fs 1 F I
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/0g : CIA-RDP82170.4115170170 1eVeltror7
INDIAN SCIENCE CONGRESS
ASS
THIR1 YSEVENTH YEAR
1st February, 1949--31st January 1950.
,NOTLCS
LISTS OF OFFICERS, SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
AND ORDINARY MEMBERS
?
1, PARK STREET, C4,
SEPTEMBER, 1919
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP8
25X1C
25X1C
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050004-7
NOTE
The List of Members is printed in Part IV of the Proceedings
which will be issued after- the session by the middle of the
following year.
,
Any inaccuracy Or omission - in the present list may kindly
be reported to the General S*en'et-ary at I, Park Street, Calcutta 16.
?
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
INUIAN SCIENCE CONGRESS ASSOCIATION
Approved For Keiease 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
THIRTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING, 1950
GENERAL IN FORMATION
The Thirty-seventh Annual Meeting will be held at Poona from January
2nd to January 8th, 1950.
His Excellency Sir Maharaj Singh, the Governor of Bombay has kindly
agreed to be the Patron of the Meeting.
Prof. P. C. Mohalanobis, F.R.S., will preside over the Meeting.
The names and addresses of the Sectional Presidents are given in the
following pages.
LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS
All enquiries about accommodation and other local arrangements should
be addressed to the Local Secretaries, 37th Indian Science Congress, Univer-
sity of Poona, Poona. Early intimation of the accommodation required
should be sent to the Local Secretaries.
MEMBERSHIP CARDS AND .LITERATURE
Ordinary Membership cards have been forwarded to all Ordinary
Members.
A detailed provisional programme of the Thirty-seventh Meeting of the
Congress will be issued to all Ordinary Members in course of December of
this year, together with a copy of Part III of the Proceedings containing
Abstracts of the Paper accepted for reading at the different Sections.
Parts I (Official matters), II (Presidential A(ldresses) and I V (llis-, ?
cussions) of the proceedings will be issued by the middle of the following
year.
THIRTY-ENGHT11. ANNUAL MEETING, 1951.
Subscription notice will be sent out to all Ordinary Members on the
register after the ist February, 1950. This will be followed, after a suitable
interval, by the Ordinary Membership cards for the year 1950-51 per V:P.P.
for the amount of the subscription. Payment of the subscription fee of
Rs. 121- before the t5th July, 194.9 will be only effective for continuance of
Ordinary Membership during the ensuing year, covering the Thirty-eighth
Annual Meeting.
APPLICATION FOR MEM BERS? LP
Application for new Ordinary Membership should furnish the following
particulars. No form is necessary.
Name in full with degrees and titles.
2. Appointment, designation or profession.
3 Full address where correspondence is to be made.
This should reach the office of the Association at i. Park Street. Calcutta
16,? before the 15th July, 1950.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
INDIAN SCIENCE CONGRESS
,ASSOCIATION
THIRTY-SEVENTH YEAR: Jst FEBRUARY, t949-31st January, 1950.
OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION
PRESIDiNT Elf ROT
Prof. P. C. Mahalanobis, F.R.S.
PRESIDENT
Sir K Ktt12.nn, F.R.S.
? 111q1 ! V,' 1 ..'f
..s,. ciEf 04,14, SAPETARIES
Dr. B, Mukerji, D.Sc., M.B., M.P.S., F.N.I.
Dr. B Saniva Rao', M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.N.I.'
TREASUABA
Prof. K. ICT. Bagchi,'F.R:I.C.,
LQOAL SEdRETARIES
Prof. S. V. Chandrasekhar Aiya, M.A. (Cantab), B.Sc., A.M.I.E.E., S.M.R.I.E.
Prof. B. V. Bhide, M.Sc.,
Exgamvp. CONINITTEE,
Sir K. S. Krishnan, F.R.S. .. President
Prof. P. C. Mahalarrobis, F.R.S. `
-F%'residekt "Elect:"
3.
4.
Dr.
Dr.
B. Mukerji, D.Sc., M.B., M.P.S.,
... I I
F,A,Ph.S., F.N.I. ..,
B. Sanjiva Rao, M.A.,' Ph.D., D.Sc.,
r 0
F.N.I.
rlf TOW
General Secretaries.
Appgmardf FEW Releasie, a091/09/08/4?CIA-RDP6-0041-5R006100050001-7
Appfoved For Relemsgp790/SMEGIcritwipm,gpogpoom 00050001 -7
6. Dr. U. P. Basil, D.Sc., F.N.I.
7. Dr. A. K. De, B.Sc., Ph.D. .. ? ?
8. Dr. B. C. Guha, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.N.I.
Dr: D. S. 'Kothari, Ph.D.,
m. Dr. B. C. Kundu, M.A., F.L.S., F.N.I.
n. Prof, B. Narayana, - Ph.D.. -
F.R.S.E.
iz f ) r. Baini Prasad. O. B.F.., D.Sc., F.R. S. E.,
F.Z.S.. F,R.A.S.B.. RNA.
13. Prof. P. Ray. M.A., F.N.I.
1.4. Mr. B. K. Sarkar, M. I. Metal.
is. Dr. A. C. Ukil, MR.. M.S.P.E.,
F.N.I.
16. Prof S. V. Cltandraseldtar Aiya, M.A.)
(Cantab). B. S.7. A.M.I.E.F...SIvLRII
17. Prof. 11. V. Plink M.Sc.,
COUNCIL
Elected by the General .
Committee.
Local Secretaries.
1-- 17(a] Members of the Executive Committee
(b) Past Presidents- wr'Ordiliii7 or Honorary Member
t8. Sir M Visvesvara:!.a, M.Inst.0,E., D.Sc.
tn. Prof. I. L. Simonsen, D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.
20. Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, Kt., Nobel Laureate..
21. Sir Lewis Leigh Vermor, Kt., 0.B.E., DSc., F.G.S., A.R.S.M.. Tost.M.XL,
F.R.A.S.13., 17.N f.
2.2. Prof. M. N. Sali:t. F.R.S , N.I.
23. Dr. h. H. Hutton, C.1.E., M.A., D.Sc., ,F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I.
24. Sir T. S. Venkatamman, Kt., C.f.E., D.Sc.. F.N.I.
Sir Juan Chandra Ghosh, Kt., D.Sc., F.N.I.
26. Sir Ardeshir Dalai. Kt.,
27. Dr. D. N. Wadia, M.A., tf.Sc.11, F.N.E.
28. Prof. S. N. Bose. M.Sc., -F.N.I.
2Q. Sir S S. Bhatnag.-tr, O.B.E., D.Sc? F RS IF Inst.P., F.I.C., F.N.L. F.S.C.I.
(Hon.).
30. Prof. M. Afxal Flusain, MA., M.Sc., F.N.f.
31. Ja?vharlal Nehru,
Col. Sir Ram Nath Chaitra.'Ite, Set).. F.R.A.S.B., F.N.1.
Cc) Past General Secretaries who are either Ordinarv or Honorary
Members
Jo. Prof. 1. 1.. Simonsen, D.Sc., F.I.C..
20. Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman; Kt., Nobel Laureate.
33. Prof. S. P. ,Agfiarkar, M.A.. Ph.D., FL .S., F.N.I.
1). West. M.A. 4,0
Ap3p4-rolbeFRI-F0049, .L.,0 :F9. 7. ,
pir)Pt84-p0415R006100050001-7
l)r.,0\1\
Approved For Release 2001,WEIVilefkRIDP83-00415R0061000500O1-7
36. Prof. P. Parija, 0.B.E., I.E.S., F.N.I.
.37. Prof. S. K. Mitra, M.B.E., D.Sc.. F.N.I.
38. PrOf.' P. C. Mitter, Ph.D., F.NI.,
2. Prof. P. C. Mahalanabis, F.R.S., F.N.I.
(d). Past Treasurers who are either Ordinarror Honorary. Members.
x9. Prof: J. L. Simonsen, D Sc F1T C F.RS.
20. Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, Kt., Noble Laureate.
12. Dr. Baini Prasad, ORE., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S.E., F:N.I.
39. 16.i Baliadur I3r. S. L Hora, F.Z.S., F.N.T.
15. Dr. J. N. Mukherjee, C.B.E., F.R.A.S.B., 'F.N.I.
13. Prof: P. Roy, M.A., F.N.I.
40-52(e) Sectional Presidents for the Session (see the following list.)
' .(f) Elected by General Committee.
.53. Dr. R. C. Bose, M.A., D.Litt., F.N.I.
54. Dr. b. Chakr vtrti D Sc F.N.I.
5.5. Mr. A. M. N. Gitosh, B.Sc., A.R.C.S.
56. Prof. S. N. Mathur, M.B., B.S., Ph.D.
57. Mr'. S. N. IVInkherjee.
58. Dr. T S. Patel, M.Sc., Ph.D.
59. Dr. B.' N. Piiisad, D.Sc., Ph.D., RNA.
SECTIONAL PRESIDENTS.
Mathematics?Dr. Nalini Mohan Basis, D.Sc., Chairman, Department of Mathematics,
Muslim University, Aligarh..
Statistics?Dr. P. V. Sukhattne, Ph.D., D.Sc., RNA. Statistical Adviser, Indian' Agricul-
tural Research Institute, New Delhi.
Physics?Dr. R. N. Ghosh, D.Sc., F. Acoust. Soc.,' F.N.I. Reader in Physics, Allahabad
University, AllakabAd?,; _
Chemistry?Dr. J. K. Chowdhury, Ph.D., Head of the Dept. of Chemistry, Bose
, ,,?14,secosh Institute, 93, Upper Circular Road, Calcutta.
Geology & Geography--Mr. J. Coates, A.R.M.S., F.G.S., F.Inst.Pet., RNA., Senior
O. C. (I.C.) Ltd. Burma-Shell House, Connanght Circus, New
paid. ,
Botany?hr. Panchanan Maheswari, D.Sc., F.N.T., Professor of Botany? ,Dc/hi Univer-
(,! ,
Zoology & Pntomology--Dr. E. C. Basu, D.Sc., Entomologist, Indian Veiterinary
, J,Re?searelt Institute, _Manager, Bares/i) (India).
Anthropology & Archwology?Dr. C. Von Furer Haimendorf, Dr. Phil., Adviser for
,Tribes,&,Backward Classes, Revenue Secretariat, Hyderabad (Deccan).
Medical &Veterinary Sciences?Dr. M. V. Radhakrishna Rao; M.B.B.S., PhD.,
,Assistant ,Director, Haffkitte Institute, Bombay :12.
Agricultural Sciences?Mr, R. L. Sethi, LAS., Agricultural Commissioner, Indian
? S:ouncil of Agricultural Research, P. Block, Raisina Road, New Delhi.
Physiology?Dr. Kalidas Mitra, M.B.E., MB., D.P.H., D.T.M., & H., Nutrition Adviser,
-9jice of the Director General of Health Services, Central Government, New
'Delhi.
Psychology & Educational Sciences?Prof. Kali Prasad, M.A., Ph.D., Prof. and Head
of the Dept. of Philosophy & Education, Lucknow University, Lucknozv.
Engineering. & Metallurgy?Mr. D. R. Malhotra, D.Sc., A.M.I.Chem.E.,
. ? A
Approved %t114:41WaS8e201)1760/6g1".TIALRD1681-'00:41`5Raleit0050001-7
Approved For ReleAler2011.001,effnarAARIANZGQ05R0061 00050001 -7
SECTIONAL RECOR2ERS
Mathematics?Dr. B. R. Seth, M.A., D.Sc., Dept. of Mathematics, lomi State College,
Iowa, U. S. A.
Statistics?Mr. K. C. Easak, B.A., Director of Economic Research, Indian Central Jute
Conimittee,.4,,Rastinas,Street,,,Calcutta. ,
Physics-LMr. Vikram A. Sarabhai MA (Contab), Post Box 28, Ahmedabad.
Chemistry?Dr. R D. Desai, D.Sc., F.N.I., E.I.I.Sc., F.A.Sc., ,D.I.C., Department, of
Chemical Technology, Matunga; Bombay.
Geology & Geography?Mr. N. L. Sharma, M.Sc., Officiating Professor of Geology,
%Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
Botany?Mrs. E. Gonzalves, B.A., M.Sc., LectUrer in Biology, Karnatak College,
Dharwar.
Zoology & Entomology?Dr. B. S. Chauhan, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Z.S., Assistant Superin-
tendent, Zoological Survey of India, Jabakusum House, 34, Chittaranian
Avenue, Calcutta.
Anthropology and Archaeology?Mr. Gautam Shankar Ray, M.Sc., Lecturer, Anthro-
pology Department, University College of Science, 35, Ballygunge Circular
Road, Calcutta.
Medical & Veterinary Sciences?Dr. C. R. Das Gupta, M.B.. D.T.M., Officer-M-Charge,
Haematology Department, School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta.
Agricultural Sciences.?Mr. L. C. Sikka, Deputy Director of Agriculture, Government of
West Bengal, Writers Buildings, Calcutta.
Physiology?Dr. N. N. Das, M.Sc., M.B., Lecture?. ;n Physiology, University College
of Science, 92, Upper Circular Road, Calcutta.
Psychology & Educational Science.?Mr. L. J. Bhatt, Juna .111odikhana, Barodo.
Engineering & Metallurgy?Mr. J. Dutt, B.A., C.1,1, A.M.I.E., Dt. Engineer, The Con-
crete Association of India, MithaPur, Patna Junction.
SECTIONAL CORRESPONDENTS
Mathematics?Dr. S. K. Basu, M.A., Ph.D. (Lond)., Professor of Pure Mathematics,
Presidency College, Calcutta.
Statistics?Mr. Tarapada Chaudhury, Statistical Laboratory, Presidency College.
Physics?Mr. P. C. Mukherjee, M Sc., Lecturer in Physics, Presidency College,
Calcutta.
Chemistry?Mr. Sudhamoy Mukherjee, M.Sc., Bengal Immunity Research Institute, 39,
Lower Circular Road, Calcutta.
Geology & Geography?Mr. S. C. Bose, M.A., Prof. of Geography. Ashutosh College,
Calcutta.
Botany?Mr. A. K. Ghosh. Registrar, Bose Research Institute, 93, Upper Circular Road,
Calcutta.
Zoology & Entomology?Mr. J. N. Rudra, M.Sc., Prof. of Zoology, Vidyasagar College,
39, Sankar Ghosh Lane, Calcutta.
Anthropology & Archaeology-,-Mr. Sa.tkari Mitra, M.A., Professor of Anthropology,
Bangabasi College, Calcutta.
Medical & Veterinary. Sciences?Dr. L. M. Ghosh, M.B., D.T.M., Department of
Dermatology, School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta.
Agricultural Sciences?Mr. T. Ghosh, M.Sc., Asst. Mycologist, Indian Jute Agricultural
Research Institute, Hooghly.
Physiology?Dr. D. P. Sa.clhu, L.M.F., M.Sc., Ph.D., Department ofPhYsiolo'd ot,
Pgio
ApproveiKoffkelestr12001 /09/06 :CIA-RDP83-00415R00610 05 1-7
List of Members
5
Approved For Release 2001/0.9/06 C1A-RDPR3 0.04c1pgg9
psycho/0,y & Lducattonat Nnence?Wr. uept.-of f4p1PA4p.01 -7
tion, University Colredi of Science, ?2,`UPPer Circular Road, Calcutta.
Engineering & Metallurgy?Dr. J. NI Basu, M.I.E., M.A.E., Dr. Eng., Prof of Mecham-
cal 'Engineering, College of ? Engineering & Technology. P.O. Jadabpur
College, 24-Parganas. TI
LOCAL SECTIONAL SECRETARIES
Mathematics? Mr. G. L. Chandratreya M.A. Prof. of Mathematics, Fergusson College,
Poona, 4-
Statistics?Mr. V. N. Dandekar, M.A., Prof. of Statistics, Gokhale Institute of Poli-
tics & Economics, Poona 4.
Physics?Mr. S. Basn, M.Sc., Dy. Director General of Observatories, Poona 5.
Chemistry?Dr. B. D. ?Laroia, Asst. Director (Administration), National Chemical
Laboratories, Poona-3.
Geology & Geography?Mr. C. B. Joshi, M.A., (Cantab), Prof. of Geography, N.
Wadia College, Poona?i.
Botany?Mr. V. V. Apte, M.Sc. Prof. of Botany, Fergusson College," Poona 4.
Zoology & Entomology?Mr. B. G. Shirole M.Sc., Prof. of Zoology, Fergussoon College,
Poona-4.
4nthropology & Archaeology?Mr. H. D. Sankalia, M.A., Ph.D.; Prof. of Ancient
Indian History, Deccan College Research Institute, Poona 1.
Medical & Veterinary Sciences?Dr. P. G. Gollerkeri, M.D. (Born.), Prof. of Medicine,
B. J. Medical College, Poona--I.
Agricultural Science?Mr. L. S. S. Kumar, M.Sc. (Loud.), Principal, College of
Agriculture, Poona-5.
Physiology?Mrs. R. Aiman, MB., B.S., M.R.C.P. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., D.R.C.O.G.,
D.M.C.W., Prof. of Pharmacology, B. J. Medical College, Poona i.
Psychology & Educational Science?Mr. B. V. Bapat, M.Sc., B.T., Principal, Tilak
College of Education, Tilak Road, Poona 2.
Engineering & Metallurgy--Mr. A. Desouza, BE., A.M.I.C.E., A.M.I., Struct. E.
A.M.I.E., Prof. of Engineering, College of Engineering, Poona 5.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
6 Thirty-Seventh Indian Science Contiress
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
(Names marked with indicate that they were ako Recorders of the respec iVe Sections)
1. Mathematics--
Dr. N. M. Basu Convener.
Dr. B. :R. Seth Recorder
Dr. S. K. Basu Sectional Correspondent
Prof. C. L. Chandratreya Local Sectional Secretory.
Dr, C. Racine ? .
Prof M. L. Misra 11 Metiiiiers.
Prof. N. R. Sen
Prof. A. C. Banerji
*Prof. M. R. Siddiom
Mr. B. M. Sen
*Dr. B. N. Prasad
*Dr: Ram Behari
Dr. D. D. Kosambi
Mr. S. Gupta
Dr. S. Ghosh
Dr. N. G. Shabde
Prof. B. B. Sen
Prof. P. N. Das Gupta
2. Statistics-
Past Presidents who are' either Ordinary
or Honorary .idembers.
Post Recorders who are either Ordmary or
I I onorary M embers.
Dr. P. V. Sukhatme Convener
Mr. K. C. Basak Recorder
Mr. T. P. Chaudhury ? Sectional Correspondent
Prof. V. N. Dandekar Local Sectional Secretary
Mrs. Chameli Bose ..
Mr. K. R. Nam
? ? (.
.?
/Jetted Members.
Prof. P. C. Mahalanobis Past President of the llathematics and
Statistics Section.
Prof. K. B. Madhava
*Dr. U. S. Nair
Dr. P. K. Bose . ?
Shree Sadashiv Sen Gupta
.21 Past Presidents of Statistics Section.
Past Recorder of the Statistics Section.
3. Physics.- -
Dr. R. N. Ghost) 4 4 Convener.
Mr. Vikram A. Sarabhai Recorder
Mr. P. C. Mukherjee . Sectional Correspondent
Mr. S. Basu Local Sectional Secretary.
Mr. N. K. Saha
Dr. .S. R. Khastgir Elected Meathers.
Approved For Retease 2001/09//06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
"Sit of 111.6,i'ber's'? 7
ApptShvddIF 'Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Mr. T. P. Bbaskara Shastri
J)T,1S. K. .Banerji .
Pr of:' V. aha
Dr.
Dr. D. M. Bose
Prof. S. N. Bose ..
Prof. B. Venkatesachar
Prof. S. K Mitra Past Presidents ggilw are either Ordinary or
*Dr. S. Datta
Honorary Members.
Diwan Bahadur K. R. Ramanathan
Sir K. S. Krishnan ..
Prof. H. J. Bhablia
*Prof. D. S. Kothari'.-:
*Dr. R. C. Majun2dar
Prof K. Banerjee
Dr. L. A. Rarridas
Dr. R. S. Krishnan .. ? '
Prof. G. R. Paranjpe
? ?
Prof. H. Parameswaran ? ? t
Dr. R. K. Asundi 1r Past Recorders who are either Ordinary or
Dr. D. V. Gogate ? :: I Honorary Members.
Dr. N. R. Tawde ? .
Dr. A. K. Dutta ? ? J
4, chemistry--
Dr. I. IC. Chowdhury Convener.
Dr. R. D. Desai Recorder
Mr. Sudhamoy Mukberjee Sectional Correspondent
Dr. 13. D. Laroia Local Sectional Secretary.
Dr. R. K. Dutt Roy ..
Eiected
Dr. R. C. Shah . Members..
Prof. J. L. Simonsen ? ?
Dr. G. J. Fowler ..
Prof. 13. K. Singh ..
Sir J. C. Ghosli
Prof. B. B. Dey
Sir S. S. Bluttnagar
Prof. J. N. Muldierjee
Prof. P. C. Mitter
Dr. K. G. Naik
Prof. P. Ray
*Prof. P. Neogi Past Presidents who are either Ordinary or
*Prof. P. C. Guha Honorary Members.
*Dr. j. N. Ray
Dr. P. B. Sarkar
Dr. P. B. Ganguly
*Prof. Mata Prasad
*Prof. S. S. Joshi
*Prof. R. C. Ray ..
*Prof. K. Venkataraman
Dr. B. C. Guha
Dr. P. K. Bose ..
Prof. B. Sanjiva Rao ? ? .)
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
8 Th;rty-Seventh Indian Science Congress
Apprdired For)Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Dr. S. N. Mukheriee
Dr. S. Siddiqui Post Recorders who are either Ordinary or
Prof. 1. K. Chowdlatiry Honorary Members.
Dr. U. P. Basti ?
Dr. Dukhaharan Chakravarti .
5. Geology and Geography?
Mr. J. Coates
Mr. N. L Sharma
Mr. S. C. Bose
Prof. C. B. rosin
Convener.
Recorder
Sectional Correspondent
Local Sectional Secretor
Dr. R. C. Misra
Mr. A. K. Roy ? ? Elected Members.
Sr E. L. Fermor
Dr. D. N. Wadia
Mr. P. Evans
*Dr. M. S. Krishnan
Dr. B Rama Rao.
Dr. W. D. West
*Prof. L. Rama Rao
Dr. M. H, Sahni
Dr. kajnath
*Dr. Shihaprasad Chat terjee
Dr. S. M. Tahir Rtyvi
*Dr. A. S. Kalattesi
*Mr N. N. Chatterjec
*Dr. ( S. Pichatmith,
Dr. P. K. Ghosh
Di. C. Mahadeyan
ht-. V. P. Sondflo
hi
Prof. Maneck B. Pithawalla
Mr. A. -K. Banerjee. ?
Prof. "a lis Ahmed .
Dr. B. N. Mnkherji ,
Mr. E. S. Krishna A:finally
Mr. T -N. Muthnswami
Dr. S. C, Chatterjee
6. Botany? -
Dr. Pnnchanan Mahe wari
Prof. j. F. R. de Almeida
Mr. A. K. atosh
Prof. V. V. Apte.
Dr. P. N. Nandi
Dr. P. N. Bhadttri Elected Members.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Past Presidents who are either Ordinary or
Honorary Members.
Past Recorder who are either Ordinary or
Honorer v Members.
Convener.
Recorder
Sectional Correspondent
Local Sectional Secretary.
LI;st of Members 9
Appcovt.p F.ci ForAgnarkar Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Fro S.
Prof. M. 0. P. Iyengar
Prof. K. C. Mehta
Prof. P. Parija
Prof. R. H. Dastur
*Dr. S. R. Bose ..
*Dr. Krishnadas 13agchee
*Prof. Y. Bharadwaja Past Presidents who are either Ordinary or
Dr. Shri Ranjan Honorary Members.
Dr. K. Biswas
*Dr. G. P. Majumdar
Dr. B. P. Pal
Prof. A. C. Joshi
Dr. K. A. Chaudhury
Mr. M. S. Randhwa
Prof. S. L. Ajrekar
Prof. M. Sayeed-ud-Din
Mr. N. K. Tiwary
Dr. S. N. Das Gupta
Prof. J. C. Sen-Gupta Past Recorder who are either Ordinary or
Dr. T. S. Mahabale Honorary Members,
r
Dr. P. K. Sen
Dr. B. C. Kundu
Dr. S. Ramanujam
Dr. It, L. Nirula
7. Zoology and Entomology ?
Dr. B. C. Basu, Convener.
Dr. 13. S. Chauhan, Recorder
Mr. J. N. Rudra Sectional Correspondent
Prof. B. G. Shirole Local 'Sectional Secretary.
Dr. S. P. Roy Chowdhury
Dr. S. M. Ghosh
Mr. J. N. Rttdra
Dr. S. N. Ghost].
Dr. B. C. Basu
Prof. K. N. Bahl
Dr. B. Prasad .
Dr. H. R. Mehra ..
*Dr. B. Sundara Raj ..
Dr. S. L. Horn
Prof. D. R. Bhattacharyya
Prof. R. Gopala Aiyar
Prof. H. K. Mookerjee Past Presidents who are,cither Ordinag or
Dr. G. S. Thapar tfoW,Q4111;iibWZ
Prof. B. K. Das
Prof. A. Subba Rau
Prof. M. Afzal Husain
Rao Bahadur Y. Rantchandra R;c;
Apprgieg*Figi filetaas'e 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Elected Members.
10 TVrty-Seventh Mdian Science Cow/ye...v.v._
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-09415R006100050001-7
Vishwa Nath
D. Mukhern.
Dr. ft N. Ray
Dr. M. A. Moghe
*Prof A. F Misra
Dr. M.. I? Roonwal
Ur. G. K. Chakravarly
Mr. Ecni Charan Mahendra
Dr. J. L. Bhaduri
Mr. M. M. Chakravarty
Dr. P. Sen
Or. K. B. Lal
Dr. M. L. Bhatia
Mr. D. Gangnli
Dr. D. V. Bat
Dr. H. D. Srivastava
Past Recorders :oho are either Ordinary or
honorary Members.
8. Anthropology and Archaeology--
Dr. Von Furer Haimendorf Convener.
Mr. Gautam Shankar Roy Recorder
Mr. Satkari Mitra Sectional Correspondent
Prof. II. D. Sankalia. Local Sectional Secretary,
Dr. S. K. Basu
(Miss) Hilda Raj
Prof. I', C. Mahatanobis
Dr. j. Hutton
Dr. B. S. Guba
Prof. K. P. Chattoptultiyay
Dr. G. S. Ghurye
*Dr. D. N. Majurndar
*Mr. T. C. Das ..
Dr. N. P. Chakravarti
*Dr. (Mrs.) Irawati Karve
Mr. A. Chatterjee
roi. Nirmai Kumar Bose
Dr. G. M. Kurulkar
Mr. D. Sen
Dr. J. K. Bose
Dr. N. Datta-Majmndar
Dr. H. D. Sankalia
Dr. P. C. Biswas
Mr. M. N. Bast, ..
Elected Members.
Past Presidents who are either Ordinary or
Honorary Members.
Past Recorders who are either Ordinary or
Honorary Members.
9. Medical and Veterinary Sciences--
Dr, M. V. Radbakrishna Rao .. Convener.
Dr.C. N. Das Gupta .. Recorder
Dr. L. M. Ghost) _ Sectional Correspondent
ApprjOrVed ';i:n9314elegse 2001/69/06 1.-dA*Pi3s-66Mr5R006100050001-7
/
t
t ? ? t of Members
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
. Dr. R. N. Chaudhury ? ' .
Dr. A. K. Bose .. .. i
Sir R. N. Chopra,
Sir S. S. Sokhey
*Dr. A. C. Ukil
*Dr. C. G. Pandit
Elected Member
Prof. K. V. Krishnan t Past Presidents who are either Ordinary or
Dr. S. W. Hardikar.. HortorarY Members.
Rai Bahadur K. N. Bagchi ..
.. .
*Prof. G. Panja ..
Dr. M. B. Soparkar
*Dr. Phanindranath Brahmachari )
Prof. G. Sankaran ? ? ? I
Mr,' D.V. S. Reddy
Dr. M. V. Radhaicrisitna Rao .. /
Dr. S. K. Basu .. .. I
Dr. Harendra Nath Ray j
Past Reiiordt;rS Who are either Ordinary or
Honorary Members...
10. Agricultural Sciences--
Mr. R. L. Sethi Convener.
Mr. L. C. Sikkha Recorder
Mr. T. Ghost] Sectional Correspondent
Mr., L. S. S. Kumar Local ,cectional Secretary,
Mr. S. C. Roy .
Mr. S. P. Roy Chowdhury
Sir T. S. Venkataraman
Sir T. Vijayaraghavacharya
Prof. M. Afzal Hussain
Dr. B. Viswanath
Rao Sahib T. V. Ramakrisbna
Ayyar.
Prof. Jai Chand Luthra
Mr. K. Ramiali
Rao Bahadur Y. Rainchandra Rao I
Dr. D. V. Bal
Prof. N. V. Joshi
Rao Bahadur Y. Ramanatha
Ayyar
Mr. N. L. Dutt
Rai Bahadur Kalidas Sawlincy
Dr. R. S. Vasudeva
Dr. S. V. Desai ? ? -1
Dr. A. N. Puri
Dr. C. N. Acharya
Dr. J. K. Basu ? -
Dr. T. V. Sukhatme
Dr. B. L. Cholla ..
Dr. S. P. Ray Chaudhuri
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Mr. P. C. Ralieja
Elected Members.
Past Presidents who are either Ordinary or
Honorary Members.
Past Recorders who are either Ordinary or
Honorary Members.
ThirLV Seve/0nth , Indian-
12
Approved For Release 20-01 9/06 : CiAS-0614-nrigR006100050001-7
11. Physiology?
Dr. Kalidas Mitra Convener.
Dr. N. N. Das Recorder
' Dr. D. P. Sadhu Sectional Correspondent
Dr. R. Vethavanatr Local Sectional Secretary.
Dr. S. M. Banerjee
Dr. Sachehidananda Banerjee
Prof. W. Burridge
IA. Col. S. L. 13liatia
Sir R. N. Chopra
*Prof. N. M. Basu
Dr. B. B. Dikshit
Rao Bahadur B. T. Krishnan
Prof. B. Narayana .
*Prof. S. N. Mathur
*DI-. B. Mukerji
Prof. P. De
*I'rof. S. A. Rahman ..
*Dr. Bashir
Prof. B. Sarkar
Mr. K. Mitra
K. P. Basil
Mr. B. Chatterji
Prof. 1.000 people. At present there are zoo firms employing 25,000 men.
Sulphuric acid.? There are now go firms, which can produce about 130,000
oris of sulphuric acid in 43 units. Of these, it are contact process units, mostly in-
italled in the postwar period. The following table shows the consumption of sulphuric
:Acid industry-wise :---
Cln.An i Is 44>
liertiliset s 40
Metals 5
Cotton textile 5
Mineral oil 2
Leather
Vitgineer ng & other industries
on
our units are under erection, which would give an additional capacity of another 30,000
oils.
'htperphos,Phate.?The productic-: of suDerpholaate was negligible before
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIA 49
the war. At present, capacity exists for the production of 90,000 tons of superphosphate
per annum and with the expansion schemes now in hand, it is expected that by the
end of 1950, the production would reach the target figure of Ioo,000 tons per annum.
The Government now purchases all superphosphate at a fixed price. This has helped
considerably in increasing indigenous production.
Ammonium sulPhale.?The Government of India decided that ammonium
sulphate should be produced by the State on a large scale. A Commission was appoin-
ted in 1945 to report on the possibility of manufacture of ammonium sulphate in India.
As a result of the recommendations made by this Commission, it was decided to start
the production of ammonium sulphate at Sindhri with a capacity of 350,000 tons per
annum. This factory is nearing completion and will be one of the biggest units in the
world. There are two other units producing synthetic ammonia, one at Mysore and
the other at Travancore, with an aggregate capacity of 56,000 tons per annum. " The
production of sulphate from the ammoniacal liquors of the coke ovens is 22,000 tons.
Bichromates.?India's production capacity now is 3000 tons per annum and
the domestic consumption is only loon tons. We have a large exportable surplus and
considerable quantities have been exported abroad.
Soda ash.?India's requirements of soda ash are about 120,000 tons per annum
for her various industries.
Glass industry
30,000 tons
Silicates
15,000
Textiles
9,000
Paper
5,000
Chemical industry
6,000
Misc. requirements
10,000
Washing
45,000
Total 120,000
The present installed capacity is 54,000 tons. The chief difficulty in bridging this
gap between production and domestic consumption is that of obtaining industrial salt
at a reasonable price. The ideal location for the soda ash industry is naturally the
coalfields which are situated a long way off from the Western coast, where cheap sea
salt is available or from the salt-beds of Raiputana. The cost of transport is the prin-
cipal limiting factor in the development of the soda ash industry.
Caustic soda.?India's requirements of caustic soda are 70,000 tons per annum, of
which the soap industry consumes 31,500 tons, the textile industry, 19,25o tons, the paper
industry 10,500 tons and other miscellaneous industries, 8,700 tons. The present installed
capacity is 13,500 tons. There are certain units which are producing their own require-
ments of caustic soda and this capacity would come to another 3000 tons. At present,
3 units are under erection, which will give an additional capacity of ro,000 tons.
Liquid chlorine.? India has an installed capacity of 6,400 tons for the produc-
tion of liquid chlorine. This is more thitn sufficient to rrieet all internal demands, but
the difficulty is transport. Long distances involved stand it the way of free transport
of liquid chlorine from the factories to places of consumption. Recently, a firm has
planned the production of high test hypochlorite.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
3. N. RAY
Bleaching 'Powder.? India produces 5,160 tons of bleaching powder and plans
for expanding the capacity are in hand.
Bromides.?From the bitterns in the manufacture of salt, India has now establi-
shed a capacity for the manufacture of zoo tons of bromides. The internal consump-
tion has been computed to be 6o tons. There is ample scope for catering to the export
market.
Magnesium chloride.? Another by-product in the manufacture of salt is
:nagnesium chloride. India is not only able to meet her internal demands but has been
exporting magnesium chloride to various countries including L.L.K.
Magnesium sulphate, alum, etc.?The demands for these chemicals are being fully
met. There is also some export trade in these chemicals.
Potassium chlorate.?The match industry in India has expanded phenomenally during
the last few years. At present, the country's aggregate capacity for the production
of matches is 40 million gross boxes. We are also having a flourishing export
trade in matches. To cater to the needs of the match industry we require a produc-
tion of 2,000 tons of potassium chlorate. We are now mostly able to meet all internal
demands for potassium chlorate.
Fine chemicals and Pharmaceuticals.?The war found India totally unprepared
to meet the growing needs of the Army. The procurement of medical stores for
Government hospitals and the Army was the responsibility of the Director-General
(1. M. S.), who was the head of the Medical Stores Department. The Medical Stores
Department functioned primarily to supply the Army with all its medical and veterinary
stores such as drugs, dressings, surgical instruments, etc. In addition to supplying
the needs of the Army, the Medical Stores Department also provided for the needs
of most of the Provincial Government and semi-Government hospitals, certain
railways, mission hospitals, municipal institutions and other local bodies. The
Medical Store Depots in India were the biggest importers of drugs and other
medical stores and they were also manufacturers of drugs and dressings. There
were five medical store depots maintained in five large centres in India. Two
medical store depots had factories attached to them where certain preparations
were made. These factories were at first located at Lahore and Calcutta but
later on they were shifted to Madras and Bombay ? At the outbreak of World War
it was quickly realised that owing to shipping restrictions, these medical store depots
would have to play a very large part in supplying to the growing needs of the Army,
both at home and abroad. The organisation of the Director-General (I. M. S.) Was
strengthened by the recruitment of two officers, who were placed in charge of the
production of Drugs and Dressings and Surgical Instruments and Appliances respectively.
The result of intensive effort to increase production of medical stores was that the
value of medical stores purchased in India (exclusive of depot manufactured artides)
rose from Rs. 15.8 lakhs in 1938-39 to Rs. 3.48 crores in 1942-43.
Drugs and accessories needed for the Army could be roughly classified under
the following headings.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIA 51
(i)
Galenicals
(vii)
Special type of glassware.
(ii)
Drugs of natural origin
Rubber goods
(iii)
Vitamins and hormones
(ix)
Surgical dressings
(iv)
Synthetic drugs
(x)
Ligatures
(v)
Purified basic chemicals
(xi)
Vaccines and seta
(vi)
Laboratory stains and chemicals
(xii)
An ti-biotics.
India's requirements of galenicals were entirely met from indigenous sources.
Surgical dressings, vaccines and sera, rubber goods, laboratory stains and chemicals
were produced on a large scale. Of the drugs of natural origin, Morphine, Codeine,
Strychnine, Caffeine, Ephedrine, Santonin, Quinine were produced in sufficient quan-
tities not only for meeting internal demands, but, in some cases, for purposes of export.
India's position regarding synthetic drugs was unsatisfactory, because the basic inter-
mediates were in most cases unavailable. It was, however, possible to produce synthe-
tically a very large number of drugs. A number of antiseptics and disinfectants,
purgatives, uric acid solvents, vaso-constrictors, vaso-dilators, antipyretics, analgesics,
narcotics, general anaesthetics and local anaesthetics were successfully produced. It
can be said that given the equipment and the intermediate chemicals, there is not a
single synthetic drug which is beyond the ability of an Indian chemist to produce.
During the war, an attempt was made to obtain intermediate chemicals. India
is now able to produce 2 million gallons of benzene and I million gallons of toluene
per annum at a cost which compares favourably with that prevailing in other countries.
Recently, the manufacture of nitrobenzene at the Ordnance Factories has been estab-
lished and it is now possible for the Indian industry to obtain about roo tons of nitro-
benzene at a price of Rs. NI- per cwt. India produced very large quantities of T. N. T.
during the war and, in fact, was one of the best sources of supply of this high explosive.
It has not been difficult to establish the production of mono-nitrotoluenes which are
now obtainable at a reasonable price. Manufacture was established for the production
of i000 tons of acetone from alcohol which is also now available for industrial purposes.
During the war, it was felt necessary that the production of power alcohol should be
taken in hand. At present, we have a capacity for the production of 14 million
gallons of power alcohol in this country. Considerable quantities of butyl and amyl
alcohol are also obtainable as by-products in this industry. The Indian coal is generally
carbonised at a fairly high temperature with the result that the percentage of naphtha-
lene hydrocarbons is rather high in the distillate. The production of naphthalene has
been developed and we have now a capacity of 2000 tons of naphthalene per annum,
which is capable of further expansion at a short notice. A certain amount of phthalic
acid is also produced. The production of other basic chemicals such as Aniline, Hydro-
quinol, etc., has also been developed.
The. development of the intermediate chemicals industry is closely bound op
with the development of finished products. If this vicious circle is to be broken, then
it occurs to me that it is necessary that a start should be made at the finished product
end. I would not completely rule out a start being made by small units producing
intermediate chemicals to feed the concerns producing finished products. It has been
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
J. N. BAN
said that the day of small business is over. This is not entirely correct. In the
U. S. A., it has been found that a mass production concern is not equipped to handle
small order and special jobs. These can be adequately handled by a small outfit which
also supplies the needs of the big manufacturers. Even in the field of automobile
industry, it has been noticed that a big manufacturer buys nearly I,Ioo different items
from 400 small firms. In the most specialised industry, namely, the Petroleum Industry,
the five largest refining companies in the U. S. A. account for only 40% of the capacity.
There are 170 small concerns who have been able to hold their own against the
competition of the bigger manufacturers. Similarly 7 big chemical manufacturers
depend on T20 small-size -firms for many of their requirements. Bigger size does not
necessarily mean the greater efficiency.
This was amply borne out during the war, when a small firm produced para-
aminoacetanilide and supplied successfully all the big manufacturers of organo-arsenicals
and organo-antimonials based on para-aminoacetanilide. The manufacture of certain
types of fine chemical intermediates can easily be undertaken by our chemistry graduates
with adequate research experience even on a very small scale. During the war, large
quantities of imported commercial dyes were purified and converted into bacteriological
stains. In fact, the entire demands for these laboratory stains were met from the suppli-
es made by very small manufacturers.
Following is a list of important drugs which cover the whole field of chemo-
therapy. Items produced in India are marked with an asterisk.
intiseptics and Disinfectants
i. Phenol t 15. Methyl violet
alol I 16. Crystal violet
S
3. Resorcinol 17. A uratnine
Guiacol, Gitacol carbonate, r8. Rivanol
Guiacol potassium sulphate 19. Rhodamine
Thymol Chinisol
t,. 0-Naphthol i Brilliant Green
*7. Tribromophenol t z. Malachite Green
X. Iodoform Trypan Red
Formaldehyde Trypan Blue
*t) Hexamine Mecca, ochrome
i.
*II. Chloramine T *26. Cresol
12. Acriflavine Chlorinated xylenols
13. Dermatol *28. D. D. T,
*;21 Protargol
r. Phenolphthalein
Purkatives and A Peritives
Ore xi n (PhenvIdihydroquinazoline)
niuretics and uric acid solvents
II. Caffeine Salyrgan
2. l'iperazine Theophylline
Atoph an 6. Theobromine
Are produced in India ; in many cases, hi insufficient quantities
From imported intermediates.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIA
Vaso-constrictors
*r.
Adrenaline
4 ?
Alkaloids of Ergot : Ergotoxin,
*2.
Ephedrine
Urgotamine, Ergometrin,
3.
Benzidine
Ergotinine, Tyramine.
Vaso-dilators
*r.
Amyl nitrite
*3.
Nitroglycerine
2.
Ethyl nitrite
4
Octyl nitrite
Antipyretics and analgesics
*I.
Aetanilide
5.
Aspirin
*2.
Phenacetin
6.
Antipyrine
3.
Benzoic acid
7.
Pyramidone
4.
Salicylic acid
Narcotics and General Anaesthetics
i.
Cyclopropane
*9,
Chloretone
*2.
Ether
ro.
Avertine
Para-aldehyde
Veronal
4.
Acetophenone
*12.
Luminal
*5.
Chloroform
13.
Sulphonal
6
Urethane
14,
Trional
7.
Adaline
15.
Tetronal
*8.
Chloral hydrate
Local Anaesthetics
*r.
Ethyl chloride
*4.
Cocaine
2.
Anaesthesine
5.
Eucaine
3.
Novocaine
6.
Pentothal sodium
AntiProtozol and Antibacterial Drugs
*r.
Atoxyl
in.
Neostibosan
Tryparsamide
Neocardyl
*3.
Carbarsone
12.
Mercurochrome
*4.
Neo-salvarsan
13.
Merthiolate
5
Stovarsal
*14.
Emetine
*6,
Sulpharsphenarnine
is.
Yatren
7.
Solusalvarsan
16.
Vioform
8.
Mapharside
17.
Sulpha drugs
*9.
Urea Stibamine
(detailed below).
Anti-malarials
i.
Euqinine
4.
Mepacrine
2.
Aristoquinine
5.
Paludrine
3.
Pamaquin
6.
Chloroquin.
* Are produced in India;
in many cases, in insufficient quantities,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
53
54
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
J. N. RAY
SulPhunilamide grout of Drugs (SulPha drugs)
Sulphanilamide
2. Prontosil
3. Pront.sil sol
4 Proseptazine
Soluseptazine
o. Rhodilone
[Heron
1. Penicillin
Streptomycin
*I. Camphor
Ethyl ester of nicotinic acid
(coraniines)
Glycerophosphates and choline
Cardiazole
Cantharidine
Calcium gluconate
Aulinogen
*3,
ti-biotics
Miscellaneous Drugs
Albucid
6, 1)agenan
n Sulphaguanidine
ix. Sulphathiazole
z Sulphapyridine
13 Snlphadiazine, sulphamerazine
4 PP'-Diaminodiphenylsulphone.
. Chloromycetin
. Aureomvcin
Sulphoforrn
Solganol
Mandelic acid
S. V. P. 36
Iodohydroxyquinoline
Kurchi bismuth iodide
Emetine
Sante nine
Are produced in India: in many cases, in insufficient quantities.
c from natural
? sources.
It will be seen that there is a considerable scope for developing many items of manu-
facture which are at present not produced in India
DeveloPment Plans in hand
We have been considering the question of production of Penicillin and other anti-
biotics for a long time. In 1o45, the Director-General of Supply financed an investiga-
tion for the production of Penicillin on a laboratory scale. Workers at the Institute
of Science, Bangalore, and the Haffkine Institute, Bombay, have also been experiment-
ing on the production of Penicillin. In March 1945, advantage was taken of the
presence in England of Professor B. C. Guha, then an officer of the Department of
Food, and a survey was undertaken by him on behalf of the Department of Supply of
manufacture both in the U. K. and the U.S.A. The Department of Planning and Develop-
ment sent out a team consisting of General Sir Saheb S. Sokhey and Dr. K. Ganapathy
to investigate the possibility of manufacturing Penicillin in India. They submitted their
report and certain investigations were made on the lines suggested in the Report. It was,
however, felt that further investigations were necessary before a decision could be taken.
Consequently, the Government of India sent out a second team consisting of General
Sokhey, Dr. Ganapathy and Dr. Sankaran for the purpose. It has now been decided
that the manufacture of Penicillin would be undertaken as a State enterprise in collabora-
tion with a foreign firm. It is proposed to produce 1200 billion units per annum with
a provision to increase it to 3600 billion units, if necessary. In the same factory, it
is also proposed to manufacture certain sulpha drugs and synthetic antimalarials.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415ROM610,0050001-7
SCHIFF' S BASES FROM DIAMINODIPHENYLSULetiumh 63
of salicylaldehyde in alcoholic solution for over 4 hours, the disalicylidene derivative
separated out in fine yellow-orange needles, m.p. 268-70?.
In the preparation of 4:4'-diaminocliphenylsulphone Raiziss's method (J. Amer
Chem. Soc., 1939, 61, 2763) was slightly modified and this has been described in the
experimental part of the paper.
BjCPERIMENTAL
The method is a slight modification of the procedure adopted by Raiziss et al. (loc.
cit.). 4-Nitro-4'-acetylarniuodiphenylsulphone was prepared according to the method of
Raiziss et al. in their preparation of 4-amino-41-hydroxydiphenylsulphone ; but this
was, however, simultaneously reduced and deacetylated by tin and hydrochloric acid
to yield 4:4'-diaminodiphenylsulphone.
4-Nitro-4'-acetylaminodiphenylsulphone (go g.) was suspended in a mixture of
concentrated hydrochloric acid (675 c.c.) and water (270 c.c.) and heated to boiling.
To this solution was added tin turnings (roo g.) from time to time, and after the addi-
tion was complete, the solution was heated for a further period of 2 hours. The mixture
was treated with charcoal and filtered hot. The filtrate was cooled and basified with
the addition of a concentrated solution of caustic soda (50%). The 4:4'-diaminodiphenyl-
sulphone separated out on cooling as a crystalline, curdy precipitate and was purified
by crystallisation from alcohol, m.p. 175?, yield 40 g.
PreParation of 4-Arylidene-amino-e-cinnamylidene-aminodiPhenylsulPhone.?The
4-benzylidene-amino- and 4-P-rnethoxybenzylidene-amino-4'-aminodiphenylsulphones were
prepared according to Buttle et al. (loc. cit.) and the 4-salicylidene-amino-4'-amino-
diphenylsulphone was prepared by heating an alcoholic solution of 4:4'-diaminodiphenyl-
sulphone with molar amount of salicylaldehyde for about 20 minutes. The mixture was
cooled and the orange-yellow solid separating, was collected. This was washed with
ether, and found to melt at 225-26?. Jain et al. (loc. cit.) recorded the melting point
of this derivative as 172?.
All the above mono-arylidene derivatives were mixed with an alcoholic solution
of cinnamic aldehyde (r.l2 mole) and refluxed for 2 to 3 hours. The mixture was con-
centrated and diluted with ether. The diarylidene derivatives separated. These were
filtered and washed with ether.
The 4I-amino group of the above 4-arylidene-amino-4'-aminodiphenylsulphone
could not be condensed with benzaldehyde or anisaldehyde. But the same of salicyl-
idene-arnino derivative readily condensed with acetaldehyde, glucose, and even salicyl-
dehyde when heated under reflux in alcoholic solution as usual. In the case of glucose,
a trace of ammonium chloride was added to bring about the reaction. From the
ease of reaction it appeared that cinnamic aldehyde behaved as an aliphatic one and
had been found to react easily with 4'-amino group of the 4-arylidene-amino-e-amino-
diphenylsulphones.
Preparation of 4-Acety1amino-e-arylidene-ami1iodiPhenylsulPho. ne.-- Although the
monoarylidene-a minodiphenylsulphone did not react so readily with a second molecule
3-1737P-2
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
(54 Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
ri. P. BA SU AND K. R. C. FIANDRAN
an aromatic aldehyde, the 4-acetylamino-4'-aminodiphenylsulphone, however, re-
acted with cinnamic aldehyde as well as with salicyldehyde when reiluxed in alcoholic
solution as usual.
The characteristics of the compounds are recorded in the table below.
TAnr,r? I
Compound
=
(-",elieral formula : R=N (4)
General
appearance.
N (40 =
Fortnnla
and Ma Wt
Nitrogen %
Found. vale.
S.alicylidene
HI
Yellow needles,
019141803N2S
7.47
7.97
10 4) 225-26?
(352)
Salicylidene
eintiamylidene
Yellow needles,
C2811220 3N28
5.72
6.o
111 P? I54-
(466)
Benzylidene
Cinnatnyliclene
Yellow powder,
C28}12202N2S
6.4
6.22
111 P- 173-74?
(4501
Anisylidene
Cinnamylidene
Yellow powder,
C.2911240 3N2S
5.96
5.83
111.11- 177-78?
(480)
Sal.icylidene
Bthylidene
White needles.,
02:14B03N2S
7.42
7.41
in.p. 16z-63?
(378)
Salicylidene
2:3 :4 :5 :6-Penta-
White powder,
C25/42608N2S
5.92
544
bydroxyhexyl-
dene
n1 P. 243-45?
(514)
Acetyl
Cinnamylidene
Yellow needles,
0231-1200aNkS
6.95
6.93
219-20'
(404)
Acetyl
Salicylidene
Orange crystals,
e20ll1s01,N2S
7.28
7.1
111-11- 143-44? (394)
'GAL IMMUNITY RSSEANCR INSTITUTE,
CALCUTTA
Received June 17, 1949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
[ sour, Tnclian Chem. Soc., Vol. 27, No. 2, logo]
STUDIES IN THE NATURE OF HYDRATED FERRIC OXIDE. PART I.
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND CONCENTRATION ON
THE NATURE OF THE PRECIPITATE OBTAINED BY THE
INTERACTION OF SOLUTIONS OF FERRIC CHLORIDE
AND SODIUM HYDROXIDE
By ARUN K. DEY AND SATYRSHWAR GHOSH
Ferric oxides of different physical properties and chemical character have been prepared for the first
time by the precipitation from ferric chloride employing different quantities of sodium hydroxide and by
carrying on the precipitation at different temperatures. The variation in the properties has been ascribed
to the amphoteric nature of the oxide and a mechanism to explain the behaviour of ferric hydroxide has
been suggested. The hypothesis has been supported by quantitative studies on the adsorption of the
various ions in the system, during the precipitation of hydrated ferric oxide. The conductometric study
of the precipitation has also been made.
Two varieties of ferric oxide are well known ; Tommasi in 1882 (vide Weiser,
"Hydrous Oxides", 1926, p. 364) recorded the existence of yellow and brown oxides,
which were regarded by him as isomers. It was noted by Davies (loc. cit.) that the
yellow variety, prepared by the oxidation of ferrous oxide or the carbonate, was denser
and the solubility of this type of oxide in acids was very little. Weiser and Milligan
(J. Phys. Chem., 1935, 39, 25 ; 1940, 44, io81) observe that the freshly precipitated
oxide is amorphous, but on ageing it gradually transforms from ct-Pe20, to P-Fe00H.
The yellow P-oxide is also the product of the slow hydrolysis of ferric chloride (J. Am e.
Chem. Soc., 1935, 57, 238) . Thiessen and KOppen (Z. anorg. Chem., 1930, 189.113 ;
1936, 228, 57) opine that brown ferric oxide yields eight hydrates on isothermal dehy-
dration, but their view has been challenged by Weiser and co-workers (J. Phys. Chem.,
1939, 43, 1104). Not much work seems to have been done on the yellow oxide, and noth-
ing is on record regarding the preparation of both of these oxides from the same reagents.
It has, however, been observed by Banerji and Ghosh (Nat. A cad. Sci., India, Abstracts,
1942) that hydrated ferric oxide, when allowed to age gradually, becomes insoluble in
mineral acids. They also observed remarkable variation in the peptisability of the
oxide by hydrochloric and other acids with age. In the present investigation we have
been able to prepare hydrated ferric oxides of varying colour beginning from deep
brown to yellow by regulating the temperature and the concentrations of the reactants
in the reaction between ferric chloride and sodium hydroxide solutions. We have also
observed that in all the cases precipitation is complete even before the theoretical
quantity of alkali is added. The same phenomenon has been recorded by Britton
(Ann. Ret., 1943, 40, 44) who studied the precipitation of various oxides by the
E,. M. F. method. A similar observation has been made by Dey and Gliosh (this
Journal, 1947, 24, 181) during the study of the precipitation of cupric hydroxide from
cupric sulphate solution when the quantity of alkali required was 14% less than the
theoretical amount. We have in this study made a quantitative investigation of the
precipitation of ferric hydroxide by analytical and conductometric methods.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
1i6
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A. K. DEY AND S. (ROSH
EXPERIMF.NTAL
A solution of AnalaR ferric chloride was prepared and both iron and chlorine were
Lstimated volumetrically and gravimetrically and were in the proportion required by the
formula FeCla. At the outset, to to c.c. of ferric chloride solution were added different
quantities of a standard solution of sodium hydroxide (total volume 40 c.c.) and the
quantity required for just complete precipitation was noted. After filtration the filtrate
was tested and was found to be acidic when smaller volumes of alkali solution were
employed. The volume of alkali solution needed to yield a just alkaline filtrate was also
noted. The observations were repeated at several temperatures.
TABLE I
rerric chloride soln.= 0,575214. Sodium hydroxide soln. = 1.9418M. Theoretically
to c.c. of ferric chloride solution8.88 c.c. of alkali for precipitation of Fe(OH)n.
Volume of NaOH solution at temperature of
23?.
40?,
50?.
6n?.
800.
For complete precipitation
8.30 c.c.
8.3n c.c.
8.30 CC.
8.30 c.c.
8.30 C.C.
For a neutral filtrate
n
9.00
n.00
8 oo
8.go
The effect of dilution was studied by diluting both the solutions of ferric chloride
and sodium hydroxide ten times and similar observations were repeated ; the results are
shown in Table II.
TABLE IT
Verric chloride soln.=o.0575M. Sodium hydroxide soln.=---o.ro42M. Theoretically
fo c.c. of ferric chloride solution should require 8.88 c.c. of sodium hydroxide or
precipitating Fe (OH)
Volume of NaOH solution at temperature of
8n`.
For complete precipitation
8.3o c.c.
8.6o C.C.
8.60 c.c.
For a neutral filtrate
9.10
9.00
8.90
We thus find that on dilution the precipitation value approximates the theoretical
values, and on raising the temperature, the values undergo negligible change. It was
further observed that the samples of solid precipitates were readily soluble in hydro-
chloric and nitric acids, when precipitated with alkalis less than the theoretical amounts.
The colour of hydrated ferric oxide in all these cases were dark brown. When the
amount of alkali was increased the precipitate became more and more insoluble in acids.
When the alkali was in great excess, the precipitate became more yellow in colour and
when ro c.c. of alkali were employed for precipitation, the colour of the oxide was deep
yellow and a fair portion of the precipitate remained undissolved in even hot and con-
centrated hydrochloric and nitric acids, leaving a yellow residue. This insolubility
was more pronounced when the precipitation was carried out at higher temperatures.
Now to ro c.c. of ferric chloride solution, taken in several TOO c.c.. flasks kept at
constant temperature,ease 01/ were added di6fiere-gt. almisgsaoltaii5sK,1688itoblygottlitir
Approved For Rel 2009/
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
STUDIES IN NATURE OF HYDRATED FERRIC OXIDE
67
was raised to roo c.c. and they were maintained at constant temperature for an hour.
The amount of iron, sodium and chlorine ions, and also hydrogen or hydroxyl ions in
the supernatant liquid were determined accurately using a tnicroburette, by the usual
methods. Knowing the amounts of the different ions taken, the amounts of ions asso-
ciated with the precipitate were calculated. The results obtained at different tempera-
tures are recorded in the following tables.
Ferric chloride solution = 0.575M NaOH solution = 1.9418i1.1
Iron = 0.575 g. ions per litre
Chlorine = 1.725 g. ions per litre
TABLE III
Hydioxyl = 1.9418 g. ions per litre
Sodium = 1.9418 g. ions per liter
Temperature = 25?
Fe.
Mg. ions taken.
Cl. NaOH.
Mg. ions available in supernatant liquid.
II or OH. Cl. Na. Pe.
Mg ions associated
with ppt.
Na. Cl.
5.75
17.25
14.56
1.84 II
6.76
__
2.15
-
20.49
5.75
17.25
15.53
0.76
5.14
-
2.00
-
12.11
5.75
27.25
16.12
0.45
15.17
16.12
Nil
Nil
2.78
5.75
17.25
16.8q
1156..9459
16.77
11
0.12
1.30
5 75
17.25
17.28
00:0075 OH
17.14
?
0.14
0.76
5.75
27.25
19.42
2.67
17.24
19.17
P)
0.25
0.01
TABLE IV
Temperature=50?.
Mg. ions taken.
Mg. ions available in supernatant liquid.
Mg. ions associated
with ppt.
Fe.
Cl.
NaOH.
II or OH.
Cl.
Na.
Fe.
Na.
Cl.
5.75
17.25
25.53
0.665 H
11.01
-
4.05
-
6.21
5.75
17.25
16.12
0.041
15.29
16.12
Nil
Nil
1.96
5.75
17.25
16.50
0.016
16.64
16.50
1/
II
0.61
5.75
17.25
16.89
0.010
16.88
16.77
31
0.12
0.39
5.75
17.25
17.28
0.078 OH
17.10
17.12
,9
0.16
0.15
5.75
17.25
19.42
1.598
17.13
19.04
1,
0.38
0.12
TABLE V
Temperature = 800.
Mg. ions taken ,
Mg. ions available in supernatant liquid.
Mg. ions associated
with ppt.
Na.
Cl.
NaOH.
n or Oti.
Cl.
Na
Fe
Na.
el.
5-75
17.25
15-53
0.70011
15.45
-
0.90
-
1.80
5-75
17-25
16.12
0.214
15.09
16.12
Nil
Nil
1,16
5-75
17.25
16.50
0.011
13.89
16.50
11
3.36
5.75
17,25
16 89
0.009
24.07
26.75
0,24
3.18
5-75
17.25
17.28
0.074 OH
15.76
17.11
0.17
1.49
5.75 17.25 19.42 1.760 16.10 18.64 ,, 0.78
1.15
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
68 X. K. DEY AN S. GHOSH
The precipitation was also studied by noting the electrical conductivities of the
supernatant liquid in the different cases when varying proportions of ferric and alkali
solutions were used. For conductornetric measurements a great accuracy and precision
was maintained. Instead of the cell constant, the calibration constant at different
positions of the bridge wire was determined by the method of lAlark (J. Phys. Chem.,
193o, 34, 885), and these values were employed for the calculations.
To 5 c.c. of Ailto ferric chloride solution were added different volumes of M/.2
?,iodiuni hydroxide solution, total volume kept at to c.c. and the precipitate allowed to
settle for an hour at 3oO. It was centrifuged at 2500 r.p.m. for five minutes and the
electrical conductivity of the supernatant liquid was determined at 30?.
In another set, the concentration of alkali was kept constant and varying
amounts of ferric chloride solution were added to it. The concentration chosen was
111/4 for both the reactants, so that at the equivalence point Fe : OH=I: 3, the concen-
tration of the respective constituents in both the sets was almost the same.
From the conductivity results the adjoining graph has been plotted showing the
variation of specific conductivity with the increase in Fe : OH ratio (Fig. r).
_0_6._ Newt/ added /0 red3
FecI3 ,xided to Atroli 9
.
. /
.
/
/
.I ,
,.
I,
,
.
,
.
.
II
.
.
2 3 4
Value of OH/Fe+++
DI SCUSS TON
results on the precipitation of hydrated ferric oxide from ferric chloride
iolution show that similar to the observation of Britton (Ann. Rep., 1943, 40, 43) with
various hydroxides, the amount of alkali needed for complete removal of the metal from
!;olution is always less than the theoretical amount. In all such cases there are two
possible reactions, which would result to such an observation.
Increased tendency of hydrolysis with increased concentration of the alkali,
according to the following scheme :
Approved-14.113R-eteggelt81/09/0ge:(dhak
tYPIS3E06445R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
STUDIES IN NATURE OF HYDRATED FERRIC OXIDE 69
The above will be more marked with increasing insolubility of the respective
hydroxides and their strength as a base.
(2) Hydrolytic adsorption of the anion, Cl-by the basic oxide, producing free alkali :
Fe(OH)3 + NaCl + H20 [Fe(OTT)31Xl, + NaOH +
In the first case the formation of ferric hydroxide takes place in stages, yielding
various intermediate basic compounds, which ultimately with a definite excess of alkali
would result in the formation of Fe(OH)3. In the second case, the quantity of alkali
added precipitates the equivalent quantity of ferric hydroxide, which on adsorbing
chlorine ions from the system liberates an equivalent quantity of OH- ions, which
precipitate more .and more of the hydroxide. Our experimental results, as recorded
in Tables III, IV and V, show that when the amount of alkali is deficient, the adsorp-
tion of chloride ion is high and this goes on decreasing as the quantity of alkali added
is raised.
It is interesting to observe in Tables I and II that complete precipitation occurs
when the supernatant liquid is slightly acidic. We find that in all the cases quoted
in the aforesaid tables, the amount of alkali needed to yield a neutral filtrate is always
greater than the volume needed for complete precipitation. This observation is con-
tradictory to the case of precipitation of cupric hydroxide as observed by us (ioc. cit.),
wlierP the filtrate becomes alkaline with complete precipitation. It may therefore
appear to be anomalous, but keeping in view that ferric hydroxide is far more insoluble
than cupric hydroxide, complete precipitation occurs at a lower OH- ion concentration,
so that the filtrate may remain slightly acidic even though complete precipitation has
been effected.
If we regard the precipitate to be a basic salt in accordance to equation (r), shown
above, it is obvious that earlier precipitation should be favoured by dilution and also
by rise of temperature, as both of these are favourable for hydrolysis. A perusal of
Table I shows that the amount of alkali needed for complete precipitation is not marked-
ly affected by rise of temperature. From Table II it will be seen that with dilution
precipitation occurs with the amount of alkali approaching theoretical values.
Considering the analytical data for adsorption, as presented in Tables III, IV and
V. we find that the adsorption of sodium and chlorine ions varies remarkably with the
amount of alkali used for precipitation. The adsorption of chlorine in general de-
creases, whilst the amount of sodium associated with the precipitate increases with in-
creasing quantities of alkali added. These observations are easily explainable, when
we remember that ferric oxide has an amphoteric character and the tendency of the
adsorption of ions by such oxides is al ways governed by the hydrogen ion concentra-
tion of the medium in which the adsorption is taking place (Dey and Ghosh, Proc. Nat.
'Acad. Sci., India, 1946, 15A, 143). Naturally when the OH- ion concentration is low,
the adsorption of cr ions will be more prominent, while under such circumstances Na+
ions will not be adsorbed. Thus, we -find that at 25? (vide Table III) when the medium
is prominently acidic containing 0.45 mg. M of acid, the adsorption of chlorine is 1.78 mg.
ions, Whereas the adsorption of sodium is nil. Now, as the medium becomes alkaline,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
70 Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
?. K. DIT ANT) 5. (HOSTT
containing 1.67 mg. M of alkali, the adsorption of chlorine falls to o.or mg. Ions,7Whereas
the amount of sodium associated is 0.25 mg. ions.
Increase of temperature favours 'the association of sodium with the precipitate,
whereas the adsorption of chlorine is diminished. The latter is, however, not rigidly
f ()flowed by changes in temperature, as the phenomenon of hydrolysis at higher tem-
peratures plays an important tole. The association of sodium ions with the precipitate
..,,?oes on increasing steadily with rise of temperature. Thus, when 19.42 mg. 111 of alkali
are added to ferric chloride solution containing 5.75 mg. ions of ferric iron, the amount
of sodium associated with the precipitate is 0.25, o.38 and 0.78 mg. ions at 25?, 50? and
respectively.
Ferric oxide with sodium hydroxide has a tendency to form sodium ferrite, and
this will naturally be more prominent at a high temperature. Van Bemmelen in 1892
(vide Weiser, "Hydrous Oxides") prepared the yellow variety of ferric oxide by the
reaction between sodium ferrite and water. We are of opinion that at higher tempera-
tures sodium is found to be associated in larger amounts in alkaline media, as direct
chemical interaction results to form some sodium ferrite.
It is interesting to point out that ferric hydroxide, obtained at higher temperature
with excess of - alkali, was definitely found to be of yellow colour and was highly resis-
tant towards acids. 'Phis confirms our contention that a fair portion of the. ferrie
hydroxide undergoes a chemical transformation to form ferric ferrite, which has lost its
basic properties to be acted -upon by an acid,- according to the following scheme :
Ve(OH), re.(t.)H.) + 011- (r)
Fe(01,11), ? Fe0(OH);;; + H (21
Fe(OH) + Fe0(OH.!; + .?H2() (3)
In equation (t) ferric hydroxide acts as ? a proton acceptor, i. e. as a ,base and in
equation (2) it donates a proton, and behaves as an acid. The chemical interaction
between the acidic and the basic properties of the hydroxide in the above manner
results in the formation of Fent), which becomes chemically inert either as an acid or
a base.
The conductometric study of the precipitation of ferric hydroxide shows that
though complete precipitation of iron as hydrated oxide takes place with a little lesser
amount of alkali, yet the minima of the conductometric graph occurs ,when Fe : OH
catio is I 3.2 when ferric chloride is added to the alkali, whilst it is 2.9 when alkali
is added to ferric chloride. In neither case the minima correspond to the observed
ratio for complete precipitation. We are of opinion that this divergency of the results
c)ccurs due to the adsorption of the electrolytes present, and hence no accurate informa-
,ion can be obtained regarding the complete precipitation from these curve. We
. ,
therefore suggest that Britton 's data on the precipitation of different insoluble hydro-
:,lides using the E. M. F. method (/cc. cit.) is also beset with similar difficulties and
hence fails to convey a true idea of the conditions of precipitation.
DEPARTMENT or CHEMISTRY,
I JNI vERSITIUS or SATIGA R Received November 29, 1947.
ANT) ALLAHABAD,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
STUDIES IN NATURE OF HYDRATED FERRIC OXIDE 67
was raised to roo c.c. and they were maintained at constant temperature for an hour.
The amount of iron, sodium and chlorine ions, and also hydrogen or hydroxyl ions in
the supernatant liquid were determined accurately using a microburette, by the usual
methods. Knowing the amounts of the different ions taken, the amounts of ions asso-
ciated with the precipitate were calculated. The results obtained at different tempera-
tures are recorded in the following tables.
Ferric chloride solution = o.575.1V1 NaOH solution = 1.9418114
Iron = 0.575 g. ions per litre
Chlorine = 1.725 g. ions per litre
TABLE III
Hydioxyl = 1.9418 g. ions per litre
Sodium = 2.9428 g. ions per liter
Temperature =--- 25?
Mg. ions taken.
Mg. ions available in supernatant liquid.
Mg ions associated
with ppt.
Fe.
Cl.
NaOH.
H or OH.
Cl.
Na.
Pe.
Na.
Cl.
5.75
17.25
14.56
1.84 II.
6.76
--
2.15
-
20.49
5.75
17.25
15.53
0.76
5.14
--
2.00
-
12.11
5.75
17.25
16.12
0.45
15.17
16.12
Nil
Nil
1.78
5.75
77.25
26.89
0.05
15.95
16.77
0.12
1.30
5 75
17.25
17.28
0.07 OH
16.49
17.14
0.14
0.76
5.75
17.25
19.42
1.67
17.24
19.17
0.25
0.01
TABLE IV
Temperature=5o*.
Mg. ions taken.
Mg. ions available in supernatant liquid.
Mg. ions associated
with ppt.
Fe.
Cl.
NaOH.
H or 011.
Cl.
Na.
Fe.
Na.
Cl.
5.75
17.25
15.53
0.665 H
11.01
--
4.05
--
6.22
5.75
17.25
16.12
0.041
15.29
16.12
Nil
Nil
1.96
5.75
17.25
16.50
0.016
16.64
16.5o
!I
If
0.61
5.75
17.25
16.89
0.010
16.88
1.77
?
0.12
0.39
5.75
17.25
17.28
0.078011
17.10
17.12
lf
0.16
0.15
5.75
17.25
19.42
2.598
17.13
29.04
,,
0.38
0.12
TABLE V
Temperature = 8o?.
Mg. ions taken. Mg. ions available in supernatant liquid. Mg. ions associated
with ppt.
Na. Cl. NaOH. H or OIL. Cl. Na Fe Na. Cl.
5.75 17.25 15.53 0.700 II 15.45 0.90 - 1.80
5?75 17-25 16.12 0.214 15.09 16.12 Nil Nil 1.16
5.75 17.25 16.50 0.011 13.89 16.50 3.36
5.75 17.25 16 89 0.009 24.07 16.75 ,, 0.14 3.18
5.75 17.25 17.28 0.074 OH 25.76 17.11 ,, 0.17 1.49
5.75 V." 19.42 1.760 16.10 18.64 ,, 0.78 1.15
Approved or Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
I i8
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
K. DEY AND S. CIHOSH
The precipitation was also studied by noting the electrical conductivities of the
supernatant liquid in the different cases when varying proportions of ferric and alkali
solutions were used. For conductometric measurements a great accuracy and precision
was maintained. Instead of the cell constant, the calibration constant at different
Positions of the bridge wire was determined by the method of Wark (I. Phys. Chem.,
1930, 34, 885), and these values were employed for the calculations.
To 5 c.c. of ill/to ferric chloride solution were added different volumes of M/2
sodium hydroxide solution, total volume kept at to c.c. and the precipitate allowed to
settle for an hour at It was centrifuged at 2500 r.p.m. for five minutes and the
electrical conductivity of the supernatant liquid was determined at 30?.
In another set, the concentration of alkali was kept constant and varying
amounts of ferric chloride solution were added to it. The concentration chosen was
14/4 for both the reactants, so that at the equivalence point Fe : OH= t: 3, the concen-
tration of the respective constituents in both the sets was almost the same.
Vrom the conductivity results the adjoining graph has been plotted showing the
variation of specific conductivity with the increase in Fe : OH ratio (Fig. 1).
FIG.
Tr,
3 4
Value of OH/Pe"
DIscussioN
5
Uur results on the precipitation of hydrated ferric oxide from ferric chloride
solution show that similar to the observation of Britton (Ann. Rep., 1943, 40, 43) with
various hydroxides, the amount of alkali needed for complete removal of the metal from
solution is always less than the theoretical amount. In all such cases there are two
possible reactions, which would result to such an observation.
Increased tendency of hydrolysis with increased concentration of the alkali,
according to the following scheme :
Approved F6f1Releise )2001/09f06VCIA-RDP8-340445R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
STUDIES TN NATURE OF HYDRATED FERRIC OXIDE 69
The above will be more marked with increasing insolubility of the respective
hydroxides and their strength as a base.
(2) Hydrolytic adsorption of the anion, Cl-by the basic oxide, producing free alkali :
Fe(OH)3 + NaC1 + H20 rri'e(OH)31xCl,, + NaOH
In the first case the formation of ferric hydroxide takes place in stages, yielding
various intermediate basic compounds, which ultimately with a definite excess of alkali
would result in the formation of Fe(OH)3. In the second case, the quantity of alkali
added precipitates the equivalent quantity of ferric hydroxide, which on adsorbing
chlorine ions from the system liberates an equivalent quantity of OH- ions, which
precipitate more and more of the hydroxide. Our experimental results, as recorded
in Tables III, IV and V, show that when the amount of alkali is deficient, the adsorp-
tion of chloride ion is high and this goes on decreasing as the quantity of alkali added
is raised.
It is interesting to observe in Tables I and H that complete precipitation occurs
when the supernatant liquid is slightly acidic. We find that in all the cases quoted
in the aforesaid tables, the amount of alkali needed to yield a neutral filtrate is always
greater than the volume needed for complete precipitation. This observation is con-
tradictory to the case of precipitation of cupric hydroxide as observed by us (loc. cit.),
where the filtrate becomes alkaline with complete precipitation. It may therefore
appear to be anomalous, but keeping in view that ferric hydroxide is far more insoluble
than cupric hydroxide, complete precipitation occurs at a lower OH- ion concentration,
so that the filtrate may remain slightly acidic even though complete precipitation has
been effected.
If we regard the precipitate to be a basic salt in accordance to equation (r), shown
above, it is obvious that earlier precipitation should be favoured by dilution and also
by rise of temperature, as both of these are favourable for hydrolysis. A perusal of
Table I shows that the amount of alkali needed for complete precipitation is not marked-
ly affected by rise of temperature. From Table II it will be seen that with dilution
precipitation occurs with the amount of alkali approaching theoretical values.
Considering the analytical data for adsorption, as presented in Tables HI, IV and
V, we find that the adsorption of sodium and chlorine ions varies remarkably with the
amount of alkali used for precipitation. The adsorption of chlorine in general de-
creases, whilst the amount of sodium associated with the precipitate increases with in-
creasing quantities of alkali added. These observations are easily explainable, when
we remember that ferric oxide has an amphoteric character and the tendency of the
adsorption of ions by such oxides is al ways governed by the hydrogen ion concentra-
tion of the medium in which the adsorption is taking place (Dey and Ghosh, Proc. Nat.
'Acad. Sci., India, 1946, 15A, 143). Naturally when the on- ion concentration is low,
the adsorption of Cl- ions will be more prominent, while under such circumstances Na+
ions will not be adsorbed. Thus, we find that at 250 (vide Table III) when the medium
is prominently acidic containing 0.45 mg. M of acid, the adsorption of chlorine is 1.78 mg.
ions, whereas the adsorption of sodium is nil. Now, as the medium becomes alkaline,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
70 . K. BEY AND S. GHOSH
:.(intaining 1.67 mg. M of alkali, the adsorption of chlorine falls to o.or mg. ions, whereas
the amount of sodium associated is 0.25 mg. ions.
Increase of temperature favours the association of sodium with the precipitate,
whereas the adsorption of chlorine is diminished. The latter is, however, not rigidly
followed by changes in temperature, as the phenomenon of hydrolysis at higher tem-
peratures plays an important role. The association of sodium ions with the precipitate
goes on increasing steadily with rise of temperature. Thus, when 19.42 fig. M of alkali
are added to ferric chloride solution containing 5.75 mg, ions of ferric iron, the amount
of sodium associated with the precipitate is 0.25, 0.38 and 0.78 mg. ions at 250, 500 and
;-'0' respectively.
Perric oxide with sodium hydroxide has a tendency to form sodium ferrite, and
is will naturally be more prominent at a high temperature. Van Bernmelen in 1892
(vide Weiser, "Hydrous Oxides") prepared the yellow variety of ferric oxide by the
reaction between sodium ferrite and water. We are of opinion that at higher tempera-
tures sodium is found to be associated in larger amounts in alkaline media, as direct
chemical interaction results to form some sodium ferrite.
It is interesting to point out that ferric hydroxide, obtained at higher temperature
with excess of alkali, was definitely found to be of yellow colour and was highly resis-
tant towards acids. This confirms our contention that a fair portion of the ferric
hydroxide undergoes a chemical transformation to form ferric ferrite, which has lost its
basic properties to be acted upon by an acid, according to the following scheme :
Ve(OH)42- + OW
???
(r)
Fe(OH)3
Fe(OH)A
Fe0(OH)i, + H4
(2)
+ Fe0(01-1)i
Fe203 + H2O
?
(3)
Fe(OH)-
2
In equation (r) ferric hydroxide acts as a proton acceptor, i. e. as a base and in
equation (2) it donates a proton, and behaves as an acid. The chemical interaction
between the acidic and the basic properties of the hydroxide in the above manner
results in the formation of Fe203, which becomes chemically inert either as an acid or
a base.
The conductometric study of the precipitation of ferric hydroxide shows that
horigh complete precipitation of iron as hydrated oxide takes place with a little lesser
amount of alkali, yet the minima of the conductometric graph occurs ,when Fe : OH
ratio is 1 : 3,2 when ferric chloride is added to the alkali, 'whilst it is 2.9 when alkali
is added to ferric chloride. In neither case the minima correspond to the observed
ratio for complete precipitation. We are of opinion that this divergency of the results
occurs due to the adsorption of the electrolytes present, and hence no accurate informa-
tion can be obtained regarding the complete precipitation from these curves. We
therefore suggest that Britton's data on the precipitation of different insoluble hydro-
xides using the E. M. F. method (/c. cit.) is also beset with similar difficulties and
hence fails to convey a true idea of the conditions of precipitation.
1)ErAaTnENT or CiirtuStay,
Univicasiints Or SAUGAR Received November 29, 1947.
AND ALLARARAD,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
t Jour. Indian Chem. Soc., Vol. 27, No. 2, 1950]
STUDIES IN THE NATURE OF HYDRATED FERRIC OXIDE. PART I.
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND CONCENTRATION ON
THE NATURE OF THE PRECIPITATE OBTAINED BY THE
INTERACTION OF SOLUTIONS OF FERRIC CHLORIDE
AND SODIUM HYDROXIDE
BY ARl7N K. DRY AND SATYESDWAR OHOSH
Ferric oxides of different physical properties and chemical character have been prepared for the first
time by the precipitation from ferric chloride employing different quantities of sodium hydroxide and by
carrying on the precipitation at different temperatures. The variation in the properties has been ascribed
to the amphoteric nature of the oxide and a mechanism to explain the behaviour of ferric hydroxide has
been suggested. The hypothesis has been supported by quantitative studies on the adsorption of the
various ions in the system, during the precipitation of hydrated ferric oxide. The conductometric study
of the precipitation has also been made.
Two varieties of ferric oxide are well known ; Tommasi in 1882 (vide Weiser,
"Hydrous Oxides", 1926, p? 364) recorded the existence of yellow and brown oxides,
which were regarded by him as isomers. It was noted by Davies (/c. cit.) that the
yellow variety, prepared by the oxidation of ferrous oxide or the carbonate, was denser
and the solubility of this type of oxide in acids was very little. Weiser and Milligan
(I. Phys. Chent., 1935, 39, as ; 1940, 44, io81) observe that the freshly precipitated
oxide is amorphous, but on ageing it gradually transforms from cx-Ite20. to 13-Fe0011.
The yellow /3-oxide is also the product of the slow hydrolysis of ferric chloride (1. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 1935, 57, 238). Thiessen and KOppen (Z. anorg. Chem., 1930, 189. 113 ;
1936, 228, 57) opine that brown ferric oxide yields eight 'hydrates on isothermal dehy-
dration, but their view has been challenged by Weiser and co-workers (I. Phys. Chem.,
1939, 43, 1104). Not much work seems to have been done on the yellow oxide, and noth-
ing is on record regarding the preparation of both of these oxides from the same reagents.
It has, however, been observed by Banerji and Ghosh (Nat. Acad. Sci., India, Abstracts,
1942) that hydrated ferric oxide, when allowed to age gradually, becomes insoluble in
mineral acids. They also observed remarkable variation in the peptisability of the
oxide by hydrochloric and other acids with age. In the present investigation we have
been able to prepare hydrated ferric oxides of varying colour beginning from deep
brown to yellow by regulating the temperature and the concentrations of the reactants
in the reaction between ferric chloride and sodium hydroxide solutions. We have also
observed that in all the cases precipitation is complete even before the theoretical
quantity of alkali is added. The same phenomenon has been recorded by Britton
(Ann. Ret., 194.3) 40, 44) who studied the precipitation of various oxides by the
E. M. F. method. A similar observation has been made by Dey and Ghosh (this
Journal, 1947, 24, 181) during the study of the precipitation of cupric hydroxide from
cupric sulphate solution when the quantity of alkali required was 14% less than the
theoretical amount. We have in this study made a quantitative investigation of the
precipitation of ferric hydroxide by analytical and conductometric methods.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
i6 A. K. DEY AND S. GHOSII
PERIMENT AL
A solution of AnalaR ferric chloride was prepared and both iron and chlorine were
stirnated volumetrically and gravimetrically and were in the proportion required by the
formula FeC18. At the outset, to ro c.c. of ferric chloride solution were added different
quantities of a standard solution of sodium hydroxide (total volume 40 c.c.) and the
quantity required for just complete precipitation was noted. After filtration the filtrate
was tested and was found to be acidic when smaller volumes of alkali solution were
employed. The volume of alkali solution needed to yield a just alkaline filtrate was also
noted. The observations were repeated at several temperatures.
TABLE I
Ferric chloride soln. =0.575M. Sodium hydroxide soln. = 1.94181W. Theoretically
Ii c.c. of ferric chloride solution 8.88 c.c. of alkali for precipitation of Fe(011)8.
Volume of NaOH solution at temperature of
40'? 50g? 6o*. 8o*.
For complete precipitation
Por a neutral filtrate
8.30 c.c. 8.30 c.c.
u.00 9.00
8.30 CC. 8.30 c.c. 8.30 c.c.
g.00 8 go 8.90
The effect of dilution was studied by diluting both the solutions of ferric chloride
and sodium hydroxide ten times and similar observations were repeated ; the results are
shown in Table 11.
'I'ABLE II
Ferric chloride soln.=0.0s75M? .Sodium hydroxide soln. = o.1942M. Theoretically
fo C.C. of ferric chloride solution should require 8.88 e.c. of sodium hydroxide or
precipitating Fe(01-1)..
Por complete precipitation
For a neutral filtrate
Volume of NaOH solution at temperature of
25'. 50. 8o'.
8.5o c.c. 8.0o c.c. .o c.c.
9.10 9.00 8.90
We thus find that on dilution the precipitation value approximates the theoretical
values, and on raising the temperature, the values undergo negligible change. It was
further observed that the samples of solid precipitates were readily soluble in hydro-
chloric and nitric acids, when precipitated with alkalis less than the theoretical amounts.
The colour of hydrated ferric oxide in all these cases were dark brown. When the
amount of alkali was increased the precipitate became more and more insoluble in acids.
When the alkali was in great excess, the precipitate became more yellow in colour and
when fo c.c. of alkali were employed for precipitation, the colour of the oxide was deep
yellow and a fair portion of the precipitate remained undissolved in even hot and con-
centrated hydrochloric and nitric acids, leaving a yellow residue. This insolubility
was more pronounced when the precipitation was carried out at higher temperatures.
Now to To c.c. of ferric chloride solution, taken in several too c.c. flasks kept at
cimslatpl3MOTdrPOIVRelWarte .1/ LI 4/1313k16ePtrALIRBP83100106R56616t1t0d8WCFP171me
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
64 U. P. BASU AND X. R. CHANDRAN
of an aromatic aldehyde, the 4-acety1amino-4'-aminodiphenyl5ulphone, however, re-
acted with cinnamic aldehyde as well as with salicyldehyde when refluxed in alcoholic
solution as usual.
The characteristics of the compounds are recorded in the table below.
TABLE I
General formula : R=N (4) -C8114S02.C6114 N (4!)=R'.
Compound
R=
R'=
General
appearance.
Formula
and Mol. Wt
Nitrogen %
Found. calc.
i. Salicylidene
H2
Yellow needles,
C19111603N2S
7-47
7.97
m.p. 225-26?
(352)
2. Salicylidene
Cinnamylidene
Yellow needles,
C28142203N2S
5.72
6.o
/11.P. 154-55?
(466)
3. Benzylidene
Cinnamylidene
Yellow powder,
c281-12202N28
6.4
6.22
nl.P? 173-74?
(450)
4. Anisylidene
Cinnamylidene
Yellow powder,
c291-12403N2s
5.96
5.83
1/1.13? 177-78?
(480)
Salicylidene
Ethylidene
White needles,
e21.1-11803N2s
7-42
7.41
imp. 162-63?
(378)
6. Salicylidene
2 :3 :4 :5 :6-Penta-
White powder,
C25H2608N28
5.92
5.44
hydroxyhexyl-
idene
m.p. 243-45?
(514)
7. Acetyl
Cinnamylidene
Yellow needles,
023112003N2S
6.95
6.93
m.p. 219-20'
(404?i
8. Acetyl
Salicylidene
Orange crystals,
CAH1604N2S
7.28
7.1
m.p. 243-44? (394)
BENGAL IMMUNiTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
CALCUTTA.
Received June 17, 1949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCHIFF S BA SFS FROM DTAMTNOMPFIENYLSULPHOW, 63
of salicylaldehyde in alcoholic solution for over 4 hours, the disalicylidene derivative
separated out in fine yellow-orange needles, m.p. 268-7o0.
In the preparation of 4:4'-diaininodiphenylsulphone Raiziss's method (J. 'Amer
(hem. Soc., 1939, 61, 2763) was slightly modified and this has been described in the
experimental part of the paper.
TM$NTA r,
The method is a slight modification of the procedure adopted by Raiziss et al. (loc.
4-Nitro-41-acetylaininodiphenylsulphone was prepared according to the method of
Raiziss et at. in their preparation of 4-amino-e-hydroxydiphenylsulphone ; but this
was, however, simultaneously reduced and deacetvlated by tin and hydrochloric acid
to yield 4:4'-diaminodiphenylsulphone.
4-Nitro-4/-acetylaminodiphenylsulphone (90 g.) was suspended in a mixture of
concentrated hydrochloric acid (675 c.c.) and water (270 c.c.) and heated to boiling.
To this solution was added tin turnings (too g.) from time to time, and after the addi-
tion was complete, the solution was heated for a further period of 2 hours. The mixture
was treated with charcoal and filtered hot. The filtrate was cooled and basified with
the addition of a concentrated solution of caustic soda (50%). The 4:4'-diaminodiphenyl-
sulphone separated out on cooling as a crystalline, curdy precipitate and was purified
by crystallisation from alcohol, rn.p. 1-75*, yield 40 g.
l'reParation of 4-A ry1idene-amino-4'-cinnamy1idene-arninodiPhenylsulbhone.--The
.1-benzylidene-amino- and 4-P-methoxybenzylidene-amino-4'-aminodiphenylsulphones were
prepared according to Buttle et at. (loc. cit.) and the 4-salicylidene-amino-4'-amino-
diphenylsulphone was prepared by heating an alcoholic solution of 4:4'-diaminodiphenyl-
sulphone with molar amount of salicylaldehyde for about 2o minutes. The mixture was
cooled and the orange-yellow solid separating, was collected. This was washed with
ether, and found to melt at 225-26?. Jain et at. (loc. cit.) recorded the melting point
of this derivative as 1720.
All the above mono-arylidene derivatives were mixed with an alcoholic solution.
of cinnamic aldehyde (r.r2 mole) and refluxed for 2 to 3 hours. The mixture was con-
centrated and diluted with ether. The diarylidene derivatives separated. These were
filtered and washed with ether.
The 4'-ainino group of the above 4-arylidene-amino-4'-aminodiphenylsulphone
could not be condensed with benzaldehyde or anisaldehyde. But the same of salicyl-
idene-amino derivative readily condensed with acetaldehyde, glucose, and even salicyl-
dehyde when heated under reflux in alcoholic solution as usual. In the case of glucose,
a trace of ammonium chloride was added to bring about the reaction. From the
case of reaction it appeared that cinnamic aldehyde behaved as an aliphatic one and
had been found to react easily with 4'-amino group of the 4-arylidene-amino-4'-amino-
diphenylsulphones.
PreParation of 4-Acetylamino-41-arylidene-aminodiPheitylsu1Phone.-- Although the
oionoarylidene-a minodiphenylsulphone did not react so readily with a second molecule
ApiarkPiett-For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
E Jour, Indian Chem Soci, Vol. 27, No. 2, rgso]
MEYER'S SYNTHESIS OF PYRIDINES FROM AMINOACRYLO-
NITRILES : VERIFICATION IN THE LIGHT OF
GASTALDI'S OBJECTIONS
BY NIRMALANANDA PALIT
The reactions of dinitriles have been extensively studied by V. Meyer and have proved to be a fruitful
source for the preparation of pyridines. A typical member of the series has been obtained by Gastaldi
from the corresponding pyrilitun salt and has been found to be different. This questions the correct-
ness of the structure of Meyer's compounds. In the present investigation it has been shown that the
structures of Meyer's compounds as a class are not incorrect, but so far as the particular member is
concerned, Gastaldi's contension probably holds good and Meyer's compound may have to be represented
differently.
Meyer has developed a method for the synthesis of pyridines. /-Amino-/3-methyl-
acrylonitrile was condensed with benzylidene-acetophenone in presence of sodium
ethoxide to yield 3-cyano-2: 4-dipheny1-6-methylpyridine (I). The cyano group was
hydrolysed with concentrated HC1 at 2600 to the carboxy derivative (II) which, when
heated with lime, lost carbon dioxide and gave 2: 4-diphenyl-6-methylpyridine (III),
m.p. 156?. The compound (II) on oxidation with permanganate gave 2 :4-diphenylpyri-
dine-5:6-dicarboxylic acid (IV), m.p. 1850 (V. Meyer and Irmscher, Chem. Zentrli,
rgoS, IL 594)?
Ph
CH
CN.CH, CH
I
Me.0 CO.Ph
CN
Me
Ph
Ph
Ph
COoll( ?
Mei/Ph
Ph Ph
COOHr\
Me/Ph COOHI/
\.
Ph
NH
(I)
Ph
/\
Me/Ph
0
Cl.FeCl.
(V)
Ph
Mel\ )Ph
(VI)
Ph
/\
Ph
(\
C0011 \/Ph 1\\)Ph
(VII) (VIII)
(IV)
Gastaldi has thrown considerable doubt on this reaction. He has obtained (VI)
from cetophenone or dypnone by the action of acetic anhydride in presence of ferric
AgrpriNg.d-for Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
72
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
N. PALTT
chloride and treating the resulting pyrilium salt (V) with ammonia and found it to be
different from (III), m.p. 73. Oxidation of (VI) with permanganate in 5% sulphuric
acid gave an acid (VII), the sodium salt of which on heating with lime at 4000 formed
2: 4-diphellY1Pyridille (VM) (Cf. Chem. Zentri., 1922, III, 778 ; 1p23, I, 75g).
The author while studying a reaction, similar to that of Meyer (this ./ournal, 1937,
14, 355), obtained products which were assigned structures based on certain
experiments which definitely proved the constitution of the dicarboxypyridine com-
pound (IV) and indicated that Meyer's mode of representing the reaction as a class
is not incorrect. Those egperiments form the subject matter of the present communica-
tion.
In the light of Gastaldi's research it became necessary to investigate Meyer's re-
action more critically and for this purpose, in the first instance, the reaction was slight-
ly modified in such a way that any chance of ambiguity was very much restricted.
Thus, g-amino43-phenylacrylonitrile was condensed with 0-ethyl ether of dibenzoylmetha-
ne, a substance which can hardly be expected to react in any abnormal way. The product
formed was identical with 3-cyano-syn-triphenylpyridine, obtained by Meyer from
the same aminonitrile and benzylidene acetophenone (loc. cit.). This reaction can
scarcely be regarded as capable of taking any other course. Moreover, this cyanopyri-
dine derivative on hydrolysis lost carbon dioxide and gave sytn-triphenylpyridine, identi-
cal with that previously obtained by Newman from the monoxime of benzaldiacetophe-
none by passing dry HO in benzene solution (Annalen, r8g8? 802, 240). This identity
with Newman's compound, formed by an entirely different method, lends support to the
correctness of Meyer's compounds.
in the second instance, (IV) has also been obtained by an equally different method.
Dibenzoylmethane reacts with m-amidophenol to form an anil (IX) which with dry HCI
in glacial acetic acid solution closes up the ring to form a: 4-diphenyl-7-oxyquinoline
tx) (Bulow and Issler, Ber., 1g03, 86, 4017). It has now been obtained more con-
veniently by boiling m-amidophenol and benzylidene-acetophenone in alcoholic solution
Atli a trace of alkali as the condensing agent. Permanganate oxidises the oxyquino-
:ine to give 2: 4-dipnenylpyridine-5: 6-dicarboxylic acid, identical with Meyer's compound
tlIV).
Ph
CO Ph
\CH 2 /NZ\
OHjJC.Ph 0111 Hph
\ \/N/
(IX) (X)
These evidences therefore establish the fact that Meyer's reaction is generally correct,
and if there is any doubt, it must be with the individual member (III), and to settle
fiis issue it was thought desirable to synthesise it in such a way as would definitely
prove its constitution, Ethyl g-aminocorotonate, which reacts with ethyl acetylpyruvate
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
MEYER'S SYNTPIES1S OF PYRIDINES 13
vigorously even at o? (Mumm and Htineke, Ber., 1917, 50, 1568), failed to react
with dibenzoylmethane with alkaline condensing agents or when heated with zinc
chloride under suction. The 5-diketone from styrylphenyl ketone and acetoacetic
ester (Knoevenagel, ibid., rgoz, 35, 397) when treated with ammonia suffers intramole-
cular ring-closure before it can react with the latter. Next the synthesis was attempted
from dypnone and acetamide by heating them together with zinc chloride in a sealed
tube at 34o0 for 48 hours according to the method of Pictet and Stchelin (ComPt. rend.,
1916, 162, 876) but the analysis of the products did not agree with the pyridine in
question. The following scheme was more successful.
Ph
C11
/N
CO2Et?CH CH2
I i
CN CO.Ph
(XI)
Ph
CO,Etn
Br \)Ph
(XII)
? Ph
COOH/\
I
N/P
(XIII)
Ph Ph Ph
/\ /N IN
I I 2
p Ii
\ jP11. sv_ Mel\/Ph
N N N
/N
(XIV) Me I (XVI)
(XV)
Using methyl cyanoacetate the course of the above reaction was followed up to the
bromo-ester corresponding to (XII) by Kohler, Graustein and Merril (J. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 1922, 44, 2536). With the more common ethyl ester, it was noticed
that the formation of (XI) did not proceed to completion unless the mixture was main-
tained just alkaline throughout the reaction by occasional additions of drops of sod;um
methoxide solution. Bromine in glacial acetic acid converted the open-chain nitrile
into the bromopyridine derivative (XII). This was reduced with HI and the product
obtained (XIII) on dry distillation with excess of barium hydroxide lost carbon dioxide
and gave 2 : 4-diphenylpyridine, identical with Gastaldi's compound (VIII). This
energetically combined with methyl iodide on a water-bath and the methiodide at 300"
(Ladenburg, Ber., 1883, 16, 1410, 2059 ; Lange, ibid., 1885, 18, 3438 ; Koenigs and
Hoffmann, ibid., 1915, 58, 194) formed a mixture the major component of which was
diphenylpyridine, but it also contained (v, m.p. 730) which was identified by its picrate.
Meyer's compound (III, m. p. 1560) was not formed. The very small amount of
material at hand and the unsatisfactory yields obtained by this process precluded any
further study here and the work has been taken up again with a different line of approach
which will be duly communicated.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
74
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
N PALlT
X P R I NT Ir,NT A 1,
3-Cyano-2: 4: 6-trithenyikyridine (i, Ph in Place of Me).--?-P-Amino-g-phenylacrylo-
nitrile (2.8 g.) (Holtzwart, J. Prakt. Chem., /889, ii, 39, 242) and dibenzoyhnethane-0-
ethyl ether (5 g.) (Ruheman and ? Watson, J. Chem. Soc., 1004, 88, 462) were dissolved
absolute alcohol and introduced into alcoholic sodium ethoxide (Na, 0.46 g.). The
-0qui(i immediately assumed a deep red tint. Within half an hour it set to a semi-solid
mass. Next day it was filtered at the pump and repeatedly washed with alcohol till
perfectly white, yield 2 g. It was crystallised from a large volume of alcohol, m.p.
220' (Meyer, m.p. 220?). Wound : C, 86.4 ; H, 5.2 ; N, 8.5. C??HifiN, requires C, 86.7;
H, 4.8 ; N, 8.4 per cent).
Hydrolysis : sytn-Triphenv11yridine.--The hydrolysis was effected by heating the
cyano compound with fuming HO in a sealed tube at 260? for 4 hours. On adding
water a flocculent white precipitate was obtained which did not dissolve in .NaOH solu-
tion, It crystallises in needles from ethyl acetate, acetone, alcohol and is least soluble
in the last, rn?P. 136-37? (Pound: C2111,7N requires N, 4.56 per cent). A mixed
melting point determination with the compound obtained by Newman's method showed
no depression.
7-Hydroxy-24-diPhenylquivo1ine (X).?m-Arnidophenol (2.5 g.) and styrylphenyl
ketone (5 g.) were dissolved in absolute alcohol (40 c c.) and boiled under reflux for 7
hours with the addition of a few drops of alcoholic potash. The solution turned red
md on cooling set to a crystalline mass. This was collected and crystallised from
izene, yield 2 g. Unlike the crude product it no longer tarnished in air and light,
273" (turns brown). The alcoholic mother-licit-tor on concentration gave a further
yield of i g. (Found: C, 85.21 ; H, 5.23 ; N, 4.67. C2113,ON requires C, 84.84 ; H,
; N, 4.71 per cent). Picrate, shining orange-yellow flakes, 1n.. 246-47?. (Found:
N., 10.8. C21HisNO.C6H3t.)7Ns requires N, ro.6 per cent).
Oxidation of the Quinoline Compound: 2: 4-DiPheny1-5: 6-dicarboxylic Acid
The oxyquinoline derivative (1 g.) was dissolved in aqueous KOH (conc., 3 g. excess
was used to prevent hydrolysis on dilution) and then diluted with warm water to 450 C.C.
The solution was heated on a water-bath. 5%KMn04 (Tech., g.) was very slowly
added to it with stirring till the mixture became permanently pink ; excess of KMnO,
was decomposed with SO? filtered hot and the precipitated oxide extracted with hot
water. The filtrate was concentrated with occasional neutralisation with dilute
II2SO4 to a small bulk when copious gelatinous inorganic matter separated. This
was filtered off and the filtrate with copper sulphate solution -precipitated a
greenish blue copper derivative which was collected, washed, suspended in water
and decomposed with H,S. The gummy precipitate was extracted with warm
dilute caustic soda and acidified, when a spongy mass was produced. The whole
thing was extracted with ether, dried with calcium chloride and the solvent
evaporated. The residue was crystallised from absolute alcohol, m.p. 185? (gas evolu-
tion), yield too poor. (Found : C, 71.2 H, 4.4; N, 4.7. Ci9HisO4N requires C,
71.5 ; H, 4.1 ; N, 4.4 Per cent).
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
MEYER'S SYNTHESIS OF PYRIDINES 75
Condensation, of Ethyl Cyanoa,cetate with Benzylidene-acetoPhenone (XI).?The con-
densation did not proceed satisfactorily unless very pure chemicals were used in absolute-
ly dry condition. The ketone (2o g.) and the ester (i4 g.) were dissolved in carefully
dehydrated methyl alcohol (30 g.) and to the warm solution sodium methoxide (5% soln.)
was added dropwise till distinctly alkaline. The temperature of the reaction
mixture shot up and the liquid began to boil. It was then refluxed for 2 hours with
repeated additions of the condensing agent (2 drops, each time) to keep it alkaline
throughout. After standing overnight the solvent was removed, the residue taken up
in ether, washed with sodium carbonate, dried (CaC1.2) and finally distilled. At I? mm.
pressure a few drops of cyano-ester passed off below 1000 and then the temperature
began to rise till at 2000 tendency to decomposition was noticed. It was a very thick,
viscous, transparent mass not solidifying even on keeping in ice for several days nor could
it be crystallised from any solvent, yield 28 g.
Action of HBr on above Open-chain Addition Product : Formation of Ethyl 2-Keto-
4 :6-diPhenyltetrahydfoPyridine-3-carboxylate.?The above light brown mass was dis-
solved in warm carbon tetrachloride and saturated with dry HBr. The solution on
keeping in an ice chest solidified completely. On rubbing with methyl alcohol shining
white flakes were obtained, m.p. 150-55?, yield 22 g. It was crystallised from alcohol,
m.p. .r6o?. (Found : C, 74.3 ; H, 6.1 ; N, 4.7. C2oHi,03N requires C, 74.76 ; H,
5.91 ; N, 4.4 per cent). Hydrolysis of this ester gave the acid identical with Kohler's
product (/c. cit.).
Action of Bromine : Formation of Ethyl 2?Broino-4; 6-diphenylpyridine-3-carboxy-
late (XII).?The open-chain compound (XI) was treated with bromine in hot glacial
acetic acid. Copious HBr was evolved and towards the end a very slight white granu.
Far precipitate appeared which was identified to be ammonium bromide, suggesting
hydrolysis of a part of the material. This was filtered off, the filtrate distilled under
suction and the acid fumes removed in a vacuum desiccator over solid KOH. The
residual thick brownish mass was boiied with water when it became nearly semi-solid
but separated from solvents as an oil. The mass was next treated with hot caustic
soda solution which dissolved a considerable portion of it to form a red solution from
which a quantity of the ketotetrabydropyridine ester, described above, was recovered.
The residue was a hard, red, impure solid which was repeatedly crystallised from alcohol
with the addition of animal charcoal and kieselghur as oblong plates, m.p. 133-35?,
yield very poor. (Found Br, 20.97. C20H1,O2NBr requires Br, 20.94 per cent).
Reduction of the BromoPyridine Ester.?The bromo-ester (XII, 5 g.) was mixed
with red phosphorus (r g.) and bydriodic acid (d 1.94,12 c.c.) aqd heated in a sealed
tube at 1750.1800 for 2.4 hours. With the disappearance of iodine vapours a colorless
liquid with large crystals were obtained. The crystals turned violet on exposure to
air and were soluble in warm water. These were treated with boilirkg potash solution
and concentrated. On cooling the potassium salt separated as a rose-red solid, freely
soluble in water. Acidification precipitated the acid (XIII) in an impure condition,
1n.. 200-205?. The crude reduction product was refluxed with powdered barium
hydroxide and a little water for 2 hours, cooled, filtered and dried.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
76
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
PAL1T
Removal of the Carboxyl group : Formation of 2 : 4-DiPhenylpyridine (XIV).?
The dry material was well mixed with a little more barium hydroxide and heated
gently with a small free flame in a pyrex test tube fitted with a delivery tube dipping in
cold water. Decomposition started with frothing and very soon an oily distillate con-
densed on the cooler parts of the test tube. This solidified to a pale brown solid,
yield 0.5 g. from x g. of the crude crystals obtained in the previous operation, m.p. 68?
(pure) (Gastaldi, /oc. cit., m.p. 69?). (Found : N, 6.2. C,,I-1,3N requires N, 6.o per
cent). Picric acid in alcohol produced a deep yellow picrate, nl.p 189? (Gastaldi,
imp. 187').
? 4-DiPhenyiPyridine Methiodide (XV).?This pyridine (r g.) and methyl iodide
g.) were refluxed on a carbon lamp. Within an hour a red paste was formed which
et to a glassy red solid on cooling. This was rubbed with warm rectified spirit when
a yellow solid separated, ni.p. 206-208?. It was recrystallised from alcohol, in.p. eio?.
(round : I, 34.1. C18Hi6NI requires I, 34.0 per cent).
? 4-1)iPheny1-6-methylPyridine.--The methiodide (4 g.) was heated in a sealed tube
at 300?-315? for 2 hours affording a black transparent soft mass which was taken up
in hot water, treated with concentrated NaOH solution and distilled in stealth. A
slightly milky liquid passed over. Extraction of the distillate with ether, followed by
removal of the solvent, gave a yellow oil having a strong odour of essential oil, but on
keeping this votatile portion passed away leaving a very small amount brown solid Which
formed a picrate, m.p. 184-87?. This was probably diphenylpyridine.
The residue after steam-distillation was mixed with enough ether. Most of the black
mass went into solution having a deep brownish green fluorescence. This was separat-
ed, filtered from the slight brown precipitate formed, solvent removed and the residue
crystallised from ligroin. Impure crystals separated melting at about 6o?, which
energetically formed picrate. This was again mostly diphenylpyridine as the recrys-
tallised picrate melted sharply at 769'. The mother-liquor (ligroin) was evaporated
off, residue taken up in a little benzene, a few drops of petrol added and allowed to
concentrate in air. Some crystals separated which were removed and washed with a
little petrol. These melted at 69-72' and formed a picrate melting at 212?. The ex-
ceedingly poor yield of this compound and its admixture with diphenylpyridine, which
is so close to it both in solubility in different solvents and melting point, indicated the
unsuitability of this method.
CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT,
SCIENCE COLLEGE, PATNA. Received September 24 949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
[Jour. Indian Chem. Soc., Vol, 27, No. 2, 19501
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE WOOD OF CEDRELA TOONA, ROXB.
ISOLATION OF A LACTONE, AN ESSENTIAL OIL AND A COLOURING
MATTER
BY DHARAM BAI, PARIHAR AND SIKHIBHUSHAN DUTT
From the wood of Cedrela too cc, a lactone (m.p. 204?), an essential oil, and a colouring matter
?m.p. 256?) have been obtained in yields of 0.40, 0.17 and 0?25% respectively.
The lactone, Cedrelone, has a molecular formula C251-13005. It contains one ethyleuic double
bond, one phenolic hydroxyl, one ketonic group and a lactone ring in the molecule.
Several derivatis es of Cedrelone have been prepared and analysed.
Cedreta toona, commonly known as Tun in Hindi, is a tall handsome tree, about
so to 6o feet high, belonging to the natural order of Meliaceae. It is found in abundance
in the sub-Himalyan tract from the Indus eastwards, Chittagong, Assam, Burma, Chota
Nagpur, Western Ghats of Bombay to the Nilgris and other hills of the Indian Pen-
insula.
The wood, which is of a brownish red colour, has a faintly aromatic odour, mainly
due to the presence of a golden yellow essential oil, and a lactone. The wood is very
light and is largely used in making light furniture and musical instruments. Mell
(Text. Cot., 1931, 53, 68) found the wood to be an interesting source of a natural
dyestuff.
Besides the commercial aspects, the plant enjoys a great repute in medicine.
The bark of the plant is a powerful astringent and has been used with success
in chronic infantile dysentery, and as a local astringent application in various
forms of ulcerations (Kirtikar and Basu, "Indian Medicinal Plants", Vol. I, pp.
562-564). The infusion of the bark is given in intermittant fevers and blood compla-
ints in Indo-China. The seeds have similar therapeutic value. The flowers are con-
sidered emmenagogue in Bombay, and are given in disordered menstruation.
The essential oil from the wood was analysed by Pillai and Sanjiva Rao (J. Soc.
Chem. Ind., 1931, 50, 220T). By steam-distillation of the powdered wood a golden
yellow pleasant smelling essential oil (yield 0.44%) was obtained. The oil was found
to consist of a tricylic sesquiterpene, i-copaene (35%), and bicyclic hydrocarbons
identified as cadinene. The sesquiterpene alcohol fraction consisted mainly of /-cadinol
(13 %).
Apart from the essential oil, no systematic work on the wood of the plant has been
done by any previous worker, and in view of the great medicinal importance of the
plant, the present work was undertaken to find out the active principles present and
to study their constitutions.
The authors while working on the wood of the plant have isolated a pleasant
smelling, heavy, essential oil, a reddish yellow colouring matter (m.p. 2560) and a lactone
(m.p. 2040), in yields of 0.17%, 0.25% and 0.40% respectively on the dry wood. The
systematic chemical examination of the essential oil and the colouring matter will be
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
U. B. PAR1HAli AND S. MITT
the subject of separate communications; while in the present one the lactone has been
studied in detail.
The lactone, which has been named as "Cedrelone" by the authors, crystallises
in colorless, glistening, rhombic needles and large hexagonal plates from benzene,
welting sharply at 204?. It has a molecular formula of C.251-13006, and contains one
ethylenic double bond, one phenolic hydroxyl and one ketonic groups. Several
derivatives of the compound were prepared and analysed and are described in the
experimental part of the paper.
it:x3PERIMENTAL
For preliminary examination the powdered dry wood (25 g.) was taken in a sohxl-
t s apparatus and extracted with different solvents in the hot each time, for about an
hour and the solvent distilled off. The following are the percentages of the extracts
obtained in each case:
Water
7.47 %
CHC13
1.49 %
McOH
)7.0
CC14
x
'MOH
I' 74
Benzene
IA8
Acetone
5.go
Ether
i.8
Iftyl acetate
o.o6
Petrol ether
T.n9
The wood on complete ignition left 2.55% of a white ash.
The air-dried, powdered wood of the plant (10.2 kg.) was extracted with hot
'henzene under reflux in lots of 2 kilos at a time. The extracts were filtered hot, the
solvent distilled off and the viscous reddish concentrate was allowed to stand for one
week, when large colorless crystals settled down. These were filtered off through a Buch-
ner funnel and rapidly washed with ether. The mother-liquor and the washings were
collected. These on concentration gave three more crops of the same crystalline com-
pound with identical melting points. The ultimate mother-liquor was completely
freed from benzene by heating on a water-bath under reduced pressure in an atmos-
phere of carbon dioxide, thus affording a very thick red coloured oily stuff, which was
f_entiml to be the solution of the lactone in essential oil. This was treated with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide on the water-bath, excess of alcohol distilled off, the mixture
after cooling diluted with water, and extracted with ether. The ethereal extract on
recovery of the solvent gave a heavy, pleasant smelling essential oil (yield, 0.17 %).
The alkaline solution on acidification with dilute hydrochloric acid precipitated the
lactone, which had the same melting point as that of the original lactone. confirmed
by mixed melting point when no change was noticed. The systematic work on the
essential oil will be the matter of a separate communication.
The wood after exttaction with benzene was further extracted with hot alcohol
tinder reflux and the solvent distilled off when a syrupy residue was obtained. After
removal of traces of the solvent by evaporation on the water-bath, the residue was
extracted with hot acetone, the extract concentrated and the colouring matter precipi-
tated with chloroform. The compound on drying was found to shrink at 2150 and
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WOOD OF CEDRELA TOONA, ROXB. 79
melt at 254-56?. This was recrystallised from boiling glacial acetic acid in reddish
yellow needles melting at 256?. On further crystallisations the melting point of the
compound did not rise. Thus, 25.5 g. of the colouring matter were obtained in an
yield of 0.25% on the weight of the dry wood. The colouring matter is soluble in water,
alcohol, ethyl acetate and acetone, but insoluble in chloroform, petroleum ether and
benzene. It dissolves in alcoholic KOH with a yellow coloration and turns red with
concentrated sulphuric acid. To alcoholic ferric chloride it imparts a greenish brown
coloration and with an alcoholic solution of lead acetate, a yellow precipitate is produced.
Ordinarily it has got no action on Fehling's solution but only reduces it after
hydrolysis, thus showing it to be a glucoside. . On reduction with magnesium and
methyl alcoholic hydrochloric acid it turns red, thus indicating the presence of a pyrone
nucleus in the molecule. It was found to contain no methoxy groups.
The various crops of the colorless crystalline matter, mentioned above, were mixed
together and recrystallised from the least amount of hot benzene after treatment with
animal charcoal when the compound was obtained in fine, colorless, rhombic needles
and hexagonal plates melting sharply at 204?, which even after repeated crystallisation
of the compound did not rise any further. Thus, 41 g. of the crystalline compound
were obtained in an yield of 0.40% on the weight of the dried wood.
Cedrelone possesses a characteristic faint odour. It is soluble in benzene, chloro-
form, petroleum ether and acetic acid, while insoluble in cold and hot water and alcohol.
It is insoluble in aqueous caustic soda and gives no coloration either on heating or
prolonged standing. It is not volatile in steam and does not sublime. It dissolves in
sulphuric acid (conc.) giving a deep red coloration, but on the addition of water the
colour disappears and the original compound is reprecipitated. The compound gives
deep yellow coloration with alcoholic caustic potash, thus definitely indicating the
presence of a lactonic ring. From the alkaline solution acid precipitates the original
compound. With alcoholic ferric chloride the compound gives a violet coloration showing
the presence of a phenolic hydroxyl group. It fails to give Liebermann-Burchard
reaction. The lactone neither gives any test with alkaline sodium nitroprusside nor
reduces Tollen's reagent, a property mainly shown by Py-unsaturated lactones. The
compound is unsaturated and adds on bromine in benzene or acetic acid. The compound
indicated the precence of no methoxyl group as found by Zeisel's method. [Found
C, 73. 52; H, 7.2'; M.W. (cryoscopic in phenol), 412, 415; M.W. (Rases camphor
method), 410. C25110005 requires C, 73.17; 11, 7.31 per cent. M.W., 410].
Repeated attempts to prepare the silver, lead and copper salts of the compound
were unsuccessful.
Ced7elone Di bromide.--T he compound (1.5 g.) was dissolved in dry benzene (10 c.c.)
and the mixture kept in a freezing mixture. To this was added an i% solution of
bromine in the same solvent in small amounts during the period of about half an hour till
the bromine was in slight excess. During the addition the temperature was not allowed
to rise above o?. The mixture was kept overnight in the refregerator, and the solvent
and the exeess of the bromine distilled off on the water-bath. The syrupy residue was
dissolved in the minimum quantity of alcohol and a few drops of water added to the
solution, when fine glistening orange needles settled down. The product was filtered,
App_ro7vi1 Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
80 B. PARIHAR AND S. MITT
washed with water and recrvstallised from alcohol in beautiful yellow needles, m.p.
116a, yield 1.4 g. The compound is soluble in methyl and ethyl alcohols, ethyl acetate
and benzene, but insoluble in hot or cold water. (Found: Br, 26,4, 28.09. C261-130051r1
requires Br, 28.07 per cent).
iicetylcedrelone.?The compound (2 g.) was dissolved in acetic anhydride (ro c.c.),
nnhydrous sodium acetate (r g.) added and the mixture gently refluxed in a boiling
tube on a sand-bath for about a hours. After that the mixture was poured into cold
water, well stirred and kept in the refrigerator for about 4 hours, when the acetyl
derivative crystallised out in shining crystals. It was filtered and thoroughly washed
with water and recrystallised from 8o% alcohol in small colorless needles and plates,
ut.p. 1480, yield 2.01 g. The compound is soluble in alcohol, acetone, ethyl acetate,
benzene, ether and petrol ether, but insoluble in water. (Found : acetyl, 11.4, 10.9.
(,',5112906.COCHs requires acetyl, 9.51 per cent).
Cecirelone Phenylurelhame.?Cedrelone g.), dissolved in 5 C.C. of anhydrous
benzene, was treated with phenyl isocyanate (2 g.), dissolved in 5 c.c. of the same
solvent; the mixture was refinxed on the sand-bath for about 2 hours and then the
solvent distilled off. The residue was allowed to cool when it became a syrup. This
was dissolved in absolute alcohol and allowed to stand for some time when shining
long needles melting at 232' were obtained. The compound is soluble in alcohol,
benzene, ether and petrol-ether but insoluble in water. (Found : N, 2.32. Cv,H2904-
t )CONHC,Ha requires N, 2.64 per cent).
Ced'relone Itionoxime.?Ffydroxylainine hydrochloride (r.5 g.) and anhydrous
sodium acetate (3 g.) were thoroughly mixed together in a mortar aud the mixture was
taken in 25 c.c. of glacial acetic acid and heated for about half an hour on the sand-
hath. To this was added cedrelone (S g.) and the mixture was refluxed in a boiling
tube for about an hour on a sand-bath. The mixture while hot was poured into cold
water, when a crystalline mass settled down. It was filtered, thoroughly washed with
water, dried and recrystallised from hot alcohol in shining colorless prisms and needles.
Imp. 258', yield 1.46 g. The compound is soluble in alcohol, acetone, ethyl -acetate,
but insoluble in water, ether and petrol-ether. (Found : N, 3.18. C251-13a04.N0/1
requires N, 3.29 per cent).
('i pmISTR V DEPARTMENT,
)E1,141 UNIVERSITV. DELHI. Received July 19, 1949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
[Jour. Indian Chem. Soc., Vol. 27, No. 2, 19501
THORIUM: ITS SEPARATION FROM CERITE EARTHS
AND ESTIMATION
BY M. VENKATARAMANIAH, T. K. SATYANARAYANAMURTHY AND
BH. S. V. RAGHAVA RAO
Detailed procedures have been described for the separation of thorium from cerite earth mixtures
in proportions approximately from i :r up to i: to using the reagents : trimethylgallic acid, phenoxv-
acetic acid, veratric acid, benzoic acid, ammonium benzoate -and tannic acid. Thorium in monazite
la a also been successfully estimated employing these reagents
The separation of thorium from the rare earths, particularly from the cerite earths,
is one of the principle problems of thorium chemistry, since on the ease and effective-
ness of this separation depends the commercial utilization of the element. Several
methods have been suggested, but few have been investigated in any detail (Moeller
et al., Chem. Rev., 1948, 42, 63). In the following pages are presented results of
systematic investigations on a number of reagents, many of which are now reported for
the first time.
EXPERIMENTAL
Each reagent was tried first on a solution of mire thorium, next on made-up mix-
tures of thoriuni and cerite earths, and finally on a sample of Travancore monazite.
The thorium solution was obtained by further purification of high grade thorium
nitrate as follows. The thorium was twice precipitated with sebacic acid, and then
with hydrogen peroxide. The oxide was dissolved in nitric acid, evaporated to dryness
on a watev=bath and finally dried to a constant weight in an air-oven at roo? to 1200.
The thorium content of the sample was variously estimated with sebacic acid (Mitchel and
Ward, "Modern Methods in Quantitative Chemical Analysis", 1932, p? 14.9), oxalic acid
(Scott, "Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis", 1937, Vol. I, 5th Ed., p. 946) and
potassium iodate in nitric acid (Meyer and Speter, Chem. Ztg., 1910, 34, 306). All
procedures yielded results agreeing within 0.2%.
The cerite earth solution was prepared from monazite from which all thorium and
the yttrium earths had been very carefully removed. The earth content was estimated
by precipitation from an aliquot part with oxalic acid and weighing the ignited residue
as oxides. No attempt was Made to determine the proportion of the individual members
n the group, neither would it serve any purpose in this investigation.
Por the estimation of thorium in monazite, a sample from Travancore was digested
according to the usual practice with sulphuric acid and taken up in ice-cold water.
Oxalic acid in sufficient excess wag next added and the oxalate precipitate was dissolved
in fuming nitric acid and evaporated to dryness on a water-bath. The residue was
taken up in water, made up to a definite volume, and aliquot portions were pipetted
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
.144
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
YENICATARAMANIAH, SATIANARAYANAMURTHY AND RAO
out for each determination. It may be mentioned that attention was focussed not on
an accurate analysis of monazite, but on the efficiency of the reagent as a means of
separation of thorium from the rare earths.
Trimethylgallic Acid.?Neish (Chem. News, 1904, 90, 196) made the observation
that gallic acid in alcoholic solution precipitated thorium as a flocculent, slimy mass
while holding other cerite earths in solution, but the subject was not further investigat-
ed. Some preliminary experiments conducted by us showed that while the precipita-
tion of thorium was incomplete in both alcoholic and aqueous solutions, large amounts
of the cerite earths were simultaneously carried down. On the other hand, trimethyl-
e-ailic acid in neutral or faintly acid medium proved highly satisfactory. Neither
Ammonium gallate nor ammonium. trimethylgallate. however, proved of any value.
The thorium solution was made just neutral to Congo red and diluted to 150 C.C.
'Solid ammonium chloride (20-25 g.) was then added and the solution heated to boiling.
To this was added with constant stirring a slight excess of a boiling 2% solution of
the reagent (i. e. about roo c.c. of the precipitant for every 0.I g. of the oxide). A
::!,elatinous precipitate resulted which settled down rapidly. After about 15 minutes
911 a water-bath, the precipitate was filtered hot through Whatman No. 41, washed
with a boiling 0.2% (approximately) solution of the reagent to which a few grams of
ammonium chloride had also been added, partially dried, and ignited to the oxide.
When the quantity of the cerite earths is rather large, the precipitate carries small
quantities of these and a second precipitation, as described below, is necessary. The
washed precipitate was returned to the original beaker, dissolved in the minimum of
hot dilute hydrochloric acid, and dilute ammonia was very carefully added till the liquid
reacted but faintly acid to Congo red. Precipitation, washing and ignition were repeat-
ea. dome representative results are shown in the following table.
TABLE( I
11102 taken.
o.118o g.
o.r18o
0.2360
Cerite earths
R203 added.
Wt. of Th02 obtained
in single pptn.
u.rx8r g.
0.1178
c).2362
Double pptn.
o.118o
0.240.5g.
0.1153
0.1181 g.
;.1184
(3..1182
u.45w
0.1182 slightly
0.1178
coloured
0.1182
0.1180
U.50.0
0.1185 slightly
0.1179
,.1183 ) coloured
(1.118o
1.1450
0.1200
0.11.8o
,,.1208 5 coloured
0.1183
Monazite 1
(0.0900 1
0,4708
0.0900
1,..4d898
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
THORIUM 83
Phenoxyacetic Acid.-Pratt and James If. Anier. Chem. Soc., 1911, 33, 1330)
recorded that precipitation of thorium by phenoxyacetic acid in neutral solution was
almost quantitative, while Smith and James (ibid., 1912, 34, 281) opined that the
thorium salt was slightly soluble in water. A more detailed investigation appeared
desirable. The following procedure yields good results.
The thorium solution, which should react neutral to Congo red, is diluted to ioo C.C.
and heated to boiling. To the boiling solution is added slowly and with constant
stirring a slight excess (too c.c. for every o.I g. of Thu, will be sufficient) of a hot
2% solution of phenoxyacetic acid. The liquid is now once again brought to boiling,
and set aside to cool. The cooled precipitate is filtered through Whatman No. 41 and
washed with a cold 0.2% (approx.) solution of phenoxyacetic acid. The washed preci-
pitate is now returned to the original beaker and dissolved in the minimum of hot diluted
(I: 2) hydrochloric acid. The solution is diluted to about roc) C.C. and very carefully
neutralised by dropping dilute ammonia until it is but faintly acid to Congo red. 'the
thorium is reprecipitated, washed and ignited to the oxide. Some results are shown in
the following table.
TABLE II
ThO2 taken.
Cerite earths
R203 added.
Th02 obtained.
Th02 taken.
Cerite earths
R203 added.
Th02 obtained.
0.1140g.
0.1.143 g.
0.1180 g.
0.5610 g.
0.1183 g.
0.1140
0.1140
0.1140
0.5712
0.1144
0.1180
0.1178
0 1140
0.5712
0.1146
0.118o
0.1181
0.1140
1.1424
0.1143
0.1x80
0.1402 g.
0.1181
0.1140
x.104
0.1145
0,1140
0.2805
0.1138
0.1140
0.280.5
0.1143
Monazite
0.1140
0.4580
0.1138
C 0.0900 )
0.4708
0.0902
0.0901
Verattic Acid.-This reagent or any of its analogues has not been mentioned in
literature. The thorium solution which should be nearly neutral to Congo red, is diluted
to ioo c.c., solid ammonium chloride (15-20 g.) added and heated to boiling. To the
boiling solution is added, with constant stirring, a saturated boiling solution of veratric
acid. The resulting gelatinous precipitate is allowed to settle, filtered through Whatman
No. 41 filter, washed with hot dilute veratric acid in ,L)% ammonium chloride, transferred
to the original beaker, dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, diluted and reprecipitated.
After complete washing the precipitate is ignited and weighed as oxide. Representative
results are shown in Table III.
Benzoic Acid.-Benzoic acid was suggested by both Kolb and Ahrle (Z. angew.
Chem., 19o5, 18, 92) and Neish (loc. cit.). Apparently without further investigation
the reagent was pronounced unsatisfactory and rejected in favour of m-nitrobenzoic
acid, a rather expensive reagent. The following procedure adopted by us has yielded
results which compare favourably with any known method.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
VVNKATARAMANIAH. SATYANARAYANAMMITHN AND RAO
TABLE III
Th02 taken.
0,1180 g.
eerite earths R203 added.
Th02 obtained.
o.D86 g.
0.1186
0,1180
1.1450g.
0.1182
'Z
0.1179
Monazite
?. 0.0900
0,4708
"904
To the thorium solution, if strongly acid, dilute ammonia is added dropwise until
the solution reacts hut faintly acid to methyl red. It is then diluted to :oo c.c. and
heated to boiling. Hot r% benzoic acid solution (Too c.c.) is added with vigorous stirring
followed by 5% ammonium acetate until the liquid reacts at this stage just neutral.
A precipitate results which settles quickly. This is filtered through Whatman No. 41.
After washing with hot 0.25% benzoic acid the precipitate is returned to the original
beaker and dissolved in hot dilute nitric acid and precipitation is repeated. The second
precipitate after complete washing is ignited and weighed as the dioxide. The results
are shown in the following table.
TABLE IV
Th02 taken. Cerite earths added.
0.1140g.
0.2140 0.4580g.
Th02 obtained.
( 0.1142g.
(01141
10.1141
( 0.1142
0,1140
0.5712
5. 0.1145
0,1148
0,1140
1.1414
(0 1148
0 1146
Monazite'
1
0.4708
0.0.0900
(0.090O j
0 0.0904
Ammonium Benzoate.?This reagent has not been referred to previously.
The nearly neutral solution is diluted to zoo c.c,, acidified with 2 c c. of glacial
acetic acid and cold 3% ammonium benzoate is run in a thin stream with constant
stirring until about TOO C.C. have been added for every o.i g. of thorium dioxide sup-
posed to be present. The precipitate is now left on a water-bath and after it has
settled (usually 30 minutes) as much of the supernatant liquid as possible is poured
through a Whatman No. 41 filter, without disturbing the precipitate. It is now stirred
-up with hot 0.5% benzoic acid, filterd, and washed with the same reagent. The washed
precipitate is transferred back to the original beaker and dissolved in a minimum of
dilute hydrochloric acid. The solution is diluted to 15o C.C. and dilute ammonia is
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
?Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
THORIUM
85
run down from a burette until slight turbidity results. Precipitation is completed by
adding a slight excess of ammonium benzoate reagent. The precipitate is next filtered,
washed with hot 0.5% benzoic acid, and ignited to the oxide. The following table
shows the results obtained.
Th02 taken.
TABI,n V
Cerite earths R103 added. ThO2 obtained.
0.1140g. 0.1142g.
0.1141
0.1140
0.140
0.4580 g.
0?5711
0.1141
?0.1145
0.1148
0.1140 1.1424 0.1148
0.1146
Monazite 1
0.0900 I
0.0900
0.4708
0.4708
0.0900
0.0904
0.0897
0.0900
Tannic Acid.- This reagent which has found such extensive use in the separation
of columbium and tantalum does not seem to have attracted attention in this field.
Neish (ioc. cit.) refers to it only passingly.
The neutral solution is diluted to zoo c.c. after addition of ro g. to 15 g. of ammonium
chloride. Dilute acetic acid is then added dropwise until a drop of the solution just
turns Congo red paper blue. Mineral acids should not be used for this acidification.
The solution is heated just to boiling (it should not actually boil), and hot 5% tannic
acid solution at the rate of Too c.c. per o.r g. of thorium oxide is added slowly with
constant stirring. The precipitate is left on a water-bath for z hours after which it is
filtered through Whatman No 41 and washed with 2% tannic acid solution to which a
TABLE VI
Th02 taken. Cerite earths
ThO, obtcl. Th02 taken.
added.
Cerite earths
added.
Th02 obtd.
0.0570g.
0.0572g.
0.2140g.
1.1424 g.
0.1143 g.
0.0570
0.4580g.
0.0573
0.1140
1.1424
0.1140
0.0570
0.4580
0.0574
o.118o
0.1183
0.11.40
0.1139
0.1r8o
0.1402
0.1183
0.1140
0.4580
0.1142
9.1140
0.5712
0.1148
5 Monazite
e 0.0900
0.4708
0.0897
0.0900
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
VENN A TARA MANTA-FT, S ATYANARAYANAMURTITY AND RAO
little ammonium nitrate or chloride has been added. The precipitate with the filtered
Lapel is transferred to the original beaker and boiled with about 40 C.C. of dilute HCI
( I : 2 ) to dissolve the precipitate. Nitric acid should not be used. After thorough digestion
iiInte ammonia is added until the liquid reacts just neutral to Congo red. Precipitation
Ind washing are repeated and the washed precipitate is ignited to the oxide. The results
!ire given in Table VI.
In all cases, however, zirconium and quadrivalent cerium, if present, are shnul-
laneously precipitated, a disadvantage that is shared by many reagents for thorium.
It is thus necessary that cerium is reduced to the trivalent stage and zirconium is
,:cmoved earlier by a simple precipitation with oxalic acid.
A Tv DHRA UNIVRRSITY
WALTAIR.
Received March 6, 1949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Jour. Indian Chem. Soc., Vol. 27, No. 2, 11149
DETERMINATION OF PEROXIDE VALUE OF RANCID FATS.
A MODIFIED PROCEDURE
BY S. MuKHERjan
Peroxide value of the butter-fat has been determined by combining the method of Wheeler and Lea. 1
Peroxide value is by far the most extensively used index for evaluating rancidity of
fats and oils, A number of different iodimetric procedures, viz., those of Lea (Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1931, 108B, 175), Wheeler (Oil & SoaP, 1932, 9, 89) and Taffel and Revis (.1. Soc.
Chem. Ind., 1931, 50, 87T) are available for making such determinations, and although
all these methods are presumed to react quantitatively and may do under most condi-
tions, results by the different methods are not always reliable. The experience of the
present investigator with peroxide determination using the three methods is that Lea's
method gives lower values than Wheeler's and still lower values are obtained with the
Taffel-Revis's method. The results were found to differ depending on the following
factors : (i) the atmosphere in which the 'estimation is carried out, (ii) the temperature,
(iii) the time of reaction and (iv) weight of fat used in the estimation.
For this reason all the methods were subjected to re-examination using different
weights of fat, different reaction period and using different temperatures, as also
determinations were made both in presence of oxygen and in inert atmospheres. The
experimental results with a sample of rancid butter-fat are tabulated below.
TABLV,
Determination of Peroxide valve by different methods.
1. Lea's'method.
Wt. of fat.
LooS g.
2.100
05020
0.2310
10.1000
5.5025 g.
3.5163
7.8203
1.0035
10.0
r.o g.
2.0
5.0
10.0
Time of reaction.
3 minutes
I nil/Hite
PP
>1
2-3 Millate6
-
Temp.
98.8'
11
2. Wheeler's method.
36-37?
)1
Taffel-Revis method.
98.8'
SP
If
Atmosphere.
Nitrogen
Air
11
59
CO2
PP
>9
Peroxide value.
95.80
95-10
95.88
95.93
93.05
103.6
104.7
rcr.9
104.5
98.0
91.81
89,62
98.0I?
86.82
6-1737P-2
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
88
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
S. MIIKHERJEE
Crom the results in Table I it is evident that the Wheeler method always gives
higher values than the Lea or Taffel-12 evis method. This can be explained firstly as
due to the inert atmospheres maintained in the other two methods, whereas in the
Wheeler method the atmospheric oxygen liberates a certain amount of iodine from the
KI solution. The lower values in Lea's method may, however, be due to the fact that
there is a possible chance of partial decomposition of the peroxides at the high temperature
employed. The still lower values obtained with the Taffel-Revis method are probably
due to the incomplete extraction of the peroxides with the acetic acid alone. The use
of chloroform is a probable advantage with the Lea or Wheeler method. Thus a point
of conlsiderable importance in the peroxide determination is the atmosPhere in which
the reaction is conducted, as also the temperature of the reaction.
The Effect of Weight of Fat.-The next variable studied was the weight of fat used
in the experiment, using a temperature of 36*-37c (Wheeler), an atmosphere of CO2
(Taffel-Revis) and a reaction period of 2-3 minutes (Lea) and Table II shows the effect of
sample size on the peroxide value.
TABLE II
Peroxide value and samPle size.
Wt. of fat.
(butter-fat).
Peroxide value.
Wt, of fat.
(butter-fat).
Peroxide vlaue.
0.1025
97.22
i 5129
96.83
0.2050
97.22
2.0100
96.02
0.4110
97.03
5.1035
9,3.0
1.0030
96.84
9.9877
92.85
'rABLE III
Effect of sample size on peroxide value.
Coconut oil
Wt. of fat. Peroxide
value.
Groundnut oil
Wt. of fat. Peroxide
value.
Linseed oil
Wt. of fat. Peroxide
value.
0.1230 g.
9,2
0.1532 g.
26.0
0.1028 g.
27.2
0.2520
9.2
0.3185
25.3
0.2550
25.9
1.0207
8.9
0.8241
23.5
c.7574
23.4
2.0512
8.8
1.5636
22.2
1.2022
20.2
5.0
81
2.9400
20.4
2.5110
18.2
5.0
17.8
5.0
15.0
Comparison of the results obtained by Lea's method in Table 1 with those obtained in
Table II clearly shows that in the original method of Lea there is a slight decomposition
of the peroxide at the high temperature (about 1-2%). The peroxide value of a parti-
cular sample of oxidised fat is moreover found to vary considerably with the weight of
the fat. This is probably due to the re-absorption of the liberated iodine at the unsaturat-
ed centres of the fat. This is more fully illustrated by the results in Table III where
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
DETERMINATION OF PEROXIDE VALUE OF RANCID FATS 89
similar experiments have been conducted with rancid coconut, groundnut, and linseed
oils, the re-absorption of iodine by the oils being least with coconut and maximum
with the linseed oil as the sample size is varied from o.1 to 5.0 g. The error due
to this source may be reduced by restricting the weight of the fat to the lower value
employed in the Lea's method, viz. i g.
Effect of Reaction Time.?The next object was to study the effect of time factor on
the peroxide value determinations. The following table (Table IV) records the results
of such investigations using different reaction periods in the dark including those used
by previous workers. In order to keep the weight of the fat constant and thus to mini-
mise the effect due to this factor, nearly i.o g. of fat was used in these experiments,
by taking the same measured volume of a chloroform solution containing a definite
weight of the oxidised butter-fat.
TABLE IV
Peroxide values vs time.
In CO2 atmosphere at 37.
Wt. of fat.
Time,
Peroxide
value.
Wt. of fat.
Time.
Peroxide
value.
1.0244
3-5 mins.
(15.o
1.0460
211ours 97.5
1.0460
ro
95.5
4
97.5
3/
15
96.2
6
97.5
30
97.3
Sl
12
97-7
45
97.5
IS
24
98.2
3,
6o
97.5
ey
48
98.93
Pig.
7INI IN HOURS
5 24
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
90 s. mUKHERJ E
. Vrom the results in the above table it appears that almost 98% of the peroxide
ieact within 3 to 5 minutes. For complete reaction of the peroxides with KI, it is better
T:o allow one hour reaction time in the dark, as a safe measure. his is quite evident
i'rcaut the flat portion of the curve in Fig.. relating peroxide value and time factor.
Recommended Procedure.--For accurate determination of the peroxide the follow-
oig procedure may therefore be used with advantage.. About i g. of the oii
.yr fat is weighed into a 750 c.c. glass-stoppered iodine bottle from which air has pre-
viously been exluded by flushing with carbon dioxide for 3 to 5,1ninutes, and ro c.c. of
I solvent comprising 40 parts of ellela .and 6o parts of acetic acid (glacial, are
'Added to dissolve the fat. The solvent mixture must previously be flushed with CO
for 5 to ro minutes before use to exclude any dissolved air ; 2 C.C. of a saturated solution
of KI is next added and the stopper, moistened with TO solution, is carefully put in place
and the whole kept in the dark for one hour (at 36'-37") after which the liberated iodine
is titrated with Ai / 200- thiosulphate solution after diluting the reaction mixture with
oxygen-free distilled water. Lea's procedure for carrying out the titration in a dark
room illuminated by a tungsten lamp is definitely an advantage in determining the end-
point with the starch indicator. The result is expressed as mi. o.002N- thiosulphate
per g. of lat.
The, method combines the essential features of the Wheeler's and Lea's method in
that an inert atmosphere as used by Lea has been employed, the temperature used
being that of Wheeler's, viz. 36?-37", at which the chance of decomposition of peroxide
is nil and the weight of the fat has been confined to that used by Lea, viz. r g. to mini-
mise the effect of re-absorption of iodine which will necessarily 'entail greater error when
larger amount of fat is used, as in the original Wheeler's process. The results obtained
by the modified method approach most closely to those obtained by Lea's method.
The author expresses his grateful thanks to Prof. M. N. Goswami for his deep
interest in the work.
DEPARTMENT or APPLIED CHEMISTRY,
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, CALCUTTA. Received June 27, 1949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
I Jour. Indian Chem. Soc., Vol. 27, No. 2, 19501
KINETICS Oh' Tim REACTION BETWEEN CHLORAL HYDRATE;.
AND 'BROMINE
By A. N. KAPPANNA AND BEIANH RAMCHANDRA DEORAS
The kinetics of the oxidation of chloral hydrate by bromine in aquecus solutions has been studied
at 30? and 40?. The reaction has been found to take place according to the equation
Ce13CII (OH) + Br2 CC,13C00 Ai+ 213T-
The reatarding influences of hydrogen and br_mine ions on the velocity of :reaction have been
quantitatively studied. The energy of activation of the reaction has been found to be 15830 calories.
Bromine oxidises acetaldehyde to acetic acid in neutral solutions.. In acid solu-
tions, however, the reaction results in halogen substitution through a prototropic
mechanism (Dawson, Burton and Ark, J. Chew. Soc., 1914, 105, 1275). Trichloro-
acetaldehyde which exists in aqueous -solution exclusively' aschloral hydrate, does not
.offer any scope for substitution. The compound .chloral hydrate is itself, acidic. in.
character and in acid solutions- the only possible reaction with bromine is oxidation.
Ogialdro.(Ber., 1874, 7, 1461) reported that chloral, when heated with bromine, ,formed
the acid bromide, CC13.COBr. Chlorine and bromine have .been shown to ;react
photoehemically with chloral, yielding a number of oxidation .products ?.(Schumacher
et al., Z. Physikal. Chem:, 1939, B44, 57; 1940, B47, 671. Kolthoff (Pharni._ Wee,k1)1ad,
1923, 80, 2) mentions that bromine does not oxidise chloral in acid. solutions. Itis
well known that chloral hydrate molecule is stable only either in neutral or acid, solu-
tions and that alkaline solutions decompose rapidly (Enklaar, Roe. tray. chitn.:,-1-905,
24, 419). Attempts to oxidise this compound keeping both the carbon atoms in tact
should therefore .be made only in neutral or acid solutions. PreliminarY experiments
carried out in this laboratory showed that chloral hydrate reacted with bromine at
measurable speeds at ordinary temperature and in equimoleculat proportions. The
quantity of acid formed, when decolorisation of a known -quantity of bronaine in presence
of excess of chloral hydrate took place, was found on estimation to be equal to what
should be expected if the reaction had taken place quantitatively according to the equation
CCI,C-H (OH), + 13r, CC4C001-.1 + 2 HBr. ?
The quantity of bromine taken up by a given quantity of chloral hydrate was like-
wise found to conform to the above equation. That trichloroacetic acid was formed
was further proved by the decomposition of the resulting solution on boiling, yielding
chloroform and carbon dioxide. We have studied the kinetics of the reaction and
the results are reported in this paper.
BXPERIMENTAL
Chemicals employed in this investigation were all of extra pure quality.
solutions were all prepared in redistilled water.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
The
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
92 A. N. KAPPANNA ANT) B. IL DEORAS
The reaction vessels were kept in an electrically regulated thermostat for all kinetic
measurements. The reaction was followed by withdrawing definite volumes of reac-
tion mixtures and estimating the unreacted bromine iodometrically.
Table I contains the results of an experiment carried out with a mixture contain-
ing 0.25 M chloral hydrate and o.0054N bromine. The reaction mixture (ro c.c.) was
titrated each time, after the addition of potassium iodide against Nhoo-thiosulphate.
TABLE I
Temp. =300.
Time.
min..
Thio
11.90 C.C.
kin!.
01440
Time.
72
Thio.
5,50 C.C.
0.01069
9,30
J.01320
91
4.60
0.01042
30
8.00
0,01221
121
3.80
0.000407
50-
6.45
100
3.00
0.00853
It will be seen that the unimolecular velocity constant falls off as the reaction
progresses, more rapidly at the initial stages than at the later stages. This may be due,
as is known in other cases of aqueous bromine oxidations, to the accumulation in the
system of hydrogen and bromide ions and the retarding influence they exert. Tables II
and III contain results of two experiments carried out to test the influence of each one of
these two ions on the velocity of the reaction. Potassium bromide was added in one
case and hydrochloric acid in the other, in such quantities that the concentrations. of
the bromine and the hydrogen ions in the respective mixtures could be regarded as
constant through the course of the reaction. The concentrations of chloral hydrate
and bromine were the same as in the previous experiment.
0
TABLIF4 II
Temp. =30?. KBr:----o.o5M.
t. Thio. k uni
min. 10.90 C C.
TABLRIII
Temp. z---3o?. Cone of HCI=o.o5M.
t, Thio. knni.
o min. 11.50 C.C. ???
30
6,90
0,00907
43
12.20
0.001736
46
740
n 008395
85
21.45
f) 001626
63
6.70
ox07705
245
10.50
0,1548
87
0.70
0.007429
234
0.20
0.001.522
115
5.10
o.006578
325
8.20
0.00 /488
;8s
3.60
,,.005865
LISS
6.85
0.001431
These results indicate that each of the ions, bromine and hydrogen, exerts powerful
retarding influence, the effect of the hydrogen ion being more powerful. Each by
itself is not sufficient to exert a steadying influence on the rate. The effect of the
initial addition of sufficient excess of both potassium bromide and hydrochloric acid
was next tried. The results are contained in Table IV.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
KINETICS OF REACTION BETWEEN CHLORAL }IW RATE AND BROMINE 93
TABLE IV
Temp.= 300 Chloral hydrate=o.2o M. Bromine= o.002854 N. Hel (initial) = o.008 N.
KBr (initial)=0.0377 M. 25 c.c. titrated each time against N/400-thiosulphate.
t.
o min_
Thio.
24.00 C.C.
kuti.
30
18.90
0.007951
45
16.70
0.008050
6o
24.60
0.008027
75
13,15
0 008025
90
11.70
0.008000
121
9.20
0.007912
Mean 0.007993
The steady value of the velocity constant at the different stages of the reaction
indicates clearly the role of the hydrogen and the bromine ions. The retarding in-
fluence of hydrogen ion is obviously due to the suppression of the ionisation of chloral
hydrate and the consequent diminution of the effective concentration of the anion which
appears to be the real reactant, in accordance with the equation,
OH
CC13CH= (OH)2 H +CC13CH?
0?
Similarly, the bromine ion diminishes the effective concentration of free bromine
by forming the tribromide ion according to the equation,
Br2+ Br?
The order of the reaction with respect to chloral hydrate was determined by a set
of experiments in which the initial concentration of this constituent was altered, while
those of others were kept constant. Table V shows the variation of the velocity con-
stant with increase in the concentration of chloral hydrate.
TABLE V
HC1o.oiN. KBr=o.o2 M. Bromine=o.002 N.
Chloral hydrate (AI)
0.05
0.20
0.15
0.20
0.25
Jr x 104
10.42
21.42
31.05
39.15
49.45
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
KAPPANNA ANT) B. IC DEOIZAS
These results indicate, considering that it is the ion of chloral hydrate that is in-
volved, the unimolecularity of the process with respect to chloral hydrate. The reac-
tion can therefore be represented by the equation,
CC13.CH
r, CCI?C00- 2H+ -H2Br-
influence of Hydrogen-ion Concentration
We chose sulphuric acid for the addition of hydrogen ion in all subsequent ex-
etiments as the i.cidition of hydrochloric acid might introduce a complication by tile
i'ormation of chloro.dthromide ion (Ray, tins Journal, 1934, 11, 117).
Fable VI contains results of a detailed study of the retarding influence of hydrogen
TABL,n VI
[oral hydrate = 0.25 Al. KBr o.ro M. .Bromine = o.0o25N.
1;quiv. of H2SO, per litre 9,008 0.01
k X 104
22 27.40
0.02 0,03
11.10
004 o.05 0.O6
9.20 7-52
6.36
There is a progressive diminution in the velocity constant, as is to be expected if
lhe anion is the reactant, with increase in the initial concentration of hydrochloric acid.
The concentration of the anion could he reckoned on the assumption that chloral
hydrate behaves like a weak acid., HA, in the following way
where Ka represents the dissociation constant of the acid and HA, the concenbation of
the unionised acid. From which we can deduce
. -MA)
A- = where (HA) is the total concentration of chloral hydrate.
K?
int( oducing this ill the kinetic expression,
CA- x Ce?k'"".(11")itt x C'
' -i-
kohs x Car, for concentrations (HA) large in comparison with Cur,
the observed unimolecular velocity constant being- equal to -
= ri
hi x K?
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
AllinYfAF8E,IWMfoil?93Y9M4 qW4gTE,81.19KM?R90939M177 95
This equation demands that we should get a straight line if we plot f /kot, against
[1.12SO4/2]. Actually we get a very good straight line with an intercept on the
flz.thn axis which should be equal to r/y=1.20 X IO2 and the slope of the line
r/let.K. = 2.416 x ro4 from which K. comes out to be equal to 4.96 X
'This value for the Ostwald constant for chloral hydrate would mean that chloral
hydrate is a fairly strong acid. Chloral hydrate, even on very careful purification is
definitely acidic in its reaction towards litmus and should be expected to be so by virtue
of the two hydroxyl groups attached to the same carbon atom. But one could hardly
believe that it could be as strong as monochloroacetic acid (K =1.53 x lo')
The molecular conductivity of chloral hydrate in o.oi M solution is just o.6o
(Enklaar, /cc. cit.) and it is a little difficult to reconcile this low conductivity with the
high dissociation constant we arrive at on the basis of our kinetic study. We are in-
vestigating this matter further but we have to content ourselves at present by recording
the observation we have made.
Influence of Bromine Ion on the Reaction Rate
The velocity of reaction, as observed before, is affected very considerably by the
presence of bromide ion. This is obviously due to the removal of bromine from its
free state by the formation of tribromide ion. The results of the experiments carried out
at 300 and 400 with different concentrations of potassium bromide in the reaction mix-
tures are given in Table VII.
TABI,14 VII
Chloral hydrate = o.2oM. H,SO4 = o.of.N. Bromine = o.0025N.
KBr.
Ne X xos.
k40? x ros.
x Ne+Br
k40e/k,0?. [kohl, ]. [hobs x k40;4+0 1.
.Br
30. 40?
k30?
0.025 III
4.439
10.56
2.38 5.944
13.20
0.050
3,496
5.72
2.445 5.870
13.09
0.075
2.921
7.61
2.606 5.890
13.31
0.100
2.530
6.76
2.671 5.961
13.51
0.125
2.127
5.96
2.800 5.731
13.41
Mean 5.879
13.304
From graph k' = 5.888
13.510
The velocity constant falls off with increase in concentration of bromide ion. The
equilibrium equation
(Br ) fret) X Br -leads ? _leads to the equation
Br,?
Br2 free ? X Br, tow expressing Br, total = Br, from Br,?.
K+ Br
7-1737 P?Z
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
10; Approved For ReOase R991480,9496/pies11.R1-41?8,3F,29,M5R006100050001-7
The rate of reaction is proportional to the concentration of free bromine. Substitu-
fin , this value for free bromine in the differential equation, we get
K
CBrg free
K
,1CA xi n72 tow
K+ 13r--
Clit2 total where k11=-.K.CA- (CA- being in large excess.
kobs. CBr2 total (koi, being the observed unimolecular constant) therefore
kob. =k". and
1
knb., k .K
As should be expected from this equation we get very good straight lines on plotting
ohs against Br-- (KBr) at both the temperatures.
We get this inspite of the fact that we have employed concentrations of potassium
bromide instead of activities of bromide ion. The intercept r/k" at 300 has a value of
1.7o x ro4 or k"=,.888 x ro and the slope I kg . K so') = 23.0 x re' from which we get
(V20? =0.07380. Similarly lz" at 400 gives 0.74 x 104 or V= 13.cio X ro-3 and
/ k".K40?= 014 ro' from which Ko?roo.
The values for K appear to be somewhat higher than what should be expected from
the figures given by I,inhart (J. Ante?. Chem. Soc., ror8? 40, 158). The values for
K Br-
k"--= kobs. ? calculated from the observed velocity constants at different concen-
trations of potassium bromide are included in the 5th and 6th vertical columns of Table
VII. The constancy at both temperatures is good and the average values agree very
well with the intercepts from graphs.
Tempelature Coefficient of the Reaction Rate
Attention might here be drawn to the ratios k iobs)40?/k(obs)30? given in the 4th column
of Table VII which show a steadly rise with increase in the concentration of the retar-
dant. This increase in temnerature coefficient, signifying increase in energy of activa-
tion (which should be considered apparent energy of activation) is understandable as
we know that the observed velocity constant involves the variable, concentration of
bromide ion. The correct basis for the calculation of temperature coefficient is the value
ot kil.
k."40? = 13.51? 2. 294.
k"20? 5.888
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
IKINETICS OF REACTION BETWEEN CI1LORAL HYDRATE AND BROMINE 97
The energy of activation calculated from this value of temperature coefficient conies out
to be 15830 cals. Similarly, the temperature coefficient of the equilibrium constant for the
reaction
Br, + Br- Br3-,
from the values of K, deduced from our measurements, leads to the value 5786 calories
for the heat of reaction.
DISCUSSION
The results recorded in the paper indicate the reaction to be comparatively simple
and straight forward. The equation
OH
CC13.CH? +Br, ---> CC18C00-+ 214+ + 2Br-
0-
correctly represents the reaction kinetically and stoichiometrically. The process of
oxidation consists in the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the chloral hydrate ion,
as hydrobromic acid.
One of the hydrogen atoms is the hydroxyl hydrogen, ordinarily somewhat remotely
situated from the other hydrogen which is directly linked to the carbon atom. The
point of interest therefore is to account for the simultaneous removal of these
hydrogens by an activated collision with a bromine molecule. Such removal could be
facilitated only in case where the two hydrogens are situated in sufficient proximity to one
another in such a manner that a bromine molecule colliding in suitable orienta-
tion could contact both. It is interesting to recall in this context, the structure propos-
ed for chloral hydrate by Werner long ago (J. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 1376) to account
for the formation of chloroform and formic acid from this molecule
Cl H-0
/
Cl?C?C
I H\
Cl H-0
and compare it with the structure arrived at by Davies (Trans. Faraday Soc., 1940, 36,
333) on the basis of infra-red studies.
Cl H-0
/
/
Cl 11-0
l'he only apparent difference between the two, as depicted on paper, is in regard to
the disposition of the hydrogen atom directly attached to the carbon atom. The
infra-red evidence is that the hydroxyl hydrogens are clamped towards the chlorines
joined to the a- carbon atom. If we consider the actual locations of the three hydro-
t the
r
AppilOvott(FoktRtiledext1200/1110110641CIAcRoPeW-t044 51k?016t1e/ 65016o fir
tis
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A. N. KAPPANNA AND B. R. DEORAS
distance between the directly linked hydrogen and any one of the two hydroxyl hydro-
:.2.-cms is small enough to enable a bromine molecule getting in between them to contact
both. Hence, in the chloral hydrate ion, in which there is only one hydroxyl hydrogen;
the simultaneous removal of this and the directly linked hydrogen by a single
energised collision with a bromine molecule is possible, provided that the energy
conditions are satisfied.
The energy of activation is of the magnitude usually met with in simple bimolecular
-clactions, indicating the effectiveness of a good number of collisions and consequently
die facility with which the reaction seems to proceed.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY LABORATORY,
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, NAOPOR. Received December 2, 1949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
[Jour. Indian Chem. Soc., Vol. 27, No. 2, 1950i
CYSTINE AND METHIONINE IN THE. PROTEIN FROM THE.
SEEDS OF CARILLA FRUIT
By J. W. .AIRAN AND N. I). GTIATGE
Two sulphur-containing essential amino-acids, cystine and methionine, have been estimated in
carilla fruit seed-cakes.
After the succesive extraction of the seeds of Carilla fruit (Momordica Charantia,
N.O. Cucurbitaceae) with organic solvents like petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform and
alcohol, the residue was found to contain nitrogen and sulphur. The albumin, isolated from
this residue atcording to the method adopted by Basu, Nath, Ghani and Mukherjee
(Ind. J. Med. Res., 1937, 24, 4, 1027), was subjected to van Slyke's process (J. Biol.
Chem., 1911-12, 10, 15) as modified by Plimmer and Rosedale (Biochem. J., 1925,
19, 1015) for the study of nitrogen distribution on the one hand, and Callan and Toennies
method (Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 1941, 13, 450) for cystine estimation, and to Horn,
Jones and Blum's method (J. Biol. Chem., 1946, 166, 313) for methionine estimation on
the other. It contained 0.967% total sulphur, out of which 0.3647% was
accounted for by cystine, and 0.3132% by methionine The percentages of these essential
amino-acids were 1. 37 for cystine and 1.56 for methionine.
Since these seeds are not discarded in most of the preparations where the Carilla fruit
is used as vegetable, these figures have a significance, and hence they are put along with
the figures for some of the common seed meals below, the data being taken from Block
and Bolling ("The Amino-acid Composition of Proteins and Foods", 1945, P. 195)-
%Cystine.
%Methiottine.
Peanut meal
z.6
0.9
Cottonseed ?
2.0
1.6
Soyabean
1.3
1.3
Can) seedeakes
(present work)
0.0841
0.0957
tXPItRIMHNT
Total Sulphur.?It was estimated by means of Parr's sulphur bomb ; 0.2045 g.
of protein yielded 0.01429 g. of barium sulphate which corresponded to 0.967%
sulphur.
Cystine.?Protein (I g.) and potassium permanganate (ro g.) were added to NaOH
soultion (6.4g. in 150 c.c. water). The mixture was refluxed on a Water-bath for 48 hours,
after which period the excess of the permanganate was destroyed with methyl alcohol.
It was then acidified and the insoluble portion filtered off. The filtrate was boiled with
bromine water, and then the sulphate ions were precipitated as barium sulphate, and trea-
ted in the usual manner. The precipitate weighed 0.0266g. which corresponded to
13' Aif31bWalf16 rul4feilViocIfibkfte: telh*?6156016415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
.1. W. AIRAN AND N. D. GHA,TGE
Methionine.?The protein (0.5594 g.) was refluxed on a sand-bath with i5 c.c. of 20%
hydrochloric acid for 18 hours. After this period, the hydrolysate was concentrated
to nearly 5 c.c. and then treated with a small quantity of vegetable charcoal, and filtered.
The filtrate was then made to roo c.c. and 50 c.c. of this solution were withdrawn and
concentrated to to c.c. roughly. It was then filtered and made exactly to to c.c. and
2 c.c. of this taken for estimation. Three small glass bottles were taken ; one of these
was taken for the "blank" experiment, one for the 'unknown", and the third for the
'standard". For this estimation, an authentic sample of methionine was obtained
from the B.D.H.
into each of these the following reagents were added in the order given below :
?Blank".
C.C. soln.
3 distilled water
[ e.e. 5N- NaOH soln.
"Unknown".
2 C.C. solti
3 cc. distilled water
[ cc. sodium nitro-
prasside soln., ro%
0.1 c.c. 5N-NaOH soln.
"Standard".
2 c.c. soln.
3 c.c. dist. water
c.c. sodium nitro-
pruside soln., to%.
OX c.c.5N-NaOH
After these additions were made, the three bottles were shaken for ro minutes and then
;.o each of these, 2 C.C. of 3% glycine solution were added and again shaken for
to minutes, and finally 2 c.c. of phosphoric acid were added. The bottles were then
shaken and kept aside for 5 minutes.
The bottle marked "blank" did not develop any colour. The solutions from the other
iwo bottles were then taken for comparison of their colours. The readings with the
Dubosq colorimeter were :
22 '`unknown" 9-4 "standard"
32.2 13.4 if
a. 35.6 15.2
C.c. of the "standard" taken for comparison contained o.002 g. of methionine, whence
he amount of methionine in the sample taken for analysis was 0.5594 g. or 1.529%
in the protein. This would account for 0.3741% of the total sulphur.
The albumin isolated was 6.135% of the seed-cake. Therefore the per-
centages of cystine and methionine in the seed-cakes work out to 0.0841 and 0.0957
respectively.
RAJARAM COLLRGI, K.OLAHRIR.
Received November 9, 2949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Jour. Indian Chem. Soc., Vol. 27, No. 2, 19501
A STUDY OF MALONYLGUANIDINE AND ITS REACTIVE METHYLENE
GROUP. PART I. CONDENSATION OF MALONYLGUANIDINE
WITH AROMATIC ALDEHYDES UNDER STRONG
ACIDIC CONDITIONS
BY SUNIL KUMAR MUKHnRXE AND KUNJ BEHARI LAL MATIIUR
Malottylguanidine condenses with aryl aldehydes in the presence of acetic acid-sulphuric acid mix-
ture lea. 4 :1) to give arylidene-rnalonylguanidine sulphates ArCH: (C4H3N302).H2SO4]. In the
presence of hydrogen chloride in saturation with absolute alcohol or acetic acid, the products are either
an arylidene-rnalonylguanidine chloride ArCH : (C41-13N302).11011 or compounds of the bfs-type
ArCH :[ (C4114N302) 1-ICI12, depending upon the nature of the aldehydes.
Barbituric acid is known to give with aromatic aldehydes 5-arylidene-barbituric
acids,
1
2C0 + OCHR
1
'NH?TO
Directly
--->-
With aq. NaOH or
NII4011.
'NH-8a)
1 1
'CO T=CH.R +11,0 (x)
1 1
'NH?TO
even by warming the ureide and the aldehyde in aqueous or alcoholic solutions and
without the use of any condensing agent (Conrad and Reinback, Ber., 1901, 34, 1339 ;
Weinschenk, ibid., p. 1685). With thiobarbituric acid (Dox and Plaisance, J. Amer.
Chem. Soc-, 1916, 88, 2164) the 5-arylidene-2-thiobarbituric acids are smoothly obtained
from aldehydes, but 12% hydrochloric acid is needed to effect condensation. Certain
NN'-disubstituted barbituric acids and thiobarbituric acids (Whitley, J. Chem. Soc.,
1907, 91, 1342 ; Akabori, J. Chem. Soc., Japan, 1931, 52, 6oi ; Ber., 1933, 668, 139 ;
Whitley and Mountain, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1909, 25, rat) can also be condensed more
or less with the same case as the parent ureides. It is remarkable that barbituric acid
and salicylaldehyde upon direct condensation (Conrad and Reinback, /oc. cit., p. 1340)
yield 5: 5'-salicyl-bis-barbituric acid:
NH?00
1 1
NH?00 CO CH
1 1
IN
2 CO CH2 + OHC. C6H., (OH) NH?CO N
1 1
NH?00
NH?CO ,/
1 1/
CO 'CH
1 1
CH.C611.(OH) + H20 ... (2)
'
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
;02a, K. IIIJICHTHJEFI ANT) TC B L. NIATATTP
Condensation products from benzaldeliyde and certain phenolic aldehydes in the
presence of acetic acid are reported also to be of the his-type (Pavoline, Riv.
Profwmi, no33, 15, 17x). In the above cases the condensation products are
enerally coloured, though in the case of less substituted aldehydes colorless forms
,.re also met with. The compounds from the barbitruic acids are decomposed With aqueous
caustic soda or ammonium hydroxide with the separation of the aldehyde in a way,
,erhaps, typical of the reversal of an aldol reaction (cf, equation r).
in comparison of barhituric acid, thiobarbituric acid and malonylguanidine as a
,plantitative precipitant: for furfural in very (invite solutions, Dox and Plaisance
..111,Yr. Chem. Soc., T 076, 38, 2156) report incidentally the formation of furfuryliclene-
uaionvlguanidine C.,H2OCH CJI,N302 in the presence of 12% hydrochloric acid.
Apart from the above meagre reference little is known En far about the reactivity of
maionylguanidine. In the Present investigation the results obtained by condensing
;,aalortylgnanidine with various aldehydes in alcohol and acetic acid under strong acidic
conditions are recorded.
When malonylguanidine is reacted with benzaldehyde in the presence of :glacial
acetic acid-sulphitric acid mixture (4: I), a well defined crystalline product is obtained,
which has the composition
CHCH,1.11.280-1,
the sulphuric acid. remaintrn7 chemically bound to the condensation product. The
acetic acid-sulphuric acid mixture serves also as a solvent for malonylguanidinewhich
1;., difficult to dissolve in any other organic solvent except formic acid. Other aldehydes
4-chlorobenzaldehyde, anisaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, 3-hydroxybenzaldehYde, 4-
airrobenzaldehyde, Il-resorcylic aldehyde, pyrogallol aldehyde and vanillin can be con-
densed with more or less portal ease giving products which are always coloured and
contain combined acid. The latter is apparently released in cold water though by
this treatment the solids invariably retain their original colour. On prolonged contact
with water or 1-1Don beating, further decomposition occurs regenerating the malonYlguani-
dine and the aldehyde. Decomposition is quicker With aqueous alkalis but is attended
with the appearance of transient violet colorations in the case of phenolic compounds.
All the products have the comonsition of an arylidene.-malonylguanidine sulphate, formed
thus,
+ OCH.R. + TSO, [(C4:11sN,W CHR1.1I SO + ... (3)
Reaction can occur also when hydrogen chloride gas, dissolved in absolute alcohol or
laciai acetic acid. is used as the condensing agent. But the nature of the product
,;:2enis to depend -upon the aldehyde used. Vanillin, (3-resorcylic aldehyde, pyrogallol
tidehyde and furfural give an arylidene-malonylguanidine chloride
CO151\1.302 + OCH.R + HCI = r(C1rIEN302) : CHR1 HCI + 11.20 (4)
in which curiously enough only one molecule of hydrochloric acid remains attached to
the resulting product. On the other hand, benzaldehyde and 1-hydroxybenzaidehyde
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
STUDIES OF MALONYLOUANIDINE, ETC. 103
give compounds having the composition of a bis-malonylguanidine derivative
2C4115N802 + OCH.R + 2HC1 = [(C4H4N,02)2 : CHRJ.2HC1 + H20 ??? (5)
The arylidene-malonylguanidine chlorides behave more or less like their sulphate analo-
gues but the bis-type of compounds are very soluble in cold water, though they also
are hydrolytically decomposed with equal ease. The latter salts are, however, faintly
coloured compared to the aryliderit stiliLates or chlorides, some of which are highly
coloured.
The analogous mode of the hydrolytic decomposition of the products from malo-
nylguanidine and from barbitruic acid is suggestive of the reactive methylene group in
malonylguanidine being involved in the reaction. The unsaturated character of the
arylidene-malonylguanidine sulphates and chlorides is in accord with this view point.
The above reactions can be explained if we consider that malonylguanidine is a
"zwitterion" such as (II).
NH?CO NH?C?OH NH?C-0"
I I II
HN=C CH, HN=C CH H2N+=C CH
I I
NH?CO NH?CO NH?C
(I) (II)
This internal 7...salt-like arrangement is justified by the properties of malonylguani-
dine itself. As in the form (II) there is no incipiently ionised hydrogen atom, malonyl-
guanidine is unable to condense with aldehydes directly like barbituric acid. However,
in the presence of strong mineral acid, the7zwitterion character is lost and a salt with
the acid will be formed thus,
I II
HN=C CH + HX
I I
NH?00
NH?C--OH
I II
H,N+ =C CH
I I
NH?CO
Il'
NH?CO
I I
H2N+ =C CH2
I
NH?CO
(III)
(X= CI" or riso)
X-
X-
8 ?1737P.-2.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
1)4 S. K. M H ERJ BE AND K. B. L. M Ara U
die glacial acetic acid or the alcohol serving the purpose of a solvent for the salt (in).
In this way the reactive methylene group is made available for condensation, as it is in
barbituric acid, with the difference that here a cation, e. g., from (III). is the reactive
entity, instead of a neutral molecule. On this basis, the products holding only one
equivalent of sulphuric acid (vide equation 3) should be deemed as acid salts. In an
analogous way the Hs-type of the compounds may also be formulated.
1,:XPRRIMENT AL
PtcParation of Malonylguanidine.?lt was best prepared and purified according
to the method of Pass and Dutt (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India, 1939, 9, 93) from
malonic ester and guanidine carbonate. In addition malonylguanidine Was found to
dissolve in warm (8o?) formic acid from which it could be .recrystallised ; it failed to
dissolve in several other non-polar solvents tried.
Malonylguanidine did not condense with benzaldehyde in the presence of absolute.
alcohol. The addition of sodium ethoxide evolved ammonia on continued heating
indicating the occurrence of secondaiy decompositions. The use of glacial acetic acid
or acetic anhydride was equally ineffective. Also, in the bare solvents used the malonyl-
guanidine had remained practically insoluble. Finally, the following acidic .mixtures
were found to give products of uniform composition and had the added advantage of
serving as a solvent for malonylguanidine :
(i) Conc. sulphuric acid (25 c.c.) diluted to Too c.c. with glacial acetic acid.
(ii) Absolute alcohol saturated with hydrogen chloride gas.
(iii) Glacial acetic acid saturated with hydrogen chloride gas.
(_ondensation of Molonylguanidive with Benzaldehyde in the presence of Glacial
Acet;c Acid-Sullthurric Acid Mixture.?The acid mixture (12.7 c.c.) was added quickly
to malonylguanidine (1.27 g., o.of M) withi vigorous stirring and slight warming on the
water-bath, when all the guanidine practically went in solution. If the required amount
,ff the solvent was not used at once, a part of the malonylguanidine tended to form a
gelatinous product which failed to be redissolved in excess of the solvent. The clear
liquid was decanted off from a few undissolved particles into a boiling tube containing
a solution of benzaldehyde (1.6 g., 0.015 M) in glacial acetic acid (5 c.c.) and the mix-
ture was heated on a water-bath at 8o'-go0 with occasional stirring. After To minutes,
yellow feathery crystals began to appear, which increased considerably afterwards.
Gpon cooling, the whole crop of crystals was filtered, washed repeatedly with glacial
acetic acid till the washings ceased to give any precipitate with aq. barium chloride.
They were then further washed with carbon tetrachloride to remove acetic acid and
dried at 9o?. The product was pure enough but could he recrystallisecl from formic
acid,
The compound was light yellow, showing leaflets under the microscope, ni.p. 236-
(decomp.). It decolorised quickly f% poiassium permanganate and bromine
tvai?r in the cold. On boiling with water it decomposed to give a strong smell of
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
STUDIES OF MAIDNILGUANIDZE, ETC. i:05
benzaldehyde and the aqueous filtrate gave a precipitate with barium chloride. The
latter test could also be obtained from a suspension of the compound in cold water.
Dissolution occurred also in aqueous alkali and concentrated sulphuric acid ; it was followed
by decomposition in the first case and colour change to golden yellow in the last case.
IFound : N, 12.3 ; II2SO4 (after aq. decotnp.), 30.21. [C61-15CH : C4113N302].112SO4
requires N, 13.41 ; 112SO4, 31.4 per cent). Yield 1.68 g. (56%).
PreParation of various Arylidene-malonylguanidine SulPhates.?Condensations were
run, as in the previous experiment, with various aldehydes (0.015 to o.02M). Of all the
solvents tried formic acid had excellent solvent properties for the resulting products,
which themselves had crystallised out from the reaction mixture more or less in the
pure form. They were decomposed by hot water and aqueous alkalis, with the
evolution of strong characteristic smell of the aldehyde, e. g., in the compounds
with 4-chloro-, 4-methoxy-, 2-hydroxy-, 3-methoxy-, and 4-hydroxybenzaldehydes.
Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolved them giving yellow-orange solutions. With
phenolic compounds, however, aqueous alkali gave also transient violet colorations.
and concentrated sulphuric acid produced charring. The compounds from 3-hydroxy-,
4-methoxy-, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehydes were also slightly soluble in ether,
chloroform and hot acetic acid. In every case the products decolorised, 2[%,
potassium permanganate. The test for unsaturation with bromine water, as applied to
the non-phenolic compounds, was also given. Table I summarises the chief results-
obtained, those from benzaldehyde being also incorporated for the sake of cornT,
pleteness.. .
Condensation, of Malonylguanidine with Benzaldehyde and 3-Hydroxybenzaldehyde.
in the presence of Absolute Alcohol saturated with Hydrogen Chloride.?The malonyl
guanidine (0.635 g., 0.005 M) was gradually dissolved in alcohOlic hydrogen chloride (35
c,c.) and after filtration from a few undissolved, particles, reacted with a solution of,henzal-,
dehyde (o53 g., 0.005 M) in acetic acid (3 c.c.) in a boiling tube he mixture was:
,
stirred and warmed at 40'-50 and kept overnight. The crystals that had separated
were washed first with acetic acid and then repeatedly with chloroform till the WaShitigs:
?
ceased to give a precipitate with aqueous silver nitrate. They were then dried, at.90 , ?
The compound had a faint yellow colour. It charred at 244? and decomposed with
frothing at 256?. It was very soluble in cold water which deposited white-granular
mass on keeping. By this treatment also the aqueous liquid smelt freely of benzalde7;
hyde. The aqueous filtrate gave a precipitate with aqueous silver nitrate, insoluble in
nitric acid. Decomposition was quicker with aqueous alkalis. It dissolved in formic
acid and concentrated sulphuric acid with evolution of' hydrogen chloride in the latter;
case {Found': N, 19.82 ; HC1 (after alkaline decomposition and weighed as Agel),
17.7. C,H,.,CH [C4II4Na02.Hel]2 requires N, 20.24 ; HCl, 17.58 per cent}. Yield
0.7g. (61.3%).
In a similar experiment with 3-hydroxyhenzaldehyde (.0.9r g., 0.075 M) crystals
appeared after 1-1- hours at room temperature and the reaction was completed by keep-
jug overnight. The produet has its properties like the compound with .benzaldehyde,
imp. 242-46? (decomp.). {Found : N, 19.5 17.1, HO.CJI4CH [(C41.14Na02,-
He1l2 requires N, 19.03 ; IIC1, 16.93 per cent}. Yield 0.9 g. (67.1%).
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
106
Ar-CHO & wt.
He.CHO (Benzal-
dehyde t.6 g.,
0.015 M)
tC1).e8F14.CHO
4
11.4 g , 0.01 /VD
(e1130). e6ll.4.0H0
4
(Anisaldehyde.
2.04 g., 0.015 M)
1011). C6H4.CHO
(Salicylaldehyde,
(2.84 g., 0.02 11/)
(OH). eel-14.CH?
3
u.84 g., o.ols M)
(NO2). C6H4.CHO
4
(2.27 g., o.o1,5 114)
(OH)2. C6113.C110
2:4 1
(13-Resorcylic
aldehyde**, 138 g.,
o.or
S. K. MUKHERJER AND K. IL L. MATHUR
TABLE I
Formation ot Yield.
the compound
After ro mins.
heating
After 5 mins.
heating.
After w mins.
heating.
Heated for
r fir. & kept
overnight.
After 20 mins
heating.
Heated for 3
hrs. & kept
for 3 hrs.
Heated for 2 hrs;
ppted by Ac()
IT c.c.) & AcOH
(to c.c.) &
warmed.
a-101a. eel-4CH? After 40 mins.
3 : 4: 5 1 heating.
I Pyrogallol aldehyde)
(CHe0)(011)C8H3.CHO After to mins
3: 4 I heating.
(Vanillin,
2.28 g., 0.015 M)
Colour, shape
& decomp.
point.
1.68 g. 56.0% Yellow leaflets;
decomp. 236-38?
2.20 63.1
23.1 67.6
190 55.1
2.38 71 6
0.62 17.2
1.50 34.9
1.80 50.0
1.7o 48.0
Arylidene-malonylguanidioe sul-
phate. (Ar*CH: C4H3N305 HeSO4)
Nitrogen H2SO4
Yellow star-like
crystals; de-
comp. 251-52?
Golden yellow
leaflets ; charred
2400; decomp.
247?
Yellow feathery
leaflets; charred
220? ; decomp.
266'
Yellowish green
leaflets: charred
1340; decomp.
300?
Pale yelow
leaflets; decomp.
3/80
Dark red ; charred
270? soln. in hot
ACOH, green
florescence
Tiny red
plates; charred
22o?
Yellow
leaflets; charred
26(1? ; decomp.
27o?
Found. Cale. Found, Cale.
12.30 13 41 30.21 31.40
12 44 12-05
12.02 12.24 28.71 28.57
12.71 12.76 30,34 29.80
12.84 12.76 28.81 29.80
16.70 15.64 27.09 27.30
8.63 9.79 23.45 22.84
tr.6o 27.32 27.14
11.54 II 69 27.80 27.39
Condensations of Malonvtguanidine with 2:4-Dihydrox3)-, 3 :4:5-Trihydroxy-, 3-
Methoxy-4-hydroxybenzaldehvdes and with Fur f ural -The condensations were run
exactly as in the previous experiment, with malonylguanidine (0.635 g., 0.005 M). In
the case of vanillin glacial acetic acid, saturated with hydrogen chloride, gave equally
good result. All the products were decomposed by water giving the combined acid
and the aldehyde back. Concentrated sulphuric acid and formic add dissolved them
with the evolution of hydrogen chloride in the former case and colour change to golden
yellow in the latter case. Aqueous alkalis produced transient red-orange colorations
in the case of the di- and tri- phenolic compounds. All the products had deeper colour
than the his-type of compounds and their composition tallied rather with an arylidene-
malonylguanidine chloride. The results are summarised in the following table.
+- This 'Ar' is the same as signified by that of the aldehyde used.
,* The figures agrced with t of distettlatt- td_r action. =ulna
Approved For Relehaatsen2001/09/0be: LAA-Ituia63-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
STUDIES OF MALONYLGUANIDINE, ETC. I
TABLE II
Ar-CHO & wt. Formation of Yield
the compound.
(H0)2C6113.CHO After ri Ins.
2 :4 1 at room temp.
(0-Resorcylic aldehy-
de**, 1.035 g.,
0.075 Al)
(H0;10.6H2.C1-10 After ri hr.
3:4:5 I at 4o?
(Pyrogallol aldehyde,
1.16 g., 0.075 .A/)
(CH30)(OH)C6H3.CHO Within i hr.
3 4 1 at 6o*
(Vanillin, 0.76 g,,
0.005 Al)
e4l-130.CH? Within
(Furfural, 0.72 g., zo mins.
o 075 MI
i.io g.
77.40%
1.10 73.3
o.58 32.2
o.66 53.7
Colour, shape
& charring
point.
Deep yellow;
charred
241-42*
Orange
blocks;
charred
202?
Tiny red
plates;
charred
221?
Carbonised;
greenish black;
infusible.
Arylidene-malonylguanidine
chloride
(Ar*CH: C4l-I3N302.11C1)
Nitrogen HCI
Found.
Cale
Pound.
Cale.
15.01
14.81
12.30
12.87
13.81
14,02
11.92
12.20
14.13
14.11
II 15
12.00
15.4
17.39
11.32
15.10
* This 'Ar' is the same as signified by that of the aldehyde used.
** Solution in formic acid of the product diluted with acetic acid gave bluish fluorescence.
Reactions in aqueous solutions under strong acidic conditions are proposed to be
further investigated.
The authors' grateful thanks are due to Dr. S. Drat for suggesting this piece of work
and for his continued interest in it.
CHEMICAL LABORATORIES,
UNIVERSITY Or DELHI,
DELHI.
Received June 18, 1949.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
REVIEWS
Die Thermodynamik des Warme?Und Stoffaustausches in der Verfahrenstechnik?
Von Dr.-Ing. Werner Matz?Verlag Dr. Dietrich Steinkopff?Frankfurt (Main)-1949 ;
pp. 355+ xii, Figs. 1.1.4. Price 3o P.M. (approximately).
This is a book on Thermodynamics of 'Rxchange of Heat and Matter that take
,
place in industrial processes. e. g., evaporation, distillation, absorption, adSerption,
extraction, heating, cooling, etc. Exchange of heat and exchange of material between
different parts of a system have been treated together. Scattered throughout' the
literature are to he found thermodynamic treatment of the processes mentioned before ;
but here, in one single volume, all these processes have been dealt with from the same
Point of view. The author has restricted himself only to the processes peculiar to chemi-
eal industries and has not touched on operations like expansion, compression, refrigera-
eion. flow of fluids, etc., which form the subjects of most books on chemical engineer-
ng thermodynamics. Treatment of the subjects selected is thorough and ?rigorbus.
The atithor has laid special etriphasiS on the Law of Conservation of matter, the first
two Laws of Thermodynamics, and Dimensional analysis. The Second Lawhas been
applied with the help of extrophy-concept.
All lovers of thermodynamics will find the book interesting and instructive. It may
specially be recommended to chemical engineers and industrial chemists Who want to
acquire more intimate knowledge of the processes they handle. Considering the ex-
cellence Of the hook it is expected that in near 'future an English translation Will come
out from America. [4.R.
High Polymer Physics: A Symposium?Edited by Dr. Howard A. Robinson.
Pp. 572+ xiii. Published under the auspices of the American Institute of Physics by the-
Chemical Publishing Co. Price 11.2.00,
High Polymer study has during recent years come into great lime light. The
developments have been so rapid that it is very difficult for any investigator to keep
abreast of the huge mass of informations on its various aspects that are accumulating
in the scattered literature on the subject. Unlike the chemical substances having small
molecules, macromolecular substances are of :mportance mainly for their physical
characteristics, It has therefore ben very opportune for the High Polymer Branch
of he American Physical Society, of which Dr. Howard A. Robinson was the Chair-
man, to arrange a symposium on High Polymer Physics and to publish the papers con-
tributed there on. The contributions are from most of the leading investigators in the
various branches of high polymer in America and cover a wide range of aspects of
the subject. Many of the articles were scattered over a large number of Journals, but
they have been revised by the authors to take into account the developments in the
intervening periods. This, therefore, serves as a quite handy collection of very useful
ituformations to one desiring to pursue the subject. The twentythree papers that have
been contributed are divided into four parts. The first part deals with Determination
of the Molecular Structure of MO Polymers and includes the uses of colour and
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
REVIEWS 109
Fluorescence indicators, applications of Infra-red methods and X-ray diffraction methods
for determinations of structures. The articles on the physical properties of high polymers
form the second and the largest part and deals with such topics as Mechanical properties,
Equation of state, Viscometric investigations, Formation of ionised water films, Thermal
behaviour, creep, permanent set and electrostatic properties. The third part deals with
the Chemical Physics of the high polymers. The fourth part contains articles on the
apparatus for the measurements of thermal diffusion and light scattering.
The articles are contributed by the leading investigators on high polymers in their
own ,lines of research and as such they are in general very well presented and give a
clear and up-to-date account of the aspects dealt with. Being reports of a symposium
it cannot, however, be expected to give a connected account of the whole subject.
Some of the articles presupposes a considerable amount of preliminary knowledge of
the subject ; Eyering-,'s paper on "The mechanical properties of textiles" may be
particularly mentioned in this connection. On the whole, the book will prove to be
an asset to workers on high polymers and Dr. Robinson may be congratulated for his
bringing out such a useful volume.
K. B.
Gmetins Handbuch der Anorgaidschen Chemie.?S Auflage (Edition). System
Number IS, Antimon. Teil B 2. Pp. 496.
In this volume the treatment of the physical properties of antimony, not dealt with
in the previous volume, has been concluded.
This comprises a part of the electrical properties of the metal ; addition and correc-
tion to the physical properties described in the previous volume ; chemical properties
of the element; its detection and estimation ;. the various compounds of antimony with
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorinP, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
All references to literature till the middle of-1948 have been fully considered.
Gmelins Handbuch of Inorganic Chemistry enjoys the Same reputation and posi-
tion as those of Beilstein's Handbuch for Organic Chemistry: The present volume also
thoroughly maintains this tradition.
No university or research institute of. chemistry chemistry can afford.to Miss this volume in
their library.
P. R.
Modern Plastics?by. Harry Barton. Published by ?Chapman & Hail2 ud Edition,
revised & enlarged. Pp. 778 ; price so Shillings:
This century has provided the background for an enormous expansion of the plas-
tics industry. Technical and scientific knowledge regarding plastics is, however, still
confined to a few scientists and competent technicians.
The spread of tectinical education is imperative for the healthy growth of any major
industry. This book has been written with a view to removing the lack of knowledge on
Plastics as the author rightly thinks that "Lack of knowledge and lack of efforts results
in the facile and disastrous industrial policy of purchasing foreign licenses for processes
and goods. This is the easy way out but it subsidises foreign developments and effective-
ly stifles one's own".
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
110 REVIEWS
The book, divided into 5 parts (each subdivided into several chapters) dealing res-
pectively with (I) Raw materials for plastics and Theory of plastics formation, (II)
Thermosetting resins and their plastics, (III) Cellulose Plastics, (IV) Vinyl Plastics, (V)
Glyptal, Casein, Silicone and Polyamide plastics, (VI) Analytical aspects and Physical
Testing of plastics, provides a considerable amount of technical information which though
seemingly "somewhat sketchy to the erudite- is adequately comprehensive and of much
practical value.
The presentation of the subject is well balanced.
B. K. M.
Chyma : Annual Studies in the History of Chemistry, volume II. Editor in Chief:
Tenney L. Davis. Published by the University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1949.
Chymia is rendering a great service to the History of chemical science of the world
in publishing authoritative articles of well reputed authors on the subject ; some of them
are professors of the History of Science and curator of research institutes. It appears
like the first volume of this study to be less representative so far as chemistry in
ancient India is concerned. Even in the article on "The experimental origin of chemi-
cal, atomic and molecular theory before Boyle," Professor Hooykoas has not unfortu-
nately mentioned anything about the theory of atom in Indian philosophical science,
though it is very likely that the Greeks imbibed the idea of atoms from the Indians.
R. C.
Quarterly Reviews?Vol. II, No. 1, 1948. Pp. 91. Price 8/- Sh. The Chemical
Society, London.
These reviews are being published by the Chemical Society. The present issue
which forms No. i of Vol. II deals with the recent development of our knowledge on
the following subjects :?
I, Disproportionation in Organic Compounds.
2. The Chemistry of Silicon Polymers.
3. Physiologically active unsaturated Lactones.
4. Far Ultra-violet Spectra, Ionisation Potentials and their Significance in Chemistry.
As these reviews have been made by competent workers in the respective field,
they will undoubtedly be found very useful by all advanced students and workers in
chemistry. And as such they should find a place in all scientific libraries.
P. R.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
LIGHT'S
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
NATURAL OR SYNTHETIC DRUGS
ARE THE BEST AND THE CHEAPEST
L. LIGHT & CO., are prepared to assist firms
who wish to market new Organic Chemicals and
Drugs. If the substance had never been produced
in bulk before, the research needed to work out an
efficient synthesis can be undertaken.
Production on an exclusive basis undertaken for
Clients.
OVER 5,000 different Organic Chemicals stocked
by our Sole Representatives:?
THE SCIENTIFIC SUPPLIES
(BENGAL) CO.
"SCIENCE BLOCK"
C 37 & 38, College Street Market, Calcutta-12
Telephone: B.B..524 & 1882. Telegram: "Bitisynd"Calcutta.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : d9-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Manufacturers :
Any kind of Special Soft or Pyrex
Glass Apparatus.
Please Enquire to:
SCIENTIFIC GLASS APPARATUS
MFG. CO.
11 / 2 HAR1NATH DEY ROAD, CALCUTTA-9.
Gram:?Sigamko. Phone:?B.B. 4911.
RATES OF ADVERTISEMENT
Second and Third page of Cover:
Full page
half page
Quarter page
Fourth page of Cover (i.e. back page):
Pull page Rs. 50
Half page ... Rs. 30
Quarter page ... ... Rs. 20
Re. 35
Re. 20
Re. 15
Other pages:
Full page
Half page
Quarter page
The above rates apply also to the pages
of the Industrial and News didition.
10% Rebate allowed in cases of twelve
consecutive insertions.
^ its. 25
? Rs. 15
.? Rs. 10
For further information write to the
Hony. Secretary
INDIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
P. 0. Box: 10857, Calcutta. 9
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SIR P. C. RAY 70th BIRTHDAY COMMEMORATION VOLUME
The undersigned is glad to announce that a few copies of the
above volume containing (pp. 362) original memoirs and reviews of
chemical and other sciences written by eminent scientists all over
India and abroad are available at a price of Rs. 2-8-0 per copy
including postage.
D. CHAKRAVARTI
HONY. SECRETARY, INDIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
P. 0. Box No. 10857, CALCUTTA.
ITO
6L3
ii5,ABLARDLPLT??WINCHEOMBE?Ros.
XI
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
GERMAN CHEMICAL JOURNALS
of International Importance
PUBLISHED BY
VERLAG CHEMIE, GmbH.,
WEINHEIM/BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY
Chemische Berichte
(Formerly Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft). Editor:
Prof. Dr. Clemens Schopf. 83 Jahrgang. Three issues per half-year.
Subscription price DM 45.- or ?3 18s. 9d.
Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie
Editors: Prof. Dr. G. Wieland, Prof. Dr. A. Windaus, Prof. Dr. R.
Kuhn. First published in 1832. 565 volumes up to December 1949. Published
at irregular intervals, approx. 4 volumes per annum consisting of three
parts each. Subscription price DM 15.- or 6s. 3d. per volume.
Archiv der Pharmazie
And Berichte der Deutschen Pharmazeutischen Gesellschaft. Editor:
Prof. Dr. Fr. von Bruchhausen, 283 volume. Published quarterly. Subs-
cription price DM 24.- or ?1 18s. 6d. per annum.
Chemisches Zentralblatt
Complete survey of all branches of pure and applied Chemistry. Edited
by Prof. Dr. M. Pflucke. The 121 Jahrgang (1950) will again embrace
the entire world literature on Chemistry. Subscription price DM 250.- or
?21 17s. 6d. per annum, including index of authors and patents.
Angewandte Chemie
Published on behalf of the Gesellschaft (Society of German Chemists)
by Prof. Dr. R. Pummerer and Dr. W. Foerst. 52 Jahrgang. Published
twice monthly. Subscription price DM 48.- or ?4 4s. Od per annum.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik
Published by the Society of German Chemists (Gesellschaft Deutscher
Chemikcr), the Society of German Engineers (Verein Deutscher lngenieure)
and DECHEMA. 22 Jahrgang. Published twice monthly. Subscription
price DM 48.- or 4s. Od. per annum.
Please send order to::
E. P. P. A. C. Ltd.
4 I -45 Neal Street,
LONDON, W.C. 2.
---ftgrrovettrarReldne zuuliu9/
'9': IIA -11. 111
050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
1"
LABORATORY CHEMICALS
and REAGENTS
GUARANTEED. .
QUALITY
A wide variety of Chemicals are manufactured by us under expert supervision
to ensure guaranteed standards and reliability. Here is a small selection :?
ACETONEe ACID ACETIC GLACIAL 99-100%,
ACID LACTIC 80% PURE,
ALBUMEN FROM EGGS,
AMYL ALCOHOL,
BARIUM CHLORIDE XL,
COPPER ACETATE (Neutral),
We also Manufacture
TECHNICAL CHEMICALS, STEARIC ACID, LACTIC AND
OLEIC ACIDS, B. P. AND B. P. C. STANDARD PHARMA-
CEUTICALS, ESSENTIAL OILS, SOAPS, TOILET PRODUCTS
and a large variety of
MEDICINAL SPECIALP IES.
COPPER SULPHATE, ETHER ( Petroleum ),
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE,
LEAD ACETATE,
MAGNESIUM SULPHATE,
SILVER NITRATE (Double XL).
ETC. ETC. ETC.
COMPLETE LISTS ON REQUEST
CALCUTTA CHEMICAL CO., LTD.
PAN DITIA ROAD : : ??
? ? CALCUTTA
Also at MADRAS, BOMBAY, DELHI, NAGPUR, DACCA, JAMSHEDPUR, Etc.
01/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
.ffilenlion.400111.1??????1M.
Rgtd. No. C1878
PRESIDENT:
f N. RAY, 0.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.I.C., P.N.I.
VICE-PRESIDENTS:
( who haro Ailed Ike ?Moo of President
S. S. BHATNAOAR, KT., 0.B.E., F.R.S.,
D.Sc., F. INST. P., F.R F.N.I.
N. R. DHAR, D.Sc., DR.Es.Sc , F.R.I.C., F.N.I.
B. DEY, D.Sc., F.R.I.C., F.N.I.
GrLBERT J. FOWLER, D.Sc., F.R.I.C., P.N.I.
SIR J. C. GHOSH, KT., D.Sc., F.N.I.
J. N. MUKHERJEE, C.B.E., D.Sc.,
F.R.A.S.B., F.N.
P. RAv, M.A., F.N.I.
B. K. SINGH, Sc.D., F.R.I.C., P.N.I.
VICE-PRESIDENTS:
MATA PRASAD, D.Sc., F.R.I.C., F.N.I.
P. B. SARKAR, Sc., F.N.I.
P. N. Josm, M.Sc. (Tech.)
President of Bombay Branch ex-officio).
HONY. TREASURER:
J. K. CHOWOHURY, M.Sc., PII.D., F.N.I.
P C. GUHA, D.Sc., F.N.I.
S. KRISHNA, C.I.E., D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.I.C.
HONY. SECRETARY:
D, AKRA YAWN, D.Sc., F.N.I.
MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL:
K. N. BAGCHI, B.Sc., M.B., D.T.M., P.N.I.,
F.R.I.C.
IJ. P. BAsu, D.Sc., F.N.I.
A. C. CHATTERJI, D.Sc., DR. LNG.
IL N. DAs-GuPTA, D.Sc.
SB. DUTT, D.Sc., F.N.I.
S K. K. JATKAR, D Sc.
M. GOSWAMI DR.EN.Cli.
P. B. GANGULY, D.Sc., F.N.I.
B N. GHOSH, D.Sc., F.N.I.
S. S. Josru, P.N.I., F.R.I.C.
A N. KAPPANNA. D.Sc.
G. C. MITTER, M.SC., F.INsr. MET., O.B.R.
P. V. NAIR, M.Sc., D.PHIL.
K. C. SEN, ]).Sc., F.N.I.
S. P. SRN, M.Sc.
T. R. SESHADRI, M.A., PH.D.
R. C. SHAH, DSc., It.N I.
B. S. SRIKANTAN, D.Sc.
V. SuRRAnmANyaN, D.Sc.,
HONY i EDITORS:
B. B. Dwv, D.Sc., F.R.I.C., F.N.I.
B. iSANJIVA RAO, M.A., Pa.D , F.N.I.
BOARD OF ASSOCIATE EDITORS:
P. K BOSE, 1). Sc , P.N.I.
J. K. CHOWDHURY, M.Sc., PJEL.D.,
N. R. DEAR, D.Sc., DR.ES.SC.,
SIR J. C. GHosH, KT., D.Sc., P.N.
B. C. GUHA, D.Sc., PH.D., E.N.
DR. P. C. Gum, D.Sc., P.N.I.
S. S. Josm, D.Sc., F.N.I., F.R.I.0
S. KRISHNA, C .I.E., D.Sc., PH.D., F.N.I.
j. N. MUKHERJEE, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.N.I.
F.N.I. MATA PRAS.AD DSc.,F.R.I.C., F.N.T.
I.C., F.N.I. P RAY, M. A . ,
I. J. N. RAY, 0 ,B . E., D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.I.C.,
I. F.N.I.
P. B. SARRAR, DR.ES. Sc., F.N.I.
? K. VENHATA RAMAN, D.Sc., Pu.D., P.N.I.
HONY. AUDITORS:
A. B. GuPTA, B.Sc., L.L.B., A.C.A., R.A.
P. C. NANDI, M.A., B.Sc., A.C.A , R.A
(Chartered Accountants)
ASST. EDITOR:
IlArivi.71 /7, .Sc-
Printed by Sibendranath Eanjilal. Superintendent (offg.), Calcutta University Press, 48, Hazra Road, sanygunge,
Apple:mite/6 Ferflaelltiattef 208111109,k0SuiCtAaRDEMI2g80)4,115R0084006150001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R0061000500 --
-V I NAN.KARMEE
official organ of the
ASSOCIATION OF SCIENTIFIC WORKERS OF INDIA
Vol 11J
FOR EXPERIMENTS AND RESEARCH
IN SCIENCE
WE OFFER
GAMBRELL AND DAWE
I No 6
AND OTHER SPECIALISED INSTRUMENTS SUITABLE FOR
PHYSICAL, ELECTRONIC & RADIO RESEARCH
SHREE INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SYNDICATE LTD.
H. 0. 36, MINT ROAD, BOMBAY-I ( Phone : 23029)
Rlso at
373. UPPER CHITPORE ROAD, 20, HANUMAN ROAD, 3/186 MOUNT ROAD.
CALCUTTA. NEW DELHI MADRAS
(Phone : B. B. ,2372) (Phone : 41815)
READY TO SERVE CUIRRIED VEGETABLES, CANNED FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES OF DELICACY, FRUIT JUICES, MARMALADE, JAMS, BAKERY AND
CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS
PRODUCED BY
PURE PRODUCTS & MADHU CANNING LTD..
KODAK HOUSE, HORNBY ROAD, FORT, BOMBAY
Telephone : 32078-9. Telegram : "PUPRO"
UNDER SCIENTIFIC CONTROL AND SUPERVISION IN ONE OF THE
BEST EQUIPPED FACTORIES IN THE EAST.
Editors (ex-officio)
C. R: MITRA D. V. KARIVIARKAR
IWITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
B. C. GURA I. K. KACKER
Approvg4.5g0RelEMINVIIMINO6 gligioliklif/83-1104:1M906100050001-7
itpprov?d For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approve
CAN IT PROMOTE
BETTER GROWTH?
OUR DIET can be more nourishing if it contains
a wider variety of proteins which promote growth znd
repair the tissues of the body. We should not limit
our protein requirements to the usual dal only but
we should eat, wherever possible, peas, eggs, fish,
meat, nuts and, of course, milk. However, proteins,
by themselves, are not enough to keep us in full
health arid strength for which we need-a balanced diet
Consisting of all the five food factors and in their
correct proportions. These factors, apart from proteins,
are carbo-hydrates (millets, rice, sweet potatoes,
wheat), vitamins (amlas, carrots, tomatoes, lemons,
papayas), minerals (brinjals, drumsticks, lettuce,
spinach) and fat like Da/da which is pure and
energy-giving.
DOES THINNESS MEAN
BAD HEALTH?
Write for free advice today?or any day!
THE DALDA
ADVISORY SERVICE
P.O. BOX NO. 353. BOMBAY
001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
ILLEGIB
VI
NAN.K RMEE
VOL. II June, 1950 No. 6
MORE ABOUT THE PLANNING COMMISSION
Elsewhere in this issue we have published a
letter from a member of our Association and
also a resolution adopted by the ASWI Unit of
the Central Laboratories of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research, Hyderabad. Both are highly
critical of the editorial entitled "The Planning
Commission" which appeared in the April
issue of the Vijnan-Karmee and which they con-
sider to be in conflict with the resolution passed
at the Poona Session of? the Association. In
that session the following resolution was adopted:
"The Association of Scientific Workers of India
views with grave concern the rapidly deteriora-
ting economic condition of thc country which
vitally affects the scientific workers along with
other sections of the population, leading to mass
scale unemployment and hindering the healthy
growth of the community. This Association
is of the opinion that the solution of the problem
lies in the industrialisation of the country on the
basis of a socialist economy". This resolution
was reproduced in the April issue of the V ijnan-
Karmee, to which the editorial of that issue also
directed attention. The Association stands by
this resolution. Hence the misgiving that this
Journal is trying to go behind this resolution
should be dismissed.
Doubtless, planning can achieve its fullest
?
objective only in a socialist framework. It is a
socialist economy free from the inhibitory con-
tradictions inherent in capitalism, which can
raise production to undreamt-of heights. In
private profit, the cycles of boom and slump are
bound to occur. If production goes up, prices
tend to fall and profits tend to decrease. Prices
are then sought to be raised artificiaHy by
curtailing production. Thus, while the world
is still in need of goods of all kinds, factories
may close down depriving the people of those
goods and at the same time throwing large
masses of workers into unemployment. In
many cases even essential commodities which
have been produced are destroyed in order to
keep up prices. Even at present it is reported
that in America thousands of tons of potatoes
are being coloured with a dye so that they may
be rendered unacceptable for human consump-
tion. These are being fed to animals. Similar-
ly wheat is being fed to cattle, whereas a large
part of the world including India goes hungry.
It will be remembered that America recently
refused to reduce the price of wheat for India
even by a small amount. It is not necessary to
blame only America for it. Wherever the capi-
talist system works, its inexorable laws operate
and in plethoric plenty people perish. During
the economic depression of the thirties, as every-
bo.iy knows, coffee used to be burnt in Brazil
and oranges thrown into the sea by Spain. Under
socialirn, on the other hand, the means of pro-
duction is owned by the community and produc-
tion is also meant for the entire community and,
therefore, the artificial hindrances which private
enterprises put up to the expansion of production
a society pp Wile &Fatale az enatiOAtka9 Afit6 : OPaalaiiisa-00/14?810&109APIAgrUZre. be
Approved For Release 2001/9S9Ljah-FDP83-00415R0061000500017No. 6
lanielaw
aley eased freely to meet the requirements of the
community. Planning in such circumstances,
as in the Soviet Union, can achieve astonishing
re,ults in a relatively short time.
There are of course critics of socialism.
?I.:hey point out that with the abolition of private
ein:rprise initiative would tend to disappear and
role would not work to the best of their
capacity. This 'postulates that the love of profit
Aoile can stimulate a person to action. It is
t roe that in the early stages; as had happened
a the Soviet Union, such a psychology inherited
tn the old society tends to persist but by
eclocation and example it is possible, at least to
ereat extent:, to make the people socially
?ninded, so that they would work to the best of
? heir capacity knowing that in a socialist coma
nunity one is for all and all for one.
While, therefore, it seems to us that there is
no fundamental solution of our problem
we by-pass socialism, we have still
to take cognisance of the contemporary
eitiotrion and see what can be achieved even
-,-thin the limitations from which we suffer.
The Planning Commission which has been set
Eip ley the Government of India surely cannot
tehieve results which it could have done in a
;ocialist economy. We shall be wrong if we
teepect the Planning Commission to give results
iike those which flowed from the Planning
Commission of the Soviet Union. But to turn
,.nir back on the Commission in a spirit of non-
eraoperation would hardly help matters. Even
ae the capitalist system of America, President
n-evelt introduced limited planning as in the
eepeeiment with the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Here within a particular area and inspire of the
opposition of many vested interests, the life of a
population has been greatly transformed and the
whole condition of the people has been cisanged
i?aritai listlesseess and poverty to comparative
happires.s and prosperity. Who would ignore
plennad achievement of the TVA and ridicule
it simply because it was established in a capital-
jai ;sec:Apanatoved For Release 2001/09/06:
mMliiinmg....II?1??*nmipm?NaTmmnrMM?eep????uffp........r?gworJP/ON?Mb?rwom
It appears that the Planning Commission
has been established in order to function as an
overall authority for preparing integrated plans
of development and having thein executed by
the different Government departments under a
system of priorities. It will also probably
coordinate these plans with those of private
industry. Apart from the question of socialism
and capitalism, it is well-known that in India
even for projects which are sponsored by the
Centre and by the States there is a great deal
of competition for money, material and foreign
exchange. There are the river valley projects,
three of which are in the process of active
execution?the Damodar Valley, the Hirakund
and the Bhakra: Besides these there are a large
number of river valley projects which ate at
different stages of investigation and planning.
There is an urgent need for the additional
production of at least 1-2 million tons of iron
and steel annually. There is the necessity
for the large-scale production of fertilisers, of
synthetic petrol, of essential drugs like penicillin,
sulpha drugs and paludrin. ? These projects are
Government-sponsored. Even far these priori-
ties have to be determined. Essential materials,
both indigenous and imported, have.to be canal-
ised in the right direction. Which organisation
exists in India to (a) see the needs of all branches
of national economy in perspective (b) prepare
Plans for these branches, (c) integrate these
plans (d) establish priorities and (e) canalise
money and materials for the production of
commodities in the order of their importance
and also according to a time schedule? The
Planning Commission is apparently meant to
take charge of this work. In the absence of
-each a Commis( ion, there would be a lot of
confusion and wastage of materials and effort. ?
It is true that the comoosition of the Planning
Commission leaves much to be desired. We
would have I ked to see on it repreientatives of
scientific workers and of peasants and workers
who constitute the vast bulk of our pooulation
ck4dRQM-q1441.R99#1819019STivie whole
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June 1950 I VIJNAN4CARMEE [ 3
course of planning and egecution of projects.
We would have liked further to see that Govern-
ment accepted socialism as the basis for this
planning. But that has not happened. Should
we jettison this _ Planning Commission? Or
should we, while holding that the Planning
Commission could have best functioned in a
socialist framework and while knowing that it
must suffer from limitations under present
conditions, try to give it assistance so that it may
achieve even the limited objectives it holds ? It .
is now reported that the Planning Commission
has decided to set up an Advisory Board. The
Planning Commission could thus at least
associate themselves with representatives of
various interests mentioned above through
this Advisory Board if they wished to do so .
When the Commission prepares its plans or
establishes priorities for execution we have a
right to offer our suggestions and criticisms. It
would be far better to try to keep the Plan-
ning Commission on the right path than merely
take a negative attitude to it in the present
circumstances of the country.
SCIENTIFIC TALENTS FROM ABROAD
Considered in a background of post war
financial difficulties, of the limited resources of
our country and of the pressing and exacting
problems associated with the rehabilitation of
the displaced persons, it is no small achievement
on the part of the Government of India to have
established on a firm footing the National Che-
mical Laboratory, the National Physical Labor-
atory, and the Fuel Research Institute within a
period of six months and venture on the com-
pletion of a fourth one. Elsewhere in this issue
appears a brief life sketch of Sir Edward
Mellanby, the sixtysix year old British scientist
who has been appointed the Director of the
National Drug Research Institute of India.
The news item in the daily papers reporting
this appointment, just as we were going to the
press, stated that Sir Edward was likely to take
up his duties at Lucknow by October next. So
we can fondly expect that the fourth institute
in the chain of our proposed national laborato-
ries would start functioning with its full comple-
ment of staff within a short while.
Without the dynamic leadership of our
popular Prime Minister Pandit Jawahar Lai
Nehru and the untiring efforts of his able
lieutenant in the Department of Scientific
Research Shri Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar it is
doubtful Affiravgi IWRiel3991/A96
domain of science the little that we have done
so far. It would be a very happy augury indeed
if there is greater scientific outlook amongst our
civil servants for solution of many of the pro-
blems that beset the country. We must say
that before the Nehru Government came into
power the outlook of the main body of civil
servants was woefully lacking in proper scientific
bias, and scientists, whether in Government
service or in the universities, were regarded
as "penny in the slot machine" for answering
certain questions that cropped up in the adminis-
tration. Not that such an archaic bent of mind
of the administrators has rad.eally changed but
there is today, a greater appreciation of science
and what science can do.
Our Association is fully alive to the need for
recruitment of scientific talents from abroad in
the proper development of science and techno-
logy in our country. This subject was given
the fullest consideration by our Association at
its annual general meeting held at Poona in
January last. Resolution No. 6* unanimously
adopted at the annual generel meeting, enun-
ciated in no uncertain terms the views of our
Association. One of our suggestions was that
:? WelsAaMiVigiA*Potidgobbirl-tbruarY.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
4 1 VIJNAN-RARMEE [ No. 6
i-he foreign experts who may be appointed from
time to time, according to the needs of the
country, should be of such age and experience
:is may permit of associating themselves with the
sctive pursuit of science along with their local
colleagues , thus not only inspiring the young
indiao scientists but also raising the existing
standard of technique and laboratory practice.
Csasequently, we had expressed ourselves
against the principle of appointment of superan-
nuated persons even of established reputation
from abroad, and particularly of those who had
n cut away from the active pursuit of science
lot a considerable period. We have the greatest
respect for Sir Edward Mellanby as a top ran-
g nutrition scientist and for his abilities in
managing the affairs of the Medical Research
Council as its Secretary for a period of more than
as years. True it is that he held for some years
she appointment of Professor of Pharmacology
at Sheffield but he has spent almost tho whole
of his life on nutrition research. Now that the
appointment has been made we welcome Sir
Edward in our midst and we hope that he will
do his best to stimulate drug research in this
country.
In our Resolution on the recruitment of
foreign scientists we had expressed ourselves
strongly in favour of appointment of Indians as
directors of our national laboratories. Certainly,
we did not want that anybody who is not suit-
able should be appointed simply because he was
an Indian as such a practice would be against
thL: :,pint of science which we profess and also
gaiiist the interest of the country in general.
...11111?1111MINIMEM
We had greatly appreciated the appointment of
Professor K. S. Krishnan* as the Director of
our National Physical Laboratory. In view of
the fact that Shri Ram Nath Chopra had truly
and well laid the foundation of drug research
in the country many years ago, and as more
than one of his able assistants had earned, we
presume deservedly, recognition of their work
both in this country and abroad, we were look-
ing forward to the appointment of an Indian at
the helm of our national drug research. But
that was not to be. The appointment of a
nutrition scientist even of the eminence of Sir
Edward indicates, and we regretfully note the
fact, that in the opinion of the Government we
do not possess, amongst the scientists in India
employed on the research on drugs, a suitable
person who could be given the responsibilities
of the Director. Whether oae possesses ade-
quate qualifications to hold a certain appoint-
ment is purely a matter of opinion and conse-
quently we would not like to raise any contro-
versy based on opinions alone. However, we
hope that within a short time scientists in our
country would attain that experience, ability and
eminence which is needed to guide the destinies
of our national laboratories, and recruitment of
foreign scientists except as temporary advisers,
would not be necessary. We would, however,
advocate invitations extended to eminent men
of science from abroad for lecture tours in the
different centres of teaching and research in the
country.
* See page x "Vijnan.Karmee" March, t950.
CRISIS IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
We have published in this issue an article on the present crisis in the Textile
Industry. It is not justifiable in the present shortage periods to close down the
mills and stop the production of cloth because the parties interested do not get as
much profit out of the working as they feel they should get. It has been suggested
It15 filiticVdePinalq gvagiti 28?004,0B1 :adiVairdB-(190201tROIr./6 f9111391XleiveA or
technicians and labour whose joint efforts are sure to keep a mill in production.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June 1950 ] VIJNAN-KARMEE I 5
DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN INDUSTRY
THE CRISIS IN THE COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY
(By? A Scientific Worker )
The crisis in the Cotton Textile Industry
not only creates a crisis in the homes of those
directly connected with it but has wider impli-
cations on the national well-being itself. The
fall in production inherent with the crisis offers
scarcity of the basic requirement of the popula-
tion with resulting soaring prices and black-
marketing, and ultimately inflation to the ruin
of the nation.
It is not an uncommon experience that
whenever a man, engaged in a textile industry,
comes across a common man in confidence he
is confronted with a volley of questions such as :
(a) Why this closure of Mills ?
(b) Way there is accumulation of stocks ?
(c) How long the shortage of cloth will
Continue?
(d) Will we ever get cheap cloth as before
tne War?
In order that one may be able to answer
these 'questions scientifically and unbiased, one
has to have comprehensive knowledge of the
Indian Textile Industry in particular and world
textile position in general. Unfortunately all
the scientific workers, though intimately con-
nected with the industry, are not aware of the
various factors?both real and unreal-respon-
sible for the occasional crisis as the top manage-
ment being part and parcel of capital is not
interested in taking the rank and file of the
technicians into confidence and giving them use-
ful information to understand the position
possibly because they themselves form one of
the targets of attack in case of the crisis.
Further, it is not unlikely that in not too
distant future, the Government of the country,
realising the need of consumers, may embark
upon a policy of taking the scientific workers
into C913 PEPirev7ifeRFICNii,e631900F1/96
catastrophic situation, On the above consider-
ations it is essential that there should be fre-
quent discussion among Scientific Workers in
the know of the situation so that they may be
able to arrive at definite conclusions and edu-
cate the public and suggest ways and means to
the Government to meet the situation.
Such a discussion was held recently, amongst
our members wherein the points raised by the
Tndustrial Unemployment Committee formed
the basis of discussion. The industrial Un-
employment Sub-Committee, appointed by the
Bombay Provincial Labour Advisory Board, on
8th June' 49, has attributed the crisis to one or
more of the following causes :--
Cot ton shortage.
Accumulation of cloth and yarn stocks.
Financial stringency.
Transport bottle-neck.
Non-availability of stores and spare
parta.
(6) Reduced margin of profits due to in-
crease in wage bill.
Staggering hours.
Lack of co-operation between capital
and labour.
1. Shortage of Cotton:
Due to the partition of the country into India
and Pakistan, the shortage of cotton has come
to stay for some time to come. Against the
total production of 3,190,000 bales in 1947-48
from Ix million acres, the internal requirements
including extra Factory consumption (27o,000
bales) amounted to 4,480,000 bales leaving a
deficit of 1,290,000 bales. Out of this total
production about 230,000 bales of short staple
cotton were surplus to internal requirements.
These are exported. If allowance is made for
,tR:,-ItPPrPa-V01189kl0gIRP0lger of
(7)
(8)
Approved For Release 2001/09/06_: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
6 I
VIJNAN KARMEE [ No. 6
1,520,000 bales wh ch has to be met by imports.
ilte Government of India was aware of the
substantial gap of 7 to 9 lakh bates for the year
1948-49 but failed to remove it by imports on
aommensurated scale. This is a genuine
,;ource of trouble which can be over-come with
The second cause of the shortage of cotton
ta ordain!. Due to the failure of the Govern-
no to control the price of Kapas, its price
gone up considerably resulting in hoarding
of cotton and leading it to black market. Dis-
oibution of raw cotton to textile mills and a
eater security and supervision of all sales and
par .:hoses and the fixation of ceiling price for
cotton and controllod price of Kapas will miti-
gate. this evil considerably.
However, as far as the supply of cotton, is
co.n..erneti, the tension has to a -great deal eased.
The Government of India has made arrange-
ments to import 8 lakh bales and if need be
hinte, and cotton from abroad has already come
....lid the shortage is fast disappearing. Besides,
71.1e. Government has undertaken measures to
e cotton production by increasino acreage
i?,,ndtf cotton, providing irrigation facifitiea,
eupplying suitable fertilizers cm. It is claimed
hat the increase in productioo dihi to these
in.:arures will be to the order of 8 lakh hales
'Z. Accumulation of Stocks:
Some time back the accumulation ot stocks
mills was said to be the major headache
kAling, to the closure of mills. This is some-
thing on.lincierstandable when we look at the
figures of total production and per capita cloth
avaitable to the pooulatiort
Total Mill Production
aa 1949 =a,929,68o,000 vcis.
Production of hand-
looms In 1948?49 7=1,100,000,000 yds.
-.:i0Th imported in
10'48-49 47,430.000 Ydb?
_ a Ctecline. In the year x vistin did not
tA_5114,4V-WPW0iRgaq,u
Approved For Release: 2-0,,c949$9,1 i. A91 uaiyarn -allottel to
Exported to Pakistan in
1948-49 (200,000
bales of approx. 1500
yds)
Exported to countries
other than Pakistan in
1948-49
Total Export in
1948-49
Net available to con-
sumers (337,038,000
people)
Per capita cloth available comes to 13.8 yds.
annually.
The per capita cloth available for consumpa .
tion in 1938-39 was 17.94 yds. which has fallen
to 13.8 yds. in the year 1948-49. This figure
will be reduced tO 13.8 yds. per head per
annum, if we consider too million yards of
cloth purchased for defence services and other
government reotairements, and it would be
further reduced. to T2 yds,? if we take into
account the quantity of cloth smuggled into
Tibet, China and other areas adjacent to
Bengal and :Punjab and other illicit eicorts
from small norm Considering still . further.
the differential need of the Urban population
which form 13% of India's total population
whose need comes to an average of 25 yds./
heati/aentun the cloth avallahle for the Rural
population comes to approximately to yds. per
head per annum. The . is quite insufficient
,!:;pecially when one compares it wi he
tattrlars average per capita consumption which
.as 42 yds. in 1928-29. But still we hear of
the accumulation of stocks. How is this? Is
it aot ,flue to the icICL that. cloth prices are so
high that it is not within the purchasing power
of the mases? Because of the high price of
the textiles, not only the home consumption has
declined, but the export trade has also suffered
=-- 300,000.000 yds.
= 340,863 000 yds.
-----,--
640,863 cm yds.
-='4,636,247,000 yds.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June 1950 ] VIJNEE-KARMEE 7
..4?121M11.13
it. Of the 350 million yards of cloth earmaiit-
ed for export during 1948 to countries other
than Pakistan, only 167 million yards could be
exported. Luckily due to devaluation of the
currency this position has improved considera-
bly and once again Indian textiles have demands
out-side India.
In this connection the Textile Commission's
contention for the accumulation of stocks is
significant and is as follows:?
(1) Manipulation with the cloth packing.
(2) Production of cloth having no demand
in the market in order to take maxi-
mum advantage of the price structure.
(3) High pricing of cloth coupled with fall-
ing purchasing power of the masses.
Mr. Barat, the Textile Commissioner, has
told in one of his statements that the accumula-
tion of stocks at that time of the year was a
seasonal phenomenon and would ease out when
the harvesting was over.
Thus it will be readily seen that the cry of
accumulation was meant to get the controls re-
moved and the capitalists succeeded partially in
lifting of controls on distribution. But did it
solve the problem as the capitalists claimed?
The answer is an emphatic No.
In the first week of November, 1949 there
were 2,02000 bales with the mills in the
Bombay Province as against 2,42,000 bales in
the first week of September. In course of two
months only 40,000 bales had been disposed of.
This fact alone suffices to prove that controls
were not responsible for the accumulation of
stocks. '
Finally, the Government of India, realising
the need to counter-act the deterioration of tl-e
export trade in first half of 1949 and the urgent
need of stimulating export to earn much need-
ed foreign exchange, set up an Export Promo-
tion Committee under the Chairmanship of
Mr. A. D. Gorwalla. On the basis of this
Committee's recommendations, the Government
has liberalised their export policy with the re-
sult that 4.1111V9)YetciFq6-PaligtMcVANgii06
has disappeared since then. The devaluation
of the Indian currency on 19th September,
1949, in terms of dollar by 34%, as pointed
out earlier, has a further stimulating effect. It
is no news that huge quantities of grey Bed
Linens are finding profitable dollar market.
But this over-activity on the export side has
its dark side too. It is learnt reliably that at
the very first instance the entire quota of one
quarter was completed in one month and most
of the mills are now concentrating on exports
sorts. Since there is lack of commensurate in-
crease in the over-all production, this substan-
tial increase in the export trade will create a
void and there is risk of serious shortage of
textiles for internal consumption.
3. Financial Stringency:
The third reason of inadequate finance is
mostly coming from uneconomic and small
units with insufficient resources. But from the
very fact that these concerns did very well dur-
ing war and the period following it, one must
not accept it on its face value. Instances are
not lacking to show that such conditions have
been created due to mismanagement, internal
dissensions and family feuds of the Managing
Agents. The case of Sholapur Spg. and Wvg.
Mills is an example. It is now an accepted
fact that this is not an uneconomic unit and
that the source of trouble were the Managing
Agents and the Board of Directors.
It is, therefore, thought necessary that the
Government should appoint an Experts' Com-
mittee to study how many of such mills are
small and uneconomic and suggest ways and
means to work these mills.
4 Transport Bottle-Neck:
Those who have followed the recent discuss-
ion on the Railway Budget must have found
with relief th4t this headache has gone once
for all.
5. Non-availability of Stores and Spare
Parts:
To any technician who has had any ex--
i)GlehtINPW114017,90&194SCIP(11 7
? war
8 ] Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
VIJNEE-KARMEE [ No. 6
days, this argument will not be acceptable.. We
are able to get our spare parts and stores with
ease from abroad and our local work-shops too
are in a better position to supply most of our
demands. When the industry could work to
the fullest capacity in those trying days of
war giving target production, closure of mills
on this ground is flimsy.
6. Reduced Margin of Profits due to Increase
in Wage Bill:
At the very outset one has to consider that
the wage bill is not the major factor in the cost
of Indian Textiles. Moreover a proper scrutiny
will show that though there is an increase in
wage bill its percentage increase is very much
below that of the percentaae increase in the
prices of cloth. Besides it is not true that there
are reduced profits. Following facts speak for
themselves.
The block capital of the entire cotton textile
industry is slightly more than too crores and
the industry reaped the gross profit of ;72 crores
between 1940 and 1946. Indeed a substantial
portion of it went as taxes bat the net profit
itself was 79.42 crores and the Managing
Agents commission amounted to 40 crores. It
will be seen that 119.4.2 crores or much more.
than the block capital was realised in 7 years
only. Thus even if there is reduced profit,
there is hardly any reason to close the mills in
the interest of the nation. But according to Mr.
M. P. Gandhi, the truth is different. "The
year 1948 was a year of bumper profits to the
textile mills. According to ene source the total
profits made by the Bombay Textile Industry
alone in 1948 amonnted to 2o crores as against
Rs. 7 crores in 1947." The figure for the year
1949 is not available bat looking at the industri-
al balance sheets the position continues to he
encouraging.
7. Staggering boors:
Dispute between die Management and the
Labour is quite natural for working staggering
it since it occupies practically the whole of their
day towards their duties.
8. Lack of co-operation between Capital and
Labour:
Without considering the pros and cons of
the recent Government legislations, one thing is
certain that they have been instrumen tal in re-
ducing dislocation of work due to labour dis-
putes. The man-hours lost during the last
year were considerably small, so per cent of the
loss was due to lock-outs.
On the above analysis and further discus-
sions, the following conclusions were arrived
at which if implemented will go a long way in
averting the present crisis as well as putting the
industry on surer and scientific footing.
Abolition of the Managing Agency System.
Any student of economics will admit that
the Managing Agency system has out-lived its
existence. Whatever may be its merit a few
decades earlier, it is an accepted fact that it is
not in tune with the time. A substantial por-
tion of the company's earning goes as Agent's
commission with no corresponding gain.
Whilst the net profits for the year 1940 to 1946
were 79.42 crores, the Managing Agents' com-
mission paid during the period was 40 crores
and thus it will be seen that an amount equal to
so per cent of the net profit went as such.
Compulsory Grouping.
As the growth and development of the
(ndian Textile Industry was not on a planned
basis, a number of small en.1 uneconomic units
at odd places came into being. In order to
improve the working of such units, the compul-
sory grouping of such mills into manageable
and economic corporations is highly desirable.
The superiority of such managements has been
amply demonstrated in various countries. In
Czechoslovakia, the Government has centralised
over goo independent units of textile industry
into about 30 national corporations to run on
commercial lines with very fruitful results. In
hours. Because wile,ras the capitalist gains by China a hu c car orations with ssio units was
1
way 99
SIPingeflecUariPtetlea4# 2ARANs9/MenFIARIPP (1M4 tiat within
Ap.oroved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June 1950 j VIJNAN-KARMER [ 9
two years, it amply demonstrated its superiority
in both efficiency and reduced cost of produc-
tion over the privately owned mills.
Standardization of Production.
Advantages of standardization of production
have come to be recognised in all quarters. A
beginning was made during the war in this
direction by the introduction of the utility
clothes. This scherite, however, did not Suc-
ceed due to the half-heartedness of the measure,
sabotage from the industrialists and finally mis-
management in the distribution from the offi-
cials.
In order that the scheme of the standardiza-
tion of production may be a success, the follow- ?
ing points have to be taken into consideration.
pi. The needs of the broader sections of
the population of various regions as regards
their tastes and requirements have to be
scientifically studied, both from the point of
quantity and quality.
2. Grouping of the mills on the basis of
their capacity -to produce the various standar-
dised qualities in order to get maximum effici-
ency. Attempts should be made that the mills
cater to the needs of the regions in which they
ore, situated as far as possible.
3. While drawing specifications for stan-
dardised sorts, it has to be borne in mind that
the clothes are of balanced structure so as to
offer better durability.
Control on Raw Materials.
Unless the raw material is made available
to the mills at reasonable price, it is too much
to control the prices of yarn and cloth. The
Government is certainly to be blamed for taking
only half-hearted measures such as controlling
the .price of cotton and leasing kapas uncon-
trolled.
Controls to be effective should start right
from raw materials to the finished goods. Not
only cotton but all other important raw?
materials and accessories etc. should be con-
trolled if the costs of production are to be kept
within reakpipbbatidifior Release 2001/09/06
Items like dye-stuffs, chemicals, spare parts
etc. which are imported from outside should
be purchased in bulk by the Government and
distributed according to the requirements of
the industrial concerns. Such a practice in
U. K. in the purchase of cotton has proved
successful. This will further ensure the import
of only essential articles and thus save the much
needed foreign currency.
Scientific Utilisation of Labour.
Work-load assessment on a scientific basis,
through Time Study, as a means for proper
utilisation of men and machinery is now well
recognised. The system of allocating jobs to
operatives up till now has no scientific basis at
all, which has led to inequitable distribution of
work-load whereby some are called upon to do
a larger share of work than normal whilst others
have hardly sufficient work to do. In order,
therefore, to take maximum advantage of labour
productivity, work-loads must be scientifically
distributed, keeping in view actual effort, skill,
training etc.
Under the stress of present conditions, it is
becoming increasingly important to cut down
manufacturing costs to a minimum while in-
creasing the wages of the operatives. This can
only be done through a system of Rationalisa-
tion by getting the maximum output per
operative and per unit of machinery installed.
The Re-deployment scheme of the British
Textile Industry has been a major success in
spite of the initial difficulties.
Setting up of an Advisory Body.
The Government -should constitute an ad-
visory body consisting of representatives of
technicians and labour which will advise the
Government on matters concerning the Textile
Industry and suggest executive actions in the
cases of mills mis-managed.
In order that such an advisory body may
function satisfactorily and the technicians in
general be in a position to offer impartial ad
vice, security of their services should be safe-
:ggalthRIPP83-00415R006100050001-7
To I Approved For Release 2001/4494EARDP83-00415R006100050001F
17No. 6
SIR EDWARD MELLANBY
Famous Nutrition Scientist Appointed Director of India's National Drug Institute.*
Sir Edward Mellanby, one of the eminent
nutrition scientists of the United Kingdom
and until recently the Secretary of the Medical
Research Council, was born in 1884 and was
elucned in Cambridge. He was a student of
St. Thomas's Hospital, London where he ob-
tainel his M.A. and M.D. and b gan his teach-
ing c treer as demonstrator in Physiology. From
1913-2o he was lecturer and later Professor of
Physiology at the King's College for Women
in the University of London. He then went to
Sheffield as Professor of Pharmacology until
1933 when he received his appointment as Sec:re-
vary of the Medical Research Council of the
United Kingdom. Two years later he was
elected Fullerian Professor of Physiology in the
Roy I Institution.
His early pieces of research work concerned
the physiological effects of alcohol. About
this time the late Professor Hopkins was carry-
ing on his research which led to the determina-
tion of vitamins. By dietary experiments on
'ninnies Mellanby found that rickets was
cansed by the absence from their diet of a fat
soluble substance which controlled the deposi-
tion of calcium in the bones. This work led to
the i lentification of Vitamin D as separate from
Vitamin A. He is also responsible for prov.
ing the rachitic properties of cereal diet, and he
identified the substance as "Phytic Acid". He
was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society as
long ago as 1925. His investigations in the
held of nutrition have included a study of the
effects of the lack of iodine. In one of his
latest researches he has demonstrated that
bread made from the flour bleached chemi-
cally by nitrogen trichloride, popularly known
as agene process, can cause in dogs canine
hysteria. He has long been recognized
successive committees appointed to advise the
Ministry of Health. He was associated with
the League of Nations also and acted as Chair-
man of two international conferences for the
Standardisation of Vitamin g and International
Technical Commission on Nutrition. He is a
member of the Scientific Advisory Committee
to the Cabinet of his country. He was the re-
cipient of quite a series of honours. He was
Oliver Sharpey lecturer of the Royal College
of Physicians in 1902; obtained the Stewart
Prize for Medical Research from the British
Medical Association in 1924; Bissett-Hawkins
Medal of the Royal College of Physicians 2929;
Cameron Prize of the Edinburgh University in
2932 and Royal Medal of tne Royal Society
the same year. He was appointed the Croonian
Lecturer of the Royal College of Physicians in
1933 and a Linacre Lecturer in Cambridge the
same year. He with his wife May Mellanby,
who is also a famous nutritioa scientist, was
awarded the Charles Mickle Fellowship of the
Toronto University in 1935, Moxon Medal,
Royal College of Physicians 1936, appointed
Harveian Orator Royal College of Ph3,sicians
2938, Rede Lecturer Cambridge University in
2939, Croonian Lecturer of the Royal Society
2943 and was finally awarded Buchanan Medal
of the Royal Societ) 1947. He has been elected
honorary member of various learned societies
in quite a number of foreign countries. He re-
tired from the Secretaryship of the Medical Re-
search Council in October 2949. His has been
a life full of achievements and glory. Though
basically a medical graduate, he made his mark
in Physiology and Biochemistry and was award-
ed Doctorate from most of the reputed Univer-
sities in the United Kingdom.
as anA aut. og Fori 't
lzr8verRe Ugg6 in? '009itig ? Cifs*-kbittliStielltalrerab el lit alai rn
Woration
United ngdom an was a member o the :vices.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June 1950 ] VIJNAN-ICARMEE [ I
Letters to
Your editorial on "The Planning Com-
mission" in the April issue of Vijnan-Kartnee
has prompted me to make the following re-
marks.
There seems to be a general tendency to be-
lieve that some sort of planning is a magic
cure-all for all the ills that our country is heir
ta. Readers of Vijnan-Karmee could not have
failed to notice that this widespread miscon-
ception is implicit in the whole tone of the
editorial. But it must be remembered that
there is planning and planning. From a study
of the plans in fourteen countries, Prof. S. E.
Harris has crystallised the salient features of
the different plans in the following subtitles of
chapters in his book: "Economic Planning"
(A. Knopf, go).
U.S.A: Approach to planning.
India: An Exercise in Economic Arithmetic.
Germany: Imposed Plans.
Greece: A Plan from Abroad.
Japan: Diagnosis without Therapy.
Norway: Diagnosis, Prognosis and Pro-
gramme.
Netherlands: Planning under Duress.
France: Planning to Modernize.
Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary: Ap-
proaches to a fully Planned Economy.
USSR: A Planned Economy.
Argentine: Planning towards Autarchy.
All these are Plans ! It is clear that any plan
-can be judged from two points of view.
Firstly, whom does it benefit? Secondly, how
far will it be put into practice?
Every plan is designed to benefit those
who do the planning and the groups or classes
to which they owe allegiance. Our Planning
Commission does not consist of any represen-
tatives of the workers and the peasants. On
the other hand, it is composed of the big finan-
ciers, the capitalists, their stooges and their
lawyers. Ant6gEdufttgeRelealtatta2COM119181
? appointed by the present Government of India
the Editors
which is completely in the grip of the capita-
list and feudalist vested interests and whose
reactionary anti-labour policy is notorious
throughout the democratic world. Any plans
produced by such a Commission can only pro-
fit the vested interests and cannot do any
good to the people. The "presence of our
Foundation-President" is naively supposed
to "vouchsafe a scientific approach to the prob-
lem." It is well to remember that his presence in
the Government of India has not in any way
resulted in a scientific approach to probl sins
facing our country. On the contrary, ever,
problem has been tackled from the point of
view of enriching and consolidating the reac-
tionary vested interests. Even if a scientific
approach is guaranteed by some miracle, what is
there to be happy about in the acientifie exploi-
tation of the common worker?
Considering now the second point, it is ob-
vious that the "Master Over-All Plan" will be
just one more file to be pigeon-holed unless it
is implemented in all its entirety. Otherwise
it is as good as leaving the country in the hands
of the few who greed for private profit, as is
being done now. The method of implementa-
tion of the plan has been left delightfully vague
in the terms of reference of the Commission.
This is quite deliberate and the reason is
simple. If by chance, one or two clauses
which are likely to do some good to the ordi-
nary people were to be included and if the
implementation of these were not likely to bring
in quick profits, the vague terms of reference
provide a loophole by which such clauses may
not be put into operation. It is clear that
those parts of the plan which do not benefit the
the planners and their representatives but which
have been forced in by popular pressure of a
troubled conscience will never be implemented.
: CIALRBP8EldtgRitlt Blear5aliDihr usual
stuff about the "naain difficulty" being that of
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
12 j VIJNAN-KARMEE [ No. 6
finding out money". Do you remember what
Dr. S. Trone, the planning expert, has been
trying to knock into our heads all these months?
"The important thing in plan," he said,
"ia not the money. It is the people".
To quote one example, have you heard about
the Ferghana Canal, 157 miles long, which was
built in the record time of 17 days because the
people knew they were working for them-
felves ? To quote another, what could the
Chinese National Planning Commission do
under Chiang-Kai-Shek with all those billions
of notorious American dollars ?
Instead of pointing out all these implications,
you smugly mention "the general expression of
satisf ction at the appointment of the Planning
Commission"! Da you realise that millions in
our country have not even heard of the Com-
mission, leave alone express satisfaction at it?
Q loting our Poona resolutions in the body of
your editorial, you have omitted the words "on
a basis of a socialist economy" after the words
?rtrie industrialisation of our country" Line 25,
col. t), but instead you call for "increasing
production", like one of the stooge bosses from
the INTIM. You mention the "minor issue"
of the "absence of a scientist" as being a
disappointment to many scientific workers" _and
even consider it as "deliberate". ! You finally
end with a silly and inane joke about technical
and non-technical personnel and "the fundament-
al rule in mathematics"
I have been forced to deal with this editorial
at length because it exhibits the same incoher-
ence, the same irrationality and the same bank-
ruptcy of thought that have characterized the
previous editorials in Vijnan-Karmee. I wish
that all members of the Association will come
forward to protest against these so-called edito-
rials which say nothing, mean less and lead
nowhere.
N. N. Narayara Rao,
Member, ASWI, Bangalore Branch.
nr?????=1?114.0M1=11111111???
The Editors have received the following
resolution from the Secretary of the Central
Laboratories, Scientific and Industrial Research,
Hyderabad Unit of ASW I-
"This Meeting of the CSIR Unit of ASWI
takes a serious view of the editorial appearing
in the April issue of Vijnan-Karmee on the
Planning Commission and feels that it goes
against the spirit and aim of the Policy Resolu-
tion No. 1, passed at the Third Annual General
Meeting of the ASWI at Poona as also at the
Allahabad session of the Association. "
"These resolutions clearly lay down that
till the Government adopts the policy of
nationalisation of basic industries and builds the
economy of the country on the socialistic-basis,
the deteriorating economic conditions of the
country "affecting the scientific workers along
with the other sections of the population"
cannot be remedied."
"In view of the present policy of the
Government that they do not envisage any
nationalisation for the next Is years or more,
only the appointment of the Planning Cornmiss-
ion without accepting the fundamentals of a
planned Socialist economy cannot solve. the
present economic crisis. Therefore, we strongly
feel that the organ of the ASWI cannot advo-
cate such on apnointment without a clarification
of the objectives as enunciated in the re ;olution
of the ASWI and much less can it afford to offer
full cooperation to the Commission on behalf
of ASWI. With the limitations of the Com-
mission above pointed, the inclusion or non-
inclusion of a scientist is meaningless._ And
hence, the editorial not only is at variance %hist
the fundamental policies of the Association but
also creates illusions and false hopes among
scientific workers."
"We therefore feel that the Vijnan-Karmee
should clearly demand for a fundamental change
in the pOlicv Of the Government in favour of
socialist economy as a prelude to the appoint-
Approved FoTfRelease 2001/09/06 : ClittSki1:9143kitReiglAtlildiff013608447mbilise
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June 1950 ] VIJNAN-KARMEE 13
the opinion of the scientific workers all over the
country to bring about such a change."
Dismissal of Prof. Johot Curie...A.n attack on
the charter of Scientific Workers.
The dismissal of Prof. Frederic 'Joliot-Curie
from his post of High Commissioner for Atomic
Energy is reminiscent of Hitler's attack on Prof.
Einstein and the banishment of the world famous
scientist from Germany. Attack on Science has
always been a symptom of desperation on the
part of reaction.
Reuter's message announcing the news to the
world reports that "The Premier, M. Bidault,
dismissed the brilliant 5o year old nuclear scien-
tist because the Professor's public statements
and unreserved acceptance of resolutions passed
at the French Communist Party Congress three
weeks ago made it impoossible for him to retain
his job." The obvious reference is to the activi-
ties of Prof. Joliot in championing the cause of
peace and demanding a ban on the Atom Bomb.
The activities of the Professor as the President
of the World Committee of Partisans of Peace
seeking to mobilise the conscience of the world
fore ban on the Atom Bomb directly follow his
understanding of the social responsibilities of
the Scientist recognised by the Charter for the
Scientific Workers adopted by the World Feder-
ation in its very first Assembly. The Charter
has the following to say regarding the responsibi-
lities of the Scientist.
To the world.
To maintain the international character of
science.
1.32 To study the underlying causes of war.
1.33 To aid agencies seeking to prevent war
and to build stable, bases for peace.
1.34 To work against diversion of scientific
effort to war preparations; in particular to
the use of Science in providing methods of
mass destruction"
(Vihanti ' to', the observed
values being 5.1 x ro4 and 1.23 x ro4 respectively.
(2) Elastic constants : Using the formulee given by the author for
calculating the elastic constants of a-quartz in his earlier paper (Saxena, 1944).
we get cii c12 C33 C13 C44 C14 C66
Ccile? 15.0 2.3 13.7 5.4 9.9 2.0 6.3 X IOU.
obs 8,7 73 10.5 1.4 5.8 1,7 4.0 x Ion.
It has to be pointed out that the values of R?; R12 etc., calculated from
(4.2) and from (2.7), using the given values of D2/ A and F2/A, do not tally.
This is due to our insufficient knowledge of force-constants in quartz.. For if
we take K=2.526 x Do' dynes and K3=- - 3238 x Io5 dynes instead of the
above values, we find that the two values of Rn, R12, R,,, R44 and
R;(R, -R1219) agree exactly but those of R,3 and R1.1 do not, and in addition
the? agreement between the observed and calculated values of Raman
frequencies becomes much worse. Even if we disragard the Rarnan and
infra-red frequencies and consider only the elastic constants, we Eee that four
force-constants are not enough for calculating the six elastic constants ds the
disagreement in the two values of 1233 and R1,1 is evidently due to this cause.
Therefore when we are calculating 17 quantities with only four force-constants,
the disagreement between the two calculated values of R11, R12 etc., may
be expected and it does not in any way vitiate the method of calculating the
piezo-electric constants adopted in the paper.
(3) Raman and infra-red frequencies : Using the determinants given
by the author in the earlier work (Saxena,
1944, 45) we get
Raman frequencies
Infra-red frequencies
calc.
156
256
473
1109
1147
772
479
lOX
obs.
207
356
466
1984
rrir
800
488
385 ?
1190)
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
482 B. D. Saxena and K. G. Srivastava
As we have calculated 17 different constants (2 piezo-electric, 7 elastic
and 8 Ratnan and infra-red frequencies) with the help of only four force-
constants, only a rough agreement between the observed and calculated
values can be expected. Moreover, neither the structure of quartz nor the
force constants are correctly known, for according to the structure of Gibb's
(1926) and Wei (1935) the Si-0 distances in quartz have only one value while
according to Machatschky (1937) there are two values which differ widely
and according to Brill, Hermann and Peters (1942) the two values differ only
very slightly. However, it is evident that the values of the piezo-electric
constants calculated by using a generalised system of force-constants are much
closer to the observed values than those obtained on Born's assumption of the
validity of Cauchy 's relationship.
There are no calculations of the piezo-electric constants of quartz.
Gibbs calculated only the piezo-electric modulus 8,, cf a-quartz by finding
the relative shifts of the centres of gravity of oxygen and silicon atoms
for the pressure of one dyne and got a value which is nearly five times too
high. We have obtained much better agreement and the discrepancy is most
likely due to the uncertainty` in the structure of quartz and the values of the
force-constants 1b, a-- > c and a-->d,
for the different directions of the incident -magnetic field in the crystal. In
the first place, . these frequencies will be large, since they correspond to
separations produced by the predominant cubic part of the field. Secondly,
they will differ from one another by small amounts, since Aviv will be of the
same order as the ratio of the separations produced by the rhombic part of
the field to that produced by the cubic part. The results will be that for
Ni" salts (i) the contribution from orbital moments to the total effective
moment cannot be large ; (2) these contributions will be practically the same
along the ,different crystal directions, thus producing very little anisotropy.
On the other land, when as in Co' the pattern is inverted making triplet level
the lowest, the orbital contributions along different directions will be mainly
given by the frequencies . corresponding to the energy separations and
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
490 A. 13ose
g7--e respectively, due to the rhombic field, which are much smaller than
those due to the cubic field. Further, the separations g-->f and f-->e will be
of comparable magnitudes. Hence we conclude (1) that the contributions
from the orbital moments will be large ; (2) that the differences between
these contributions along different directions in the crystal, will be comparable
to their absolute magnitudes, leading to a very high anisotropy of the order
of 25 to 30 for Co ++ in comparison with 3 to 4 '34 only for Ni" salts, all
at room temperatures, as is quite well known (Bose, 1948).
On the other hand, Tables I and II show that there is no such
marked contrast between the cupric salts and the ferrous salts, in spite
of the inversion of the Stark-patterns for the two. in both of them the
orbital contributions are found to be large, as is shown by a comparison of the
observed p2 values of Cu" and Fe ions, with the spin only values for
the two ions, namely 3 and 24 respectively. Both the salts show large
anisotropies of the same magnitude, Ap2/p2=ig to 24 % for the different
salts at room temperatures.
One would, therefore, be tempted to attribute the negative results of the
inversion to the fact that, whether the Stark-pattern is erect or inverted the
ground level is a multiplet and hence would correspond to large contributions
to orbital moments and to a large anisotropy. But such a simple explanation is
vitiated by the interesting fact pointed out by Bethe, (/c. cit.) that the doublet
is 'non-magnetic' i. e., there can be no orbital contributions involving the
frequencies corresponding to the separation of the components of the doublet ;
so that the large orbital contributions in Cu" salts cannot arise from the low
frequency terms, as it presumably does in Fe" where the ground level is a
triplet. So one has to invoke, to explain the orbital contribution in Cu", the
terms depending on the separation between the doublet and the triplet; and
in order to explain the large anisotropy we have further to postulate that it is
only the lower of the two levels of the doublet that will be occupied, even at
the highest temperature in our measurements ; in other words, to postulate
a separation between the two levels of the doublet, much greater than kT
even at these temperatures. The latter postulate is plausible, since, the
separation produced by the rhombic part of the field, though smaller than
that produced by the cubic part, can still be much greater than kT.
Thus,- we should expect the orbital contribution in Cu" to be much
smaller than in Fe". But since, the contribution from the spin moments
in Cu" is also much smaller than in Fe', namely in the ratio of 3: 24, the
ratio of the orbital contribution to the spin contribution is of the same order
in both the salts as actually observed. In the ferrous salts, the high anisotropy
is due to the orbital contribution being different along different crystal
directions?actually adding to the spin contribution along two of the directions.,
and acting against it along the third. The /32 value along this direction will,
hence, be less than even the spin only value of 24. On the other hand, in
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Paramagnetism of Single Crystals, etc. 491
Cupric salts the high anisotropy iS due to the. orbital Monierit being -confined
to a single direction.
2. Magnetic ProPerties of Cupric Salts
Among the cupric salts studied by us copper sulphate penta-hydrate is the
most interesting. The crystal is triclinic and from the X-ray analysis of this
.crystal made by Beevers and Lipson (1.934), we know that it contains two
molecules of CuS0,, 51120 in the unit cell. Further, each Cu ion is
surrounded by six oxygen atoms, four of which belong to four water molecules
and form a square with the Cu" ion in the centre and each at a distance of
2.o 5, and the other two oxygen atoms belong to SO 1 ions located centrally
above and below the square, each at a distance of 2.4 A from the Cu ++ ion.
This octahedral arrangement of the oxygen atoms is thus not quite regular but
has a tetragonal symmetry, which may be regarded as obtained from a regular
arrangement by pulling out the diagonal joining the last two oxygen. atoms.
Presumably thus, the crystalline field in the neighbourhood of the Cu" ion
should also be predominantly cubic in symmetry, with a tetragonal component
superposed upon it, the principal axes of the two fields being the same.
_
As have been shown by Krishnan and Mukherji (1936, 1938), the tetragonal
axis of the field, associated individually with the two Cu" ions in the unit cell
of the crystal, are nearly perpendicular to each other. Further, denoting the
direction of the tetragonal axis of the ion by z and the principal susceptibilities
of either ion along this axis and in the plane perpendicular to it by K, and K1.
respectively, and distinguishing the axes of the two ions in the unit cell by
subscripts r and .2 respectively, they conclude that (1) KJ >Ki, (2) the
direction in CI-1SO,, 51420 crystal perpendicular to the ziz, plane, should be
one of the principal magnetic axes of the crystal, (3) the exterior and the
interior bisectors of the angle between Zi ane z,2directions should be the other
two principal. axes, (4.) _since zi and z, are nearly at' right angles, the
susceptibilities along the latter two axes must be nearly equal and of the
magnitude (K +I< J.)/ 2, and that along the first axis at right angles to z,z,
plane equal to K.L. Denoting the two nearly equal susceptibilities by x, and X,
respectively and the third by X2
we have
Xi( ? X3)= (K + /2
and since K 1>K.1.,
All these various results have been verified by Krishnan and Mukherji.
Further, _using the data for susceptibility at low 'temperatures, of powdered
.crystal by de Haas. and GOrter 4nd from their own: tneasurement of
the anisotropy down to liquid air temperature, they. conclude that
though . the squares of principal magnetic moments p12( ,7-,N2) and 1222 are
,'Nzery.,.different, they are 'both nearly independent of teMperature. In other
ApproOetiltgfRelease 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
(2)
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
492 A. Bose
words, all the susceptibilities follow the Curie law but with different Curie
constants i.e. a law of the type
Ci
2=2, 3(?a)
'r
C2=0.399 and C,( ?3)=0486 ;
unlike the usual type of variation
!
2=I 2,3,
??? (3)
(,0
where C is the same but O's different in different directions.
We have directly measured the absolute susceptibilities at different tem-
peratures down to 8ouK along one of the directions in the crystal, namely,
the one that sets parallel to the field when the crystal is suspended with 'c'
axis vertical, and using the anisotropy data of Krishnan and Mukherji,
calculated the values of 1,,2(-1,2,) and 1'22 for the crystal at these temperatures.
The data are given in table II and are in agreement with those of Krishnan
and Mukherji. The j values also agree with various other authors and are
given in T able III, together with p' values by the same authors for the two
Tutton salts of copper to be discussed later.
TABLE III
P2 For Various Copper Salts By Different Observers.
A lit13.,r
CuSO4, 51120
11111.1?????????111?????????
CuSO4,(N144)2.904,6II20 CuSO4,K29.04,CH20
Temp. ?K
da Haas and 290.0
Gorter (Leid. 169.4
Comm., 21ed 77.47
14.29
1,2
3.705
3.663
3.626
3.505
Temp.?K
1,2
Temp.?K
1,2
lanes (1935) ?
?
295-7
3.741
2908
3.729
1
22Q,8
83.3
3.708
3,66o
205.6
82.1
3.696
3 657
IZeekie 292.2
3.654
292.7
3.720
287.5
3.684
(1939) 80.4
3.632
79.9
3.690
78.6
3.633
71-78
3.528
14.00
3 648
14.13
3.64o
1.58
2.634
1.60
3.642
1.60
3.579
['resent
295.2
3.701
295.9
3.761
295.9
3.683
Author I 168.8
3.701
225.0
3.748
276.9
3.630
88.7
3.626
92.9
3.706
83.9
3.592
We may draw attention here to the interesting result that for the crystal
of Cu504, 51120, P22 conforms roughly to the sPin only value of 3, whereas
the other susceptibility is considerably in excess of it, which shows, in view
of the relations (2) between the principal susceptibilities of the crystal and the
ion stated earlier in this section, that the contribution of the orbital moment
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Paramagnetism of Single Crystals, etc. 49_4
is practically confined to one direction, namely, to the tetragonal axis of the
crystalline field in the neighbourhood of the ion. Denoting the effective
moments of the ion by P Pi., as against the effective moments pi(-p3) and
of the crystal, we have
Pi2( ?P32) = (P112 + P.1.2)/ 2
and P22=1).1.2
from which we obtain s?
TABLE IV
CuSO4, 5H20
(5)
?????1?????!1??=1111!
'1"K
295.2
88.7
p112
4.588
4.377
Py?
3.258
3.251
?from which one can see, that the contribution from the orbital moment is
considerable and is confined to the direction of the tetragonal axis of the
crystalline electric field. The temperature variation of the moment if any,
should be also more prominent in this direction as it actually is.
The above results arc interesting, since, from the 'non-magnetic' nature
of the ground level hid] is the doublet level, we were already led to the
conclusion that the orbital contribution is confined to one direction in the
crystal. That when the crystalline field has tetragonal symmetry this direc-
tion should be along the tetragonal axis, is indeed to be expected, and can
also be explained from direct considerations of the symmetry of the field ;
since the orbital moments will be quenched almost completely along directions
perpendicular to the tetragonal axis, and if any part of it is conserved it must
be along this axial direction only.
In view of the fact that the magnetic anisotropies in the two cupric Tutton
salts are nearly the same as in copper sulphate, it is tempting to try whether
a similar cubic field with a feeble tetragonal component will also fit the
observed data for these two salts. The Tutton salts as already mentioned
are monoclinic and contain two Cu" ions in the unit cell. Assuming the
field to be tetragonal, the xraxis of the crystal should be evidently the projec-
tion of the tetragonal axis of the ion on the (oio) plane of the crystal.
Denoting the inclination of this tetragonal axis of the ion to the ((no) plane
by 0, we get the following simple relations between the principal magnetic
moments of the crystal and those of the ions :?
p,2 =P112 cos 20 + Pi.' sin 20
I2
2 = F11.2
... (6)
p32=p ri 2 sin2 +P2 cos 20
If the above assumptions, regarding the tetragonal symmetry of the
crystal field associated with each Cu" ion, be correct then we should expect
1322 p2 J., to have practically the spin only value of 3. This is actually so
as will be seen from below.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
494
A. Bose
IAflLl V
Crystal : (2uSO4, A2SO4, 61120
12 e=1)22 1' 2
= P12+ P32 7 P22
A=Ntli
295,9
3.330
4(22?,
L)2
.; 327
4.464
A =K
295 9
133.9
3.449
4 752
4 562
Knowing P.2 we can indeed go further and calculated P12 from the observed
values of 1),2 and p32 using the relation (6), since then P 2 + p_1_2 = p a 2?
The values of P11 2 so obtained are given in the table above.
These values agree well with the values deduced from the crystal CuSO4,
51120 and show (r) that the fields in the Tutton salts do have tetragonal sym-
metry, in spite of the fact, that in the Tutton salts, the Cu ++ ion is surrounded
by six identical oxygens all belonging respectively, to six water molecules,
unlike in copper sulphate in which two oxygen atoms are different from the
rest and belong to two SO,? groups; (2) that even the magnitudes of the cubic
and the tetragonal parts of the field are the same in the Tutton salts as in
copper sulphate. The above conclusions lend strong support to the view
expressed by us m our earlier papers (Bose, 1947, 1948), and which has
generally been adopted in our discussions, that in addition to the cubic part,
the feeble noncubic part of the field also may be due to the immediately
neighbouring atoms, and as long as these neighbours are the same and arrang-
ed in the same configuration in different crystals, the crystal fields in them
also will be the same. These results, have important significance in view of
the interesting theorem of Jahn and Teller (1937, 1938), that the asymmetry
and the magnitude of the crystalline field are determined ultimately by the
degeneracy of the ground state of the paramagnetic ion.
The six oxygens surrounding the Cu ion will be strongly bound to the
ion and the group as a whole will form a more or less rigid system having
tetragonal symmetry. But the binding between two such groups present
in the unit cell will be much feebler and hence the two tetragonal axes may
slightly change their relative orientations with change of temperature ; consis-
tent of course with the requirement of the monoclinic symmetry of the crystal
of these Tutton salts, namely, that one of the groups should be the mirror
image of the other. In other words, though the crystal fields and therefore,
P 1! and 131 will be practically independent of the temperature, the angle 0,
which the tetragonal axis makes with the (oro) plane, as also its projection
on the (oro) plane, may change slightly with the temperature. The projection
of the tetragonal axis is evidently the x, axis of the crystal, and thus we can
readily see how without any change in the crystalline field, dither in its
magnitude or in its asymmetry, there can be appreciable change. in the
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Paramagnetism of Single Crystals, etc. 495
direction of the x, and x2 axes of the crystal. The angle q/ may be calculated
from the relation,
and its temperature variation for the two Tutton salts ma Y be seen from the'
Table VI. We specially -emphasise this point, since an explanation of-the
change .of axis in terms of thel change in crystalline field, as has _been
attempted by Jordahl (ro34), is not only complicated but requires'a large
rotation of the rhombic field axes with reference to the axes of the cubic
field.
TABLE VI
Ij'or the angle
Crystal : CuSO4, A2SO4, 6112()
Temperature ?K
. Angle ct. in degrees
A.'-=N114
A=K
295.9
92.9
295.9
83.9
? 40.8
31.3
41.8
41.0
Before concluding this section we should refer to some important results
obtained by Reekie (1939, vide Table III) on the mean susceptibilities of these
three cupric salts at liquid hydrogen and helium temperatures. Por.all the three
salts the effective magnetic moment, corresponding to the mean susceptibility,
is practically independent of temperature down to about 14?K (as we-have also
found for each of the three principal moments separately and over a shorter
range of temperature). But below this temperature there is a striking contrast
in the behaviour of the copper sulphate on one side and the two cupric Tutton
salts on the other. Whereas, in copper sulphate the value of p, comes down
rapidly at liquid helium temperatures and the trend of the p2 - against T curve
suggests that it may reach very lo W values in the neighbourhood of
absolute zero; in the Tutton salts the fall in p, is very slight and its rate is
of the same order as at higher temperatures. Presumably, associated with
this is the observation of Ashmead (1939) that the specific heat versus tempera-
ture curve of copper sulphate shows a large hump in the region of 4?K, which
is completely absent in the corresponding curves of the two cupric Tutton salts.
These results do not appear to be explicable on the crystalline field theory,
and indeed, at present, on any theory.
3. Ferrous Salts Versus Cobalt Salts
As we mentioned in an earlier section, the triplet level in the Stark-
pattern of the D-levels of Pe" being lowermost, there should be a large con-
tribution from the orbital moments, and the contributions should be different
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
496 A. Bose
along different directions, actually addin:_; to the spin contribution along h , and
J? directions and acting against the spin along pi, direction. Hence the large
anisotropy in the crystals. We further see from the experimental data given
in Table II that p, and pa have nearly the same values which vary little with
temperature and they are not much different in the two salts. In cobalt
salts (Bose, 1948) all the three p's tend to become temperature-independent
at high temperatures, the values being very different from the sPin only
value of p2= 15. The experimental values for Fe' show that pi certainly,
and probably also pi and p? will reach temperature-independent values at high
temperatures, and it is not unlikely that those temperature-independent values
may all be the same, namely, the sPin only value corresponding to P2=24.
If this is so it would mean that high frequency contributions in Fe" are much
less than in Co l-1-.
CKNOWLEDGMENT
The author takes this opportunity of thanking Prof. K. S. Krishnan,
D.Sc., F.R.S., for his kind interest and help in the series of investigations
on the iron group of salts, of which the present paper is the last, which were
completed before 1q41 but could not be published so long due to unavoidable
circumstances.
REFERENCES
Ashmead, 1939, Nature, 143, 85.5.
13eeyers, C. A. and Lipson, H., 1934, Proc. Roy. Soc. (A) 145, 570.
H 1929, Ann. der Phys., 3, 133.
Bose, A., 1947, Ind. IOW% Phys. 21, 277.
1948, 22, 76, 195 and 276.
Garter, C. J., 1932, Phys. Rev., 42, 437.
(le Haas and Gorter, C. J. Leiden Comms. 2 iod.
Jahn and Teller, 1937, Proc. Roy. Soc. (A) 161, 220.
1938, 11 11 11 164, 117.
Janes, R. B., r933, Phys. Rev., 48, 78.
Jordahl, 0. M. 1934, Phys. Rev., 45, 87,
Krishnan, K. S., Banerjee, S. and Chakrayorty. N. C., 1933, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A)
232, 99.
Krishnan, K. S. and Muklierji, A , 1938, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A) 237, 135.
10/ 1936, Phys. Rev., 50, 86o.
1938, 1/ 1.1 54, 553
?, 1938, ? ? 54, 84).
Penney, W. G. and Schlapp, R., 1932, Phys. Rev., 42, 666.
Reekie, J., 1939, Proc. Roy. Soc. (A) 173, 367.
Van Vleck, j. H. 1932, The Theory of Electric and Magnetic Susceptibilities (Oxford).
? 1932, Phys., Rev., 41, 208.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
58
A NEW HORIZONTAL ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
By N. N. DAS GUPTA, M. L. DE, D. L. BHATTACHARYA AND
A. K. CHAUDHURY
(Received for publication September 20, g8)1
Plates XVIA and XVIB
ABSTRACT. A new horizontal electron microscope with several special features has
been constructed. The technical details of its construction, power supplies and operation
are given in this paper. The microscope can be operated at a maximum electron energy
of 8o,000 electron volts and is designed for an electron optical magnification of twenty
thousand diameters.
INTR 0 DU CTTO N?HIST ORIC AL
An electron microscope with several distinctive features has been pro-
duced in the University College of Science, Calcutta. It is the aim of this
paper to describe these features in detail.. However, from the point of view
of interest to the reader, a short historical account of the development of the
electron microscope up to its present stage will be given, before the technical
1eatures of the new microscope are described.
The science of electrcn optics is of recent origin Its basis is the funda-
mental theoretical work on electron lenses by Busch who first showed in 1926,
that axially symmetric electric and magnetic fields possess lens characteristics
with respect to electron radiation. The practical development of magnetic
lenses was carried out by Knoll and Ruska (1931, 1932) in the Technische
Hochschule, Berlin. The first electron microscope employing magnetic lenses
with pole pieces?the prototype of all modern instruments?was con-
structed by Ruska in 1934. A cold cathode gas discharge tube was used as
the source of electrons, there was no provision for air-lock arrangement for
introduction and removal of specimens and the final image formed on a fluor-
escent screen was photographed through a window by means of an external
camera. Marton introduced several improvements in the design of an electron
microscope developed by him in the University of Brussels, in 1935. He
used a heated filament, air-lock specimen chamber and arrangement for direct
recording of electron micrographs on photographic plates introduced into the
vacuum. He was also the first to photograph biological si.ecimens with an
electron microscope.
Two years later in 1937, the first electron microscope in Britain was
-constructed by the Metropolitan Vickers Company for Martin, Whelpton and
Parnum 137. At about the same time Burton in Canada organised a programme
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
498 Das Gupta, De, Bhattacharya and Chaudhury
of research in electron microscopy in the University of Toronto. Two
of his graduate students, Prebus and Hillier (1930 built the first electron
microscope in America. By 1939 resolving powers better than roo A? were
obtained by Canadian and European workers. (Burton, Hillier and Prebus
1939).
At this stage when the great potentialities of the new microscope
was well proved by these successful research instruments, developed prim-
arily in the university laboratories, industry' took up further development.
The first commercial electron microscope was built at about this time by
Siemen's company in Berlin (Borris and Ruska 1939, 194.0). The lens coils
and the filament of the microscope used current from storage batteries and
the coils were water cooled. The high voltage- unit co:nsisting of the con-
ventional transformer rectifier system was in a seperate assembly on account
of its great bulk and for better shielding of the microscope from sixty cycle
electro-magnetic radiation.
Von Ardenne in 1040 published a description of his universal electron
inicrose.ope developed in the .Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, Berlin. It was designed
for bright field, dark field and steno operation. The notable features of this
instrument were the arrangement for tilting of the specimen for sterioscopic
photography and perfect alignment and also the possibility of direct electronic
magnification up to 50,000 diameters_
In 1039 Marton came to U. S. A. and joined the R. C. A. laboratories.
There he developed the first R. C. A. electron microscope called R. C. A.
type A (Marton 194o, Marton, Banca and Bender r94o). A year later R. C. A.
announced the development of the first commercial electron microscope in
U. S. A. called R. C. A. type B. (Zworykin, Hillier, and Vance 1941 a,
Hillier and Vance fg4r). The chief improvements on its predecessors were
(a) combination in a single unit of both the microscope and its power stipplies
and (b) the use of high frequencies for generation of high voltage and heating
of the filament. For stabilisation- of the high voltage, feed-back principle
was used.
In 1941 various attempts were made to increase the electron energies so as
to make possible the examination of thicker specimens with the help of an
electron microscope. Muller and Ruska (1941) adopted a Siemens microscope
for operation at 220 ekv. Von Ardenne (1941) modified his electron microscope
described earlier for operation at 2oo ekv. Zworykin, Hillier and Vance
(1941 b) also reported the construction of a 300 ekv. microscope.
In these cases the microscope body was similar to those already described.
Only the electron gun was built in two or three stages and the voltage dis-
tributed between them by means of a voltage divider across the high voltage
supply for stable operation.
In 1942 Prebus built an electron microscope in the Ohio State University,
Columbus, following the design already developed at Toronto. . Microscopes
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
I AS (UV IA, DE, I3HAT FACHARYA & CHAUDHURY PLATE VII A
Fig. 1
'[iotograph of the Calcuita University Elecron Mk:To: .ope.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Microscope 499
based on this design were also installed at the Eastman Kodak Co. and in
Columbia Carbon Co., in U.S.A. In the subsequent year R.C.A. announced
the development of a small compact electron microscope called R.C.A. console
model (Zworykin and Hillier 1943), In this unit the condenser lens was
eliminated and the objective and the projector lenses contained in the same
magnetic circuit. This extreme simplicity of design had been obtained at the
cost of a fixed magnification of only s000 diameters and an operating voltage of
only 30 ekv. The resolution was reported to be better than roo A?.
In 1945 Marton, now at the Univerity of Stanford, produced an electron
microscope employing five lenses and designed for three stage magnification
which could be varied from 400-40,000 diameters. This microscope had
an intermediate lens in between the usual objective and the projector lenses
and was designed for operation at roo ekv.
During war the research and development of electron microscopes was
mostly restricted to U.S.A. However, some work was carried on with great
difficulty in Holland, France and Great Britain. Poole developed in 1944
an electron microscope in the Institute of Electron Optics at Delft, Holland
whose details have just been published (Poole 1947). This instrument opera-
tes at 150 ekv and is a four lens unit. With a distance of only 6o ems
between the object and the final image the magnification produced can be
varied continuously between r000 and 8o,000 diameters. This instrument
has also an arrangement for using 35 mm. film. In 1947 the Metropolitan
Vickers Co. in England anounced the production of the first commercial
electron microscope in England EM 3 Model of Metro Vick. (Haine 1947).
The instruments described so far are electromagnetic instruments using
electromagnetic type of lenses. The development of electrostatic lenses and .of
electron microscopes using such lenses has proceeded almost side by side with
that of the electromagnetic instruments. Shortly after Busch's original
discovery, Davisson and Calbick (1932) in U. S. A. and Brilche and Johannson
(1932a) in the A. E. G. laboratories in Berlin successfully developed electrostatic
lenses. Briiche and Hagen (1939) and Mahl (1939) designed the first
electrostatic microscope of high magnification in the A. E. G. laboratories in
Berlin. Boersch (1942) built at the University of Vienna a versatile type of
electrostatic- electron microscope. This instrument could be easily adapted for
taking the usual transmission pictures, electron shadow micrographs as well as
diffraction patterns. In 1943 Bachman and Ramo, of the G. E. C.
laboratory in U. S. A. developed a three stage electrostatic instrument.
With a very simplified design they obtained a resolution ro times that of the
light microscope and an electronic magnification varying from 500-1000
diameters. In France, the Compagnic Generale de Telegraphic sans FT (C.S.F.)
has also produced an electrostatic instrument. Although the electrostatic
instruments are simpler to construct, from the point of ultimate performance
they have not yet appeared on the market as any serious rival of the
electromagnetic instruments.
ApprevedirorRelease 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
500 Das Gupta, De, Rhattacharya and Chaudhury
:DP.SCRIPTION OF TE-IB NRW MICRO3COPF;
.,,,,-An illustration of the new electron microscope is given in Pate XVI A, Fig. 1.
*Fig. 2 shows a section of the complete electron optical system. There are several
'
'Iume/01?0A
FIG. 2
Sectional Diagram of the New Microscope
features which distinguish this unit from all the instruments described
earlier. This instrument is a completely horizontal unit with different elements
mounted on two stainless steel rods held in position by brass sleevings which
can slide over the steel rods. It is thus possible to dismantle any part of the
microscope without disturbing the rest. The distance between any two
elements can be varied, it is also possible to interpose an extra element between
two of the existing ones if desired. The instrument is thus essentially-a
research unit, very flexible in design and highly suited for investigations on
electron-optical problems. Due to horizontal positioning each microscope
element is approachable from all sides and the image formed on the final
fluorescent screen can be demonstrated to a number of people simultaneously.
The instrument consists elf the usual three lenses, the condenser, the objective
and projector lenses and is designed for a maximum electronic magnification
of twenty thousand diameters.
The electron gun, the condenser, the objective and the projector lenses are
supported on separate carriages consisting of pairs of horizontal brass plates
H, ? H? FI?, Ii. 116, and H, H,. Any of the pairs of brass plates can slide
together in a horizontal plane perpendicular to the axis of the microscope on a
pair of stainless steel guide rods R, R,, fixed to the frame of the instrument.
The upper plates H,, 1I3, Hand H, supporting the microscope elements can
also be raised or lowered with respect to the lower plates by a set of screws.
These two motions at right angles to the optic axis can be given to any element
of the microscope. By means of transmission gear arrangement the operator,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Microscope 501
'sitting at the control table near the final fluorescent screen, can move any
of the lenses or the gun for proper alignment. Uach of the three
lenses has four levelling screws by means of which the lens may be slightly
inclined to the axis so as to allow for any asymmetry of the pole pieces.
In addition to lateral motions, the gun can be slightly tilted about horizontal
and vertical axes passing through the tip of the filament F, by means of the
screws M, and M, respectively.
The different elements are connected with one another and with the
vacuum manifold U by sylphon bellows so that relative movement is possible
maintaining the vacuum. The length of the microscope column from the
filament tip to the objective is 59 cm. and the length from the objective to the
fluorescent screen Q., is 79 ems. For evacuating the microscope column an
oil diffussion'purnp and a Cenco Hypervac 2o are used. The mechanical pump
is housed in a specially designed underground chamber a little distance away
from the microscope in order to reduce noise and vibration. A thermocouple
gauge measures the fore-vacuum while the high vacuum within the microscope
is indicated by an ionization gauge.
A. Illuminating System
The illuminating system consisting of the electron gun, the primary
viewing screen Qi and the condenser lens L, is shown in the figure 3. The
electron gun is a three electrode system consisting of the filament F, cathode
shield C and the anode A. The filament consists of a .005 inch diameter
tungsten wire bent into hair pin shape. The filament current leads F1) F2
consist of a steel cylinder surrounding a steel rod; the two are kept insulated
from each other by means of a pyrex tube. The filament is heated by means
of a high-frequency (150 kc/s) current and may be maintained at a maximum
negative potential of 8o ekv. with respect to the anode which is earthed
together with the main body of the microscope. The cathode shield is a
cylinder of stainless steel with an 1/8 inch diameter aperture, located just in
front of the filament tip. The filament is kept fixed axially within the cathode
shield by means of an alsimag cylinder K. For changing the filament, a part of
the cathode shield may be unscrewed at c1. The cathode shield is insulated
from the filament and may be suitably biased when it serves' as a control
grid. The distance between the filament tip and the centre of the
shield can be varied by means of the adjusting screw M, at the high potential
end.
The anode A is a copper hemisphere, drilled axially with an 1/8 inch
hole to allow the beam to pass through. The distance between the anode
and grid aperture is about r inch but may be adjusted by screwing at
Cd. The anode is surrounded by a steel shield E, which cuts off X-radiation
from the anode due to bombardment of high energy electrons. The high
voltage insulator I consists of one ft. long pyrexcylinder metallised at the end
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
502 Das Gupta, De, Bhattacharya and Chaudhury
to which are soldered steel flanges I on either end. The complete filament
assembly is held in position by the centering aluminium disc D. The whole
EL (Cr...10_0A
1
? ... 4.
as
_CSWDENSER LENS
11:1'iG. 3
Illuminating System of the New Microscope.
/I anode,81-B3 sylphon bellows, C cathode shield, F filament, GI-Gil vacuum gask
ets. El1-H4 brass carriages for movement of the electron gun and condenser lens, I rnetallised
pyrex insulator, J steel flanges soldered to the insulator, K alsimag cylinder, Li condenser
lens coil, M1-1113 adjusting screws for controlling the position of the electron gun, P1 con-
denser pole piece, Qi primary viewing fluorscent screen, RI, R2 rods permitting horizontal
motion of the gun and condenser lens, SI?S5 gasket tightening screws, T1 brass spacer
in condenser lens, U vacuum manifold,. V1 viewing port.
gun assembly is demountable and is -made vacuum tight by means of the
rubber gaskets G4? G, and gasket tightening screws Si ?S4. For a change
of filament, the filament unit together with the cathode shield can be taken
out by unscrewing S1.
The electron beam after leaving the gun assembly fails on the primary
fluorescent screen Q, which is a copper rod with an axially . drilled hole.
This allows the central portion of the beam to pass through and enter the
condenser lens L,. V, is a small port for viewing the crosssection.. of the
illuminating beam at this position.
The condenser lens Li is also shown in Fig. 3. It consists of a coil
housed in an iron cylinder of length 74- inches, external diameter
61 inches and internal diameter 5/8 inch. The magnetic circuit
is completed through the iron except for a small gap bridged by non-
magnetic brass piece T,, through which the field extends into the vacuum.
The field is further concentrated by the insertion of accurately, machined
pole pieces Pi of special design, drilled with a central hole for the passage
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Microscope 503
of electrons. The coil of the condenser lens is outside the vacuum system ;
only the inner hole of 5/8 inch diameter is connected to the vacuum
System.
B. Specimen Chamber
A vertical section of the spechnen chamber through the optic axis is
shown in Fig. 4. The object stage N is held in position by means ffour
LIL SPECIMEN CHAMBER OBJECTIVE LENS
cr,
0 ? ? . Vs 66 Vs ..0 c'roircil'l " g 0
s?-?
? /-_-_,
?R4
,-...J ....,...;.: .1. .010 1 0 0. %o0:: 5_
1
/,.. ..-,.. ? ? . -,,
V????.,(0?-?
F)Y.,!-10??"*.A ...col, ?----- ,
) 0 0
, .0 0
.." z P ? ,
oO
. . .0-,
,,,i? ,
1, ' 5',. '
.., ?
..??L30?_gf
fa.
' 6.9'.- 6 r340.."- .
1 . . ?????.
, ? ,,.. mmalme
..--..-45:1-% ..e". .1,1"KoW..;91974,6%, ? I '. //,'
// APZ.V.OrelYariliA, VW,'
24Y. i' ' .1
_. jf, EMI .1114,
?Se0,....0?..e.,40,fiege 501404..W...e.;~
.w,Moreige..0?;:;:...A2K4.?0:4
PROJECTOR
V,1
.../;///'n
? 0,1?
SCALE
I 27 t; s 6 7
x!' ???? ?
"WM
.FIG. 4
Objective and Specimen Chamber of the New theloscope.
41 brass end piece, /3? B5, B13, B11 sylphon connections, C1 brass cylinder. G11?G1
vacuum gaskets, H5, H9 brass carriage for movement of objective lens, L2 objective lens
coil, NI, N2 object stage with the movable part N1 within the fixed part N2, p2 object lens
pole piece, 02 intermediate viewing screen, R1, R2 rods permitting horizontal riiotion of
objective lens, R3 steno-motion rod, Rg ?R6 horizontal supporting rods for specimen stage,
S5--S1 tightening screws, T2 brass spacer in objective lens, U vacuum manifold, 172, V3, V4
viewing ports.
horizontal rods .124.? R7, attached to the end piece Ai which fits tightly into
the brass cylinder C,. For stereophotography the part N, of the object
stage can be rotated through a small angle within the fixed part N2. The
tilting .of the stage for stereography is accomplished by means of the rod
123 which projects from the lower side of the chamber, through a Wilson
seal. Two viewing ports V2 and V, on the upper side .of the chamber allow
a view of the specimen stage through all operations.
A vertical section of the object chamber perpendicular to optic axis
is shown in figure 5. Four hydraulic sylphon belloW B6 B. are
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
504
bas Gupta, De, Bhattacharya and Chaudhury
Fin. 5
Mechanism for Movement of Specimen Stage.
/36--R, hydraulically operated sylphon bellows, E2 brass ring holding the horizontal
rods R4 ?R6 together, G18?G23 vacuum gaskets, R3 steno motion rod, R1?R7 horizontal
brass supporting rods, 56 tightening screw for air-lock chamber, V3 viewing port, X forked
handle for removing specimen from stage to air-lock chamber and vice versa. Y air-lock
chamber, Zi?Z4 hydraulic connections froth the sylphons t the control panel.
.
fitted at 900 to each other for moving the object stage in two perpendi-
cular direccions at right angles to the optic axis. In normal position: the
tips of the bellows rest in four accurately drilled holes in a brass ring E2
fixed to the carrier rods.R.?RS. The four bellows, slightly'compres.sed, press
against each other and help to keep the stage accurately centered and also
at a fixed distance relative to the object lens pole piece P2 (Fig. 4)-. By coni-
pressing and expanding the hydraulic sylphons it is possible to move
the stage in a plane perpendicular to the microscope axis and thus exPlore
-rdifferent parts of the specimen. The fluid from the sylphons B, ? B, passes
through small copper tubes Zi ? Z., to a corresponding unit on the control
desk,: It is thus possible to move the stage while looking at the image on
.,the ,final fluorescent screen Q. The unit on the control desk is provided
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Alicroicope 565
with both coarse and fine control adjustments, so that the specimeu .ca u be
placed accurately in any desired.position. The .a:rrangement has lib backlash
and gives a very smooth motion of the specimen across the field of view;
The specimen change operation is Performed with the help ,of the airlock
arrangernenf shown in Fig. 6 Which is a vertical section of the unit, ?,,When
removing the specimen from the vacuum, a phosphor bronze fork XX holds
the bucket W and a 900 rotation of the fork handle from outside releases the,
bucket frOm the specimen stage and brings it into the air-lock _chamber
In thi g position the bucket is pressed from behind by the brass rod Rs carry-
tile gasket G-27. Half a turn of the nut C1, presses the gasket G2/1
against the back of the bucket and seals it off from the microscope Ivacuttml.y
While the_bucket,is held in this position, air is introduced into the airlock.
6
"PAY oPY,,, Afm
6,5
041
4.
# 6,9
62
, Priedo
23
,/yfffy Altigtv 111,c,
/:4:F,:,avicye400PrAgl
z/./ ? ? '
40:042e..
0?
00
R.,
7,
C,
fflf
/-my ?ffiroMd*.g
619
B5 :
FIG. 6
Vertical Section of the Airlock Chamber at Right Angles to the Optic Axis.
1 '1
139 sylphon connection to the manifold, C1, C2 split nuts for closing and opening the airlock
chamber, Di brass box containing airlock arrangement, E3 specimen holder, G15, G19, G24)
G29 vacuum gaskets, 0 object, R4-1:7 four brass rods which support the stage and allow it to
be moved by the hydraulic stage shifter, R9 rod for sealing off (by means of gasket G27) the
specimen from the microscope vacuum, operating through the Wilson seal G29, V2 viewing
window, W section of the bucket which carries the specimen from the stage to airlock
chamber 1r1 or vice versa, rt airlock chamber,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
506 Das Gupta, De, Bhattacharya and Chaudhury
chamber Y, by releasing the nut C2. The specimen holder E3 is now removed
through the opening made by removal of C2.
The procedure is reversed for introduction of new specimens into the
vacuum system. When a new specimen has been replaced with the bucket
in the position shown in Fig. 6, the nut C, is locked in first thereby isolating
the airlock chamber Y4 from the external atmosphere by means of gasket
The rod R, is now pushed back and by means of the fork XX the
bucket is replaced in the specimen stage .N4. Once the bucket is held by
the specin:en stage, it is freed from the fork and can then be moved about
by means of hydraulic arrangement described previously. Only the air
trapped in the small chamber Y1 is introduced into the microscope each
time a specimen is replaced. This arrangement permits quick replacement
of specimens without seriously disturbing internal vacuum.
The whole airlock arrangement is contained in a brass box DI which is
sealed to the specimen chamber by means of gasket G,, and clamping screw
S9 (Fig. 5).
C. Objective Lens
The objective lens L, is shown in Fig. 4. This coil is bigger than the
condenser lens coil .L1, with an inner diameter 2 inches and outer diameter
731- inches. The whole coil is shrouded in an iron cylinder except for the
brass spacer T2. This lens contains a specially designed pole piece P2 of
very short focal length. As asymmetry of the pole piece finally limits the
resolving power, great care was taken during construction so as to minimise
asymmetries as far as possible. The objective lens forms an intermediate
image on the intermediate viewing screen Q2 attached to the projector lens.
I). Projector Lens
The section of the projector lens L2 together with the photographic unit is
shown in Fig. 7. The projector lens coil is similar in construction to that of
the condenser coil. The projector:pole piece P3 is inserted at the projector
coil end remote from the gun. A copper rod with an axial hole and a coat
of fluorescent material is fixed to the other end of the projector lens. This
constitutes the intermediate fluorescent screen Q2.
E. Photographic Unit
Fig. 7 shows a vertical section of the photographic unit through
the optic axis. The final image may be obtained either on the flourescent
screen Q, or intercepted by the photographic plate Q. The plate magazine
K, holds about twenty photographic plates and is demountable for loading
in the dark room. The plates are moved forward by a pressure pad, the
pressure being maintained by the vacuum. In order to release one plate into
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-R0P83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Microscope 507
the photochamber the. knob R9 on the back of the photochamber is pulled.
One plate then drops on to the carrier bar R?, which can be moved from
? ,;.-.A.,..,......".6-7.4,-/x Asr..-Asyg,
4/).1?1??81.7::::gli`Oicg
././ -.A.-1.41.,,,sg,
z.s-79 , / ;724
.1.. /.; 0
.ce
, lo???0?0%?0?o%
.,,,,Ag 0.O.3 '30 ci9,? ??,75 el,
...-......,--,..,- .. .......-41
d
......1.....47.4
11'470 nALZOTZ,OH49.02vAl
X.. ,
FIG. 7
Vertical Section of the Projector Lens and Photographic Chamber through Optic Axis
/12 terminal aluminium plate, B12, Bi3 sylphon connections to the rest of the microscope,
C2 plate receiver, D2 adjustable photographic shutter, Ei pressure pad holding the plates in
readiness for dropping one at a time, G37 ? G0 vacuum gaskets, K2 photographic plate
magazine holding about twelve 31" x 4" plates, L3 projector lens coil, R7 knob kr releasing
one plate at a time, P3 projector lens pole piece, 02 intermediate flourescent screen, Q3
photographic plate in position and carried by the carrier bar R10,Q4 final flourescent screen 6"
diameter, Sib ,S18?S21 ggsket tightening screws, U vacuum manifOld ccnnection, Y2 -valve
interlock:into the airlock chamber.
outside and the plate held in any position in the exposure field. Four exposures
can be made on a single photographic plate. After the exposure is made the
shutter D, is closed and the carrier bar lowered until the plate drops into the
plate receiver box C,. The air-lock valve Y, is now closed, air introduced into
the receiver box and the plates removed for development. By means of a knob
it is possible to swing the whole plate carrier and shutter mechanism out of the
path of the electron beam so that the total area of the fluorescent screen-(5
in-
ches in diameter) Can be utilised for visual observation of the micrograph.
ApprovefdlForRelease 2001/09/06: CIA-R0P83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
508 Das Gupta, De, Bhattacharya and Chaudhury
The whole photographic unit is mounted on stainless steel guide rods
by means of brass sleevings (Pig. r, Plate XVIA). The unit is connected to the
vacuum manifold and the projector lens by means of sylphon bellows B12 and Bin.
11;LF,C.TRONIC CONTROL CTRCUTTS
High Voltage SuPPly fcr Electron Gun
Vigure 8, Plate XATIB is an illustration of the r.f. high voltage unit. The
schematic diagram of the high voltage circuit is shown in Fig. g.
Schematic diagram of high voltage generator and regulator.
The circuit arrangement follows basically that developed by Hillier
and Vance ( 1941 ). A high frequency oscillator 0 supplies 500 volts
at 50 kc/sec. to the series resonant circuit consisting of L and C of
resonance frequency 50 kc/sec. The resonant circuit, by virtue of its
inherent characteristic, steps up the input voltage Q times across the
terminals of the condenser C, Q being the efficiency factor of the series
resonant circuit. Q in our case being about 40, the voltage across C is 20 kv
at 5o kc/s. This voltage is subsequently quadrupled and rectified by the
unit M in the manner first described by Greinacher (ig21) and later used by
Cockroft and Walton (1932). The unit M incorporates a resistance-capacity
network which serves to filter out the ripple content from the output voltage.
The output, thus multiplied, rectified and smoothed, is 8o kV negative relative
to the ground and is connected to the filament F of the microscope through a
current limiting resistance S.
The stability of this high voltage is an important consideration for best
resolution of the electron microscope. In order that want of sharpness in the
final image, due to fluctuations in the high voltage supply alone, will not
exceed ro A. the maximum permissible variation in the high Koltabbo6161
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R0061
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
DAS GUPTA, DE, BHATTACHARYA & CHAUDHURY PLATE X.VI B
Fig. 8
Photograph ol High Frequency Voliage Unit.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Microscope 509
is I part in ro, 000. This degree of stabilisation is achieved by making use
of the principle of inverse feed back. By means of the voltage divider R+ r
across the high tension generated at M, a part of the output voltage is balanced
by the dry battery E and the difference is applied to the direct current
amplifier A. Any out of balance voltage due to instability is amplified by A
and then supplied to the electrOnie regulator B which in turn controls the high
tension anode input to the oscillator 0. This feed-back amplifier arrangement
is such that the variation in the oscillator output is in antiphase to those of the
rectifier quadrupler unit and is capable of neutralising the original variation
in high tension.
The d. c. amplifier A consists of 2 stages, the output variation of which
is in the same phase as that of input. This affects the electronic regulator
B which acts as a series load to the oscillator tube in 0. The electronic
regulator B is similar to that used for regulating currents to various lenses
(described below).
In addition to the above electronic voltage regulating system the whole
a. c. supply is pre-stabilised by a constant voltage transformer of saturable
reactor type.
B. MicroscoPe Fitment Sup Ply
The filament of an electron microscope usually requires 2-3 amperes at
about 2 volts depending on the nature of the filament used. The filament
supply has to be maintained at a very high negative voltage with respect to
ground and also has to be accurately controllable for varying the intensity of the
beam through the microscope. In the present unit, the microscope filament is
heated by r. f. current of about 150 kc/s. This reduces the problem of
electrostatic shielding and also simplifies that of high voltage insulation. The
filament current is supplied by the secondary of a r. f. transformer T through
the primary of which passes the r. f. current from an oscillator. . The
anode voltage of the oscillator is supplied through a variable resistance by
means of which the output of the oscillator can be easily regulated thereby
controlling the microscope filament current,
The anode circuit of the oscillator is completed through a relay system,
operated by the current from the ionisation gauge measuring the vacuum.
Whenever the vacuum inside the microscope column falls below the limit, at
which it is safe to operate the instrument, the ionisation gauge current becomes
excessive and this automatically disconnects the anode voltage. The oscillation
ceases at once and the filament of the microscope is thus saved from being
burnt off.
C. Current Regulators for Electromagnetic Lenses
In a magnetic electron microscope it is essential to keep the currents
through the various lens coils strictly constant. The stabilisation tolerences
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
510 Das Gupta, De, Bhattacharya and Chaudhury
of the different current supplies for a resultant image unsharpness :of
10 X. can be computed theoretically (Zworykin, et al 1946) ; the values so
obtained for an optimum aperture are as shown below :
Supply Tolerance ,6,1 /1
Condenser lens 1.0 x
)objective lens 5.5 x 10-5
l'rojector lens 1.3 x ro-4
The three lenses have three separate electronic regulators of the general type
shown in figure to.
A number of 61.6 beam tetrodes connected in parallel serve as the main
power tubes driving the magnetising current through the lens coil L in series
with a variable resistance R (eventually a number of resistors providing the
coarse, medium and fine controls). The voltage drop produced by the load
current on passing -through the resistor R is compared to that of a dry battery
and the difference is applied to the grid of a 6SI7 tube. The anode voltage of
tills tube controls the grid excitation of the 6L6 tubes. The circuit is thus
essentially a degenerative voltage regulator described by Hunt and Hickman
,1939). It maintains a constant voltage across the control resistor R and
with constant load, it acts as a good current. regulator at very low frequencies.
The regulator action is further helped by the screen connection of the 65J7
as shown in the Fig. xo. Variation in the current is obtained by
variation of R.
0--
6 L 6
FROM
POWER SUPPLY
LOAD CURRENT
METER
Fi.G.10
Circuit diagram of the lens-current regulators.
LENS
LOAD
CON TROL
RESISTOR
The simple electronic circuit alone is incapable of giving the required
degree of stability. The primary a. c. supply is further pre-stabilised by a
conventional constant voltage transformer of saturable reactor type.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Microscope 5ft
With this circuit, it has been possible to secure the required order of-
stability. Slow drifts arising from changes in resistance due to heating or
iitranges in thermionic emission, etc.., have been observed, which have been
minimised to smile extent by using stabilised a. c voltage to heat the filament
of the tubes.
D. Vacuum Gauge and Relay Circuits
The electronic circuit also includes a thermocouple and an ionisation
gauge for measurement of microscope vacuum. The thermocouple
gauge is fitted before the, diffusion pump and, measures the, rough.,
vacuum produced by the mechanical pump. The ionisation gauge is placed
after the diffusion pump very close to the microscope filament. ,It indicates
the final vacuum produced at this point.
. A relay is fitted in the ionisation gauge circuit which automatically shuts.
off the high voltage and the heating current of the microscope filament as
soon as the pressure inside the microscope becomes more than 3)_< io-'rnm of
mercury. Thus the vacuum gauge and the relay system protects the
microscope from damage due to accidental failure of the high vacuum as a
result of a suddenly developed leak. A second relay is incorporated in the
high voltage circuit, which shuts off the high voltage, if for any reason, the
current drawn from the high voltage becomes excessive. This relay therefore
protects the components of high voltage circuit in case of an accidental
failure of electric insulation.
C ONCLUS I 0 N
In this preliminary report the constructional details of the new
electron microscope have been given.
It will be seen from the introduction, that in every country the
electron microscopes were first developed in the university laboratories. It
was only after a great deal of experience had been gained, during
researches carried out in these laboratories, that it was possible to
produce an electron microscope commercially, first in Germany nearly
ten years ago and then in U. S. A.,, and only last year in countries like
England, Holland and Prance. This paper contains an account of the
attempt to construct for the first time in a university laboratory in this
country an instrument of this type.
ACKNOWLEDGMUNTS
In this project we have been helped by one of the pioneers in this
field, viz., Prof. Marton. We. are all indebted to him for his
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
512 Das Gupta, be, Bhattacharya and Chaudhury
advice and guidance in designing the instrument and help in the
procurement of ? parts from U. S. A. Mr. Bert F. Bubb of Stanford
University has been of great assistance in the mechanical construction
as well as in. designing. Apart from the mechanical parts, the complete
electronic power system consisting of the bigh frequency oscillators,
both for the microscope filament heating as well as for the rectified
So,000 volt d.c. source for the electron gun, the highly stabilised current
supplies for the three electromagnetic lensee, the vacuum gauge and
the safety relay systems were built up in our laboratory. Some of
the local radio manufacturers particularly Messrs. Indian Radio Institute
and India ? Radio Manufacturing Co. of Calottta, have helped us br
making high Q radio frequency coils and transformers according to our
requirements.
The authors are thankful to Mr. B. M. Banerji of this laboratory for
some useful' suggestions on circuit problems. They are also very much
indebted to Prof. M. N. Saha for his constant encouragement and enthusiastic
help in this project.
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge with thanks the gift of Rupees
17,500 made by Dr. B. C. Law for the purchase of components for this
microscope.
1NsTrruTE OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS
CALCUTTA UNINERSITY
REFERENCES
Ardenne, M. v., 1940 Z. Phy, 118, 339.
Ardenne, M. v., 1941, Z. Phys. 177, 657.
Bachman, C. H. and Ramo, S., x943, J. rip/A. Phys., 14, 155.
Boersch, H., 1942, Phys. Z., 43., 513.
Borries, B. v. and Ruska, F., 1939, Naturwiss., 27, 577.
Borries, B. v. and Rusks. E., 1940, Siemens Z., 20,227.
l3riiche, E. and Hagen, B., 1939. Naturwiss., 27, 809.
Briiche, E. and Johannson, H., I932a, Naturwiss, 20, 353.
B. and Johannson, H., 1932b, An/. d. Phy., 13, 145.
Burton, B. F., Hillier, J. and Prebus, A., 2939, Phys. Rev., 56, 11:71.
Busch, H., 1926, Ann d. Phys., 81, 974.
Cockroft, J. D. and Walton, E. T. S., 1032, Proc. Roy. Soc.A, 136. 619.
Davisson, C. J. and Calbick, C. J., 1931, Phys. Rev., 38, 585.
Davisson, C. J. and Calbick, C. J, 1932, Phys. Rev., 42, 580.
Greinacher, H., 1921, Z. Phys., 4, 195.
Haine, M. E., 1947, Engineering, 164, 4249, 20,
Hillier, J. and Vance, A. W , 2941, Proc. Inst. Rad. Eng , 29, 167.
Hunt, F. V. and Hickman, R. W., 1939, Rev. Sci. Instrum,, 10, 9
Knoll, M. and Ruska. E. 2931, Z. Techn. Phys,, 12, 389.
Knoll, M , aud Ruska, B. 1932, Z. Phys., 78, 3/8.
Mahl, H., 1939, Z. Techn. Phys., 20, 3i6.
Mahl, H., 194o, Ihrh. der: A. E. G. Forschung, 7, 43.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A New Electron Microscope 513
Martin, L. C., Whelpton, R. V. and Parnum, D. H., 1937,1 Sci. Instrum, 14,.14.
Marton, L., 1935, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg, 21, 6o6.
Marton, L., Banca, M. C. and bender, J. F., 1940 R. C. A. Review, 5, 232.
Marton, L., 1940, Phys. Rev., 58, 57.
Marton, Ii.. 1945, PIM A14)1. Phys, 16, 131.
Muller, H. 0. and Ruska, E. 1941, Koloidzschr., Z, 95, 21
Poole, J. B., 1947, Philips Techn. Rev., 9, 33.
Prebus, A. 1942, Eng. Exp. Sta. News. Columbus, 14, 6.
Prebus, A. and Hillier, J., 1939, Canad, J. Research, A17, 49.
Ruska, E., 1934, Z. Phys., 87, 580.
Vance, A. W.,1941, R. C. A. Review, 5, 293
Zworykin, V. K., Hillier, J., and Vance, A. W., 1941a, Elec. Eng. 60, 157.
Zworykin, V. K., Hillier, J., and Vance, A. W., 1941b, Jour. App. Phys, 12, 738.
Zworykin, V. K., Morton, G. A., Ramberg, E. G,, Hillier, J., and Vance, A. W., 1946
"Electron optics and the Electron Microscope," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
214.
Zworykin, V. K., and Hillier, J., 1943, J. Appi. Phys., 14, 658.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
TOMORROW'S INSTRUMENTS TODAY
RAJ-DER-KAR & CO.
COMMISSARIAT BUILDING
HORNBY ROAD
FORT
BOMBAY
OFFERS
FROM STOCK
GLASS METAL DIFFUSION PUMPS, METAL BOOST4E
PUMPS, OILS AMOILS OCTOILS OCTOIL,
BUTYL SABACATE
MANUFACTURED
By
DISTILLATION PRODUCTS
(U. S. A.)
SPENCER MICROSCOPE
CENCO HIGHVACS
BESLER EPIDIASCOPE
COMPLETE WITH FILM STRIP ARRANGEMENTS
Telephone 27304 Telegrams
2 Lines TECHLAB
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
We are now iitainfracturing :
* Soxhlet Extraction sets of 100cc, 250cc and 1000cc
capacity
B. S. S. Pattern Viscometers
* Kipp's Apparatus of 1 litre and / litre capacity
Petri Dishes of 8" and 7." diameter
AND
ALL TYPES OF GRADUATED GLASSWARE
such as Measuring Flasks, Measuring Cylinders,
Burettes, Pipettes, etc., etc..
Manufactured by:
INDUSTRIAL & ENGINEERING
APPARATUS CO., LTD.
CHOTANI ESTATES, PROCTOR ROAD, BOMBAY, 7.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
'rhe following special publications of
Science, 210, Bowbazar Street, Calcutta, are
3f them :?
Subject
Methods-in-Scientific Research
The Origin of the Planets
Separation of Isotopes
Garnets and, the'ir Role in Nature
(r) The Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew.
(2) Studies in the Germination
of Seeds.
???
the Indian Association for the Cultivation of
available at the prices shown against each
Author
Sir E. J. Russell
Sir James H. Jeans
Prof. F. W. Aston
Sir Lewis L. Fermor
Sir Arthur. Hill
31
Interatomic Forces ... Prof. J. E. Lennard-Jones
The Educational Aims and Practices .?. R. A. Millikan
of the California Institute of
Technology.
Active Nitrogen ... Prof. S. K. Mitra
A New Theory.
Theory of Valency and the Struc- ... Prof. P. Ray
ture of Chemical Compounds.
Petroleum Resources of India ... D. N. Wadia
The Role of the Electrical Double ... J. N. Mukherjee
layer in the Electro Chemistry
of Colloids.
A discount of 25% is allowed to Booksellers and Agents.
Third page of cover
do. do.
do.
Other pages
do.
do.
do.
RATES OF ADVERTISEMENTS
? ?? ???
??? ???
??? ???
??? ????
??11. ???
??? ???
???
???
??? ???
???
?? ?
???
?11 ?
???_ ???
??? ???
Price
RS. A.'
O 6 o
co 6 o
o 6 0
2 8 o
8 o
o 6 o
2 8 o
3 0 0
2 8 0
I 12 0
Rs. 32, full page
? 20, half page
? 12, quarter page
PS
IP
25, full page
16, half page
? 10, quarter page
15% Commissions are allowed to bonafido publicity agents securing orders for
advertisements.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
CONTENTS
PAGE
5(5. Calculation of Piezo-electric Constants of a-Quarty on Born's Theory?By
Bishambhar Dayal Saxena and Krishna Gopal Srivastava 475
57. Paramagnetism of the Salts of Iron-group of Elements at Low Temperatures,
Part III. Six Co-ordinated Ionic Salts of Cu" and Fe" Ions?By A. Bose 483
53. A New Horizontal Electron Microscope?By N. N. Das Gupta M. L. De,
D. L. Bhattacharya and A. K. Chaudhury ??? 497
PRINTED BY NISIIITCHANDRA SAN, SUPERINTENDENT (OFFG.), CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY
PRESS, 48, HAgLA ROAD, BALLYGUNGE, CALCUTTA AND PUBLISHED BY THE
REGISTRAR, INDIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE,
210, Boubaza? Street, Calcutta.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP8
ASSOCIATION OF SCIENTIFIC WORKERS OF INDIA
'POW
MEMORANDUM
ON
THE CENTRAL COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, NEW DELHI
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
25X1A
25X1A
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
ASSOCIATION OF SCIENTIFIC WORKERS OF INDIA
MEMORANDUM
ON
THE CENTRAL COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, NEW DELHI
1
The Central College of Agriculture was started on a permanent
basis in 1947 on the personal initiative of Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the
then Minister for Food and Agriculture. Thc fact that high priority
was accorded to the establisment of an All India Central Agricultural
College at a time when the Government was preoccupied with
partition work and problems arising out of it, is but one indication of
Government's recognition of the importance of Agricultural Education
in the country.
Now when the recruitment of staff and procurement of equip-
ment are just complete and when the first batch of students is about
to appear for their degree examination, the decision of the Govenment
not to admit students in the next academic year comes as a big
surprise. The principal reason adduced in favour of this decision
appears to be the need for economy. This decision and the 'Grow
More Food' drive, however, ill go together. Indeed, the establishment
of first rate Agricultural Colleges is the sine quanon of development
of agriculture on modern scientific lines and the decision to close
down the College, if true, cannot but be regarded as a retrograde step,
and certainly false economy.
GENESIS OF THE COLLEGE
It was in 1944 that Sir Pheroze Khareghat, then Secretary to
the Ministry of Agriculture, in his memorandum to the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research ( I. C. A. R. ) pointed out the necessity of
atleast ten more agricultural colleges to serve the needs of the country
for the proper development of its agriculture. The I. C. A. R.
formulated a scheme for opening one such college at Delhi. The
scheme was accepted by the Government of India after close scrutiny
and a college christened as Central College of Agriculture was opened
on a permanent basis in 1947 at a temporary site located at Anand
Parbat to cater for the needs of Centrally Administered Areas and
provinces and states having no Agricultural Colleges of their own (vide
Appendix A).. Funds (Rs. 8o lakhs) were made available for securing
a permanent site and construction of new buildings. Various sites
were inspected but unfortunately, no final decision was taken and major
portion of the grant was surrendered at the end of the financial year
1947-48. The college is still continuing at its original temporary site.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
2
The recruitment of staff and procurement of equipment are,..
however, almost complete. Over Rs. 12 lakhs have already been
spent. The college has now all the four classes and the first batch of
students is to appear for the degree examination ( B.Sc. Hons Agr. )
in April, 1950.
CASE FOR THE COLLEGE
The reasons which necessitated the starting of the College in
1947 are now more pronounced, for neither have any new colleges
imparting education upto the B.Sc. Hons. Agr. been started nor have
the boundaries of the States of the Indian Union been so adjusted as
to enable the existing agricultural colleges to cater for the needs of the
entire country. A Central College continues to be as essential as
before.
It may be stated that there are 14 agricultural colleges in the
states of Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh
Punjab (I), Mysore and Delhi covering an area of 537, 985 square
miles, thus leaving a huge area without agricultural colleges still.
There are thus no agricultural colleges in West Bengal, Assam,
Orissa including the States, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg with states,
Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Rajasthan, M.atsya Union,
P. E. P. S. U., Saurashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir
States and United States of Travancore and Cochin.
Comparison with other countries is quite interesting. In Eng-
land and Wales with an area of 58,343 square miles, there are 7
agricultural colleges each governed by a separate foundation and seven
Universities with departments of Agriculture each providing courses
in Agriculture leading to a Degree (Luxmoace Committee report 1943,
pages 20-21). In the U. S. A. with an area of 3,022, 387 square miles,
there are 48 land-grant colleges of agriculture - each attached to a State
University. Thus, while in England and Wales one agriculture
college serves an area of 4,167 square miles and in U. S. A. 62,966
square miles, in India the area served is 107,300 square miles.
The various committees set up for the improvement of agri-
culture have given different estimates of agriculture graduates required
for the next few years as, for example, the Khareghat Memorandum
places the estimate at 7000 for the Indian Union, excluding the States,
the Agricultural Education Committee of the Central Advisory Board
of Education estimates the number at 18,000, for the next 10 years.
The annual out turn of graduates from all the colleges was estimated
to be only 400 in the year 1942-43 and may now at best be about 500.
Thus, there is a wide gap to be filled up.
Inspite of the fact that more than 75% of the population of the
country is engaged in agriculture, India has still to import food worth
several millions of rupees. This is a sad commentary, but the reasons
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
are not far to seek. Undoubtedly, the chief cause is that our methods
still continue to be antidiluvian. To remedy this defect, it is essential
that as large a number of trained personnel as possible should be made
available, and for this purpose the number of agricultural colleges must
be multiplied and not that even existing colleges should be abolished.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
COMMISSION
The University Education Commission set up by the Union
Government in 1948 has also bestowed some thought to the problem,
and their recommendations are contained in Chapters 4 and 7 of their
report. A few of these are:
r. That agricultural education be recognised as a major national
issue.
2. That, since in a democratic country sound agricultural
policy must rest on the understanding and participation of those
engaged in agriculture, the study of agriculture in primary, secondary
and higher education be given high priority in national economic
planning.
3. That present Agricultural Colleges be strengthened in equip-
ment and in teaching s'taff, and that each one, in addition to a pro-
gramme of well proportioned general and agricultural education,
endeavour to find some phase of agricultural practice or some related
interest such as agricultural credit or agricultural co-operatives in which
it shall undertake to achieve mastery.
4. That new agricultural colleges, where possible, be associated
with new Rural Universities, so that agricultural education may be
supported and enriched by contact with other fields, and by common
use of personnel and equipment; and that each such new agricultural
college should also explore some phase of agriculture often related to
the locality, in which it will strive to become an outstanding authority.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the President of the Indian Republic, in
his speech on the 28th February 1950 at the Silver Jubilee Session of
the Inter University Board at Banaras, has appealed to the States and
the Centre for the implemention of the recommendations of the
University Commission (Vide Appendix B).
ARTICLE 48 OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
The importance of agricultural development has been specially
emphasized in the Constitution of India. Article 48 provides:
Organisation of Agriculture and Animal 'The State shall endeavour to develop
Husbandary. agriculture and animal husbandry, on
modern and scientific lines and shall, in
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
4
particular take steps for preserving and
improving the breed, and prohibiting the
slaughter of cows and calves and other
draught cattle."
The need of agricultural colleges is thus patent.
THE PROPOSAL TO ABOLISH THE COLLEGE
Though no authoritative announcement seems to have been made
re: the reasons for such a retrograde proposal, the following considera-
tions may possibly have weighed with the Government in coming to
the decision to retain the college without new admissions (Vide
Appendices C & D)
1. Till the College has its own building, a large amount
( Rs. 91,000) is paid each year towards the rent of the
buildings.
2. That various States of the Indian Republic are contemplating
to start colleges of their own and there is not much demand
for seats at the College from the States.
3. That the construction of new buildings for the College and
Hostels and acquiring the new site will require a huge sum,
and even if the college is shifted to I. A. R. I. a sum of over
Rs. 20 lakhs will be required for additional buildings.
These reasons are examined below:?
I. The rent paid by the Government for the College Estate is
about Rs. 91,000 annually This covers the buildings, three Hostels,
Swimming Pool and over roo barracks out of which the College itself
is utilising about 35 barracks. This estimate covers the accommo-
dation occupied by the Indian Institute of Fruit Technology (which
is now shifting to Mysore) and Plant Protection Staff of the Agricultural
Ministry. The rent collected from the occupants of the above
accommodation totals to Rs. 55,000/- per annum; and as stated by the
Hon'ble Shri Jairamdas Daulatram in the Indian Constituent Assembly
(Legislature) on 2Ist December. 1949, the annual rent for the colege
is only Rs. 36,000 (vide appendix C). One of the hostels is occuplied
by the Post and Telegraph staff, the 65 barracks are in the possession
of displaced persons, and the Swimming Pool is lying unused eversince
the college started for want of supply of water. Further, no separate
room rent is charged from the college students nor are they charged
for electricity. If appropriate rent is charged from the displaced persons
occupying the barracks or from the Ministry of Relief and Rehabili-
tation who is responsible for their occupation, a room rent is charged
from the boarders as is done in colleges all over and the Swimming Pool
is surrenoleled _to the Ramias Trust tht expenditure to Government
Approved For Kelease 2001/09/06 : CIA-KIDpo3-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
5
on account of heavy rent can be reduced to less than half i. e.
Rs. 15,000/- per annum.
2. The new colleges (three) which have been started in the
States are only up to the Intermediate Standard. In view of the
difficulty in obtaining the equipment and the qualified staff, it is well
nigh impossible to develop them as first rate colleges in the near future.
The neighbouring colleges are too crowded and can not be expected
to cope with the increasing demand in the conntry. If the Centre is
finding it difficult to spend a paltry sum of a few lakhs to develop and
maintain one agricultural college, how can the Union States be
expected to start first rate Agricultural Colleges when there is acute
financial stringency practically all over. Orissa, West Bengal and
Travancore-Cochin are already reported to have given up the schemes
for starting Agricultural Colleges, due to the financial difficulties. In
spite of the short period for which the College has been in existence,
it has attracted students from all over the country and indeed a large
number have to be disappointed on acconnt of a limited number of
sixty seats being available. The selected candidates come from Delhi,
Ajmer-merwara, Andamans, Coorg, Himachal Pradesh, Bengal, Orissa,
Jorhat, Travancore, Nepal and Indonesia. Displaced students from
Pakistan have also been admitted.
3. As explained earlier the funds once made available for a
permanent site and construction of buildings, had to be surrendered.
It does not mean that due to the indecision that prevailed then, the
future generations should suffer. However, due to the financial crisis
if it is not possible to find the necessary sum in one financial year, it
could easily be spread over two or three years. In the meantime,
the college can continue on the present site with reduced expenditure
as proposed in (t) above. The expenditure can be further curtailed
if for practicals, the students are taken to the Indian Agricultural
Research Institute. The small distance should not stand in the way
of this essential facility. This is usually the practice in foreign coun-
tries where the farms are situated 8 to io miles away from the college
and students attend to field work by going in trucks. The trucks
could perhaps be obtained from the Central Ground Water Organisa-
tion of the Ministry of Agriculture, which is now closed down (one
such truck has already been obtained).
SUGGESTIONS REGARDING THE ECONOMICAL RUNNING
OF THE COLLEGE
The Economy Committee has already suggested that this College
which is designed to admit too students per year should either be
transferred to the Delhi University or be placed under the Director,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute. If the latter propcsal is given
effect to, the students and the staff will have the benefit of the best
Agricultural Library in the East and the well-equipped Research
Laboratories and thus keep abreast of day to day discoveries and
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
6
researches. The Standing Advisory Committee of the Legislature for
the Ministry of Agriculture at its meeting in May 1949 suggested
that the College be integrated with I. A. R. I. and this would result
in economy in non-recurring expenditure We wholly endorse the
above views and further urge that to provide the necessary educational
and academic atmosphere, the College shouid be immediately affiliated
to the Delhi University and its relevant statutes and ordinance
(appendices E and F) implemented, which so far has not been done,
though the College has been functioning for three years under provi-
sional recognition. It must be particularly mentioned that statute
31(2)(a) provides that recognition can be given to a college if it is
established on a permanent basis.
If it be argued that the College cannot be housed in the present
accommodation of I. A. R. I. it is suggested that the present allotment
accommodation to the staff there be readjusted. Only laboratories for
practical classes may be constructed for the time being and this should
not cost much.
It might be pointed out here that most of the equipment and
apparatus for the college work has alreardy been purchased, and what-
ever more is required already exists in the I. A. R. I. and Central Tractor
Organisation. The Metreological Observatory at I. A. R. I. can also be
utilised for the special training in the Agricultural Metereology according
to the syllabus recommended by U.N.E.S.C.O. Such facilities cannot
be provided to any other College located elsewhere in the country. By
adjusting the present designation and duties of the staff according to
the Delhi University ordinances, the necessity of extra staff can also
be eliminated.
THE ADVANTAGES OF THIS COLLEGE
This is the only college which imparts education on an all India
basis and the graduates naturally develop an all India outlook which
is essential if the agriculture industry is to make effective headway.
The college being near the University and the I. A. R. I. would
have a higher standard of education than any other college can afford
to give and indeed is already training students for the B.Sc. Agr. (Fions).
The students here come in contact with research workers of repute and
are in touch with latest developments in the Agricultural Science. The
staff will also have facilities for research and can thus inspire the
students with a spirit of enquiry and reason. As already mentioned,
candidates from Nepal are receiving their training in this college and
even candidates from Indonesia seek admission. The college with all
the facilities it has, is, therefore, ideally suited for developing as a
centre of Agriculture for atleast the entire South East Asia region, and
rendering_ the_exchange of spalents possible.
Approvedior Keiease 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/016 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
In conclusion, from what has been stated above, it will be clear
that there is full justification for continuance of the college and that its
need has not only not disappeared but has actually become greater.
The Hon'ble Finance Minister struck a very hopeful note in his
latest budget speech (appendix G) and now that a surplus is anticipated
it is not too much to hope that this nation-building institution will
survive the axe. Our Prime Minister has given assurances on more
than one occasions that existing permanent institutions and other useful
schemes already taken up will not be closed down or abandoned on
account of financial difficulties. We, therefore, most earnestly appeal
that the College be permanently retained and developed as a first-rate
institution, and the provisions of the Constitution implemented:
?
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
APPENDIX A
Extract from page No. 470 of Indian Farming of Sept.. 1947
Vol. Viii No. 9.
Q. I have heard that an Agricultural College has been started in
Delhi. Will you please furnish me with information regarding the
standard of admission and the subjects taught in the institution? Does
the College intend to impart practical training in agriculture ?
A. The aim of the Central College of Agriculture, Delhi is two-
fold : to give a systematic course of scientific agriculture to young men,
with a view to prepare them for promoting modern agriculture in the
country-side on economic lines, and to train students for undertaking
research in agricultural problem. The need for qualified staff required
for the execution of agricultural schemes has long been felt, as each
requires approximately 200 agricultural graduates a year, and the
Centra[ Government requires, for the execution of its own plans,
about 500 trained men immediately, and more in the near iuture.
Similarly Indian States are in dire need of trained personnel.
It is also intended to organize a one year course with Hindustani
as the medium of instruction. This course will be entirely of a practical
nature comprising inter alia the study of crops and improved methods
of cultivation, farm management, modern daiiying, horticulture and
simple treatment of pests and diseases of cattle and crops.
The College is open to students deputed by the Governments of
Centrally Administered Areas and other provinces which have not got
Agricultural College4,to students deputed by Indian States, by the
Government of British Colonies or other countries outside India and
to private students who are residents of Centrally Administered Areas.
APPENDIX B
Extract apd the speech of Dr. Rajendra Prasad, President of the
Republic of India on the occasion of Silver Jubilee Session of the Inter
University Board at Banaras on the 28th of Feb. 1950, as reported in the
'Statesman' dated I-7-1950.
'We ha7e recently had a Commission appointed by the Government of India
to go into the *mile question of university education. It had among its members
distinguished educationists not only from India but also from England and America,
and was presided over by Dr. Radhalirishnan. The Commission has submitted a very
valuable report containing not only a review of the achievements of our university
education, but also making suggestions and recommendations which are of a far-reach-
ing character.
We have had many republics in this country, but they were tiny compared to
the Republic which we have just established. The responsibility of the people
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
9
has correspondingly grown in size and inunsity and it is for our educational institutions
to fit the citizens for the great task that awaits them
understand that it is going to be expanded on a larger scale consistently
with efficiency which depends on the number of suitable and competent teachers.
I believe expansion there is limited only by the time that is taken in training and
preparing the various grades o, teachers for the purpose. The scheme of rural uni-
versities, as has been pointed out by the authors of the report, is only an exten-
sion of that scheme with such modifications as appealed to them.
"I feel that in recommending the expansion of education in that direction,
the Commission has done the greatest service to the country in its present set-up.
It is now for specialists and experts and for the State Governments and the Cen-
tral Government to work out the practical details and implement its recommenda-
tions.
APPENDIX C
Extract from the report of the Ministry of Apiculture, 1949-50
THE CENTRAL COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE DELHI :--
With the new admissions made in August and the formation of the
final year class, the College had started functioning with all the four
classes and the total number of students is 176. The College showed
good results at the examinations of the University of Delhi, the passes
from the second year class being as high as 92 per cent. Physical
training is compulsory and the students are taken on study tours to all
parts of India. The College, however, continues to be located on
the leased Estate, and to overcome the difficulty for want of properly
equipped laboratories, practicals had to be arranged at the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute and by borrowing apparatus from the
C.P.W.D. Far from there being an expanasion in the coming year,
considerations of finance have considerably affected the growth of the
Institution. It has been decided to retain the Institution without new
admissions for another three years, till all the students now on the
rolls complete their course. If, however, the financial situation
improves, it is intended to review the position.
APPENDIX D
Extract from the proceedings of Constituent Assembly of India
(Legislative) Part I Vol. IV-No. 18 Wednesday, 21st Dec. 1949. pages
602-604.
(AGRICULTURAL TRAINING INSTITUTIONS).
*795. Shri Satis Chandra Samanta : (a) Will the Honourable
Minister of Agriculture be pleased to state how many new agricultural
training institutions have been started in the years 1948-49 and 1949-50,
by the Government of India?
(h) Are there any private agricultural training institutions and
fArrliNeklehniddf kelease 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
TO
(c) If so, is any of them recognised by Government?
The Honourable Shri Jairamdas Doulatram : (a) None. (b) and (c).
There are eleven agricultural training institutions in the provinces and
States. Nine are recognised by Government. A statement containing
details is laid on the Table of the House (See Appendix XX,
annexure No. T.).
Shri Satis Chandra &manta : May I know whether any short course
training arrangements have been made for those officers in service who
have not sufficient experience in agriculture?
The Honourable Shri Jairamdas Doulatram: We have got post-graduate
training arrangements at Delhi in the Pusa Institute.
Shri Satis Chandra Samanta : Have Government any arrangements
for imparting training to officers in the Department who have had no
training in agriculture ?
The Honourable Shri Jairamdas Doulatram : Officers who were not
at all trained in agriculture need not be in the Department.
Shri Upendranath Barman : Is it a fact that the Government of India
is proposing to close the Central College of Agriculture ?
The Honourable Shri Jairamdas Doulatram : No.
Shri Upendranath Barman : Is it a fact that new admissions have
been stopped ?
The Honourable Shri Jairamdas Doulatram : They may be stopped
from the next year but the College will continue for three years atleast
unless the situation changes.
Shri Deshbandhu Gupta: May I know whether it is a fact that the
decision referred to by the Honourable Minister regarding the Central
College has been taken on account of the expenditure, which is incurred
on the residence of the students and the figures supplied were not
correct?
The Honourable Sri Jairamdas Doulatram : That was only one of
the considerarions but it is difficult to expand the college in the present
set-up on account of financial stringency.
Shri P. T. Chacko : May I know whether the Central College is
being housed in a rented building and if so, what is the rent?
The Honourable ShriJairamdas .Doulatram : It is in a rented building
al4b1i16i6ati:isrikelailiD20101EMYRAV
liCIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Dr. P. S. Deshmukh : May I know if the Honourable Minister has
any scheme for assisting and giving grants-in-aid to private Agricul-
tural training institutions?
The Honourable Shri Jairamdas Doulatram : I think a number of
institutions are receiving grants from the Provincial Governments and
naturally it will be the function of the Provincial Governments to give
financial aid to local Agricultural institutions.
Shri A. Karunakara Menon : Have any existing institutions already
been stopped or hampered by the economy drive of the Government
in the year 1949-50?
The Honourable Shri Jairamdas Doulatram : Not, so far as the Central
Government is concerned. So far as the Provincial Government is
concerned, I will have to secure information.
Shri Deshbandhu Gupta : Is it a fact that there are certain facilities
available to the Central College of Agriculture in Delhi which are not
available in other provinces and if the institution is closed, there will
be great hardship?
Mr. Speaker: Order, order, Next question.
APPENDIX E
University of Delhi, Act No. VIII of 1922
and statutes ( 1949 Edition)
Statute, No. 31 (page 49).
(2) A College applying for recognition shall satisfy the Uni-
versity on the following points :?
(a) that it guarantees a satisfactory standard of educational
efficiency for the purpose for which recognition is sought,
and that it is established on a permanent basis:
(b) that its financial resources are such as to make due provision
for its continued maintenance;,
(c) that it is under proper management and is suitably ciragnised;
(d) that its buildings are suitable and sufficient;
(e) that the furniture and library and laboratory equipment are
adequate;
(f) that the provision for the residence, discipline and super-
vision of students is satisfactory;
(g) that due provision is made for the health and recreation of
students;
(h) that qualifications and number of its teaching staff are
adequate' and the conditions of their service such as may be
approved by the University;
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/0612CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
(i) such other matters as are necessary for the maintenance of
the tone and standards of University education.
(3) A College applying for recognition shall give full informa-
tion in the application on the following matters:-
(a) constitution and personnel of its Governing Body;
(b) standards and subjects in respect of which recognition is
sought;
(c) accommodation, library and laboratory equipment and
strength of the College;
(d) number, qualifications, work, emoluments and conditions
of service of teachers;
(e) provision for hostels, playgrounds and the residence of the
Principal and other members of the staff;
(f) fees proposed to be levied;
(g) the financial provision made for the continued maintenance of
the College;
(h) such other matters as may be prescribed by the Ordinances
Statute No. 30 (page 47).
3. Each College recognised by the University shall be managed
by a regularly constituted Governing Body which shall include the
Principal and at least two other members of the teaching staff of the
College elected by the teaching staff including the Principal and not
less than two members appointed by the University. The rules
relating to the constitution and powers of the Governing Body and the
appointment, powers and duties of the Chairman and other officers of
the Governing Body shall be such as may be prescribed by the
Ordinances.
(9). Every College shall comply with the relevant Statutes,
Ordinances and Regulations of the University.
APPENDIX F
Ordinances Of Delhi University, 1949
Ordinance No. XII (College appointed teachers) page 24.
i. No wholetime teacher shall be engaged by any College as
a member of its staff at a salary less than Rs. 200/-/- p.m. ( In ac.A.,
the minimum start is Rs.1- 16o- p.m.)
2. No whole-time teacher shall be engaged by any College as a
member of its staff except on an Agreement of service in the form
annexed hereto, or an agreement substantially to like effect, and every
teacher shall sign the Agreement before he enters upon his duties.
3. (t) No whole-time teacher may be engaged for less than twelve
months, save in the case of a temporary appointment made to fill a
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/014 CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
sudden and unexpected vacancy, but such temporary appointments
shall not be made for a period exceeding six months, and shall
be reported forthwith to the University.
(2) A temporary appointment may be made in the case of
a temporary vacancy caused by the absence of a teacher on leave, but
shall not extend beyond the date of the termination of the leave of
absence of that teacher, and shall be reported forthwith to the
University.
Government Maintained Colleges
Ordinance XIX (page 36)
t. A Government Maintained College (in this ordinance called
a Government College), shall, subject to any general rules of the
Government of India, be a self-contained and autonomous institution
and, subject as aforesaid, have control over its own affairs and its own
finances.
2. (t) No Government College shall have more than 600
students on its rolls, but so long as the preparatory classes for Univer-
sity degree courses continue to exist with the approval of the Govern-
ment of India, the number in those classes shall not be included in
the College rolls for the purpose of this Ordinance.
(2) The Governing Body shall meet at least once every
academic term and, subject to the general rules of the Government of
India, have general supervision and control of the affairs of the College
and shall maintain its own, records of its proccedings.
(3) The Governing Body shall appoint a secretary, not
being a member of the Governing Body, who shall summon meetings,
record proceedings and perform such other clerical functions as the
Governing Body may direct.
3. (I) The member of the Governing Body of a Government
College elected by the teachers or appointed by University shall not
hold office for more than three years at a time, but shall be eligible
for re-appointment or re-election.
(2) Every Government College shall, subject to the general
supervision of the Governing Body, have a duly constituted College
Council, consisting of not less than seven members of the teaching
staff elected by the teaching staff, to advise the Principal on the
administration of the College.
4. (1) The method of appointment of teachers in a Govern-
ment College and their conditions of service shall be such as may be
approved from time to time by the Government of India aftee consul-
tation with the University.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : C14M-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
(2) The payment of salaries to teachers in a Government
College shall be in accordance with scales approved by the University.
(3) The Governing Body, before advertising a post on the
teaching staff, shall give notice to the University of their intention to do
so and shall take into consideration any representations the University
may make thereon within fourteen days.
5. The number of recognised teachers in a Government College
shall be such that the proportion of students on the rolls of the College
to the teachers in the College shall not exceed twenty to one in the
case of Pass students and twelve to one in the case of Honours and
postgraduate students, unless a higher proportion is approved by the
University.
6. The Executive Council may from time to time cause an
inspection to be made of a Government College for the pm pose of
satisfying themselves that the conditions of this Ordinance or any
conditions on which recognition has been given are being complied
with.
APPENDIX G
Extract from the Budget Speech of Dr. J. Matthai, Minister for
Finance, on the 28th February, 1950 as reported in the =Statesman'
dated 1-3-1950.
"It has been a year of great difficulties and great anxiety. It has
been a period of almost unprecedented trouble. There were times
during the year 1949 when some of us most immediately concerned
with the economic activities of the Government had a sense of almost
overwhelming crisis, but on a close examination of facts as they stand
today, I feel that I am in a position to tell the House mat the stage of
crisis at any rate is now definitely passed" said Dr. Matthai, India's
Finance Minister, when he presented the Budget in Parliament on
Tuesday."
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
25X1 C
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
?
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
VOL. 15
Announcing
JUNE 1950
No. 12
ZE1Ss
THE NEW ZEISS WINKEL
STANDARD-MICROSCOPE
Outstanding Zeiss Instrument for
Resedch a n d Special Work.
It embodies several novel mechanical
features in addition to newly computed
optics, all going to make4picroscopy more
precise and more pleasing. ?
Other ZEISS WINKEL
Specialities :
1
? BIOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE.
? PETROLOGICAL MICROSCOPE-
? PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE.
? PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC APPARATUS.
? DIRECT VISION SPECTROSCOPE.
1
? POLARIMETER.
? SACCHARIMETER.
\
A D A I R, DUF.CT & CO. (INDIA) LTD.
CALCUTTA BOMBAY : MADRAS
Literature on request.
? SOLE AGENTS ?
" ?
CAMBRIDGE INSTRUMENT CO., LTD. England
PYROMETERS
A LI_ TYPES
A VAILABLE FROM STOCK: FOR IMMEDIATE DELIVERY
Baeline.44 Lawrie a Co., Ltd,.
UALCUTTA
5/991
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
4ke
LAKSHMIBILAS
IHI All 11 II IL
The Medicated Hair Oil for
LADIES & GENTS
Atanutactut ad L
MOSE &--CO., II
CALCUTTA.
ESTD. 1874.
LAKSHMIBILAS
BAIR IL lEY
nt
IJ genuine and
Ararat ad
I. L.
NOSE & CO., Li
CALCUTTA
11
EL
tSTD. 1874.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
RO/ENCE AND glnatiltlt
Phone: 3176 B.B. Grams: "NADIACHEMI"
Nradliia C hemica II Works ILtd..
C-44, 45, & 46, COLLEGE STREET MARKET, CALCUTTA
JUST ARRIVED from ENGLAND and AMERICA
LARGE STOCKS
of
APPARATUS and CHEMICALS
for
Schools, Colleges, Analytical and Research Laboratories
Please send your enquiries to us
in
HillE GENE]
4 Insist on
PAC
From
Di Balance
An Ordinary to a Super Sensitive
IM1IICI11.
Analytical balance at your Service
Warning!
Look to the above Registered Trade
Mark on your instrument you buy.
RAE, MANRUIFACTURal G Co.
SONARPURA : BENARES
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Juno, 1950.
.??????????
El
El
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
11
igCIENCE AND .01:114Ultill.
The perfect Answer to a Scientist's Prayer
METTLER* BALANCES
ANALYTICAL--SEMIMICRO?MICRO
With the following sensational features:
automatic weighments up to 200, 100 or 20g.
(depending upon the model)
large optical scale, range 0-115 mg.
constant loading of the beam, resulting in
constant sensitivity throughout the whole range
single dial registering the weight
built-in, standardised, rust-free, first quality
weights
quick reading-each weighing (from putting sample
on pan to recording the weight) takes only 30
seconds!
personal error reduced to a minimum
Analytical Balance E 5
Reading to 0.0001 g.
.Manufactured by?
E. METTLER
ZURICH, SWITZERLAND.
Three Models:
E 5: Capacity 200 g.
reading to 0.0001 g.
E 6: Capacity 100 g.
reading to 0,00002 g:
Micro: Capacity 20 g:
reading to 0,000002 g:
* These very balances are sold in
E 5 Reading: 123.7306 g.
Sapphire bearings: harder than agate
perfect damping
absolutely foolproof: even a schoolboy can take
weights to the 6th decimal in less than a
minute!
prices fairly competitive with normal-type
balances!
U,S.A. by Fisher: & Co. under the name Gram-inatic
Sole Agents:
RAJ-DER-KAR & CO.
COMMISSARIAT BLDG., HORNEIY ROAD,
Phone: 27304 (2 Lines). FORT, BOMB A Y.
EC=111 111=1 c=lIi IEED
Gram : "TECHLAB"
When replying to the advertisers, pleaze mention that you have seen the advertisement in Mews and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
El
El
El
[7]
El
El
^
EJEI
Juno, 1950.iii
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND CULT IJRII
Essummuinsmilirollasiniullaironagnininiumminionionosimumiulionnummumilliminoliumiummuniiiiarnramminimililinlionniii[siimiumunin
We itnuaactute
Analytical Reagent
NITR IC ACID
Sq. Gr. (Abt.)
?11?? ?
( H N 03 )
1.42
MAXIMUM IMPURITIES:
Non-Volatile Matter
0.001%
Heavy Metal (as Pb)
0.0002%
Chloride
0.0001%
Iron
0.0001%
Sulphate
0.0003%
Arsenic
0.000005%
The International Chemical Industries
iminioimummuomuminianummomemonsammunimmiannamisummiviiiiiiiiiiiiimpuoviiiiiimommannummullmminimiumminimmumamonumeniummiliminnumummue,
103B, UPPER CIRCULAR ROAD,
CALCUTTA, 9.
11111111101111 al11153
alumunimuumumuummumniummu 11111111 humunamounuourt.muummuniu-:
Tr;
Woth Smoothly
Please get your Laboratory
furnished by us
with
Chemicals Apparatus
and
Other Requirements
CALCUTTA SCIENTIFIC
47-C, GARPAR ROAD,
CALCUTTA, 9
MART
,74111 umunumunumuunnummunnumuun unumuunnummuurolumnuntimmuE
PASCALL
END RUNNER MILL
A mechanically opperated pestle and morter for
grinding either dry or wet material-
Fitted with 10" dia hard, acid resisting porcelain
mortar and runner. The
runner is hinged and can
be swung c!ear of the
mortar thus facilitating
emptying and cleaning.
Available with h. p.
motor or arranged with
fast and loose
pulleys for op-
eraton from
an existing
line shaft.
SOLE AGENTS:
DvAN Co
PEOPLE'S BUILDING
SIR PHEROZESHAH MEHTA ROAD, FORT, BOMBAY
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
ill
June, 1950.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
iv
SCIENCE AND CULTITItE
211111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111HUME
.=
ANESTY MACHI
ES LTD.
MAKERS OF
TABLET MAKING- MACHINERY
AND
AUTOMATIC STILLS
FOR
DISTILLED WATER
OPERATED ON
STEAM, ELECTRICITY, GAS OR KEROSENE
SOLE AGENTS IN INDIA
KILBURN & CO., LTD.
CALCUTTA 4, FAIRLIE PLACE. Phone No: BANK 2321 P.O. BOX 61.
a BOMBAY ASIAN BUILDINGS NICOLL RD. Phone No. 3790g P.O. BOX 804.
= MADRAS 1ST. LINE BEACH - Phone No. 2016 P.O. BOX 1700.
Fl DELHI REGAL BUILDINGS, CONNAUGHT CIRCUS Phone No: 7027 P O. BOX 166.
= =
I KANPUR 7/93, TILAK NAGAR =
F.
kiimmumninniM111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111H1111111111111111111111111111 num11111H11811111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111a
18111 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111114
1 ni sl =
_...
1
I it it 1,3 R S II IL ' '' HI
HI
Hi a
E..-.1
i
N NEUTRAL LABORATORY GLASSWARE III I "!.7
I
I The Seal of
111111 1
11
II
Quality
H ,T-1 v.6407,
- i% f? 4
II III F... c '4.6
II III r=" It ' ?
`....,
II III FA
II III
11 Available from all Dealers E.--..
a
II III 5 cin'eMIC NLS 1
II
I
I Also from I E
I
I .lig
. tt i .r Cr VI INCL C?11" jt : ;IF GO RP INDUSTRIAL L S .
PURPOSES AND
II
II a
1 1
1 INDUSTRIAL & ENGINEERING I E
= MANUFACTURERS
I I
I I E
1
I APPARATUS CO. LTD. 1
1
I
I
1 CHOTANI ESTATES, PROCTOR ROAD, I
ik0
1 L=
1 1,.. vaNit.NLmS _,,orricALS OF
=
I 1
I
I GRANT ROAD, BOMBAY 7 1
1 i B. 2. ?. C:13 7c. ST IN 8313"
I 1 1 FINE CHEMICALS AND
I II .7. ANALYTICAL REAGENTS
:f.- FOR LABORATORY USE. E
I Branch offices :
I I E
I MADRAS NEW DELHI
I= The Calcutta Chemical Co., Ltd.
1 23-24 SECOND LINE BEACH PAHAR GANJ ROAD, 1 .5
1 MUSULIPATAM KRISHNA MARKET1 CALCUTTA =
I I ,._..E.: =
=
I KOJILLIPET (Near Delhi Cloth Mills Depot) I Also at ES,
I
1
1 =
I MADRAS : BOMBAY : DELHI : NAGPUR : JAMSHEDPUR : ETC. E-
1!-. =

?.11 NI-11111111111111111111I111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111fii
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have soon the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
1111111111111111111111
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Juno, 1950 v SCIENCE AND CULTURE
(0===
Because Paper Remembers What You Can Forget
SAVE TIME PREVENT ERRORS
PUT IT IN WRITING
gat rut Papet j5ot wtiting & pein ting atam:
Ragohurnath Dun &Sorts Ltd..
"BHOLANATH DHAM"
33-2, BEADON STREET, CALCUTTA
Phone B. B. 4175 'Grams : "NOTEPAPER"
BRANCHES:
CALCUTTA : 64, Harrision Road & 167, Old Chinabazar Street.
DACCA : 58, Patuatola. Banaras Chowk. Gauhati : College Hostel Road.
II
II
II
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
IH
III
III
III
III
III
II
III
III
III
FARMING
I
The Journal of Agricultural Progress
he authoritative articles written in
non-technical language in this fully-
illustrated magazine enable both lay-
men and those engaged in the
industry to keep abreast of the latest
scientific and technological develop-
ments.
Monthly 1/6d. Yearly 19/- sh. Post free
JARROW & SONS LTD.,
T
oniuminwilimiliiiiiiimmilimmilim milimminmitrimmininimimminnoks
1 E
E
1 DISCOVERY Ei
E
..11
1 The Magazine of Scientific Progress =
F.
P. a
.1 =
=
s
A fully illustrated magazine in which
leading authorities describe in every-
day language, the latest advances in
science and technology.
Monthly 1/6d.
Yearly 19/- sh. Post free
E
1
i JJAIRROILID & SONS LIMA
E COW- GATE, NORWICH, ENGLAND 1
COWGATE, NORWICH, ENGLAND F.
1 e
a
E
miliiiIIIIIIIII1111111111111111111I11111111111011111111111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII'lllrE
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that yoe have seen the advertisement' in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950.
muldrimoilli111111111111111111111$1111111111L1111111111111
1211111111MEHRE111
vi
SCIENCE ANI) CULTURE
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111411111i111111111111111111111111111111111111K
Ee
ANNOUNCING_ TO ALL, LABORATORIES FUNCTIONING
IN THE REPUBLIC OF INDIA
MADE IN "11E=M[1111" BRITAt N
(REG. TRADE MARK)
The outstanding range of "E-MIL" GOLD and GREEN volume-
tric laboratory apparatus and thermometers now in daily use in
laboratories of renown on the six continents of the world.
To enable you to judge our claims in this connection, we are offe-
ring an ecomomical standard sample case of useful assorted
"E-MIL" GOLD apparatus. These will be despatched direct
to you from factory works in England for : -
13. 3s. 5d. free delivered (inclusive of packing)
(One sample case only can be supplied to each laboratory.)
SUPPLIES AVAILABLE FOR PROMPT SHIPMENTS FROM
FACTORY WORKS IN ENGLAND
INSTITUTIONS AND DEALERS HOLDING VALID IMPORT
LICENESE. PLEASE CONTACT
MANUFACTURER'S ACCREDITED REPRESENTATIVES IN
THE REPUBLIC OF INDIA
Asa% scHE ironic com
VANN
LOTLIKER MANSION 503, GIRGAON ROAD, BOMBAY-2
TEL. RAms : ASHACOM.
4111112M111111101111111111111111111ffilliIIII
1-11111111111111111111111111119M111111111i1111111111111111111111!DI 111;1111111111111.111111111111111111-*1111411111311111111111:11111111111111111%
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisemept in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950. Vii SCIENCE AND OULtURE
LIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII111111111111111111111111111111111111ME
E
=
=
. WE ARE ? ?
riot
ai
Fe*
ALL YOUR LABORATORY NEEDS
INSTRUMENTS: APPARATUS: MICROSCOPES: CHARTS SPECIMENS: MODELS: CHEMICALS: STAINS: ETC
BIEN ARTIUM NATURAL SCIENCE LIMITED
6, MANGOE LANE - CALCUTTA ,-,1 ?
Branch : KADAMKUAN, PATNA Gram : SIENSTRADE, Calcutta & Patna
SOLE AGENTS
for
FLATTERS & GARNETT CALCUTTA MODEL WORKS W. M. AINSWORTH & SONS INC
MNCHEirER, ENSLND, CALCUTTA COLORADO, U.S.A.
eAglotroo (vamp co;gxm
A BOON TO THE INSTITUTES
by
reliable and prompt service
DIRECT IMPORTERS AND
STOCKISTS
OF
LABORATORY REQUISITES OF
6. EVERY DESCRIPTION FROM A TO 9
Z INCLUDINC CHEMIACLS ETC. I
Full particulars from
UNIQUE TRADING CORPTN.
51-53 NEW HANUMAN LANE, BOMBAY 2.
Grams : `UNILAB'
rj
(wagm=a),?cio)
iii
THE ARYAN PATH HI
Hi
HI
HI
Hi
Editor: SOPHIA WADIA
HI
HI
Principal Contents for June HI
HI
SIX POINTS OF VIEW M. Hirivanna in
In
in
CULTURAL CONTACT HI
HI
WITH KENYA Peter Koina,nge in
HI
THE X FACTOR ' IN HI
POLITICS . George Godwin TO
HI
JA IN CULTUii
RE K. S. Dharanendraiya -HI
III
THE MYSTIC POETRY II
ill
II
OF THE SUFISDI
Said Naficy HI
HI
II
Hi
Annual Subscription Rs. 6;-: Single Copy IP -/12/-
II
II
II
II
Editorial Office: II
II
1
1II
II
II
I
"ARYASANGHA", MALABAR HILL, BOMBAY 6. ' Il II
II
II
III
Managerial OII
ffice: II
II
GANPULE BUILDING, ROOPURA, BARODA. II
' II
II
= III
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
,lune, 101\
SIGCOL GLASS IS THE
MOST IMPORTANT
FACTOR TO BUILD THE
MODERN LABORATORIES
AND INDUSTRIES
IHE
SCIENTININDIAN GLASS CO iit)
6, C HURCH LANE-CALCUTTA
viii
anummummi
IL II
SCIENCE AND CULTURE
II
IINSURANCE
F.
Every family protected means a happier home:
every income assured for life means more
contentment and less unrest. Every fortune
secured against waste means greater stability
to business and finance. The message that Life
Insurance brings is?one of hope. Its objective is
F. financial security for each and all.
Obtain thisLsecurity through a Hinclusthan
Policy.
1H1 11 1%1 D kU ST 11-11 A I%
CO-OPERATIVE INSURANCE SOCIETY LTD. .7-
_
HINDUSTHAN BUILDINGS
CALCUTTA a
iniumlimmimunimmiummimummiumnimmumnummummmiimmina
A. ' 1 2111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
=
P. 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111101111111111111111111111111111!1111111111M1111111111111111111111l11111111111111111111111101111M111111111111111111111 1111111111111111111111 IN
-.Z-
-
=
-a-
,W
ki-
.= "3
V
a name to
REMEMBER
ELECTRO SCIENCE
CORPORATION ?
811A, Chakrabete Road, South,
Calcutta-25
For Physics Laboratory
Apparatus
MEI 61111.Mu 1 PRIV IN 11111111111111
h1111111311111111M111111111111VIIIIIIMIEIMHIVIIIIIIIIIIIIII;111111111111111111(1111111111111M 111#111111111111111111M111111111111}111111111111111111H1111111"7,
Fr.
"We can meet your requirements
for :?
CHEMICAL THERMOMETERS,
HYDROMETERS AND
HYGROMETERS ETC."
S. SIRCAR & CO., LTD.
16, Bonfields Lane, Calcutta4.
Telephone: Telegrams :
B. B. 2407 ESSIRCAR
F71111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111M11111111111111111111I11111111111111111111111111111111111F11
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
ix 64CLENCE iiSTD CULTURE
WE ARE THE SOLE
AGENTS FOR THE
FOLLOWING LINES:
(a) F. W. Bracketts' Pumping
Machines, also Automatic
Screening Equipment.
(b) Wm. Gardners' Chemical
Plants-including :?
SLFTERS
MIXERS
EDGE RUNNER MILLS
END RUNNER MILLS
TRIPLE ROLLER MILLS
FILLING MACHINES
GRINDERS
DRESSERS
DISINTEGRATORS
CRUSHING MILLS
BALL MILLS
STRAINERS and
AGITATORS, etc., etc.
(c) Fred Townend Laundry
Machines
COMPLETE POWER DRIVEN
LAUNDRY?DIFFERENT
CAPACITY
(d) Premier Colloid Mills
including :?
PASTE MILLS
and
CORRUGATED MILLS
Suitable for
Chemical, Pharmaceutical,
Textile & Latex Industries.
HUNDREDS IN DAILY USE IN
INDIA.
(e) Naggard Oscillographs of
International Television
Corporation, London. .
W. J. ALCOCK & CO., LTD.
7, HASTINGS STREET, CALCUTTA
We undertake drawing out Schemes for Complete
Factories and Technological Laboratories includ-
ing Building Work and Supply of Internal Fitt-
ings according to the latest design.
WE ALSO HOLD AGENCIES FOR THE SUPPLY
OF FOLLOWING LABORATORY REQUISITES:
(a) All types of Laboratory Fittings.
(b) Scientific Instruments and Optical
Apparatus.
(c) Electrical Measuring Instruments including:-
Ammeters, Voltmeters, Milliammeters,
Wattmeters, Multitest Meters, Pyrome-
ters, Frequency Meters, Galvanometers,
Resistance and Capacity Bridges, etc.,
etc.
(d) Hospital Equipments including:?Steri-
lizers, Autoclaves, Hospital Beds and
Fittings, Fitters, Blood-testing Apparatus,
Electrocardiographs.
(e) Scientific Glasswares including:?Beakers,
Flasks, Burettes, Pipettes, Stopcocks,
Funnels, Dishes, Basins, both Pyrex
and Ordinary Glass.
(f) Furnaces: Muffle Furnace Tube Furance
including Control Panels.
(g) Chemicals: All types of Fine and Heavy ,
Chemicals.
when rep ftrtcoVigivEgrKe MAIO 9N6y bicatAIREW 82e-0441tfiRke6 4000500011-7Ju1ture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
tliine, 1950.
"glide /tea
SCIENCE AND OTIDTDEE
at least twice and
find it quite invigorating. I am not aware that it has
produced any harmful effect on my health. On the contrary,
the morning cup makes me cheerful and renders
for starting the day's work."
me- fit
t? Dr. Meghnad Saha, D.Sc., F.R.S.,
Palit Professor and Head of the
Department of Physics, Calcutta
University, is one of the most eminent
scientists of India and is famous
internationally for his work on
Nuclear Physics, especially on the
Theory of Stellarspectra which brought
him the Fellowship of the Royal
Society. He represented India at the
220th Anniversary of the foundation
of the Russian Academy of Sciences
in 1945.
tcnohaticit
INSERTED BY THE CENTRAL TEA BOARD
!TX 326
25X1C
)111111111$1111i11111111PREffillnIllrlinalnilannellilliriiii1111111111111111111111111RMINN111111111111111111111111111011111111111111111111111111111L1114111111i1111C1111111111111111111111111111111111011111111111111111111i119111thin111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111I1111111111111101111P1M11111A111111111111101111111111111111IINIEEINIII7.!
When rAtif3ip6foetcieFiteji.eg'--s
t1141-14b19483t260141griedbdgtillbtrI Cultu re;.
- Approved For_Releas-e- 2001/6.9706 F-CIA7
4.
Monthly JoirnaI of Natural and Ctilti.Lral Sciences
Published bp the
INDIAN SCIENCE
NEWS ASSOCIATION
Editors:
D. M. Bose
S. K. Mitre A. C.
P. Ray S. N.
Ukil
Sen
Associate Editors
A. K. Ghosh
R. Chatterjee B. Mukherjee
Collaborators
S. P. Agharkar Atmaram
G C Mitra K. G. Bagchi
A. C. Banerjee K. Banerjee
S. K. Banerjee K. P. Basu
D. N. Wadia K. V. Giri
H. P. Bhaumik K. BiSWRS
N. N. Chatterjee N. K. Bose
D. Chakravarti N. R. Dhar
S. C. Chatterjee J. C. Saha
S. P. Chatterjee A. C. Josh;
N. N. Dasgupta S. L. Hora
G. J. Fowler N. R. Sen
S. S. Bhatnagar H. P. Malty
P. C. Mahanti B. 1VIiikerji
S. C. Mitra S. R. PaLit
J. N. Mukherjee N. C. Saha
Kamalesh Ray B. B. Sarkar
S. K. Ghaswala J. M. Sen
V. Subrahmanyan S. N. Sen
B. C. Kundu S. C. Sirkar
S. S. Sokhey J. N. Bhar
Maneck B. Pithawalla
K. P. Chattopadhyay
S. P. Ray Chaudhury
H K. Mookherjee
Surendra Nath Sen
Editorial & Publkation Offices
92, Upper Circular Road.
Calcutta 9.
Advertising Office
92, Upper Circular Road,
Calcutta 9.
VOL. 15 JUNE 1950
No. 12
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN I NotA. 453
is Communal Conflict or War Instinctive??K. C?11 akherji 462
Forest Ecology and Evaporation Measurements in India?G. S. Puri 465
Indian Weather and Locust immigration in India R.17. Badami. 467
Wild Mangoes of India -Sung, Kumar Mu,kherjec 469
Education in Germany with Special Reference to the
System of Chemical Education?Haragopal Biswas 471
Total Synthesis of -Estrone and its Isomers?D. K. Banerjee,. 474
Atoemcnergie and Atombombe 475
? NOTES AND NEWS 477
Limmts TO Til DITOR :
Calcium Gluconate from Cane Sugar
-8. Balsundaram,1?. K. Hirani and V. Subrahmanyan 483
On the Bionomics of the Carp Thynnichthys Sand khol
(Sykes)--P. 1. Charko and S. Y. Can't pati 484
Theory of the Corona Disc Colours-- Y. C. Nail 485
Energy of Homopolar Bonds-8. K. Kulkarni Jatkar
and (Miss) S. B. Kulkarni 486
Effect of Refining and Deodorization of Coconut Oil on
Calcium Utilization?H. N. De and .1. N. Karkan 486
487
Development of the Female Gametophyte of Oryza
Coaretata Roxb--A. K. Paul and R. M
New Reagents for the Characterization and Purification
of 8- Guatazidene?K. B. Dull, Sukh Deb and I'. C. Cuha 488
Need for Investigation on Synthetic Motor and A? lotion
Fuel for lralia?J. N. Rakshit 488
Search for New Antibiotic Producing Fungi for Controlling
Pathogenic Organisms?S. K. Mukherjee, S. Sew and P. A' . Nandi 489
Sunspot Activity and Cosmic Ray Disturbances
1. L. Chakraborty and P. K. Seri Chowdhury 490
Systematic Sampling. II?A . C Das 491.
ioOK 11, EV LE ws 492
?
The annual subscription to the journal is lls. 10/- (inland), f. 1 or $4.00 (Foreign). Ordi-
nary Membership fee for the Association is Rs. I5/- (? 1. 10s. or $ 5.00) per year which covers
the subscription of the journal. A person or a Corporation paying Rs. 150/- (I 12 or $ 48.00)
shall be eligible for a Life Membership of the Association and will be entitled to a copy of the
journal every month.
The Indian Science News Association and the Editors of "SCIENCE AND CULTURE" assume
no responsibility for statements and opinions advanced by contributors to this Journal.
All MANUSCRIPTS should be legible and typewritten. The Editors reserve to themselves
the right to accept or reject the whole or portions of the matter sent for publication. The
rejected contributions are not returned to authors, if postage is not prepaid.
Remittances for membership dues, subscription and advertisement costs should be
addressed: to the T REASURER, INDIAN SCIENCE NEWS ASSi RIIATION, at 92, Upper Circular
Road, Calcutta, 9.
Editorial communications are to be addressed t the Editor and other conarnunicatione
to the Secretary, Indian Science Now Association, both at 92,Upper Circular Road, Calcutta, 9
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950. xii SOTENCE AND CULTURE
sE Ei rm mtx rem
LET US ELP YOU
IN OBTAINING
Ali YOUR ZAEIORATORY rivimmar
WE SPECIALISE IN
SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS
OF ALL KINDS
ALSO
ACIDS, SOLVENTS & OTHER
CHEMICALS OF REAGENT QUALITY
OUR PATRONS INCLUDE
REPUTED TECHNICIANS IN
VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS AND
INDUSTRIAL CONCERNS
THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY
ENQUIRIES RESPECTFULLY SOLICITED
& PHARMACEUTICAL WORKS LTD.
94, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, CALCUTTA 12.
igq
11
,
hF
M
E
EMMMEMMEMEMMEMMEMEMMMMMMMMMEMMMMMMMMMEEMEM
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND CULTU
A Monthly Journal of Natural and Cultural Sciences
Vol. 15 JUNE 1950
No. 12
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN INDIA
IN a previous article' we gave an account of the
progress which had been made during the fiest half of
the century towards the introduction of agricultural
research, educat.on and development in this country;
at the same time the movements for rural cooperation,
rural reconstruction, and basic education were also
described.
We shall now try to assess the achievements of
these moven- ents and to indicate the directions along
which future development should proceed.
Research and Development?Some notable progress
had been made through the efforts of the Institutes
for Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Research,
in some of the provincial Agricultural Experiment
Stations, and also in some under Central Commodity
Committees.
The opinion has however been expressed that
"while under grants-in-aid received from the I.C.A.R.
a good deal of research work has been carried out,
the improvements effected have not been taken up by
the cultivators" i.e., there has been a lack of coordina-
tion between research, development and extension work.
The implication has been that the latter two are the
responsibilities of the provincial agricultural depart-
ments, and they have not pulled their weight in the team
work. In our view, which shall be discussed later,
a better machinery has to be devised for this purpose
which involves certain redistribution of subjects now
placed in the Union, State, and Concurrent lists in the
Indian Constitution.
Taken all in all, the progress achieved so far has
not been commensurate with the vastness of the prob-
lems involved and with the variety of subjects relating
to agriculture on which government action is necessary.
We have probably in Institutes under the Ministry of
Agriculture and in the Commodity Research Stations
and Technical Laboratories small sections dealing
Science and Culture, 15, 407, 1950
with the breeding of disease resistant food, cash, and
other crops, for Agricultural and Soil Engineering,
Agriculti,ral Chemistry, for Dairy Industry and Animal
Husbandry, for Entomology and Plant Quarantine,
but most of them are in their early stages of develop-
ment. There should be a large number of regional
laboratories for plant science and animal husbandry,
and for their processing and industrial utilization, soil
investigation laboratories, bureaus for the classification
and study of microorganisms and pests, so far as tlrey
affect agricultural and animal husbandry industries.
The Centre should also take an active part in starting
and financing of provincial agricultural experiment
stations and in providing machinery for the coordina-
tion of the work of the central and provincial agencies.
Agricultural education in the higher stages, the training
of teachers for agricultural high schools in the provinces,
as well as extension work, should also be the responsibi-
?
lity of the Centre.
Financing of Agricultural Research?We have
collected in the following table some data obtained
from different sources on the relative areas under culti-
vation of the different food, and cash crops; and the
amount spent for research, processing and marketing
of these commodities.
We find that a disproportionate amount of money
is spent on research on cash crops which form only about
14% of the area under cultivation, while research on
food grains and pulses and other crops which form about
81% of the area under cultivation are comparatively
neglected. This was probably a result of the British
rule when the foreign traders and industrialists were
primarily interested in the raising and technological
processing of cash crops. This arbitrary division of
food and cash crops should be done away with, and all
commodity research stations st mild be placed on
the same footing as in the U.S.A.
Problem of Agricultural Education?From the begin-
ning the education was top heavy. There was a need for
the starting of agricultural colleges for the training,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCt AND ctiTtrItt Vol. 15, No. 12
at least of recruits to Government agricultural services,
but the openings were relatively limited, arid the colleges
Authoi Source. of /wow
LC Nit,
oil certain
miricuil oral ; 'on,
modifies
Ministry of
miculture
lC.A.14.
?
Ccmtmod ity
Research 1-nsti- Ministry of
ut.es for Rice, Agriculture
Potato etc.
IJ oder Centre I
Commodity N.Vhole or part of
1,;0.111.1 11 t1404 P.P85 levied
Ammtnf of grant PerePntage of
el I Iterated areas
-Rs. 11.00 lakFts
Rs. 11,70 "
80.9%
.2.03 " (food grain & pulses)
not known
Colton IRs. IS
Lac (Its. 10 ")
Jute (Re. 7 ")
Sugarcane ; its.11 ") 8.3%
approximately
If !see; is 6%
T,6:14.ci I not known
;Mewed
(lotion. Lac, Jute and Sugarcane Central Committees have
t heir 5'echnolciiiical Research Laboratories at Matunga,
Naitikuni. Calcutta and Kanpur respectively.
The data are approximate ;Ind taken from T.C.A.R. Hand
book (1948). Report (1944-4r9 and Famine Commis-
s Report ( (944).
did not attract sufficient number of the sons of
laud owning class,-s. On the other hand there is not
a large class of yeoman farmers whose sons could have
benefittA by education in agricultural colleges and.
particuia,rly in agricultural high. schools. The latter
have been utilized for the training of agricultural over-
seers ; at. is doubtful whether the training given was
sufficiently thorcugh in theory and in farm practical
work. 7ilie majonty of the eons cf. cultivators, 'bur-
denw with lin con om fed_ hold ing,-;, did nit receive airy
primary education, much less education of a suitable
kind. Rural education must be reorganized from the ho-
tt no upwards, from basic primary and agricultural high
schools to colleges situated in the midst of agricultural
a7,e.Ls.
Titi
riessibility of introduction of such education
1.1iends on some measure of rural prosperity, which
will act as an incentive to the people for further coopera-
tive efforts to improve their economic and social statns.
The Gandhian ideal of self sufficient village communi-
ties supported by the present type of agricultural in-
dustry and handicrafts, wilt not be able to meet the re-
uirements of an overpopulated rural communty
f, 'ng competition of industrialized towns. The Con-
g,.css movement of the 19130's attracted a large number
idea:list, worker. But since Congress has comet? power
:from 1947, the movement appears to have lost much
its idealism and driving force.
Rural indebtedness and its Rem, wal?The high
agricultural prices prev-aling since the commencement
oJ the last war and which is still continuing, have to
a certain extent removed one of the permanent handi-
caps to the development of healthy rural communities
viz., rural indebtedness, based upon low prices of agri-
[tuna commodities. The pre-war exploitation of
the rural population by the industrial and commercial
communities has for the present been reversed, resulting
in a general rise in the cost of living. This black mailing
of the town by the country will not be an unmixed
evil, if it leads, at least in some of the more flourishing
of the rural areas, to the abolition of indebtedness
amongs,t the cultivators, and to instal in the latter a
desire to introduce better amenities of life in the villages.
The State can help this movement by providing amongst
other facilities, cheap electric power to the rural commu-
nities. This will benefit not only agricultural produc-
tion but also help in the introduction of power driven
rural industries. The Famine Commission (1944)
reported that between 1942 and 1945, there was a subs-
tantial reduction of rural indebtedness in all the pro-
vinces, especially amongst cultivators with large hold-
ings and to a, considerable degree amongst those with
medium holdings. On the other hand it appears pro-
bable that the small holders as a class have not bene-
fitted materially.
The beginnings of rural prosperity thus initiated,
cannot be maintained unless some scheme for regulation
of prices of agricultural commodities be adopted, which
will ensure a fair minimum price for the cultivators
and a fair maximum price for the consumers, and
undue fillet ations of prices be prevented. For reasons
stated in their Report, the Famine Commission recom-
mended that the simplest remedy would be to main-
tain the prices of the two principal cereals, rice and.
wheat within predetermined limits, even if it should be
found, that the prices of the other commcdities cannot
be regulated.
Rural Rehabilitation?Future development of rural
areas will depend on two sets of factors vz., (i) the faci-
lities which the Government- can provide and, (ii) how
the people can organize themselves so as to obtain the
maximum benefit for themselves out of the facilities
so offered:
(i) The Government can promulgate laws regard-
ing the size of holdings and their assessment, minimumn
prices for agricultural commodities, can supply rural
areas with cheap electricity, irrigation facilities, suitable
education and health services, provide the rural commu-
nities with improved disease resistant seeds, manure
and fertilizers, make provisnin for large scale supply
of credit and of technical assistance and supervision.
(ii) Government assistance can only be effective
when the community is organized for cooperative
efforts in all spheres of their lives. If they can develop
an enlightened cooperative spirit, in which their rational
self interest will be safeguarded, and know how to de-
mand and utilize Government assistance, then only
will prosperous self governing rural communities deve-
lop.
After discussing the respective merits of 'Collective
farming, Joint farming and Cooperative farming',
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN _INDIA
the Famine Commiss'on came to the conclusion that
the future, development of agriculture in the case of
small and medium farmers depend in considerable
measure on the organization of these classes into multi-
purpose village cooperative societies. They make
recommendations as to how these societies should be
federated into unions, and what procedure should be
adopted for their effective working. Large landholders
are to be encouraged to organize themselves into agri-
cultural associations, and the farm workers also be
encouraged to organize themselves.
In the concluding chapter of their Report they
remark:
that "the food problems with which we have been primarily
concerned, merges into broad problems of agricultural and
economic developments, and these in turn are linked up with
fundamental social questions. Poverty and hunger have been
too often accepted as part of the nature of things and much
of the countryside may almost be described as a rural slum,
whore hopelessness engendered by slum conditions prevail. Such
an attitude of mind, on the part either of' rulers or of ruled, is in-
compatible with progress. Without vision arid faith in the
future little can be achieved".
This brings its to the consideration of proposals which
the University C:mmiss.on has made for providing an
educational programme suited to bring into being the
nw state of rural society. As an illustration of how
such things have been done in other countries, they
describe in detail the part played by the 'land grant'
colleges of the U.S.A., with their associated Agricultural
Exper ment Stations and Extension Services all run
on a cooperative basis between the Agricultural Depart-
ment of the Federal and State Governments. The
Commission's recommendations on agricultural educa-
tion and rural universities are very mach influenced
by the U.S.A. examples.
We do not believe that the Indian problem can
be solved by an unintelligent imitation of U.S.A. prac-
tices. The U.S.A. is a comparatively thinly populated
country which has made it possible to have large
farms; the shortage of labour has encouraged mechani-
zation of farm work. During recent years horse drawn
agricultural machines have been replaced by power
driven tractors and other appliances. Such large scale
farming has led to certain undesirable agricultural
practices under which the soil has in many regions de-
ten i rated badly. Efforts are now being made to
stop this soil deterioration. While the yield per capita
of agriciaural worker is very high, the yield per acre
is 'moderate compared to what is obtained in many
of the western European countries. In this country,
primarily of small holdings and superfluity of manual
compared to available mechanical power, the problem
requires a different approach. Nevertheless due to the
similarity in political structure in the two countries
viz., Federal union of States enjoying a great deal of
autonomy, the machinery evolved in the U.S.A. for
coordinating the activities of the Federal and State
Departments of Agriculture are worth studying and
adoption, with necessary modifications, in our country,
455
We shall devote the rest of the review in discussing
A. American agricultural administration and edu-
cation programme;
B. Reform in Indian agricultural education and
administration; and
C. Rural, Secondary and University Education
in India.
A. American Agricultural Administration?It is
interesting to note that during 1862, when under the
Morril Act grants of federal lands were made to the dif-
ferent States and Territories of the U.S.A., for the
endowment, support and maintenance of at least one
college in each State, which were enjoined "to teach
amongst other things such branches of learning as are
related to agriculture and to mechanical arts, in order
to promote liberal and practical education of the indus-
trial classes in the several pursuits and professions of
life", the Congress in the same year established the De-
partment of Agriculture, with the directive that "the
general designs and duties of the Department shall
be to acquire and to diffuse among the people of the
United States useful information on subjects connected
in the agricultire in the most general and comprehen-
sive sense of the word". Further the Commissioner
for Ariculture -Was directed to acquire information
"which can be obtained by means of books and cor-
respondence; and by practical and scientific experi-
ments, by the collection of statistics and by other
appropriate means within his power".
Thus thee two agencies started in the same year,
h ave revolutionized the development of agriculture
in the U.S.A.
The U.S.A. Department of Agriculture: consists
of (a) eight large operating or program units, which are
named
(i) Offices including Extension, Forest, and Soil
Conservation offices,
(ii) Administrations : including Farm credit,
Farmers Union, Production and Marketing, Rural
Electrification, and Agricultural Research; and
(b) in addition there are eight Staff and Service
Offices at departmental level. These are :
Budget and Finance,
Foreign Agricultural Relation,
Information,
Library,
Personnel,
Plant and Operation,
Solicitor,
The Bureau of Agricultural Economics.
Of these the functions of the Extension Service
and of the Agricultural Administration are of most in-
terest to us for our present discussion.
The latter consists of six large Bureaus viz.,
(1) Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry, which
deals with chemical, physical and engineering research.
into the properties of farm commodities and the method
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
456
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE
of utilizing such commodities. The bulk of the research-
es in this Bureau are conducted in four Regional
Research Laboratories, whose efforts are directed to
discovering ways of utilizing specific agricultural com-
modities for food, feed and non-food industrial pur-
poses, especially of farm commodities in which there are
regular or seasonal surplus.
(2) Animal. Husbandry and Production?deals
ith applied and fundamental research relating to
the breeding, feeding and management of farm stock,
except dairy cattle, poultry and fur bearing animals,
and the technology of animal products. There are four
regional laboratories.
(3) Bureau of Dairy Industry.
(4) Entomology and Plant Quarantine.
(5) Human Nutrition and Home Economics?
deals with (a) Basic human needs for food, clothing,
housing and other goods and services and (b) Relative
utility and economy of goods available for basic human
needs.
(6) Plant Industry, Soil and Agricultural Engine-
ering?devoted to (a) Improvement of crop plant
production, by reducing the hazards of crop production
and improvement of yield and quality of crops. There
are three regional laboratories for basic research.
(b) Soil Science deals with classification and im-
provement of soil, management of soil in humid and
dry-land regions, and under irrigation_ Study of basic
soil-plant relationship and research on the preparation,
technology, and use of fertilizers etc. There are two
regional research laboratories devoted to basic research.
(c) Agricultural Engineering devoted to engineer-
ing problem of primary processing of farm products,
use of electricity, use of faim buildings and equip-
ments and operation of farm machinery.
Office of Experiment Stations?Its function is to
direct as well to coordinate the researches carried out in
the Federal Experiment Stations, its other function
is to advise the State Experiment Stations, located
in land grant' colleges, and to coordinate their work
with those of the Federal Laboratories.
it is stated that these Experiment Stations have
been tremendously important to the development of
scientific farming of the Nation. The new and improv-
ed commodities and farming methods developed by these
stations are outstanding examples of the great values
which accrue to a Nation through scientific research.
The importance of the stations can be scarcely over
emphasized.
.4 yr Mal/Aral Experiment Stations?The stations
grew out of the 'land grant' colleges. We have referred
to the latter in the introduction to this section, and
shall deal with them in detail later.
Between 1862 and 1887 the Federal Government
acted to extend agricultural experiment stations to all
States and Territories with 'land grant' agricultural
colleges 14 States had independently established
such stations. Besides a main station there are branch
stations and field laboratories in different parts of the
AND CULTURE VOL 15, No. 12
States, to suit differences in soil, climate and diversi-
fication of agriculture.
Federal Grants for State Experiment Stations?
The Hatch Act of 1887 appropriated $15,000/- annually
to each State for the experiment stations. The grant
was increased progressively till in 1928, the authori-
zation reached. a total of $ 90,000/- per station per year.
The States have contributed 2 to 3 dollars for each
dollar of Federal grant. During 1947, the grant from
Federal funds to the Experiment Stations was approxi-
mately $ 6.2 million, out of which about $ 3.1 million
was utilized for background research, $ 2.95 million
for applied research and only 0.15 million for deve-
lopment work.
The research programmes of the State Experiment
Stations include Industrial Utilization, Agricultural
Engineering, Animal and Dairy industries, Entomology
and Zoology, Forestry, Home Economics, Plant
Science, Soil Science and Watershed Protection and
Conservation.
The Hatch Act also laid down specific authoriza-
tion for scientific research at Federal Stations; the direc-
tives were mostly for applied and developmental charac-
ter. Later the Bankhead-Jones Act of 1935 directed
the Secretary for Agriculture `to conduct research in-
to laws and principles underlying basic problems of
agriculture in its broadest aspects' and also "authorized
and directed (the Secretary) to encourage the same
type of research in Agricultural Research Station"
i.e., basic research was introduced in the latter.
The role of the Federal Department in the admi-
nistration of grants for financing the State Experiment
Research Stations, was also laid down in the Hatch
Act. of 1887, which directed the Secretary 'to indicate
from time to time such lines of enquiry which shall
appear to him most important and in general to fur-
nish such advice and assistance as will best promote
the purpose of this Act'. In later Acts the Secretary
was directed to coordinate "the work of the Department
of Agriculture with that of the State Agricultural
Colleges and Experiment Stations".
In principle, it appears that there is nothing to
differentiate the type of agricultural research under-
taken by the Federal and State Departments of Agri-
culture. The cooperative participation of the Federal
Department of Agriculture is limited to problems which
are common to two or more Stat. s or are of regional
nature.
Commodity Committees?In the Federal Depart-.
(tient of Agriculture, there are a large number of Com-
mittees, - of inter-departmental and of inter-bureau -
character, which have been created to serve in an.
advisory policy making role to the Secretary c Agri-
culture. Amongst these we select the twenty inter-
bureau Committees, whose combined assignments
encompass the entire commodity responsibility of the
Department. The Committees were established to
bring together in one group, individuals from all research
units with interests in one particular commodity. Each
Committee is concerned with recording the primary
Problems related to their commodity areas and recom-
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN INDIA
mending research programmes needed for their solution.
Through this method research programmes for cotton,
grain, rice etc. are developed which cut across bureau
lines and represent an integrated research programme.
Some of the commodities are:
Poultry
Dairy
Cotton Grain Citrus fruits Peanut
Flax Rice Deciduous Troenut
Wool fruits
Livestock Tobacco Potato Dry Bean
Feed Sugar Vegetable and Transportation
Here there is no separation, as in India, into cash
and other commodities, of which the former are under
semi-autonomous All-India Central Committees.
Land grant Colleges?These were started, as stated
earlier, under the Morril Act 1862 with Federal land
grants. There are now 70 of such Colleges and Uni-
versities. Each State has at least one and in 18 States
there are two, in about half the States, they are
the State Universities, all but two have Agricultural
Colleges. From 1887 Federal grants were given to
'land grant' Colleges, to launch Agricultural Experiment
Stations, Laboratories and experiment fields, which
provided the source materials for the entire land grant
system of liberal and practical education. Class room
instruction and research stimulated each other.
Throughout the country, land grant colleges pushed
back the walls of intellectual darkness, each discovery
opening new potentialities. The experiment was so
successful that by 1914, the farmer's complaint was not
that science was too slow or fruitless, but the knowledge
of the laboratories was fully 25 years in advance of
general farm practices. Hence they demanded that new
steps be taken to make the results of science available
to the men on the land.
'So the Federal State Extension system was launched.
Here was an unique 'land grant' experiment. An
adult educational system reaching from laboratories,
class room and experiment fields to men and women
throughout rural America'. "In that half century, the
land grant colleges had enlarged and enriched all types
of and phases of education, not only at the college
level but at the secondary school level as well". The
teachers trained in these institutions "in agriculture,
industrial arts, home economics, basic sciences, and
liberal arts were_ introducing new courses into high
schools, just as extension agents were carrying infor-
mation to the farms and homes of the land".
"The land grant institution now enrol on their
register approximately as many students as the other
1200 Colleges and Universities combined? about a
million students".
The agricultural programme of the land grant college
is three fold :
(1) the Colleges/ or teaching division,
(2) the Experiment Station or Research Institute,
457
(3) The Agricultural Extension Service.
So far as one can make oat, the Experiment Sta-
tion with branch station and laboratories in differ-
ent parts of a State is the main, if not, the sole agency
by which agricultural research is conducted in a State.
As a recent report states "Research supported by State
and Federal funds is frequently indistinguishable at
the experiment station. Different facets of a single
problem may be supported both by Federal grants .and
State funds. The same scientist may direct men paid
by either fund. The results of both are commonly
utilized".
The Agricultural Extension Service became another
aspect of Federal and State cooperation. The new know-
ledge about scientific agriculture as developed in the
Experiment Stations are incorporated with instructions
given in the Colleges. This scientific information which
is the basis of all progress in agriculture on the farms,
is supplied to the latter by the Extension Service,
which is a cooperation programme of the Federal Govern-
ment and States and local communities. The persons
who carry this linowledge and demonstrate it to the far-
mers are called County Agents. They are trained in
the Agricultural Colleges and have a bachelor's degree
in agriculture as minimum qualification. They are
appointed by and work under colleges. Teaching of
agriculture in rural high schools was given a stimulus
by Act of Congress passed in 1917. Before this act
was passed, less than half the States gave any grant-in
-aid to secondary schools for the teaching of agriculture.
The new Act appropriated Federal money for the pre-
paration of teacher training, in agriculture as a coopera-
tive venture with teacher training institutions. It
carried the stipulation that funds appropriated for the
preparation of teachers shall be matchk, d dollar for
dollar by the States, or by local community or both.
At present 72 Colleges and Universities are training
teachers and supervisors of vocational agriculture,
of this number 63 are land grant colleges.
B. Reform in Agricultural Education in India?
The short account given above gives a picture of the
key position held in the U.S.A. by the 'land grant'
colleges in carrying on agricultural research in Experi-
ment Stations, incorporating the results in teaching
of agriculture, in training teachers for agricultural
secondary schools, and County agents for Extension
Service. It is not surprising that the American members
of the Indian University Commission should place be-
fore their Indian colleagues, the principle of 'land grant'
colleges as model for agricultural education, associated
with the proJosed rural universities in India.
Some of the Commission's recommendations on
agricultural education are:
(i) that as far as feasible agricultural education be
given a rural setting so that it shall include direct
participation in and experience with agricultural life
and practices;
(ii) that new agricultural colleges, where possible
be associated with new rural universities so that agri-
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
458
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AN
cultural education may be supported and enriched by
e,ndact with other fields, and common use of personnel
and equipment;
(iii) that a widespread series of experimental
hums e developed by the central and provincial.
Governments as resources and adequately trained men
become available; these experiment stations to repre-
sent all major types of soil, climate, crops and topo-
graphy ; that as nearly as possible every basic elemen-
tary school, every rural. secondary and every rural
university should have its own small experimental
farm, so that the spirit of research and experiment
&rail prevail all rural life, and that where practicable
every experiment station or college where student on
work or study programmes may provide labour while
becoming: acquainted with experimental and research.
methods.
P.es,arding, existing agricultural colleges, the Com-
mission recommend that they be strengthened in equip-
ment and teaching staff, and that each one, in addi-
Hon to a programme of well proportioned general and
.-igrioultaral education, endeavour to find some phase
I agricultural practice or some related interest, like
lgricultural credit or agricultural cooperatives, in which
shall undertake to achieve mastery. Similarly the
tiew adieultural colleges should explore some phase of
.tgriett !tare or related interest often particularly related
to its loettlity, in which it will strive to become an out-
sdatuling authority.
N o I NTPTAN AGRICULTTTR AL POLTCY
A (Vie Ultll re in the New Constit ytion---Subject matter
.-d? laws made by (Union) Parliament and the Legisla-
ture of 5fates is defined by Article 249 of the Constitu-
tion, There are three lists given in the seventh Schedule
of the Indian Constitution, of which list I contains
the names of subjects which the Parliament is alone
r'njtowered to deal. There is another list (IT) with
Wh ich the States (provincial) Legislature is alone em-
powered to deal. While there is a third list (III) of
coneurrent subjects with which the Union (Central)
am] the State T.egislatures can both deal.
Arlicie 45 provides : The State (Union) shall
cmdeavoilr to organize agriculture and animal husbandry
di modern scientific lines and shall in particular, take
,4etts for preserving and improving the breeds, and
prohibiting the slaughter of cows, calves, and other
roileh. and draught cattle.
(hi looking through, the three lists in seventh.
'-1chedule we discovered to our surprise, that agriculture,
which should be the responsibility of both the Union
and the States, does not find a place in List ITT of con-
current subjects. On the other hand in State List II,
we md No. 14 : Agriculture, including agricultural edu-
cation and research, protection against pests, and pre-
vention of plant diseases ; and
No, I : Preservation, protection and improvement
of stock and prevention of animal diseases ; veteri-
nary ft. ..Lining and practice.
D CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
In the concurrent subject List TIT the only refer-
ence to agriculture and animal husbandry is in No.
29 : Prevention of the extension from one State to
another of infectious or contagions diseases affecting
men, animal or plants.
The above noted ommission should be rectified
and the sections 14 & 15 of List ii should be trans-
ferred to List III.
In implementing the changes Suggested in the Cons-
titution, the following powers and responsibilities should
devlove on the Union Government:
(i) For the maintenance of administration,
bureaus and services on the lines existing under the
U.S.A. Department of Agriculture , the different
functions will be developed out of the existing machi-
nery and taken up as resources and adequately
trained personnel become available.
(ii) In particular the functions listed under the
Agricultural Research Administration of the U.S.A.
and at present carried out by the All India Institutes
for Research in Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and
Dairy Industry should be extended by the opening of
a number of laboratories and experiment stations suited
to the requirements of different regional areas of the
country. Such work should be in cooperation with
State Experiment Stations and deal with problems
affecting two or more States or of regional nature.
(iii) Special regional laboratories for soil science
and for watershed protection and conservation should
be started.
(iv) The distinction between cash and other agricul-
tural commodities should be abolished. If it is found
necessary to continue, for research and development
purposes, the imposition of cess on these commodities,
the total cess collected should be credited to a central.
authority who will be responsible for its utilization.
The Minister of Agriculture will be advised by suitable
constituted Commodity Committees who will bring
together in one group individuals from all research
units with interest in one particular commodity. These
committees will be responsible for recording the primary
problems related to their commodity area and
research programmes needed for their solution.
Agricultural research and development can be
carried mainly through the agencies of the States Ex-
periment Stations. Plant breeding, basic investigations
on rusts, fungi, insects etc. affecting economic plants,
storage of their products and similar investigations on
animals, and evolving methods for their prevention
and control, can best be undertaken by cooperation
between Regional States and University laboratories
specializing in such work.
(v) Similarly the-work of technological laboratories
at present under Central Committees viz., on Cotton
(Bombay), Jute (Calcutta,) Lac (Namkum) and Sugar
(Kanpur) should not be confined to investigations
on products of one economic plant or insect only. They
should be converted into large regional laboratories
equipped for investigations of physical, chemical,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June; 1.950 AGRICULTURAL nDtYCATION AND tESEA11,011 IN INDIA
and engineering problems connected with, and for the
discovery of new uses for, economic crops, which are
the speciality of each of the regions. So far as possible
duplication of work in the different regional laborato-
ries should be avoided.
(vi) The Union Government should be responsible,
jointly with State Government for the proper equipment
and maintenance of State Experiment Stations, State
Agricultural Colleges, for the training of teachers for
agricultural secondary schools and for Extension work.
The I.C.A.R. is at present discharging, not very satis-
factorily, some of these functions. Further extension
of its powers on the lines of the Federal Office of Ex-
periment Stations of the U.S.A. is necessary.
(vii) The responsibilty of the Union Government
for (iv) will in part take the shape of grants to the States,
which will be matched by similar grants by the latter
and other local agencies. The other part of the Union's
responsibility will be to provide machinery for super-
vision and coordination.
The problems of agricultural administration of this
country with its peculiar social and economic structure
and its traditional agricultural practices are vast and
complicated. We have suggested certain changes of
Constitution and administrative reorganization and ex-
pansions and a new adjustment of the activities of the
Union and State departments of agriculture, with a
view to securing expansion, better rationalization and
coordination of their respective functions. These
proposals require to be supplemented by detailed studies,
one of the most important and complicated of which is
the machinery for Extension service, which in view
of the small holdings and present illiteracy of the culti-
vators Must go much further in directions not considered
necessary in the U.S.A. In most of the Central and
State agricultural departments, there has been many
failures in the work of extension.
It is over 20 years that an Agricultural Commission
was appointed to examine on the state of agriculture
and rural economy of the country. The Famine Com-
mission of 1944 has done valuable work in this direction.
Probably the appointment of a Committee to report
on the overhauling of the machinery of agricultural
administration (both on Union and State levels) on
the lines discussed above may be desirable.
C. Rural, Secondary and Univers?ty Education?
In '13' we quotel some of the important recom-
mendations of the University Commission on Agri-
cultural Education (Chap. VII). They were based upon
an adaptation of the structure of 'land grant' colleges
to our local conditions. We are told that these 'land
grant' colleges provide 3000 occupations including such
as are suitable to students from agricultural vocational
schools, who desire to specialize in different aspects
of agriculture. The Commission recommended that
the new agricultural colleges, 'where possible, should
be associated with new rural universities, so that agri-
cultural education may be supported and enriched by
459
contact with other fields, and by common use of person-
nel and equipment'. In Chapter (VIII) on Rural Uni-
versity we did not discover any coherent scheme of
rural collegiate education, correlated with agricultural
education and extension work. It appears to Ls that
Chapters VII & VIII were written by different members
of the Commission, and no attempt was made subse-
quently to fuse them into a coherent system. This
has to some way detracted from the usefulness of the
Report.
The whole of rural education is divided by the
Commission into :
8 years of basic education;
3 or 4 years of post basic or secondary education;
3 years for college, and
2 years for post-graduate university work for
master's degree.
The expression 'college' in this connection refers
to not only to education leading to an academic degree
but to any education beyond the secondary school
whatever may be its form.
Adult education through People's College--
The Commission views the possibility that a large
proportion of Indian rural boys and girls may not at-
tend formal school beyond the seven or eight years
of basic education. The Commission suggest that for
such people some form of adult education may be arr-
anged similar to that provided by the People's College
of the Scandinavian countries, especially of Denmark.
People's College of Denmark are residence insti-
tutions for adult young people, chiefly from rural
life. They are not vocational but cultural in their
purpose. All of them and of the Agricultural Schools
are private institutions, usually owned by principals,
but sometimes by an association. A People's College
applying for public funds must be first recognized by
Government.
While the Government allows a certain proportion
of students under eighteen, the People's College are
conducted on the assumption that it will be well to have
a break in schooling between the 14th and the 18th
year or longer. Many Danes hold that during this
period between adolescence and maturity young people
want to grapple with practical affairs, to become self-
sufficient and self-reliant. It is felt that students should
first learn the manual labour of their future occupation,
and should not attend People's College unless and un-
til they have a strong desire for education. There is
no space here to evaluate the results of the People's
College movement. Their alumni have taken leading
role in the cultural achievements of' the country, in
initiating social legislations and in helping the economic
development of the country. The Commission does
not however indicate how the proposed rural univer-
sities will help in the starting of any adult education
movement in this country on the lines of the People's
College.
Basic Education?To see rural higher education
in good perspective it is considered necessary to have
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
460
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND CULTI:tRt Vol. 15, No. 12
some idea of the elementary and secondary education
out of which it should emerge. The Commission
consider that the programme of Basic National Edu-
cation for grades one to five, may be considered as a
representative statement of what basic education for
rural areas should be. This programme is in practice
in several parts of In(lia, and appears in main to be
justifying the expectations of those who gave it form.
A possible criticism of actual practice is, over emphasis
on one process of producing fabric and cloth. 'In
some ways it seems desirable that a more distributed
interest and attention to varied processes of rural life
would be desirable'. There is no attempt to indicate
how the agricultural activities can be made to provide
such interests.
As post basic secondary school programme has
been less carefully worked out and while that of higher
education has not been clearly formulated, the Commis-
sion proceed to consider them in detail.
Rural 8econdary Schools--A successful development
of secondary rural education should presume decentra-
lized well balanced progressive industrialization. In
fact a considerable part of the vocational training of
post basic school should be to prepare boys and girls,
TM longer needed for agriculture, for other callings.
The industrial development of India is being handicap-
ped by the lack of workers who are skilled in hand and
eve, to fill positions not requiring full professional
training. As rural industries develop, the rural secon-
dary schools should go far to meet that need. Again
we miss here any references to special types of agricul-
tural vocational schools necessary to provide:
(i) Training to sons of yeomen farmers, to fit them
to become better cultivators of land ;
(ii) Training for village guides, who will pass on to
the cultivators all the information about improved
agricultural technique in State and agricultural
college experiment stations; and
(iii) To provide overseers for such. stations.
Amongst the number of types of rural secondary
schools which will emerge as the general principle of
basic education find expression in practice, the Commi-
ssion selects one type for detailed consideration. Such
a school should, unless there are good reasons to the
contrary, be residence school with pupils living in hos-
tels or if feasible, in such houses as would be suitable
for good village life. On the other hand it is important
that school experience shall not divorce him from his
village associations, so that he cannot return to work
in the world from which he came.
The secondary school village would as a rule serve
it group of villages and should be conveniently situated
with reference to them. It will cater for 150 to 200
students, and will require 30 to 60 acres of land, of
which 10 acres should be used for school house, hostels,
homes for teachers, play grounds, workshops and
industrial sites. The rest should be for agriculture,
forest and pasture. All this is very desirable, only
the cost of starting and running such schools in large
numbers appears to be prohibitive. Certain sugges-
tions are given for reducing the cost of construction
e.g., by making the pupils and teachers take part in
building the school village, with the help of a person
trained in village and school planning. Further the
life of the school should follow the course of life of a
good village, except that about half the working time
should be given to study, and about half to practical
work. There are some kind of work with which nearly
every pupil should become familiar, such as child care,
cooking, and keeping of home for girls, and agriculture
and the use of household tools for boys and girls. The
school should raise most ?fits food and should teach boys
and girls how to make the land yield as much as possible.
The practical work should include farming, building?
carpentry, housekeeping, weaving, street clearing, and
other useful village work. It should also include one
or more modern industries, manufacturing goods for
sale.
Rather than work and study for a part of each
day, it probably will be well to divide the students into
two shifts, each shift studying and working Pn alternate
days or more probably alternate weeks or fortnights..
For many of the pupils the secondary school period
would complete the schooling and their special training.
Others would find it desirable to go to more advanced
rural schools or colleges.
A syllabus is given of the more formal type of edu-
cation to be given in these schools, both for the imparting
of information and what is more important the deve-
lopment of attitudes of mind and spirit.
Other topics like self support in Basic Education
and Division of Labour in Basic Secondary Schools
are discussed in the Report, into which we cannot enter
for want of space. A very attractive picture of rural
secondary school is presented in the Report; it will
require to be tried in specially selected rural areas,
as pilot scheme, for tests,
(1) regarding the cost involved;
(ii) on the development of cooperative building
and other practical activities amongst the teachers
and rupils, and
(iii) on the feasibility of cembining the formal
and practical portion of the training as mapped
out with the capacity of the pupils to assimilate
the training within 3 or 4 years of post basic edu-
cation.
Rural Colleges and Universities?As a general type
of arrangement it is suggested in the Report that a
rural university should include a ring of small resident
undergraduate colleges, with specialized and university
(post-graduate) facilities in the centre. The number of
undergraduate students in. each college should be
about 300 and the maximum overall enrolment for
colleges and university combined about 2500. This
arrangement will combine the advantages of small resi-
dent undergraduate colleges where there are close rela-
tions between teachers and students with the advantage
of fully developed university which offer a wide range of
specialized and advanced educational opportunity to
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
- Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND RE8EA11011 IN INDIA
advanced students or to other students with specialized
interest.
The aim of each college would be to equip its
students with general educational foundation and to
encourage the development of individual aptitudes
and interests as they appear. A great deal of flexi-
bility and adaptability in the courses to be offered to
the students is recommended. While there should
be many elements common for all students, the curri-
cula should be made to fit the needs of individuals; and
not to make the students to conform to an arbitrary
curriculum. Each student should be given the oppor-
tunity, without sacrificing the general core of education,
to begin specialization at whatever time he is ready for
it, even at the risk that he might later change his field
of occupational interest. Some students have clearly
defined occupational interests at an early age.
The other important recommendation is that in
rural colleges as in rural secondary schools, general
studies should be united with practical courses, so that
those who attend college should become cultured educa-
ted men and women, and also persons trained and skilled
in some field or prepared for further advanced training.
Probably the greater part of rural college students will
not have further schooling except for 'refresher courses'
and so their college courses should include occupational
preparation. Also as with rural secondary students,
rural college students may spend about half their
time at studies and half at practical work. The working
and study period should be longer than in secondary
schools, the interval between work and study being
perhaps 5 or 10 weeks each. This programme of work
and study has been develope-1 in some places in Europe
and America, through more than 35 years, and has been
successful. In America a steadily increasing number of
universities, technical institutes and similar institutions
now use ?it.
"There is a tendency in University circle which
look upon alternating work and study and also upon
'practical' courses, e pecially those calling for manual
craftsmenship as suited to inferior minds, while profess-
ional courses are for intellectuals. This separation
of skill of hand from skill of mind has greatly retarded
the mastery of the physical world and has been the
major cause of poverty, especially in India. Practical
skill should be looked upon as equal in dignity and worth
to purely intellectual skill. Like scholarship, it
should be recognized with ascending grades of achieve-
ment and opportunity, so that the man who develops
high ability with hand and eye may have an open
road to advancement equal to that of the purely intel-
lectual worker". Examples cited in the Report to
2,
461.
support this view are the great contributors to astrono-
my who have based their work on mechanical skill.
Charles F. Kettering the famous General Motors
Manager, and Henry Ford in their earlier years worked
out ideas with their own hand as mechanics.
Ways and Means?As to ways and means of get-
ting the rural education programme under way, the
Commission remarks; "The criticism would be made
that while the programme outlined would be a desirable
one, India does not have the resources to put it into
effect. Most of the provinces are already committed
to the principles of basic education. Each of them
might well establish a number of nsident secondary
school villages hnd they might cooperate in establishing
one or more rural universities. Similarly the Central
Government might well establish several resident se-
condary school villages and a rural university. The
growth of the new system will depend largely on the
supply of suitable teachers. The Central Government
or the Provinces might establish one or more training
schools for teachers of this programme.
"The Gandhi Memorial Trust might well establish
several secondary school villages over India, and one
rural university, staffing them with persons trained in
existing training centres and with others who are sin-
cerely committed to the principles of basic education.
It will be no disadvantage for the programme to have
varied independent beginnings. The new type of secon-
dary schools and universities should be vigorously
developed as essential element of the educational ex-
pansion on which the future of India depends".
We bring our survey of "Agricultural Education
and Research in India" to a close with the above ex-
tract. The proposals for rejuvenation of rural educa-
tion and the starting of rural universities are too com-
plex to be described adequately in a few paragraphs or
can be assessed at the tail end of our present review.
If occasions arise, we hope to return to it again.
D.M.B.
REVERE Ncns
1. Report, University Education Commission, 1948-49. Vol,l.
2. Report, Calcutta University Commission, 1917-19. Vol. 3.
3. The Famine inquiry Commission, 1945. Final Report.
4. Report on Post-War Educational Reconstruction, Central
Advisory Board of Education.
5. Report on Post-War Agricultural Reconstruction,
6. I.C.A.R., Organization and Functions. Part I 1948.
7. Education in Modern India; Anath Nath Basu, 1946.
8. Science and Public Policy in U.S.A. Steelman Report, Vols, 2
and 3, 1947.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
1412
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
sattistct ANTI crtvrintt Vol. 15, No. 12
IS COMMUNAL CONFLICT OR WAR INSTINCTIVE?
K. C. MITKHEIt.11
RIVA RT1WFN'T OF PSYU}IOLOUY, CALUUTTA UNIVERSITY
NsTINur refers essentially to a conative impulse
A which man inherits for the satisfaction of his
most fundamental needs of life. So instinct is in the
i lid iv ifiu al 's psychological make-up. Aggressiveness is
iegarded by McDougall to be an unit of this make-up.
But killing is not the only manifestation of human
aggression. Litigation in the defence of one's own
interest and political campaign not leading actually to
any war also come of the aggressive impulse. Even
intellectual endeavour to understand and master the
ovirolanfait is considered sublimated manifestation
of. the aggressive impulse. So the mere fact that man
has aggressive impulses does not necessarily imply
hat war is inevitable and unavoidable. Thus war is not
a co-existent factor of aggression. In fact war may
tonic out of some specific conditions which it is not pos-
sible for one to establish from the study of the indivi-
dual's psychological make-up. The American history
iiows generally a peaceful state of human affairs--
quite different from the state of mind which the people
of Europe present. These people, deriving from the
same stock behave differently in different countries not
because of any changed psychological structure, but
because of the different socio-political conditions under
which they live. So the basic human factors remain
almost constant while the sociological factors are the
variables. But Freud finds in this basic human nature
the unavi)ittable element of war. According to him
m-ali is th unavoidable manifestation of man's innate
les triicti He believes that destruction for its
own sake is one of the strongest human motive forces.
In international wars this self-destructive tendency
if the people is indeed deflected to an outward object.
accoruing to Freud the innate destructiveness of
man causes war and war is unavoidable. Men must
hate and destroy something.Only if they have a common
external object of hate can they be saved from each
ifther's destructiveness. Leaders understand this ins-
tinctively ; and in order to avert revolution they insti-
1 ate war.
This is not the place to discuss Freud's problematic
death-instinct theory. But even if it is true that man
is innately destructive and that war is the manifesta-
th in of destructiveness it does not necessarily follow
I hat man will always have to conduct wars. We ob-
serve that Freud has studied the manifestation of this
destructiveness under different conditions and found
that this destructiveness might be diverted towards
external objects.' But he has not discussed the
necessary relationship of tins destructiveness to
war. So war as a manifestation of this destruc-
tiveness may occur only under certain social comfi-
t ions- -na,ional or international. It is not well known
whether an innate destructiveness for its own sake
Why wi ? Paris International Institute of Intellectual
-operation, League of Nations, 1933), pri.3-9.
goes beyond the limits of self-preservation. The rela-
tionship of aggressiveness to self-preservation is still
uncertain. But there is no doubt that a destruc-
tiveness for its own sake may exist as a secondary pheno-
menon in the form of sadism. This sadism is often
considered as a secondary erotization of an originally
self preservative aggressiveness. It seems that in
morbid development, when a large quantity of inhibited
hostile impulses accumulate these may be drained
by sadistic behaviour which serves merely as a grati-
fication and not for self-preservation. So even when
destructiveness for its own sake causes war or hostile
conflicts it is under special conditions of life that such
development arises.
So the conditions of war-like conflicts may pri-
marily be mental or environmental. Though the condi-
tions of the two kinds are not exclusively separate but
still their relative importance in the determination of
conflict or war varies in different cases. When the
emphasis is made on the environmental factor it means
that the existence of a particular people is threatened
by particular environment ; that is to say, when a pebple
endeavours to ensure its existence its endeavours con-
flict with the strivings of other peoples subjected to the
same environmental forces. Thus we find that when
an environment is brought about by the strivings of
a people in its struggle for existence? rendering it
difficult for other peoples to adapt themselves to it,
then an attempt is made to alter that environment,
but thus attempt is resisted by the people who consider
that any alteration of the environment will affect its
own existence. As a result communal conflict or war
follows. This is an economic crisis which it is difficult
to prevent through psychology.
But Freud in a letter to Einstein holds that 'con-
flict of interest among mankind is in the main usually
decided by the use of force. This is true of the whole
animal kingdom from which mankind should not be
exempted'.2 It means that war is the usual way of
setting conflicts between groups. This view tends to
refute those who seek the causes of war in a specific
emotional disturbances of the masses and refer to it
as a mass psychosis. We observe communal con-
flict often come out of a mass psychosis. In this con-
flict the aggressors as individuals remain relatively
normal, well-adapted persons. They go about their
business, take care of their family and so forth. But it
is only when they join a group, when they become
members of a mass, they lose certain qualities which
determine normality and thereby become instrumental
in helping to produce a mass delusion, belief in which
is shared by all the other group members; their delusion
is a mass delusion and may not be effective indivi-
dually under the test of reality. Individually there
2 ibid., p.3.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 IS COMMUNAL CONFLICT
?
may remain a few persons who may have friends among
the members of the other community whom they hate
collectively. But these few people may be influenced
by propaganda through newspapers, leaflets etc. and
may believe in the wickedness of the members of the
other community without argumentation. Thus they
become intellectually participant in the mass delusion
without active cooperation with the mass. This mass
psychosis which operates in the origin of communal
troubles is distinct from the individual psychosis and
so we find that a delusional disorder of the mass-mind
may leave the individual mind still intact.
To understand this mass psychosis we should try
to analyse the basic complex of the individuals actively
participating in the communal massacres. So our
endeavour will certainly be misdirected if we merely
embark on an investigation of the various accusations
brought against the members of one community by the
others. False accusation is bound to occur in the com-
munal conflicts. The differences in habits and ways and
says of life, differences in wealth, culture and status can
not adequately explain the original cause of communal
bitterness, because these differences exist among the
members of the same community. But we find that
when these differences are irrationally exaggerated and
used as a weapon in the hands of the politicians; when
false charges and irrational indictments are made by
the leaders, they are accepted by the mass-mind and
communal fury follows. We shall try to know the
mental mechanism that allows the false charges and
calumny to spread like an infectious disease and produ-
ces such a, delusion in the mass-mind that an unrestrict-
ed discharge of destructive aggression follows. It
has been already pointed out that this aggressive des-
tructiveness is due to the delusional disorder of the mass-
mind. The individuals come under the spell of this
delusion when they join the mass. This psycho-patho-
logical disturbance of the mass-mind is not a mass-neu-
rosis, it is a mass-psychosis, for the very essence of a
neurosis is that it afflicts the individual with inhibitions
and makes him asocial, an outsider to the group. So
the neurotic individuals cannot form a group. A
psychosis is specifically precipitated by a break of the
ego with reality. A break with reality means that
the individual withdraws his instinct cathexes from
the objects of his present world and allows his ego to
escape from reality by regressing emotionally to a past
level of his childhood?the stage of narcissistic self-
love. So the psychotic ceases loving the object and
loves only himself; object-libido becomes transformed
into narcissistic ego-libido. The over-abundance of
narcissistic self-love makes him megalomanic; and he
becomes unconscious of his failure to struggle with
reality. The relative incapacity of the psychotic to
adapt to reality precipitates all his mental disorder
by impelling his ego to escape through the avenue of
infantile regression. This regression goes so deep that
the peculiarities of primordial narcissism in which
hatred governs the environmental relationships deve-
lop in the ego. This stage of narcissism is both an
ontogenetic and phylogenetic phenomenon and it is
OR WAR INSTINCTIVE 1 463
conflicts in man. In this stage of primordial narcissism
there is no barrier of repression; for the pm-morbid
ego of the psychotic in its trend to regression cannot
afford that expenditure of energy necessary to sustain
the defence mechanism of repression. So the super-
ego of the psychotic is not strong and effective. In
fact the psychotic ego regresses to the infantile stage
of development where there is no super-ego?or where
its governing power is still represented by the parent.
So Freud has shown that the mental energies from which
we build the intra-psychic power of our super-ego
stem chiefly from the introversion of suppressed aggres-
sive energies; specially those which we were forced to
deflect from our parents. The ego allows these intro-
verted aggressions to be made over to the super-ego.
While submitting to this inner parent, the ego perceives
its aggressions as pangs of conscience or as feelings
of guilt. But in the process of the deterioration of the
psychotic ego system the super-ego gradually succumbs
to it. So the ego loses its orientation toward reality
as well as the capacity to differentiate between the ex-
ternal object reality and inner irrational psychic reality.
The psychotic then sees the object world in terms of the
irrational imagery of his unconscious. But all the im-
ages which populate the world of the psychotic are
in essence representative of but one figure?that of the
parent. The ego breaks down because it cannot solve
its conflict of ambivalence, of loving or hating the pa-
rent. This latent ambivalence conflict with the parent
which precipitates psychosis in the individual by a break
of his ego with reality is split up in the individual through
participation in the collective ego of the crowd. The
parental power of the unconscious of the individual is
re-extroverted into the leader whom he loves and
into the people of the other community whom he chooses
as the object of his hatred. So the mass-leader
represents the beloved parent in whom the child needs
to believe for the sake of his own security. By becoming
a member of the mass and accepting the mass-leader as
the external parental representative the individual
becomes a child for the period. So the individual inner
super-ego disappears; all his inner responsibility is thus
off; the barriers of repression are lifted and the
instinct force of primitive hate and destruction unla-
shed. This release of repression allows the unconscious
materials to enter the conscious ego ; and the conscious
ego becomes subjected to drives and wishe., of the inner
irrational psychic reality. So the individuals, as
the members of the mass, believe in all false accusations
especially conveyed by the leader against the members
of the other community not inspite of, but because of
their irrationality. So LeBon describes the leader as
follows : "The nimbus of the leader is sustained only
if what he says is unreal, incomprehensible and beyond
discussion. The mass can believe in what he says only,
when his speech appeals merely to beliefs and not to
approval by argumentation". According to LeBon
it is not what is real that counts, but only the unreal
matters in the mass. So the crowd is incapable of
distinguishing subjectivity from objectivity. So the
mass suffers from paranoic delusion and 'wanders,
along the borderland of the unconscious, because it
this pathology of hate which lies at the basis of communal is governed by instinctual d rives of destruction and wild-
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
464
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND CULTURE
ness, which', as LeBon holds, 'slumbers in everyone of
us'. The crowd man thinks and acts completely under
the spell of the primary processes in the unconscious
instead of responding to the categories of logic, ethics
arid aesthetics which govern our conscious mind..
Si) the regressive conscious mind of the crowd man
thinks and acts irrationally. For the crowd mind.
this regression is temporary but during this period of
their temporary regression the members of the mass
who feel individually powerless overcome their ac-vtual.
infantile impotence by submerging their individual
egoes into the collective ego of the group and care for
no obstacles in the way of their action impulses. The
restoration of this infantile mass --regression to normal-
cy is at present the problem of the day.
But behind this mass-regression and collective
discharge of aggressive energies there is the pathological
group-formation. The crowd-mindedness of the people
is responsible for all communal riots and conflicts. So
tieBon expresses the fear that the crowd-mindedness
of modern man will bring about the destruction of civili-
zation. It is the immaturity of individual egoes that
make the individuals a more easy prey to the crowd-
mind. The egoes are immature as a result of their super-
ego weakness. An ego is mature if it has developed. a
strong and effective super-ego as the internalised repre-
sentative of the external parental power. This super-
ego checks the infantile regression of the ego by helping
the ego to test reality and to act in accordance with this
testing. So the aim of all measures against communali-
sm should primarily be the effective development
of this social super-ego in men so that they are
equipped for reality testing. But there is no mechanical
process for the development of a lasting reliable strong
super-ego in men. Extensive researches on the ana-
lysis of different afflicted persons should be undertaken
in India in order to understand and combat their mental
complexes. Even children should not be neglected in
Ibis work. The redirection of destructive tendencies
into constructive channels, courses in social living and.
imparting knowledge of the psychological facts of life
should be the educational task so that the basic prepa-
ration for the mature development, of the super-ego
may begin early in life. The old system of totem
feasts at regular intervals and of dramatic performances
which we call in Bengal Vatras' seem to be useful ins-
truments for the introverted making over of the pent-
up aggressive energies to the super-ego. Tn Jatim
the audience indentifies itself with. the tragic hero who
commits terrible crimes and succumbs to the conse-
quences of his guilt. In watching the performance of
the drama the audience, by way of fantasy-identi-
fication with the hero in his crime and in his downfall
and guilt-feeling is enabled to re-introvert, the aggres-
Vol 15, No 1 2
sive energies and consequently to augment the Strength
of the super-ego. At present the aim of the theatre
is to offer the people what the people like without
considering what the people need. The aim of the games
should similarly be not merely to test the relative
strength of the contesting teams but the emotional
enthusiasm of the people should he utilized on a mental.
plane after the discharge of their aggression so that the
minds of the people are carried from the spirit of coMpe-
tition to the spirit of cooperation arid they feel united
in love with one another by participating in songs,
speeches, theatrical performances etc. It has been
pointed out that the communal propaganda becomes
most effective if it is irrational and appeals to the
unconscious of the mass especially in the cheap kraal?
where chronic alcoholics, addicts and psycho -pathic
criminals gather, rj hese psychological slums which
breed hate and destruction need Mental Sanitation just
as the unhygienic living quarters need to be weeded
out of swam :S in order to combat malaria or tuber-
culosis. In communal fury, we have observed that
man as an infantile individual feels weak ; so he flees
into the mass and feels so overwhelmingly powerful
that?whatever he might do--impunity is assured to
him. Rut when the emotionally regressive individuals
are not, sure of this impunity and the government lends
its strong support to the minority making it as powerful
as its opponents the immature individuals may then
feel less tempted to become crowd-minded. So Mahatma-
move for the safety of the minority in Noakhali.
Calcutta and. Delhi was most psychological and greatly
effective . The opposition of violence by non-violence
is indeed a phenomenon of the inner-conflict of ambi-
valence in man but the phenomenon of unrestricted
discharge of destructive energies occurs for the lifting
of the barriers of the super-ego which Mahatmaji as
a re-extroverted super-ego desired to restore in the mass-
mind. So this was a most psychological intuition for
Mahatninji to feel that 'that which can be exercised
only among friends is of value only as a spark of non-
violence while 'the greatest enmity requires an equal
measure of ahimsa2 to be cultivated in several. births'
of generations in an atmosphere ofpurity and diseipline.3
To establish this intuitive vision of the internalised
super-ego Mahatmqji possessed and to utilize its truth
to the benefit of the people a scheme of work on the
analysis of afflicted persons was necessary. Distin-
guished psychologists and psychiatrists should be em-
ployed to study the importance of this epoch making
theory. Mahatimaji's disappearance may cause the
disappearance of this vision unstudied but history will
reflect on it. Science always entails for its success
a huge waste of money and energy.
No -f .imitati ihtriign, December 14, 1947
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
FOREST ECOLOGY AND EVAPORATION MEASUREMENTS IN INDIA 465
FOREST ECOLOGY AND EVAPORATION MEASUREMENTS IN INDIA
G. S. PURI
vOREST RtstARCH INSTITUTE, DEHRA DUN
IN a recent paper Ramdas (1949) recommended that
I a network of evaporation recording stations be
Set up in India to providing adequate data for use in
Agriculture arid Hydrology. He says "and besides
the evaporation records, measurements from_ soil sur-
faces (with soil evaporimeter sets) as well as seasonal.
variations of the depth of water table, etc., should be
made (p.174)". This suggestion is very welcome to
ecOlogists, soil scientists and all those who arc engaged
in the Andy of vegetation in relation to habitat factors.
Evaporation or, more accurately speaking, a ratio
of Precipitation/Evaporation is one of the major eco-
logical factors governing the development of both
soil and vegetation.
In humid regions especially in higher latitudes
where this ratio is high the chief trend of development
in the soil is leaching as a result of which woodland
soils with advancing age, become impoverished at the
surface of soil bases, especially calcium. Depending
upon the amount of calcium present in the rock most
forest soils under natural conditions tend to develop
podsolic profile and running parallel to the develop-
ment of the soil there occur corresponding changes in
the development and succession of vegetation. For ex-
ample, immature or new soils in humid countries of
Europe (e.g., in the English Lake District) are less base
deficient and support the growth of ash, ash-hazel or
ash-hazel-elm type of mixed woodland with exacting
requirements on soil bases (Puri, 1949b; 1949e). This
type is, however, succeeded in time by oak, oak-brich
Or in the south of England by beech-holly communities
which requires lesser amounts of calcium for their
growth (Puri, 1949c). On reassorted soils or those de-
rived from rocks poor in calcium, e.g., Bagshot Sands,
the final stage is the conversion to healthy conditions
where the soils become very acidic on the surface with
a bleached A horizon and enriched B layer with iron, or
humus pan. In such areas roots of trees cannot pene-
trate to great depth in the soil unless hard pan is physi-
cally broken to enable them to reach the lower layers.
In regions with a low ratio of Precipitation/Eva-
poration the chief trend in the development of the soil
is evaporation, by which mineral salts from lower layers
of the soil are continually brought to the surface. Some
of the forest soils in tropical climate of Northern India
therefore, become enriched with bases in the course of
their development. It is on account of high evapora-
tion froni the soil that surface layers in most types of
our forests, even in hills at high altitude, are base
saturated and show a poorly developed profile. The
data of Griffith and Gupta, 1947 ; Taylor and others,
1936; loon, 1939f, Puri, 1949, etc.' agrees with the argu-
ment developed here. It may be pointed out that
some high figures for? exchangeable calcium obtained
by Hoon in surface layers of some soils may be partly
due to high amount of Ca present in leaf litter of the
existing vegetation.
An illustration of this type of development in the
soils and vegetation may be found in the Kidu Hima-
layas where freshly laid immature soils, rock screes,
or sandy alluvia are colonised by the air pine (Pinus
longifolia), a non-exacting species. This is succeeded
by Kail (Pinus excelsa) and deodar (Cedrus deodara),
species with higher requirements for soil bases, which
become available to the seedling growth at the surface
layers of the soil through evaporation and leaf litter
(Dili, 1949f; 1950c). Fire is also considered by forest
officers to play a notable role in the occurrence of those
species but the action of fire in this case is similar to
that of high evaporation.
At higher altitudes in the main valleys, or in side
valleys in the Kulu Himalayas there is a higher preci-
pitation, as a result of which the surface soils tend to
be leached of minerals. The development of vegetation
in this region is similar to that of Europe and proceeds
from broadleaved species of Cornus macrophylla,
Prunus padus, Juglans regia, Aesculus indica, etc.,
with high lime requirements, to spruce and silver
firs, whose demands on soil minerals are low (Puri,
/oc. cit). Similar sequence is seen in the Kashmir valley
(Hoon, /oc. cit.) and it seems that the development of
soils and vegetation is related to the ratio of Precipi-
tation and Evaporation.
In lateritic soils under teak in warm tropical
climate of S. India the data of Griffith and Gupta (1947)
shows that a change in Precipitation/Evaporation ratio
by opening the canopy and increasing evaporation
from the soil brings about a deterioration of soil for this
species and encourages growth of other species.
The importance of Precipitation/Evaporation ratio
in the development of vegetation and soils is abundantly
recognised in Europe (see Stamp, 1947, p. 92) and
this knowledge is applied to scientific forestry and agri-
culture in most countries. In this country, however,
on account of diverse climatic conditions and lack
of adequate records of evaporation (and even rainfall
at some places), the significance of this factor in the
development of forest vegetation and soils has not been
properly appreciated.
My preliminary survey of sal forests in the Debra
Dun valley and available data of Griffith and Gupta
as indicated elsewhere (Puri, 1950a,d) tend to show that
the failure in regeneration of Shorea robusta in places
which have been over-exploited is perhaps, related to
a change in this ratio. Under close canopies of pure
sal, where the soil is little exposed to sun there is less
evaporation. Furface soils in such situations are acidic
and have low amounts of calcium and high amounts
of nitrates. Under these conditions (see table III on
pp. 22-23 mi
Griffith and Gupta, loc, cit) it is seen that
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE A
the regeneration of Shorea robusta. a non-exacting
species with only 1.46% of foliar Ca as compared to
!!-6% in most of its associates, is present. An injudi-
cious opening of canopy would increase evaporation as
a result of which surface soils become saturated in lbws
and thus allow the growth of only exacting species
at the expense of sal (Pur.i, 1950nd).
flanges of a similar nature seem, to be working in
conifer forests of the western Himalayas as well, where
one species or the other fails to regenerate after felling
operations. The author's studies on these lines in coni-
fer forests of' the Kulu and Parbatti valleys are in
progreSS, and the preliminary results which closely
agree with those of Taylor et al, (1936) already seem to
show tile causal relationship between precipitation and
evaporation and growth and regeneration or various
conifer species.
The examples given above seem to show clearly
that exact data on evaporation and rainfall over small
areas in a forest are essential for successful silviculture
Of our important timber species. Ramdas's suggestion
for collecting evaporation data embraces only agricul-
ture areas but it is highly essential that similar eva-
poration measurement stations he set up in important
:forests of India. Provincial Forest Departments main-
tain records of rainfall at their offices and Rest Houses
in the forest and at some places temperature measure-
ments are also taken. it would be of immense interest,
to have soil evaporimeter sets at such places to begin
with and. to extend observatories to other areas in the
forests later on. The cost of providing such an appa-
ratus as given by Ramdas (about Rs. 500/-/-) is negli-
gible as compared to the value of the data in forest ma-
nagement, growth and regeneration. The Meteorological
14:_upartin.ent may perhaps, advise the Forest Depart-
ment in regard to the extension. of their service of soil
evaporatnm measurements for mutual benefit ; since
observations from agricultural stations alone will per-
haps, not give satisfactory results for assessing the effect
of climate on vegetation.
The ratio of Precipitation/Evaporation could be
of wider application in Ecological Soil Survey in rela-
tion to agriculture, forestry and land conservation.
Being, faced at the moment with shortage of food, wood
and fuel we should be interested in putting all avail-
able land under vegetation and for this purpose it is
necessary to study potentialities of land and soil-climate-
vegetation complex on A. long term basis. The im-
portance of Precipitation and Evaporation measure-
ments on more accurate lines is thus obvious in the
natural economy of our country.
The first attempt at understanding the climate
of India on the basis of Precipitation/Evaporation was
made by Raman and Satkopan (1935), who used the
single value factor "the annual rainfall minus the annual
evaporation" for records of 80 different stations in th.e
ceuntry At about the same time Hosking (1935)
calentati climatic values for regur soils of India for
comparison with black earths of Australia and his
studies culminated in 1937 in the preparation of a
ND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
map of India showing Meyer Ratio of Precipitation!
Saturation deficit. This map shows the minimum value
of Meyer ratio of 5 for central part of Sind and the maxi-
mum value of 4000 for Cherrapunji which records the
maximum rainfall in India.
Hosking's map of Meyer ratio was used by I.C.A.R.
in making the first soil map of India. in relation to
climatic zones. This map, however, is preliminary
and does not show any clear correlation between differ-
ent types of soil and Meyer lines and relation between
vegetation and these lines is still less evident.
A good deal of work has been done in Australia
to express .Precipitation/Evaporation ratio more accu-
rately with a view to correlating it with different types
of soil and vegetation and Prescott (1949) has recently
brought forth this relation in. an excellent paper, which
should serve as a tyre study for work in this country.
Prescott states "that the most efficient single-value
climatic index is P/Eni where P represents preeipitation.
E evaporation from a free water surface, and m is a
constant varying from 0.67 to 0.80 with a probable
mean of 0.73. A value for this index of 1.1. to 1.5
corresponds to the point where rainfall balances trans-
piration from vegetation and evaporation :from the
soil" (ioc. cit.., p.19).
The Government of India has set up a central com-
mittee on soil research (1.949) one of the aims of which.
will. be to advise planning of soil surveys and the pre-
paration of soil map of India. It is hoped that this
committee will remember the interests of Ecologists
(Puri, 1948) and Foresters and recommend an ecological
approach to the survey of soils. Soils, being dynamic
systems, must be examined, surveyed, and classified
not only in relation to climatic (Precipitation/Evapora-
tion ratio) but also to vegetational, biotic and historical
factors. The advantages of ecological approach in this
survey are obvious, since its aim is primarily to use the
soil for the maximum production of agricultural or
forest crops without impairing in any way its produc-
tive capacity for future use.
The ratio of Precipitation/Evaporation is one of the
important ecological factors governing the fertility
of the soil, hence it may be stressed that to aid (i)
Successful forestry, (ii) Soil survey, and (iii) Soil con-
servation the service of evaporation measurement
stations be enlarged so as to embrace forest areas as
well.
11,Ei,u1usv( 1,15
lloon, R. C. (1939). A study of the soils in the hill areas of
Kashmir, Ind. Fol.. Rec. Siln. SP:riP,R, 3: 6
llosking, J. S. (1935) Trans. Hoy. Soc. S. Au,s4., 53; 168
Hosking, J. S. (1937) The ratio of precipitation to saturation
deficiency of the atmosphere in India, Curr. 5.
Griffith. A. L. & R. S. Gupta (1947) The deterriii ati on of
characteristics of soil suitable for sal (Nliorea robusta),
Ind. For. Bulletin, 138.
- (1947) The characteristics of teak soils with spe-
cial reference to laterisation, Ind. For. Bell.
Puri, G. S. (1948) "A plea for the establishment of Ecological
Survey of India to conduct researches in applied plant
urology in relation to forestry, agriculture and soil conser-
vation", paper submitted to the Government of India,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 INDIAN WEATHER AND LOCUST IMMIGRATION IN INDIA
Ministry of Agriculture, through the High Commissioner
for India in London.
----- (1949a) The ecology of erosion and land slips,
Journ. Ind. Grog. Soc., 24
(1949b) The ash-oak woods of the English Lake
District, Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc.. 28.
(1949c) Surface Geology, vegetation and plant
succession, Proc. 36th Ind. Sci. Cong., III, 149.
(1949d), The historical factor and its application
to forest ecology, Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc., 28, 63.
(1949e) The Vegetation of some disused quarries
at Ingleton, Yorkshire, England, Journ. Ind. Rot. Soc., 28.
(1949f) Physical Geology and Forest Distribu-
tion, Science and Culture, 15, 183.
(1950a) Ecological approach to the problem of
sal (Shorea robusta) regeneration in the United Provinces
Part II, Proc. 37th Ind. Sci. Cong., III, 64.
(1950b) Conifer forests of the Kulu Himalayas,
Proc. 37th In,d. Sci. Cong., Poona.
467
------(1950e) The distribution of Conifers in the Kulu
Himalayas with special reference to Geology Ind. For.
(1950d) Soil pH and fcrest communities in the Sal
(Shorea robusta) forests of the Dehradun valley, U.P.,
Ind. For. (In Press).
Prescott, J.A. (1949) A climatic index for the leaching factor in
soil formation, Journ. Soil Science, 1.
Raman, P. K. and V. Satkopan (1935) "Science Notes", India
Met. Deptt., 6, No. 61.
Ramdas, L. A (1949) Evaporation measurements in India,
Central Board of Irrigation Journal, 6 : 2
Science Notes and News (1949) "Central Committee on soil
research", Current Science, 18, 7.
Stamp, L. D. (1947) Britiains' structure and scenery, The
New Naturalist, 4.
Taylor, M., I. D. Mahendru, M. L. Mehta and R. C. loon (1936)
A study of the soils in the hill areas of the Kulu forest
Division, Ind For. Rec. Siliv, 1 : 2
INDIAN WEATHER AND LOCUST IMMIGRATION IN INDIA*
R. V. BADAMI
NAUTICAL AND ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BOMBAY
rrom the climatic point of view, the outstanding
feature which distinguishes the Indian region from
other parts of the world is the monsoon which represents
interactions between the air masses of the two Hemis-
pheres. Its advent in June and retreat in September
are known as the transition periods. In some years,
the fluctuations associated with the first transition
may commence as early as in April and those with the
second may not cease until October.
So far as Rajputana is concerned, the immigration
of locusts appears to synchronize with the first transi-
tion and emigration with the second transition. This
of course is a generalization, departures from which
in individual years should furnish a valuable basis for
the correlation between the habits of the locusts and
the deviations of the various meteorological elements
from their respective normals. This note is however
mainly concerned with average conditions.
The home of the monsoon winds in India is to the
south of the Equator. The monsoon current is popular-
ly known to have two branches, viz., the Arabian Sea
branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
As a southwesterly current, the Bay of Bengal
branch strikes Tenasserim in April or May. It then
proceeds as a southeasterly current through Burma,
and the U.P. and reaches the Punjab and Rajputana
by Jane or July. From the point of view of heavy
rainfall, this branch in association with a monsoon
depression is important for the Rajputana desert.
A monsoon depression usually travels from the north-
west angle of the Bay of Bengal, off Orissa, towards
aj putana
The Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon, on the
other hand, strikes Malabar as a southwesterly current
*This work was done while the author was an Assistant
Meteorologist at Karachi in 1945-46 under the direction of Dr.
S. N. Sen, the then Dy. Director-General of Observations (Fore
casting), Indian Meteorological Department.
by June, and gradually extends northwards to Gujerat,
and then proceeds towards the eastern Himalayas across
Rajputana. In some years, the Arabian Sea branch
causes early monsoon rain in Rajputana.
The advance of the monsoon into Baluchistan is
of very short duration and erratic in character. It may
be said that on the average the monsoon does not last
over the Baluchistan hills for more than five days.
The monsoon rainfall extends to the Mekran very occa-
sionally, indeed the number of rainy days in this area
and further west in Persia is even smaller and therefore
negligible.
On the eve of the establishment of the monsoon,
there is a low pressure area over Persia and Baluchistan.
It is observed that the monsoon can never establish
itself over India until the dcy bulb temperatures over
Arabia, Persia and Baltchistan are high, the maximum
often exceeding 110?F. As a matter of fact, this zone
of high temperatures may even extend to the Caucasus
in some years.
The summer duststorms are often violent over the
Persian gulf and the diurnal range of temperatures
in Persia and Baluchistan region is also high. Moreover,
the trajectories of the surfa6e and upper winds often
provide a light following wind to the locusts. As a
matter of fact, the favourite paths of the locusts from
Persia entering India and other countries are surpris-
ingly similar to the wind fields in this region.
In June, the locusts migrate from Persia, which is
a rainless area in summer, and settle down in India
over a desert area viz., Rajputana where there are about
three to four days of rain in a month yielding about
2" of rainfall.
From October onwards, on the other hand, anticy-
clonic vortices often appear over Rajputana and Gujerat.
These are known to cause markedly foggy conditions
along the Sind Mekran coasts in the mornings. The
trajectories of the light upper winds in these vortices
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
4168
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIE1WE
axe north easterlies over Rajputana and south-wester-
lies over Gujerat. The trajectories, therefore, fre-
quently provide following winds for short westward
flights of locusts over the north Arabian Sea and then
across the Mekran coast. The emigration of the loc-
usts from India in October should therefore be from
II;ujjytitana which dries up quickly after the rains, to
Persia where the rainy season commences.
The single factor which appears to control the
migration of locusts is seasonal desiccation, the direc-
tion of flight of most of the swarms being determined by
light tbilowing winds. The migration cycle of locusts
is thus closely correlated with the rainfall cycle"
between Rajputana and Iraq. The cycle is explained
by Tabie . 1. It sets out the rainfall and rainy days
at some of the Persian and Rajputana stations.
AND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
maximum rainfall in the Winter to another with its
maximum rainfall in the summer. These are the centres
between which the cycle operates. It is for the ento-
mologists to consider whether about tour to five rainy
days in a month giving about two inches of rainfall
may be said to furnish the Optimum' conditions for
locust settlement and breeding. It is a well known
fact that there is close correlation between insect and
humidity, and swarming is governed by reproductives
under the influence of physical factors.
The Meteorologist would like to know whether the
locusts dislike dust storms, and like fogs? Further,
do they try to avoid temperatures below ;0''.11'. and above
I 10F. on the average? There are airsacs in locusts which
help in bouyancy and respiration during long flights
BLE
NORNIAL RAINFALL & RAINY DAYS (abOV 0.I0) IN SOME SELECTED STATIONS OF IRAQ & HAJPUTANA BASED ON 4 HAUS' DATA
1934-1937.
NORMAL RAIN FA 1.L.
111.4 Q
Diwaniqa.
Nov.
1.07
0.53
3.03
Doe.
1.47
1.26
1.63
-Rum.
1.09
0.75
1.87
Feb.
1.19
1.29
2.02
11utlarh.
0.70
1.04
0.56
0.33
8 hai bah.
1.02
1.95
1.05
1.28
Muscat.
0.13
0.73
2.74
1.02
I' t 8'T..4 '1 V ONS &
ILA 6.11 I
Jodhpur
0.38
0.23
0.10
0.34
Bikaner.
0.13
0.22
0.07
0.53
lIar Ui
nier.
0.23
0.07
0.11
0.25
0.16
0.26
0.17
0.15
Karachi. (Dr igh 111ewl)
0.
0.34
0.30
0.78
t.
2.5
3.0
2.0
2.7
ti want
1.5
3.3
2.5
2.5
Pesci.
7.0
3.5
5.3
6.3
tent bah.
1.7
1.3
1.0
1.0
mini bah.
2.7
4.3
25
2.7
Muscat.
0.3
1.7
2.3
1.5
/TA JP!, 'IA 1-i4 STATIONS & KA R A.0111
Jodhpur
0.5
0.13
0.5
0.7
kik:lacy
0.3
.0
IL;]
0.5
Lila ipur
0.5
0.3
0.5
kennel.
0.5
0.7
0.3
Karachi (prigh Road)
0
0.3
1.5
March April May Juno July Augest Sept. Oeto.
0.13 0.58
0.21 0.72
0.89 1.75
0.19 0.57
0.39 0.65
0.56 0.06
0.03 0.17
0.36 0.28
0.09 0.06
9.12 0.16
0.02 0.52
NOS NTAL RAINY
0.3 1.3
0.7 0.5
1.7 4 . 5
0.5 1-7
1.5 1.7
1.3 0.3
0 0.5
0.7 0.5
0.3 0.3
0.5 0.5
0 0.7
It is seen from the Table that on the average Persia
is practically rainless in the summer and Rajputana
has little rainfall in the winter. The averages of these
elements over long periods fully confirm these features.
The winter maximum or rainfall in Iraq (Persia) is
associated with the eastward passage of western dis-
turbances. The summer maximum of rainfall in lIajpu-
tana, on the other hand, is more or less associated with
the westward passage of eastern (monsoon) depressions.
It is clear from the preceding paragraphs that the
cycle of locust migrations is from one desert region of
Approved For Release 2001/09/06:
0.59
0.01
O.
o.
1.62
0.
U.
0.
1.20
0.
0.
.
0.39
O.
O.
U.
0.29
O.
O.
0.01
0.02
O.
0.02
0.01
0.05
2.07
3.58
3.11
0.10
1.38
4.18
1.57
0.03
2.03
6..29
2.85
0.01
0.49
4.66
2.31
0.
1.11
4,11
4.11
DAY.
1.0
0
0.
O.
0.7
0
0
0
3.3
0.
0
0
1.7
O.
0.
0.
1 . 0
0.
4).
0.
0.
0.
o.
0.
0.3
3.0
6.3
5.0
0.3
2.0
5,3
5.5
0.3
6.0
9.0
5.0
0
1.3
5.7
.3.3
0
1.7
4.3
0.3
0.13
0.13
0.62
0.76
2.24 0.09
1.11 0.03
5.66 0.13
1.25 0.0$
0.15 0.01
O. 0.05
11 0
0 1.7
o 1.3
0 0
o. 0
1.3 0.3
1.7 0.3
8.0 0.5
2.3 0.5
0.7 0
through air. Could there be no relation between. densities
of air inside the body and the surrounding; air, to urge
insect to move forward, and while doing so, takes as a
matter of fact, the normal wind trajectories, from sur-
face to about 3000 feet? Do they try to select a region
with relative humidity the diurnal range of which is
-between 50 and 90% for breeding . purposes?. Can they
stand a diurnal range of temperature exceeding 30'?
11)o they find sandy soil preferable to other types? These
are a few of the questions the ansWers to which might
stimulate research in the border line of Meteorology
and Entomology.
CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
WILD MANGOES OP INDIA
WILD MANGOES OF INDIA*
INTRODUCTION
SUNILKUMAR MUKHERJEE
BOTANY DEPARTMENT, DELHI UNIVERSITY
THE mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) are broadly
grouped under two categories?(i) the seedling races
(both wild and cultivated) and (ii) the horticultural
varieties, propagated by budding or grafting (Popenoe,
1932). The seedling races, cultivated or wild, are
not so well-known in India, as the mangoes of this
country are obtained mostly from grafted varieties,
which grow successfully over large tracts of Bombay,
Madras, Bengal, Bihar and United Provinces. A fair
knowledge about these types is available in the surveys
of the varieties in Bombay (Burns and Prayag, 1921),
Madras (Naik, 1941), Bihar and U.P. (Woodhouse,
1909), and Bengal (Mukherjee, 1948). On the other
hand, the knowledge on the wild types consists mainly
in the reports of their occurrence in different areas ;
no detailed information regarding their fruits being
available. Wild forms of M. indica (mango) which
are closely allied to the cultivated grafted types are
reported to occur in the tropical and lower mixed
forests of Burma and the Andamans (Kurz, 1877),
in the evergreen forests of Khasi Hills and the
valleys of Assam (Kanjilal, Das and Purakayastha,
1947), in Sikkim (Hooker, 1876), in the sub-
hirnalayan tract, in deep gorges of the Baraitch
and Gonda hills in Oudh, in the outer hills of
Kumaon and Garhwal, in the higher hills of the
Satpura range, and along the Western Ghats in
South India (Brandis, 1864).
As information about the wild types is necessary
for utilizing them in any programme for breeding of
this fruit tree an exploration was undertaken in the
Khasi Hills, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Kalahandi (Eastern
States Agency in Orissa) and Chota Nagpur to discover
the types of wild mangoes occurring in those areas,
an enumeration of which is made in the present paper.
DESCRIPTION OF TIIE WILD TYPES
The genus Man gifera L. contains 41 species, dis-
tributed froM India to the Philippines and New Guinea
through Malay Peninsula and the Archipelago. Among
these only 3 species occur in India (Mukherjee, 1949a).
Of the Indian species, M. khasiana Pierre is of
doubtful oedurrenee as it has not been recently found
in Assam, wherefrom the 'type' specimen was collected.
The other two species are M. sylvatica Roxb. and M.
indica L. (the common mango), which are very much
allied. A description of the wild races of both of these
Indian species are given below.
M. sylvatica Roxb. a species occurring only in
N.E. India (Assam and dhittagong Hill Tracts) by the
*The work has been conducted with the financial assistance
of Indian Council of Agricultural Research at the Botanical
Laboratory of Calcutta University.
3
469
side of ravines and small wallahs in the hill gorges up
to an elevation of 3,000 ft., is a very tall tree attaining
a height of about 150 ft. with a straight trunk, 25-30 ft.
in circumference at base. The leaves axe long and broad
like some of the long-leaved mangoes but the petiole
is much elongated (3-4 inches). The inflorescence is
of the same type as the mango (M. indica), with similar
pentamerous flowers having only 1 fertile stamen, but
completely glabrous.
The fruits are very characteristic (Fig. 1), elliptic in
shape with a pointed acuminate apex not found in any
Figs. 1-10 showing fruits of wild mangoes. (Reduced to WI
of the original drawing)
1. .111". sylvatica; 2-10. N. indica (wild races), 2. Chittagong Hill
Tract type, 3-10. Kalahandi types :, 3. Type 1, 4. Type 11,5. Type
III, 6. Typo IV 7. Type V, 8. Type VII, 9. Type VI, 10. Type
VIII.
other species ; greenish yellow when ripe, with a smooth
thick epicarp, much thicker towards apex ;flesh thin,
slimy, almost free from fibres and with a fine aroma.
The fruits of the species, collected from three lo-
calities differ in size ; the Mikir Hill type (at 1,000 ft.)
has the largest fruit (10 cm. x 6 cm.), the Khasi Hill
type (at 2,500 ft. )has the smallest fruit (8 cm. x 3.5 cm.)
and the Chittagong type(at 1,000 ft.) has fruits of inter-
mediate size. The Khasi Hill type flowers during Sept-
ember-October and produces fruits during December
?January, whereas the other two types produce
fruits during March-April. This species may improve
by breeding and culture, as the flesh of the fruits is
almost free from fibres and gives out a fine aroma when
ripe. The fruits are reported to be edible and are used
for pickles.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
470
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Ci11CC1l AVI) CrtILTITRE
M. indica Linn., has similar tree habit as the former
species, and occurs mostly in the evergreen forests
at an elevation up to 3,000 ft. in the gorges of the hills
or by the sides of ravines and nullahs. The leaves
are similar to M. sylvatica, with long petioles unlike
the cultivated types. The inflorescence and the flowers
are similar except being pubescent. The fruits are dif-
Firent from those of M. sylvatica, and are like the culti-
vated varieties in shape, but of smaller size. They
are described below:
I. Chittagong Hill Tract type, collected from the
forests, 20 miles from Rangamati, the headquarters of
the Tract, where it is very common.
The fruits (Fig. 2) are oblong, small, 5 x 2.75 x 2.5
(mi. in size, golden-yellow when ripe. ; basal cavity
absent; shoulders short and equally falling ; beak imper-
ceptible; skin thick with short close glands; flesh scanty,
adhering to the innumerable fine, soft fibres, juicy
and very acidic, with an agreeable flavour; stone
almost wholly filling up the fruit.
?NOT shouldep
-Basal cavity
-
Sinus
BPeadtk.
Beak
Groove--
Apex
Diagrammatic drawing of a fruit showing the various parts.
2. Katahandi types, collected from the Thuamul
Rampur Forests of the state, about 40 miles from its
capital Bhawanipatna. It belongs to the Eastern
States Agency of Orissa. Eight different types of fruits
have been collected, details of which are given below :
Type I. Fruits are 9 x 6x 5 cm. in size, elliptic-oblong
in shape ; basal cavity absent ; shoulders smooth,
left higher, right sharply falling ; beak slight,
pointed, 2 cm. below narrowed apex (Fig. 3) ; flesh
thick but traversed with fibres.
Type ii. Fruits 9 x 6 x 5 cm. in size, ovate-01)1611g in
shane; basal cavity absent; shoulders almost level;
beak very slight, 2 cm. below round apex (Fig. 4) ;
flesh thick but traversed with fibres.
Type Ill. Fruits 7 x 4 x 4 cm. in size, elliptic-oblong
in Bylaw; base protruded; shoulders equally falling ;
Vol. 15. No. 12
beak slight, almost imperceptible ; sinus shallow
below the beak (Fig. 5).
Type IV. Fruits quite big and plump, 8 x 6.5 x 6 cm.
in size, elliptic in shape; basal cavity slight; shoul-
ders equally falling but prominently ridged ; beak
prominent, broad, pointed upwards, 2.5 cm. below
apex ; glands prominent on skin ; flesh thick
but traversed with fibres (Fig. 6).
Type V. Fruits as big as some good cultivated grafted
varieties, 9 X 7 x 6 cm. elliptic-oblong in shape ;
basal cavity deep ; left shoulder broader ; beak
almost imperceptible ; sinus prominent below
the beak ; flesh thick but traversed by fibres
(Fig. 7).
Type VI. Fruits 6.3 X 6 x 5.2 cm. in size, roun-
dish in shape ; basal cavity slight; shoulders
almost level, left broader ; beak slight, almost
imperceptible ; apex round (Fig. 9).
Type VII. Fruits 5.5 x 6.2 x 4.4 cm. in size, roundish
in shape; basal cavity absent ; shoulders level,
left slightly broader ; beak very prominent; pro-
truded side ways from apex (Fig.8).
Type VIII. Fruits 5.3 x 4.6 x 3.6 cm. in size, ovate-
oblong in shape ; basal cavity absent ; shoulders
level, equally falling; beak very slight, almost im-
perceptible, 2 cm. below round apex ; flesh thin,
fibrous (Fig. 10).
CONCLUSION
The two species,M. sylvatica Roxb. and M.
indica L. occurring in India, are very much allied in
their morphological characters differing mainly in the
fruits. The leaves of the 'wild' types of .M. indica
show tendencies towards formation of large leaves
with long petioles, as are found in the wild species,
M. sylvatica ; but in the cultivated varieties of mango
the petioles are much shorter. This similarity suggests
that ill. sylvatica has played some part in the evolu-
tion of M. indica, wild types of which are very common
in the areas of NE. India where the former species oc-
curs. Moreover the chromosome number for both the
species is same, 2n=40 and n=20 (Mukherjee, 1949b).
The anatomical studies has not indicated much differ-
ence between the three species M. indica, M. caloneura
and M. sylvatica (Mukherjee, 1949 c.). An analysis of
the pollen grains also shows that they have grains of
almost similar size and shape (Mukherjee, 1949d).
All these evidences suggest that interspecific crosses
between these two species may easily occur, as the
flowering season in some of the M. sylvatica types merges
with that of the mango; and hybridization in nature
has therefore played an important part in the evolution
of the mangoes.
The different fruit types reported in this paper
show that the wild mangoes also possess a variety
of shapes as are found in the cultivated varieties.
Mcireover in the forest areas where suitable conditions
for their growth are available, they attain almost the
same size (Types II, IV and V), as the good cultivated
varieties. The cultivated horticultural varieties of
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 CHEMICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY 471
mango have been classified by Woodhouse (1909),
Burns and Prayag (1921) and Popenoe (1911) on the
basis of fruit-characters. Mukhel-jee (1948) has recently
classified them into 3 groups?Round?, Ovate-oblong--
and Long?fruited on the basis of fruit-shapes and deli-
mited the different varieties by the presence or absence
of beak, sinus, basal cavity etc. The types enumerated
in this paper show that these different fruit-shapes
are also represented in the wild races, along with the
different characteristics of beak, basal cavity, ridges an
the shoulder etc. It appears therefore that selection
by man has played an important role in the produc-
tion of these cultivated varieties from the various wild
types growing in India.
SUMMARY
An exploration into the forests of Assam, Chitta-
gong Hill Tracts (near Burma border), Kalahandi State
(Eastern States Agency, Orissa), and Chota Nagpur
has led to the discovery of the three types of fruits of
M. ,sylvatica and 9 types of M. indica. The fruits of
the wild mango are of various shapes as are found in
the cultivated varieties, and sometimes attain the same
size as the latter types. It is indicated that selection
by man played an important role in the production of
cultivated mangoes.
M. sylvatica and M. indica are very much allied in
morphological features, with the same flowering time in
some types. As they occur in the same area and have
the same chromosome number and similar anatomical
features and pollen-morphology it appears quite likely
that hybridization in nature between the two species
has played an important role in the evolution of the
mangoes*.
LITERATURE CITED
Brandis, D. Tho Forest Flora of N. W. & C. India, 126, 1864.
Burns, W. & Prayag, S. H. The Book of the Mango. Bull. No. 103,
Dept. Agric. Bombay, 1921.
Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India, ii, 13-20, 1876.
Kanjilal, U. N., Das, A. and Purakayastha, The Flora of Assam,
i, 336, 1937.
Kurz, S. Forest Flora of British Burma, i, 303-305, 1877.
Mukherjee, S. K. The varieties of mango (Mangifera Indica L)
and their classification Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal, 2, 101-133,
1948.
--A Monograph on the genus Mangifera L. Lloydia,
12, 73-136, 1949a.
Cytological Investigation on Mango (Manglfera
indica L.) and the allied Indian species (in press), 1949b.
----Anatomical studies on some species of Mangifera
in relation to Taxonomy. Journ. Ind. Bet. Soc. 28, 162-171,
1949c.
Pollen Analysis in Mangifera in relation to Fruit-
set and Taxonomy (in press), 1949d.
Naik, K. C. South Indian Mangoes. Bull. No. 24, Agric. Dept.
Madras, 1941.
Popenoe, W. Pomona Coll. Jour. Econ. Bot. December Issue, 1911
---Manual of Tropical and subtropical Fruits, 79-145
(MacMillan & Co.), 1932.
Woodhouse, E. J. The Mangoes of Bhagalpur. Quart. Jour.
Dept. Agric. Bengal, ii, No. 3: 168-187, 1909.
*I am grateful to Prof. S. P. Agharkar, Director, Maharas-
tra Association for the Cultivation of Science, Poona for his
keen interest and encouragement in the work. Thanks are also
due to the various Forest Department Officials for help in collec-
tion of the wild mangoes.
EDUCATION IN GERMANY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE
SYSTEM OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
HARA COPAL BISWAS,
sin PRAFULLA CHANDRA RESEARCH LABORATORY, BENGAL CHEMICAL, CALCUTTA
WHEN we come to look at the list of Nobel Prize
winners in chemistry we are surprised to find that
among the 40 recipients of the prize from the year 1901
to l939; 15 are German and 3 are Swiss. I mention the
number of the Swiss winners as the method of instruc-
tion in Swiss educational centres is of the same type as
in the German scientific institutions. That almost half
the Nobel Prizes in chemistry should go to practically
one country cannot be attributed to mere chance nor
can it be attributed to climatic effect or racial superi-
ority of the people. There must be some fundamental
causative factor for the remarkable efficiency of the
Germans in the field of chemical science. The secret
of success of the German people lies in the very high
standard of their method of instruction inaugurated by
men of genius like; Liebig Hofmann, Kekule, Baeyer,
Emil Fischer and others, and steadfastly maintained
in the foremost chemical institutions of the country.
Now I should like briefly to describe here the
edu3ational system in Germany, laying special stress
on the instruction in chemistry that obtains in the Ger-
man scientific institutions.
In Germany education of children begins in the
primary schools or Volkschule'. in the 4-year course
children from the age of 6 to 10 learn reading, writing,
simple calculation, domestic science and religion.
Next they join high schools Oberschule' or `Gym-
nasium'. In Switzerland these schools are known as
`Mittelschule' or middle schools which offer 6-year
course for students of the age from 13 to 19 years.
The Gymnasium provides 9-year course in which
pupils from 10 to 19 years of age learn Latin, French,
English,- German, sometimes Greek, including literature.
Mathematical course consists of arithmetic, algebra,
geometry, trigonometry, arithmetical and geometrical
progressions, fundamental principles of spherical
trigonometry as well as diffdrential and integral calculus.
Biology and chemistry are also included in the course.
Chemistry is divided into general inorganic chemistry,
fundamental conceptions of organic and physical che-
mistry. Principal topics to inorganic and physical
chemistry are : chemistry of water, of lime and mortar,
carbon-dioxide and a few other well-known metals and
non-metals, stoichiometric fundamental conceptions, io-
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
472 SCIENCE AND CULTURE
fihic reactions, introduction to the modern conceptions on
the structure of atoms as well as co-valent and electro-
valent combinations. Introduction to orizanic chemistry
includes fermentation catalysis, hydrocarbons, alcohols,
organic acids, esters, carbohydrates, di-and polysacchari-
des and proteins. The practical course consists of
simple inorganic analyses, esterification, nitration,
saponification, etc. The course of physics includes
mechanics, optics, acoustics and electricity. There
are theoretical and practical exercises in chemistry and
physics_ Besides one has to study general and eco-
nomic geography of all countries, history of German
and other -European countries, religion and history
of the Church, artistic and technical drawings, history
of fine arts, music and gymnastics including sports.
The, student has to appear in the oral and written exami-
nations in these subjects. This school-final examina-
tion is a strict one, and is called "Reife-Priifung",
"141-aturum' or "Abitur". The written examinations
are organized by the Ministry of Education and the
oral examinations take place in the presence of the
ministerial staff. After passing his Abitur' the student
is entitled to higher studies either in the University,
in the technical Hochschule or in the Akademie. An
Akademie generally imparts training in fine Arts and
Al usic.
In the University there are the following faculties:-
(I) Philosophical Faculty and Faculty of Natural
Sciinces,
(2) Medical Faculty,
(3) Legal Faculty, and
(4) Theological Faculty.
The Philosophical Faculty deals with German,
English, Sanskrit and other languages and literature
as well as history, philosophy, etc. The Faculty of
Natural Sciences, on the other hand, is divided into
chemistry, physics, mathematics, geology, zoi-dogy,
botany, etc.
Thc Teehnische Trochschule is composed of two
falai lties :
(a) .Faculty for Applied Sciences. (b) Faculty for
Pure Sciences.
The following subjects fall under the former cate-
gory :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
To
Construction of Machine and Apparatus,
Electrotechnique,
Building Engineering,
Land Survey, etc.,
Agriculture, ? and
Fermentation and Brewery.
the Faculty
of Pure Sciences belong :
(1) Chemistry, (2) Physics, (3) Botany, (4) Geology,
Minerology, and Mathematics.
The scientific subjects (1, 2, 3, 4) taught in the
Rochschule are mainly of the applied type. The out-
look of the Hochschule is oriented to a practical point
of view. The University on the other hand cherishes
tire advancement of fundamental science.
Vol. 15, No. 12
The president of a Faculty is known as "Dekan"
and the president of a Hochsch.ule or a University
is called a " Rektor".
The system of education adopted_ in the University
is descrbed in brief below :
University study leads to the degrees of Dr. Phil.
11. or Dr. Chem. The principal subject may be any one
of the natural sciences. We should here concentrate
our attention to the course of studies required for Dr.
Phil. in chemistry. The frame work of the study
consists of practical work.
(a) Analytical Chemistry : Carrying out of a cer-
tain number of inorganic qualitative analysis : metals,
anions; technical analyses, the alloys. When the student
has performed satisfactorily the prescribed number of
analyses and experimental work he is allowed to under-
take quantitative analytical practical work. Here also
he must carry out a fixed number of gravitnetrie, color--
metric, titrimetric and potentiometric estimations. On
successful completion of all these (duration 2 to 4
semesters) the student must appear at the theoretical
oral examination in analytical chemistry (individual
examination lasting for 30 minutes). If he -passes these
examinations he is allowed to take up preparations of
organic compounds.
(b) The student has to prepare here 10 inorganic
and 34 organic preparations, and further he has to syn-
thesize 5 dyestuffs and correctly to solve 5 organic
analyses. If he performs this course satisfactorily in
3 to 4 semesters he must appear at an examination
in organic practical chemistry (Methods : aliphatic;
an anatic, and heterocyclic chemistry in fundamentals.
ndividual examination oral, lasting for 30 minutes).
When he has passed this course hemust take during the
vacation a three week's course in microanalysis. He
must learn the handling of microbalance as well as
the micro-determination of CH-, N-, -OCH,, active
hydrogen, acetyl, C-methyl and so forth. If he has
satisfactorily gone through this course he is entitled to
take up his doctorate work, which generally takes 4
to 5 semesters' time. This consists of an independent
research work under the guidance of corresponding
Dozent.
Besides this practical frame work, side examina-
tions in other branches are also required ?Along with
his attendance in the general and special lectures in
chemistry the student must also occupy himself with
other branches of natural science. Before doctorate
examination the student has to go through 3 examina-
tions in other branches arid this must not be before 5
years of his doctor-examination. For a student of
chemistry, mathematics and physics are compulsory.
Besides he is to take one of the following subjects?
mineralogy, geology, physiology, zoology and botany.
All examinations are oral?each test lasting for 30
minutes. Mark below 400/ are not counted. Marks
above 60% are considered as marks of distinction.
When a candidate has passed all these examinations
(when one of them is not sufficient he can repeat it once
more), he is entitled to present his dissertation. If
the dissertation is approved by the Faculty he must be
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 CHEMICAL EDITCA
prepared for the final examination within 6 months.
For a student of organic chemistry this examination
consists of: physical chemistry, oral 30 minutes; organic
chemistry; written 4 hours and oral 1 to 2 hours. A
candidate desirous of doctorate in physical chemis-
try has naturally to take a short course in organic che-
mistry.
In the University, before doctorate degree, generally
no diploma is giVen. In some German Universities,
however, the student has to pass diploma examination
(8 semester course) to qualify himself to take the doc-
torate course. When the performance of a student
has beei . specially good (all examinations with marks
above 60%, and dissertation also very good) it may be
mentioned in his diploma (distinction) but no addition
is made to his title. After his doctorate degree a student
acquires no other distinction or degree.
As the first step to academic career he must be
associated with a professor as Dozent. This stage is
known as Habilitation Period. He must now publish
a series of good work and conduct a long habilitation
work and submit an inaugural dissertation. The
corresponding Faculty decides the acceptance of this
dissertation or `Habilitationsschirft'. The student is
now eligible for academic facilities; and is entitled to
give lectures as a recognized `Privatdozent' at the Uni-
versity. He is not yet a professor but if there is any
vacancy he may be nominated or appointed to the post
of a professor. In the teaching line in the University or
Hochschule the following grades of service exist :
(a) Privat-Dozent;
(b) Ausserordentlicher Professor,
(c) Ordentlicher Professor.
Technische Hochschule offers facility for the diplo-
ma of Chemical Engineer in 7 years. Here the annual
courses are strictly and properly organized. After two
years' study the student must appear at the first preli-
minary diploma examination in four subjects, conducted
orally. After another 2 years he is to sit for the second
preliminary diploma examination. This is also conduct-
ed orally, but in a number of subjects. The student
has then to undertake a short diploma work, which
is naturally of much lower standard than the doctorate
work. When this is completed, he appears at the
final diploma examination consisting of both oral and
written papers. The diploma of the Hochschule (as
of the Eidgenossischen Technischen IUochschule of
Z ()rich) is a highly prized one. After getting his diploma
an ambitious student can devote another 2 years or so
for doctorate work there. For this he is to submit
a thesis and to sit for the doctorate examinations?oral
and written. Dr.ing, Chem. or D.Sc. of the Hochschule
and Dr. Phil. II of the University are absolutely
equivalent degrees.
In addition to the prescribed courses mentioned
above; a `Doktorand' (candidate for doctor-degree)
must read a few papers on some notable chemical pro-
blem of the day in a colloquium, where all the Dokto-
rande', Dozenten' and professors of the allied subjects
of the institution assemble together.
TION IN GERMANY 473
The higher students have also got opportunity
to attend lectures in the chemical society arranged once
every week.
We have already noticed the difference between
the function of the University chemical institutes and
Technische Hochschule. There is, however, another
category of institutions which are mainly concerned
with technical training. In Switzerland there are two
such institutions?one at Winterthur and the other at
Burgdorf. No Middle School attendance or school-
leaving certificate is necessary for admission into these
institutions. They impart purely technical training
in different subjects to youngsters. The course of
instruction varies from 2 to 4 years.
Besides the technical training received at such
a Technikum', a young man may avail himself of the
facility to qualify himself as a Laborant' (laboratory
assistant). To attain this end the candidate must be
associated with an eminent chemist (a professor or a
research chemist) for a 3-year course. After this ap-
prentice training period he must pass the prescribed
tests to become a recognized Laborant'.
It is needless to mention that people trained in
this way add greatly to the efficiency of the academic
or industrial laboratories of the country.
The system of chemical education in the Swiss
University institutions and Hochschule is practically
the same as in the corresponding German institutions.
In both the countries aft:n. the Doktor Diplom' no
further academic recognition exists.
As it is almost impossible at the present time to
visit German chemical institutions on account of
political restrictions, the Indian students would do well
if they visit Swiss chemical institutions. But the stu-
dents must acquire a working knowledge of German
before they start for Switzerland. The minimum
expenses for board and lodging at Zurich amount to
about 225 to 250 Swiss Franks (Rs. 100-85 S.F.) The
student has again to spend additional 50 to 75 Franks
for tuition fee and the cost of the chemicals and appa-
ratus he has to use per month.
While describing curriculum I have used the term
semester. Their academic year is divided into two semes-
ters? summer and winter semesters. The research
is organized on the pattern of a routine manufacture.
One can traverse step by step without any loss of time.
Standard equipments like high vacuum pumps, hydro-
genation and ozonization apparatus, equipments for
microanalysis, the ultraviolet spectrograph, spectro-
photometer, microhydrogenation apparatus, pressure
hydrogenation apparatus, thermostat etc. arye always
ready at hand. The expert pharmacologist is also not
wanting in this picture. A new chemical compound
is prepared today and by to morrow evening all the
relevant physical and chemical constants of the com-
pound are ready at the worker's desk. Unless such fa-
cilities are forthcoming no progress worth the name can
be expected in any brii.nch of practical science today.
The library facilities are equally great and com-
mendable. Any recent journal or book and any old
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
471 SCIENCE AND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
reference book including patent literature of every land
are within easy reach of every student.
This brief account is written in the hope that the
gifted persons at the helm of our educational affairs will
come forward to remodel the existing system of che-
mical education in a way which will faeilitate positive
progress long overdue in this most important branch
natural science upon which rests the well being and
prosperity of our newly awakened nation. We are
quite confident that given proper facilities and efficient
organization of our institutions for higher chemical
studies and research, the present and coming generation
of our chemistry students will not fail to give a good
account of themselves and will significantly contribute
to the advancement of chemical science in the country.*
*In fine I should like to express my deep sense of gratitude
to Dr. Hobert Schwyzer, privat dozont to Professor Paul Karrer,
to Dr. H. Oeppinger of the I.G. Farbenindustrie, Hoechst, and
to Dr. C. Schuster of the Badiche Anilin mid Sodafabrik,
Ludwigshafen, Germany for the help they extended to me in
this connection.
TOTAL SYNTHESIS OF ESTRONE AND ITS ISOMERS*
D. K. BANERJEE
coni.Eqn OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, JADAVPUIS
THE first total synthesis of the naturally occurring
sex hormone estrone (1) was achieved by Anner
and Miescher' in 1948. The programme of this synthe-
sis which was finally made successful by the Swiss
workers was initiated by Robinson and coworkers2
as early as I 935 and considerable progress was recorded
in. 1938, when the conversion of the key compound-
keto-ester (11) to the diacid (III) was reported3.
CH?O
If
/N. (10011
1 I '
1
,\/`\./\
1 11 1 C112, cook',
I II I
/
("H 30
H r? C211rn
En 1940 Bachmann , Cole and Wild s4 in A rnerica announc-
ed the first total synthesis of a naturally occurring
sex hormone equilenin. t This classical piece of work
can be considered as a triumph of technique in the syn-
tlietic organic chemistry. in this synthesis keto-ester
(IV) was converted into d, 1-equilenin (V) and d, 1-
isoequilenin (V1) through a series of steps, all of which
*Based on a lecture delivered at the Indian Association
for the Cultivation of Science.
t Since then two different syntheses of equilenin have been
reported by Johnson and coworkers.5
were attended with very high percentage of yield.
Following ' the same sequence Bachmann, Kushner
0
C11,11
I/r\ ?COOCH,
I !
I II 0
I I
/?/\
CH,0
IV
,\^/,
I'I1111 I if
/?/NG
HO
I II I 11-
I II I
/?/NG'
1110
VI:
and Stevenson6 in 1942 succeeded in synthesizing a
stereoisomer of estrone, "estrone a" from the keto-ester
(Ii), which was prepared by a method somewhat dif-
ferent from that of Robinson et at. in their successful
synthesis of natural estrone Anner and Miescher have
used essentially the same scheme as Bachmann et at;
but they have exhibited exceptional skill and thorough-
ness in isolating three out of four possible racemic
isomers of II. Conversion of all these isomers into
six of eight possible racemic forms of estrone, estrone
a-f, have now been reported7. This includes natural
estrone, estrone b.
Very recently a completely new synthesis of natural
estrone and remaining stereoisomers g and it has been
reported by Johnson, Banerjee, Schneider and Gutsches.
Investigation on this synthesis started with the suc-
cessful conversion of a-decalone (V11) to trans 8-methyl-
-hydrindanone-1 (VIII) by Johnson9.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1050
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
TOTAL SYNTHESIS OE ESTRONE AND ITS ISOMERS
This model experiment was carried out with a view to
applying similar reactions to the terracyclic ketone
(IX) for its conversion into estrone molecule. Starting
I II
I II
/%/\/
011,0
0
/\
IX
materials for the preparation of IX are m-hydroxya-
cetophenone (X) and 1, 5-dihydroxynaphthalene (XI),
both of which are easily available cheap products.
X and XI were respectively converted into m-methoxy-
phenylacetylene (XII) and 1, 5-decalindione (XIII).
Latter two compounds were condensed, reduced and
dehydrated to give the unsaturated ketone (XIV) in
70% overall yield. Cyclisation of XIV was carried.
out with hydrogen chloride and aluminium chloride
in benzene solution and an oily mixture was isolated,
from which were crystallized in about equal amounts
two stereoisomers of IX. Both these isomers were
converted into corresponding benzal derivatives, which
were methylated to yield four different angularly methy-
lated stereoisomers in conformity with the previous
observation during the model experiment on ce-decalone.
All these methylated benzal derivatives were oxidized
with ozone to corresponding d, 1-homomarrianolic
acid methyl ethers. Latter dibasic acids on ring closure
475
and demethylation yielded estrone b (natural estrone),
estrone d (previously isolated by Miescher) and new
isomers estrone g and h.
OH
I II III 1
I II 1
I
III CH
HO 00-0113 I 01130
OH
XI XII
XIV
Total synthesis of all possible stereoisomers of the es-
trone molecule may be regarded as unique achieve-
ment in the history of organic chemistry and will provide
immense impetus in future for the synthesis of more
complicated molecules in the steroid field.
REFERENCES
' Anner and Miescher, Experimentia. 4, 25, 1948; Hely. Chim.
Acta, 31, 2173, 1948.
2 Robinson and Schettler, J. Chem. Soc., 1288, 1935.
a Robinson and Walker, ibid., 183, 1938.
4 Bachmann, Cole and Wilds, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
62, 824, 1940.
3 Johnson, Peterson and Gutsche, ibid., 69, 2942, 1947; Johnson
and Stromborg, ibid., 72, 505, 1950.
O Bachmann, Kushner and Stevenson. ibid., 64, 974, 1942.
7 Anner and Miescher, Hely. Chine. Acta., 32, 1957, 1949.
a Johnson, Banerjee, Schneider and Gutsche, J. Am. Chem.
Soc., 72, 1426, 1950.
a Johnson, ibid., 65, 1317, 1943 ; ibid., 66, 215, 1944.
ATOMENERGIE AND ATOMBOMBE *
EINSTEIN wrote a letter to President Roosevelt
on August 2, 1939, outlining some of the potentia-
lities of atomic energy including the atomic bomb.
There was an initial grant of 6,000 dollars for beginning
the work and it reached the final total of two billion
dollars for making the bomb. Since 1940 the United
States Government has invested 4.5 billion dollars in
this project, a sum which exceeds the total national
*By Dr. Friedrich Dossauor, Professor of Physics, in the Uni-
versity of Freiburg, Switzerland, (2nd enlarged edition, 342
pages, published by Verlag Otto Walter Ag Olten : in German).
debt since 1918. This does not include the cost of the
projected hydrogen bomb.
On December 2, 1942, the first controlled atomic
pile started working at the University of Chicago. On
16th July, 1945, the first atomic explosion took place
in the deserts of New Mexico under the supervision
of Dr. J. R. Oppenheimer, who as a student of the
Bhagwad Gita (he read Sanskrit with Aurthur Ryder,
whose delightful translation of the Panchtantra is avail-
able in a cheap edition) was reminded of the sh,loka
in the 11th chapter mentioning the splendour of a
thousand suns. This test practically demonstrated the
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
47(1
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE A
possibility of a chain reaction for atomic explosion when
fissionable material exceeded a certain critical mass.
On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb (uranium
235) was dropped on Hiroshima. Two days later a
plutonium bomb fell on Nagasaki. This was followed by
two atomic. explosions in peace time for the Bikini
tests.
Plutonium was first produced in U.S.A. from an
atomic idle in January, 1944, and a start was made
with only half a milligram to study its chemistry. As
a result of it the Hanford plant came into operation
for the production of plutonium. It also occurs, as
has recently been revealed, natrually in traces with
uranium, but is not available in sufficient quantities
to dispense with its preparation from all atomic pile.
The book appeared in its 2nd edition as a result
of the great interest aroused by atomic energy and
atomic bomb, and was published simultaneously in
a French translation at Neuchatel. It deals with the
developments up to the Bikini tests or the 5th atomic
explosion, and does not envisage the development of
the thermal-nuclear bomb, the so-called superbomb
or the hydrogen bomb, which requires an atomic ex-
plosion to furnish the high temperature of about 20
milion degrees for synthesizing helium from ordinary
or heavy hydrogen provided in the elementary stage or
from lithium hydride. On the contrary, the author holds
that it is "certainly without prospect" (page 89) that
it should be possible to form helium from neutrons and
protons with the energy levels obtainable on earth. The
hook needs third edition to be topical and to catch up
with, the long strides made by science since it appeared
last, and also stands in need of a further revision as it
has hero and there sentences without verbs and some
in as on page 7 in the foreward to the 2nd edi-
tion Muge' is printed in place of 'Muhe', on page 40
preyed is spelt `-prooved', on page 132 it is wrongly
stated that ordinates show isotopes, on page 190 at the
bottom in place of' is printed rit on page
1.96 in discussing the critical mass for starting a chain
c3'
reaction is printed r in place of on page 248
y2 r2
in place of uranium (238) is printed uranium (236),
on page 269 'y' is omitted from 20V.2 , on page 303
'particles' is spelt' particels', in the Index graphite as
moderator is referred to page 186 wrongly in place Of
page 1.57, Fermi is spelt Faemi, J. J. Thomson is spelt
Tompson but on page 274 as Thompson, Lise Meitner
is sometimes spelt Liese Meitner in the book. Hitler is
quoted in the text (page 320-321) but the author has
consigned him to oblivion by omitting him from the
index wher6 Mr. Winston Churchill is mentioned.
It is not revealed if it is because Mr. Winston Churchill
is a Fellow of the Royal Society.
As stated in the foreword, only elementary mathe-
matics is used in the book and no more knowledge of
physics is assumed on the part of the reader than is
available to a student of physics early in college. The
book consists of 12 chapters and is generally very read-
ND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
able. In the first eight chapters, it gives an easy back-
ground for understanding the production of atomic
energy. It treats in an interesting manner such sub-
jects as cosmic ray radiation, electro-magnetic waves,
inter-connection between matter and energy, protons,
neutrons, materialization of energy, elementary parti-
cles, Einstein's -Law Equivalence, particle reactions and
nuclear reactions etc. It has instructive tables, figures
and graphs. At the head of chapters it has neat pen
drawings of scientists, and there are also some photo-
graphs in the book. The place of honour is rightly
given to a portrait of Professor Otto Hahn at the begin-
ning of the book, but just behind it is the photograph
of an anonymous scientist standing near a 7mev beam
of protons from a cyclotron in Rochester, U.S.A. One
wonders who he is and has to read 290 pages to discover
that the young man remarkable for a luxuriant growth
of hair on his head is the author's son. Like the usual
run of Swiss -publications the get-up and type of the
hook are good, and make one wonder when Indian
printers and publishers would attain this standard of
book-making for ordinary publications.
The author touches upon the question about why
the Germans lagged behind in manufacture of the
atomic bomb (pages 153-154, and 320-321). The allies
had in the continent of America a land without a black-
out and without bombing. Their laboratories were
not destroyed or damaged by aerial bombing, as re-
peatedly happened at Peenemunde. Their transport
was not destroyed or damaged. There was no scarcity
of essential raw materials. Besides, the Nazis perse-
cuted their top ranking scientists who were not Aryans.
Hitler stated early in his career, When a scientist pro-
tested to him against this kind of persecution, that
Germany could do without Physicists for a few years.
Einstein went to America. Lise Meitner, a collabo-
rator of Dr. Otto Hahn left Germany. Prof. Hans A.
Bethe left Tubingen for the U.S.A. where he later
worked on the atomic bomb project at Los Alamos.
Prof. Fermi left Italy for the United States, and Prof.
Niels Bohr left occupied Denmark for the United States
and, like so many others, helped in making the atomic
bomb. Other scientists who were in Europe were
unwilling to put such a terrible weapon in the hands
el' the Nazis and very few of the eminent German
scientists were Nazis. The author wisely leaves this
question for those concerned to answer.
The last chapter has the title "Reflections, Funda-
mental Questions, Questions- of Life, and Question for
Humanity". The reflections are not deep and in funda-
mental questions of philosophy the author is naive
and says:
"The natural laws that the research worker finds
and expresses are more than mental concepts (Gedan-
kendinge). For if they were only these, and if in the
laws and equations there were not truly contained a
representation of the reality of nature, how could it
be that our machines in fact produce what they are
meant to produce, that medicines heal, soothe pain,
bring sleep, that our fields produce fruit four and five
fold, that aeroplanes fly, -that electric light brightens our
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 NOTES AND NEWS
nights, and that, it must be mentioned, the new weapons
kill and destroy so frightfully? Is the atomic bomb
real? If it is not, but is only a mental concept, why are
the Japanese towns destroyed? If it is real then this
reality is born of intelligent thought and thinking
beings, and the power that resides in them is not of men
but the discovered power of nature". (Pages 317-318).
It is to be noted that real and reality have been
used with different connotations indiscriminately.
The author seems to be unconcerned about analysis of
perception and of phenomenon, of the methods and
limitations of knowledge, and the views on such sub-
jects of Einstein and Planck, Hume and Kant, Edding-
ton and Jeans, not to mention a host of others. They
cannot adequately be discussed in a review of this book,
but suffice it to say that they make no such claim for
science and scientific laws and hypotheses. When
more than one hypothesis or equation can cover the
same facts it is a tall claim that reality is confined
in any one of the conceptual representations. One
need not be a vedantist to realize that sense perception,
imagination and reason, that is science, can never
477
know the universe as it really is. Such fundamental
questions are best left for epistemology and metaphy-
sics. It should be apparent to any student of the above
quoted paragraph of the author that the destroyed
Japanese towns were as much mental concepts (or
reality) as the atomic bombs that fell on them, and the
same applies to the machines and the goods they pro-
duce as to the medicines and the aeroplanes.
On page 325 the author goes religious and says
that all scientific advance is the Revelation of Reality
by the Creator on communion. This kind of cheap
claptrap and frothy mysticism is best left out of a
scientific book.
The author does not mention even casually the
question of scientific freedom that is agitating so much
the research workers and is making them resentful of
State control and glice surveillance. It is also hinder-
ing scientific advance as science cannot thrive in a
stifling atmosphere that denies freedom of associa-
tion and discussion to the workers.
Notes and News
NADI BIJNAN MANDIR
Dr. B. C. Roy, Chief Minister of West Bengal,
laid the foundation stone of the central laboratory of
the River Research Institute (Nadi Bijnan Mandir)
at Haringhata on the Ganges, about 32 miles from
Calcutta, on May 21 last before a distinguished gathe-
ring of scientists, experts, engineers and Ministers of
State. Sri Bhupati Mazumder, Minister, Irrigation and
Waterways presided.
Laying the foundation of the Institute, Dr. Roy
recalled that a few years back, the people of Calcutta
were alarmed at the news that the Bidyadhari River,
which used to carry the refuse of the city, was silting
up. People in Bengal had then little knowledge of
rivers and finally, the Calcutta Corporation had to re-
organize the sewage system. Subsequently the river
dried up. The maritime Port of Calcutta is at present
not in a happy position because of the rising silt and
sand deposits. The Port Commissioners are thinking
of a ship canal from Diamond Harbour to Kidderpore
docks.
A number of swamps, the Chief Minister added had
been formed in West Bengal affecting the health of the
people and to remedy this, resuscitation of Bengal's
drying rivers is essential. The laboratory of the River
Research Institute was now opened to help revival of
these rivers.
4
V. P. Chandra Gantama,
Dr. Roy expressed the hope that the various river
projects in India as also in other countries of the world
would be benefitted by the results of research in this
laboratory.
The Institute, which was opened in 1943, has car-
ried out studies with models of different river projects
in India and of many contemplated railway bridges.
Following its findings, many changes have been made
in the designs of various dams and barrages.
Speaking on the occasion Dr. N. K. Bose, Director,
River Research Institute, West Bengal said that after
the partition of Bengal the Bhagirathi occupied
the most important place among the rivers that had
fallen in the State. In the olden days the Bhagirathi
was one of the main courses of the Ganga. A number
of prosperous towns had grown up on its banks, such
as Berhampur, Ajimganj, Nawadwip, Katwa,
Hooghly. With the diversion of the Ganga from Bhagi-
rathi course, the importance and prosperity of these
towns also decayed.
During the British rule, said Dr. Bose, industrial
centre grew up round about Calcutta. Ships full of
merchandise sailed into the port up the Hooghly and
delivered them at the docks. From there these mer-
chandise spread over the whole of north, west and east
of India and also beyond its borders into Nepal and
Tibet. The importance and prosperity of Calcutta
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
478
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AN
and for the matter of that, of the whole of West Bengal
now depended principally on the Bhagirathi and its
estuary the Hooghly.
The Bhagirathi has been gradually drying out.
It is now extremely difficult to keep this estuary in a
living condition. It may be possible by artificial means
to keep the Hooghly going 14 a few years but the ex-
penses would be high and its repercussion on the health
of the surrounding country would be difficult to fore-
tell. Flowing rivers keep the countryside full of health,
wealth and prosperity whereas artificial means may
keep the estuary living but cannot maintain the health
of the country.
Explaining the problems of the rivers that were
facing the State, Dr. Bose said that to study and solve
them OD the same lines as were done in the West the
idea of establishing the River Physics Laboratory in
Bengal was first expressed by Dr. Meghnad Saha in Sir
P.C. toy Commemoration Volume in 1932 and Sri S. C.
Majmndar in the National Institute of Sciences of
:India symposium lecture on river problems in Bengal.
The selection of the site at Haringliata was due to
the fact that it had the great advantage of an unlimited
supply of clear water and cheap electricity. An area
id. 320 acres had been set apart for the Institute.
VETERINARY RESEARCH AND ANIMAL
HUSBANDRY
The tenth All India Veterinary Conference was
held at Bombay from April 25-27, 1950. Dr. S. Datta,
:Director, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Muk-
teswar-1 zatnagar presided. In his presidential address
Dr, .Datta made an earnest appeal to all veterinarians
to vitalize the activities of the profession and empha-
sized the essential unity underlying the vast problems
confronting Veterinary Husbandry workers. He de-
precated the tendency to separate the problem into
loose compartments of Animal Husbandry and Veteri-
nary Science, and pointed out that "Experience has
repeatedly shown that whenever the problems have been
separated into the loose compartments of Animal Hus-
bandry and Veterinary Science, interests have clashed
and improvements been retarded. After all, an animal
forms (41e biological entity, and the ideal that its
e volution can be brought about by divided adminis-
trative units is irrational and mound".
ReiaTing to the role played by livestock in the
eic}tiorriv of the country, and how greater weatlh and
wed_ being of the country are linked with animal hus-
bandry improvement, Lr. Datta observed : "By
providing transport for agricultural produce, it is
estimated that cattle contribute annually approxima-
mately 160 crores of rupees, while by way of cattle
labour for agriculture, India gets about 300-400 crores
of rupees every year. Our cattle produce about 1,000
i lion Ions of dung per annum, nearly 67% of which is
burnt as thet whereas the rest is available as manure.
Assuming a value of even Rs. 10/- per ton, the total
worth comes to about 1,000 crores of rupees. India
D CULTURE VOL 15, No: 12
provides 480 million maunds of milk per year, of which
half is converted into ghee. The price of this amount
of milk products may be conservatively estimated at
750 crores of rupees. The amount of meat consumed
in India is about 216 lakh maunds. Its value may be
put down at :130 crores of rupees. The number of eggs
produced is over 300 crores per annum, so that they
also bring about 30 crores of rupees. Annually 583
lakhs of hides and skins are produced in our country,
whose value is over 40 crores of rupees. The annual
production of wool is about six lakh maunds, whose
wholesale price is about 3 crores of rupees".
Comparing the income derived from livestock with
that from several industrial commodities like coal,
which yields only 500-600 crores and steel, which yields
only 10 c,rores, over which much money is spent and
a good deal of effort is being expended, Dr. Datta ob-
served that they fall a large way behind the somewhat
underdeveloped and neglected Animal Husbandry of
the country, so far as national prosperity is concerned.
Referring to the steps that are being taken to con-
trol live-stock diseases and to the problems connected
with animal nutrition, Dr. Datta remarked that while
these short term policies can help to increase the effi-
ciency of our animals to a great extent, maximum bene-
fits can only accrue if scientific systems of breeding are
taken recourse to bring about improvement in their
genetical constitution, so that it will be feasible to re-
duce the number and yet to produce greater efficiency.
This will reduce the cost of the animals as well as of the
commodities produced from them, so that it will be
possible to bring milk, eggs and woolen articles within
the reach of the common man. Any effort spent in
this direction will be the surest means to safeguard the
public health.
In our Constitution it has been laid down said Dr.
Datta that "the State shall endeavour to organize agri-
culture and animal husbandry on modern and scienti-
fic lines and shall in particular, take steps for preserv-
ing and improving the breeds, of.. .cattle", but unfor-
tunately the total amount spent on Veterinary and
Animal Husbandry projects at present is only 0.08
per cent of the total budget grants.
Laying before the country an ambitious progra-
mine of all-round development of verterinary husbandry
in all its aspects of conservation, improvement and uti-
lization of livestock, so that. our country may be free
from epizootic diseases, and the animal might be fed
properly and we might have better and more efficient
breeds, Dr. Datta spoke of the dearth of properly
trained and equipped personnel for this gigantic task.
India has about only 1.0 veterinary surgeons per million
head of livestock compared to 35 and 248 respectively
in the United Kingdom and Switzerland.
Dr., Datta also referred to the need for reorganizing
Veterinary education in the country and urged for the
creation of an Indian Veterinary Council which should
be a statutory body set up by Act of Parliament. This
Council could enforce a certain high standard in all the
Veterinary Colleges. It could interest the Central Go-
vernment to create an All-India Service of Veterinarians
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 NOTES A
from which the States could draw in times of emergen-
cy. It could also act as the coordinating factor between
the various State veterinary departments. Finally, it
could put down all quackery in the veterinary profession.
TERRAMYCIN
Streptomyces ri,mosus, an actinomycete isolated
from soil was found to produce an active agent effective
against a variety of Gram-positive and Gram-negative
pathogens. A team of scientists of Chas Pfizer & Co.
Inc. U.S.A. spent several months to obtain a pure crys-
tallin substance from the metabolic filtrate of this micro-
organism and it is now coming to the world market as
a medicine for whooping cough, syphilis, gonorrhoea,
and amoebiasis. it is hopeful that the drug shows a
very low degree of toxicity in experimental animals.
The well known antibiotics streptomycin, aureomycin,
chlorornycetin and neomycin are all products of differ-
ent species of Streptomyces and this is a new addition
to this. group of antibiotic agents. (Science, 85, 111,
January 1950).
CANCER STUDY ISOTOPES FREE OF CHARGE
The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission has announced
that it will make available without charge to qualified
cancer research workers in the U. S. all radioisotopes
now being sold. Under the program of the AEC,
three radioisotopes?those of iodine, phosphorus, and
sodium? were available free of production costs for use
in cancer research:
The new policy will make available on a free basis
the radioisotopes of more than 50 additional elements.
Notable among these are cobalt 60, which promises to
become an effective substitute for radium, and the radio
isotopes of gold and carbon.
The new program has been made possible through
the improvement of isotope production techniques at
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
Tenn., and at the Argonne National Laboratory,
Chicago, III. A sum of $450,000 has been set aside
to defray the cost of the new program during its
first year of operation. The free isotopes will
be allocated for the following purposes : (1) cancer
investigations involving animal subjects, (2) research
programs studying basic cellular metabolism of cancerous
cells, and (3) experimental programs designed to eva-
luate the therapeutic use of radioactive materials. The
only charge to be made will be a nominal $10 for handl-
ing. In those eases where the isotopes are synthesized
into a chemical compound, the user will be required to
pay for the cost of synthesizing the compound but not
for the radioisotopes. The same controls over distri-
bution program now in effect will be continued.
(Chemical and Engineering News, March 7, 1949).
PALAEOBOTANY IN INDIA
The Seventh report of the progress of Palaeobotany
in India edited by Dr. R. V. Sitholey of the Birbal
Sahni Institute of Paleobotany shows promising
ND NEWS 479
achievements of our Palaeobotanists both in Pure and
Applied Research. This is the first issue of the Bul-
letin since the death of its greater Founder?Editor,
late Prof. B. Sahni. It is encouraging that the publi-
cation of the Bulletin is being continued for the bene-
fit of the workers here and abroad.
About eighty-one Abstracts and Reports of papers
cover a wide range of plaeobotanicai investigations
with collections from Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian to
Pleistocene. There are a few additional notes and
news mostly relating to the activities and organization
of the newly created Institute of Pal aeobotany.
The growing interest in microfossils among the
workers in this country is a noteworthy feature. About
one-third of the papers are devoted to this subject.
This shows a strong bias to Applied Research specially
with reference to the problems of dating, correlation of
coal seams and geological rock successions for prospect-
ing work. It is certainly a promising indication to-
wards the development of other aspects of Applied
Micropalaeobotany in India, namely exploration of
coal seams in unproved area, determination of the na-
ture of coal from its contained microflora as a part of
physical and chemical survey of Indian coal, use of
microflora in petroleum, approaching ecological prob-
lems with news ideas, and the manifold prospects of
Palynology as Outlined in one of the abstracts of the
Bulletin by the Late Professor Birbal Sahni.
The notable contributions to Micropalaeobotany
include examination of. control rock samples from the
Cambrian strata of the Salt Range with reference to
further observations on the Age of the Saline Series
problem, of dating Barmer sandstone, correlation of
coal seams at Bokaro coal field and Tertiary succession
in Assam, and some articles by Professor Sahni, on
the possibilities of Microfossils in Applied Research
with reference to India.
Unfortunately the Convenor and the Editor of
the Bulletin have overlooked a number of important
papers on the correlation of coal seams, and
problems relating to dating with special reference
to the examination of control samples by workers in
Calcutta. This type of ommission may obviously
hamper the purpose of the Bulletin for which it is meant.
The Abstracts of papers on impressions and petri-
factions include important observations on the morpho-
logy of 2 species of British Carboniferous ferns, the
new group of Jurassic gymnoperms?Pentoxyleae
(already published), further examination of the Pleis-
tocene.flora of the Karewa, formations in Kashmir, and
records of a number of petrified trunks, fruits and im-
pressions from different beds and localities. A short
report on a petrified forest in Central India appears to
be very interesting. Such places should be maintained
under protection as Field Museums.
Apart from recording new facts as to the morpho-
logy and evolutionary tendencies of our past floras,
the Palaeobotanists in India are gradually exploring
the great economic possibilities in our microfossils follow-
ing the workers in England, Holland, Germany, Sweden,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
480
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND
U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. Progress of such work here has
been nicely presented in the Bulletin,.
Pidatobotany has a great future in India, and this
Bulletin, under review assumes the responsibility for
playing an important and unprejudiced role in co-ordi-
nating Palaeobotanical researches carried out at dif-
ferent places of this country. (Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc.
29, 1-46, 1950). J.S.
SYNTHETIC RUBBER FROM TURPENTINE
A new type of high-quality synthetic rubber, made
with a chemical derived from turpentine, has been
developed at the Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial.
Chemistry. Under present conditions rubber from. tur-
pentine is somewhat more costly than GR-S- rubber,
stretches better, and generates less heat under stress.
The resulting synthetic rubber has a tensile strength of
about 3800 psi., will stretch to seven times its length,
awl in standard tests develops to 18? F. less heat under
stress than similarly produced and compounded GR-S
rubber.
Main ingredient of the new elastomer is isoprene,
a compound that forms the basic molecular unit of
natural rubber, it is obtained from turpentine by a
special molecule-splitting process developed by Bureau
scientists. Isoprene produced from petroleum is already
used in some types of synthetic rubber now on the
market. The Bureau's method of producing it from
turpentine should be a valuable national asset in the
event of emergency shortages of petroleum. (journal
of the Franklin Institute, March, 1950).
VERY THIN CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR PLATES
The increasing interest in high frequencies for radio
communication is accompanied by a demand for very
thin quartz crystal oscillator plates having fundamental
frequencies up to 100 megacycles or higher. In crystals
whose frequency is in the higher range, the thickness of
the quartz plate determines the frequency ; the higher
the frequency the thinner the crystal must be. A
crystal with a fundamental frequency of 100 Mc is about
0.001 in. thick, and its surfaces must be parallel within
a few millionths of an inch.
The usual crystal grinding methods and machinery
have proven inadequate for producing plates of the re-
quired thickness. The National Bureau of Standards
has therefore developed improved equipment, capable
of producing 0.001 in. thick quartz crystals with a high
degree of parallelism and flatness. The apparatus
can also be used to produce equally thin wafers from a
variety of other materials, for example, extreimly thin
dielectric plates for miniature radio condensers.
(Journal of the Franklin Institute, March 1950)
MICROFILM READER AND THE MICROFILM PROCESS
A simple, inexpensive, and practical reader is avail-
able hi the common box-type substage lamp used with
a low power microscope. A piece of glass the size of
CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
the top, fastened at the ends with adhesive tape and
raised so as just to permit the film to slide through,
will hold the film steadily in focus. A magnification
of about 10 y affords a visual impression slightly smaller
than the printed original, and with wide-field oculars will
accommodate a -page at a time. With the substage
viewer, perfect processing of the film is not important,
because underexposed or overdeveloped films are still
legible. The viewer may be used for perforated or
non-perforated film as well as for 16-mm strips, which
is not the ease with some commercial readers.
Library equipment for microfilming is elaborate
and expensive. For personal use 35-mm camera has
proved satisfactory when provided with a supplemen-
tary lens to shorten the focus and with a focussing
attachment for centering the field.
It is estimated that more than 25 billion records
have been microfilmed during the twenty years that
this process has been used.
A useful directory of microfilm services in the
iiited States and Canada is available from the Special
Libraries Association, 31 East 10th Street, New York
City, which lists institutions, commercial firms, costs,
stipulations and-conditions concerning this important
process. (Science, March 31, 1950).
NEW ACETYLATING AGENT
Isopropenyl acetate is a new chemical of great
potential value in a number of syntheseli. Characteris-
tie examples are acetylation , in which the mild and.
easily controlled conditions associated with this reac-
tion recommend the reagent's use with many compounds
otherwise difficult to acetylate reaction with alcohols
and amines to form new esters or amides ; reaction with
acids to produce anhydrides of unsaturated and aromatic
acids and polymerisation to form either low molecular
weight, viscous liquids or when co-polymerised with
other monomeric compounds, solid polymers.
The acetate is prepared commercially by the reac-
tion of ketone with acetone in the presence of an acid
catalyst. This reaction is reversible and the original
components may be readily obtained under the influ-
ence of heat and a suitable catalyst.
Tsopropenyl acetate is a water-white liquid,
specific gravity 0.9202 and boiling point (748 mm.)
96.6?C. Flash point is 14.5?C (58.1?F.). Normally
the commercial grade, has an ester content of approxi-
mately 98-100 per cent.
The most valuable property of this new Industrial
chemical is its ability to act as acetylating, agent. Thus,
from acetaldehyde and paraldehyde it is possible to
prepare vinyl acetate ; from crotonaldehyde, Lacetoxy-
I, 3-butadiene: from ethaerolein the monomeric subs-
tance Lacetoxyisoprene and from acetophenone, a-
acetoxystyrene. These are all polymerisable monomers
which may be converted into commercially useful poly-
mers, (The Chemical Age, April 15, 1950).
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 NOTES
THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY,
INDIA SECTION
The Inaugural Meeting of the Indian Section of the
The Electrochemical Sociey, Inc. was held on March
23, 1950 at the Indian institute of Science, Bangalore,
in the presence of a distinguished gathering of scientists,
engineers, industrialists and others.
Dr. B. K. Ram Prasad in his Inaugural
Address on "Some Aspects of the Development of
Electro-chemical industries in India", indicated
that there were great possibilities for the development
of these industries keeping in view the availability
of raw materials, present output of electric power and
future power development plans. The speaker felt
glad that the Government of India had decided to es-
tablish an Electro-Chemical ?Rosearch Institute at
Karaikudi and expressed the hope that the Planning
Commission recently set up by the Government would
consider in detail the development of Electro-chemical
Industries in India.
The following were elected officers of the India
Section :
Chairman : Dr. B. K. Ram Prasad, Special Officer,
Electric Grid Offices, Govt. of Bombay, Bombay;
Secretary-Treasurer : Dr, T. L. Rama Char, Lecturer
In Electro-chemistry, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore.
The Electrochemical Society is an international
organization founded in 1902 to promote the advance-
ment of Electro-chemistry, Electro-metallurgy, Elec-
trothermics, Electronics and allied subjects. The
membership is well represented by scientists and engine-
ers actively engaged in the various branches of Electro-
chemistry.
REWARDS FOR DISCOVERY OF URANIUM AND
BERYL ORES
Rewards upto Rs. 10,000/- may be given for the
discovery in India of deposits of Uranium ore by the
Government of India. In the case of Uranium, the new
deposits would have to be not less than 100 miles,
and in the case of Beryl 50 miles, from any other deposits
of these ores the existence of which is already known
to the Indian Atomic Energy Commission.
The maximum value of this award is to be given
for the discovery of deposits capable of producing 100
tons of Uranium Oxide in ore assaying not less than
0.4% U 308. A similar discovery capable of producing
100 tons of Beryl assaying not less than 12% Be0, or
other Beryllium mineral in proportionate amount,
may earn an award of up to Rs. 2,000.
Should new deposits of both ores, though not suffi-
cient to be of economic importance in themselves, justi-
fy prospecting in the neighbourhood for further deposits,
Government may grant funds for this purpose. Grants-
in-aid for mine development are available to appli-
cants wile produce and deliver not less than 20 tons
of Uranium ore and 50 tons of Beryl ore from a con-
AND NEWS 481
cession of mining lease not previously worked for these
ores.
In order to help prospectors, the Atomic Energy
Commission will make without charge tests of samples
submitted, and where necessary, further chemical and
field tests for determination of ores.
Applications for rewards should be addressed to
the Secretary, Atomic Energy Commission, Central
Secretariat, North Block, New Delhi.
TWO HUNDRED RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIPS
INSTITUTED
In pursuance of the recommendations of the Scien-
tific Manpower Committee, the Ministry of Education,
Government of India, have instituted 50 Senior and
150 junior research training scholarships in universities
and other educational and research institutions.
The objective of the scheme is to enable deserving
and talented students to engage in scientific and indus-
trial research and to acquire, as a result of such training
knowledge and experience for holding research positions.
The scheme provides for two grades of scholarships
tenable for a period of three years ? senior scholarships
of Rs. 200 per month and junior scholarships of
Rs. 100 per month.
The Senior scholarships are available for advanced
*research in basic science and for f ost graduate research
in engineering and technological subjects. The scholar-
ships are to be awarded to research workers who have
taken at least a Master's degree in science or a good
degree for advanced diploma in engineering or tech-
nology.
The junior scholarships are available for research of
comparatively lower standards at post-graduate level,
and are to be awarded generally to those who have
taken at least a good Honours' degree in science or a
degree in technology.
In the terms and conditions governing the award
of the scholarships, it is laid down that the heads of the
institutions concerned shall make the award strictly on
the basis of merit, subject to the approval of the
Government of India. The grants on account of the
scholarships will be given to the institutions concerned
in quarterly instalments in advance, and the heads of
the institutions w ill disburse the amount to the scho-
lars at the end of every month. It is also laid down
that the heads of the institutions will submit quarterly
reports on the satisfactory progress of the work of the
scholars to the Government of India. The continuance
of the scholarships will depend upon the scholars mak-
ing satisfactory progress with their work.
DEVELOPMENT PLANS FOR PUNJAB (1)
The Punjab (1) Government is getting plans ready
to absorb the Bhakra-Nangal electricity output of
310,000 kw.
At present the State's entire industry can absorb
little more than 55,000 k w. An additional output of
72,000 kw. to be generated next year by Nangal power
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
482 SCIENCE AND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
s to be divertd to fllhi, Bikaner and U.P. At the
-moment, Nandi supplies 30,000 kw. and local thermal
sets 25,000 kw. Next year, thermal sets are to stop
functioning, and, Mandi's newer will be diverted gra-
dually to Punjab (P). Ferozepore will receive its elec-
tricity from Mandi via Lahore.
f the State had planned earlier, it could have ab-
sorbed Nangal's energy in addition to that of Manch.
The use of Nandi power for home industries would have
been far more profitable.
'line Government has set lip a planning committee
of secretaries and departmental heads to study the-
report of the State's industrial commission. The
committee will furnish. the National Planning Commis-
sion with facts and figures regarding the State's agri-
cultural and industrial potentialities.
T hp Government wants a trained mineralogist
to survey the State's resources. Later a, cabinet commi-
ttee for the development of industry will be set up to
consider a proposal to utilize -180;000 kw. from Bhakra.
This will include the planning and creation of number
of major and auxiliary industries within the State.
The 0ot/unit-tee will devote its attention to the
planned development of cottage industries using power
machinery. It will also draw up plans for the expan-
sion of textile, handloom. and sericulture industries.
Th, State's supply of oilseeds would be used for manu-
facturing edible oils.
There is also scope for industries depending on raw
products of agriculture. The sugarcane produce of
Ike State could. be utilized if the number of mills was
increased. This alone would consume over 20,000 kw.
Means have yet to be devised to make trading condi-
tions attractive to industrialists. Refugee industry
is to be developed at the 12 industrial townships and
;kis() at the site of the capital ; the combined efforts
NO I I consume about 55,00(1 kw.
DR. H. K. NANDI
'Dr. H. X. Nandi, whose appointment as Director
of Agriculture, Government of West Bengal was announ-
ced earlier (see Science and Culture, 75, 396, 1950)
is a distinguished alumnus of the Calcutta University.
1)r. Nandi graduated with Honours in Botany
from the Presidency College, Calcutta in 1929 and later
took his master's degree in Botany from the University
College of Science. Calcutta in 1931. In his early years
he worked tinder Prof. S. P. Agh.arkar, the then Ghosh
Professor of Botany of the Calcutta University on the
systematics and biology of the Podostemaceae. In
I 933, Dr. Nandi proceeded abroad and joined the King's
College, London where be worked under "Dr. R. Ruggles
Gates F.R.S, and obtained his Ph.D. degree on his
thesis on the origin of the cultivated rice.
On his return to india? he was appointed Cytoge-
neticist, at the Bose Research Institute, Calcutta in
1936 and where he continued investigations on the
interspecitic hybridization of rice.
In 1938 Dr. Nandi was appointed Economic Botanist
to the Govt. of Assam and since 1945 he has been serv-
ing as Deputy Director of Agriculture, Govt. of Orissa.
He has thus acquired considerable experience on the
crops of two contiguous provinces of West Bengal and
it is hoped that agriculture in West Bengal will have
a new orientation under his able leadership. Dr.
Nandi has got 30 publications in different agricultural
subjects to his credit some of which were published
in the best scientific journals of the world.
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Prof. M. S. Thacker, Head of the Power
Engineering Laboratory, Indian Institute of Science,
has been appointed 'Director, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore.
Under the United States National Student Associa-
tion's Foreign Student Summer Project at the " Massac-
husetts Institute of Technology" the following have been
awarded the studentship for 1950 tenable from June
6 to September 16, 1950. Sri G. Janaki Ram and Dr.
S. Laha , Indian Institute of Science, 13angalorc ; Dr.
A. N. Lahiri, Fuel Research Institute Digwadih ; Dr.
M. S. Sinha, Bose Research Institute, Calcutta ; and Sri
K. S. Venkatraman, College of Engineering, Trivan-
drum.
The M. I. T. has waived tuition costs for the students
while expenses in U.S.A. such as room, board, books
and incidental expenses will be borne by the Foreign
Student Summer Project Committee. Air passage to
U.S.A. and back for these "candidates will be provided
through the Fullbright Foundation.
Sri S. L. Tandon, Lecturer in Botany, Delhi Uni-
versity, has been appointed research assistant in botany
at the State College of Washington, Pullman,
Washington.
The 12th Annual Meeting of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science will be held at
Birmingham from August 30 to September 5, 1950,
Sir Harold Hartley, President will deliver his address
on Man's Use of Energy.
The 12th International Congress of Pure and Ap-
plied Chemistry will he held in New york City from
September 10 to 13, 1951. On this occasion the Ame-
rican Chemical Society will celebrate its 75th anniver-
sary from September 4-7, 1951, the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry will hold its
17th conference on September 8-9 and will close its
conference in Washington where it will celebrate the
fiftieti anniversary of the founding of the National
Bureau of Standards.
President James B. Conant of Harvard University
is Honorary President of the Congress. Further de-
tails may be had from Harry L Fisher, Division of
Chemistry, National Research Council, 2101 Consti-
tution Avenue, Washington 25, DC.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
The Second General Assembly and International
Congress of the International Union of Crystallography
will be held in Stockholm from June 27 to July 3, 1951.
Further information may be had from Mr. R. C. Evans,
General Secretary of the Union, Crystallography
Laboratory, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, Eng-
land.
Dr. Ernest Zipkes, formerly head of the Depart-
ment of Road Research, Federal Institute of Techno-
logy, Zurich (Switzerland) has been appointed Director
of the Central Road Research Institute, Delhi.
The following research fellowships have been
awarded by the National Institute of Sciences of India
for 1950-52:
NIS Senior Research Fellowships :
Mr. S. P. Basu, to work on "Some Physico-Chemical factors
affecting fresh water fish cultural practices in India" at
the All-India Institute of Hygiene & Public Health, Cal-
cutta (For a year only).
Dr. Sukh Dov, for "Studies in Sesquiterpones" at the
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Dr. P. .B. Mathur, to work on 'Preventive Measures to
eliminate the loss of vitamin C during storage in potato
tubers" at the College of Agriculture, Banaras Hindu
University, Banaras.
Mr. V. R. Thiruvenkatachar, to work on "Compressible
Fluid Flow" at the Central College, Bangalore.
Imperial Chemical Industries (India) Research Fellowships :
Mr. C. Balakrishnan, for "Study of Internal Conversion
Co-efficients of Radio-isotopes" at the National Physical
Laboratory, New Delhi.
Dr. I. M. Chak, to work on "Preparation of Haemostatics
from oil-seeds" at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
483
Mr. A. G. K. Menon, for "Ichthyological Studies with
Special reference to Zoogeography" at the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta.
Dr. G. C. Mitre, for "Morphogenetic studies : The origin
and development of the leaves and their parts at the shoot
apices of Angiosperms" at tho Calcutta University.
NIS Junior Research Fellowships:
Mr. V. Chandrasekharan, to work on "The scattering of
light in crystals and determination of elastic constant"
at the Intian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Mr. A. K. Chaudhuri, to work on "Electron Optics of the
Electron gun used in Electron Microscopy" at the Calcutta
University.
Dr. G. S. Deshmukh, to work on "Analytical aspect of
Cerium and Thorium Chemistry" at Banaras Hindu Uni-
versity, Banaras.
Dr. B D. Mundkur, to work on "Heredity and Variation
in Ascomycetes, particularly antibiotic yielding Fungi"
at the Bombay University.
Mr. N. SataPati, to work on "Petrology, Petrochemistry
and Potrotectonics of Eastern Chats", at the Andhra
University.
Dr. G. Venkatachalam, to work on "Animal Breeding
including Animal Genetics & Applied Statistics" at the
Livestock Research Station, liosur.
Dr. (Mrs.) Vidyavati, to work on "Problems in the Ana-
tomy of Labeo re/vita" at the University of Delhi".
ERRATA
In May 1950 issue, p. 410, column 1, line 35, read
Barber for Barbour; p. 411, column 1, line 45, read plot
for plate; p. 446, column 2, line 36, read macroscopi-
cally for microscopically ; p. 451, column 1, line 18,
read pressure for presence.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[The Editors are not responsible for the views expressed in the letters.]
CALCIUM GLUCONATE FROM CANE SUGAR
In the manufacture of calcium gluconate, a very
important salt used in calcium therapy, pure crystal-
line dextrose is almost always employed as the start-
ing material. Only a passing mention is made by
Losin.' of the production of calcium gluconate by the
fermentation of cane sugar. The authors, using a modifi-
cation of the electrolytic process originally developed
by I sbell2 and studied by Fink3 successfully produced
a few tons of calcium gluconate from cane sugar.
The quality of the product was comparable to that
from pure dextrose and the cost of production was no
higher. This is of particular importance as practically
no pure dextrose is at present produced in India at
competitive rates.
A 70% solution of cane sugar in warm water was
hydrolysed by boiling with 2 gras. of conc, sulphuric acid
per litre of solution for 10 to 15 minutes. The sulphu-
ric acid was removed by precipitation as barium sul-
phate and the electrolytic oxidation of the hydrolysate
was carried out under the following conditions:
Concentrations of glucose in the electrolysate
18 %-20 %, KBr 1%, NaCl 1% and calcium carbonate
in suspension 5%. Cathodes and anodes of Acheson
graphite were used and the approximate current density
was 0.6-1.0 amp per sq. dm. The current efficiency
under these conditions was about 90% and calcium
gluconate cyrstallized out of the electrolysate when
nearly all the glucose was oxidized. The fructose
(as when cane sugar is used) somewhat contami-
nates the final product. This is in fact one of the major
difficulties in using cane sugar as starting material.
The bulky nature of calcium gluconate renders its puri-
fication from fructose all the more difficult. However
on recrystallization and repeated washing yields of
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
484
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AN
about 20%-25% on the weight of cane sugar could
be obtained. The material so prepared conformed to
the B. P. standard.
Tt was possible to use the mother liquor from the
crystallizations for electrolysis by adding more cane
sugar nydrolysate, bromide-chloride mixture and cal-
cium carbonate. But the repeated use of the mother
liquors entails large accumulation of fructose and both
the yield and quality of the calcium gluconate suffer
ultimately. At this stage the syrup containing about
12% calcium gluconate and 400/,,-50% fructose may be
used directly for oral consumption or the calcium glu-
tamate recovered from the syrup as the basic salt.
The commercial success of the process will depend
largely upon the use to which this mother liquor is put
to. However in our large scale production the mother
liquor syrup was discharged.
20 porcelain cells of 5 gallons capacity were used
and_ a daily semi-commercial scale manufacture of 30
lbs. of calcium gluconate was kept up for several
months.
K. krk LHUNDARAM
R. K. HIRANT
I3RAHMANY AN
_Department of Biochemistry,
Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 3, 1-11-1949
1
lain, Carlos L. Sugar news, 20, 467-470, 517-21, 1939. ?
2 :Isbell, H. S. et al. Industrial Eng. Chem 24. 375, 1932.
3 Fink C. G. and D. B. Summers. Trans, Electrochern. Soc.,
74, 24, 1938.
ON THE BIONOMICS OF THE CARP,
THYNNICHTHYS 8 ANDKHOL (SYKES)
Thynnichthys sand kiwi is one of the indigenous South
Indian carps about the bionomies and environmental
conditions of which much detailed information is not
available. It is an interesting example of discontinu-
ous distribution, and is regarded as an evidence of
Malayan affinities in the freshwater fauna of peninsular
India 1,2. The genus Thynnichthys Blocker is mostly
confined to the Far East, T. tynnoides (Blkr.) and T.
pokylepis Blkr. occurring in Borneo and Sumatra3,
Malaya states4 and in Siam5,6. T. sandkhol
Sykes, occurs in Malaya7 and in South India where it
appears in the Godavari and Kristine and in theTunga-
bhadra9. The elucidation of the natural breeding and
nursery areas and of the food and feeding habits of
this species is made in this note for the first time. This
is of considerable importance, for the fish, though less
commor than Calla catta (Cuv. & Val.) and Labe?
fimbriatus (Bloch), can now be added to species that
are propagated in the provincial waters of Madras.
This medium sized carp may be easily recognized
by its silvery sheen, minute scales and spindle-shaped
body. :ft attains maturity when about 12 inches in
size, and spawns during the S. W. monsoon (June-
D CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
September) in the three major rivers, when they are
Ii ighly turbid with water temperature ranging from
25.4-29.6?C. The waters are also alkaline and well
saturated with oxygen (Table 1).
TABLE I
.Hydrological conditions
Godavari
Krishna Tungabhadra
- - , -
I ',ate
13-9-'49
15-7-'49
20-9-'49
Turbidity in ems.
3.0
3.5
7.5
Temperature 'V
29.6
28.4
28.6
PEI
8.0
8.2
8.0
Dissolved Oz (rogil)
4.2
5.2
5.879
Free CO2 (pp. 1(10,000)
nil
nil
0.253
Carbonates (pp. 100,000)-
0.308
0.775
nil
Bicarbonates (pp. 100,000)
4.0
9.77
6.710
Chlorides as Cl. (pp.100,000)
0.8
2.0
(1.4
Silicates as Si?, (pp.100,000)
1.24
1.12
1.040
Plicsphates as P (pp.100,000)
0.046
0.051
nil
Nitrates as N(pp.1.00,000 )
nil
nil
nil
The hatchlings enter tanks, ponds and swamps
connected with these rivers, and grow to a size of 18
to 24 inches and weight of 2 to 3 lbs. by the summer
months of March, April and May, when they are netted.
and marketed by the local people. As these waters
get dry during summer, it is evident that the rate of
growth of this fish is highly satisfactory. The following
(Table II) are the hydrological conditions of three
waters in which the species grows and .attains mar-
ketable size within 8 to 10 months. -These conditions
do not seem to differ much from those of spawning
given in the previous table.
?drotogi cal conditions
TABLE TT
jallakalva Kankipadit Ednrur
(E. (leda- tank swamp
van) (Krishna cit.) (Kurnool
dt.)
Date
13-9-'49
16-7-'49
23-9.46
Turbidity in ems.
3.2
2.6
5.5
Temperature in ''C
29.6
31.0
33.2
Free CO. (pp. 100,000)
nil
0.52
0.138
Carbonate (pp. 100,000)
0.308
nil
nil
Bicarbonate (pp. 100,000)
15.350
12.92
8.845
pH
8.0
7.8
7,9
Dissolved Oz (ecil)
4.100
4.680
5.400
Chlorides (pp. 100,000)
3.2
8.0
0.9
Phosphates (pp. 100,000)
nil
0.03
nil
Silicates (pp. 100,000)
1.20
0.8
1,04
Nitrates (pp.100,000)
nil
nil
nil
Over one hundred specimens of the fish were col-
lected from these areas, for the determnation of the
natural food. Both the young ones and -adults are
predominantly plankton feeders. Sandgrains and mud
also occurred in some of the guts examined. The fol-
lowing is the composition, in average percentage volume;
of the diet of the fish.
Myxophyceae : Anabaena, Oleotrichia, Merismo-
pedia, .Microcystis, Oscillatoria and Spirulina-25% ;
Gh torophyeeae A nkistrodesinus, Ch,roocoecus,
Closterium, Coplastrum, Cosmarium, Crucigenia, Eudo-
rina, Gonatozygon, Mougeotia, Oedogonium, Oocystis,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
1950 LETTERS TO
Pediastrum, Pleurococcus, Scenedesmus, Sphaerocystis,
Spirogyra and Tribonema-40% ;
Diatomaceae : Achnanthes, Amphora, Anomoencis,
Cocconeis, Cyclotella, Cymbella, Eunotia, Fragilaria,
Gomphonema, Gyrosigma, Melosira, Navicula, Nitzschia,
Pinnularia, Rhopalodia, Surirella, Synedra and Tabel-
laria-15% ;
Protozoa: Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Trachelo-
monas, Glenodenium, Phacus and Stylonichia--5% ;
Rotifera : Conochilus, Diurella, Pedalion, Rotifer
and Notholca-5%; and Crustacea : Alonella, Bosmina,
Ceriodaphina, Diaphanosoma, Simosa, Stenocypris,
Diantomus, Eucyclons and Microcyclons-10%.
We are thankful to the Director of Fisheries,
Madras, for according permission for the publication
of this note.
P. I. CHACK0
S. V. GANAPATI
Freshwater Biological Station,
Kilpauk, Madras, 29--11-1949.
Hera, S. L., Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India., 10, 423-439, 1944.
^ Bhimachar, B. S. Curr. Sci., 14, 1216, 1945.
? Weber, M. .5.1; Beaufort, L. F. D., Fishes of the Indo-Australian
Archipelago, Leiden, 3, 1916.
4 Herm, A. C. W. T. & Myers, G. S., Bull. Buff. Mus. Singapore.,
13, 59, 1937.
9 Hera, S. L. Journ. Siam. Soc. NO. Hist. Suppl., 6, 143-184,
1923.
G Smith, H. G., Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 188, 209-210, 1945:
? Maxwell, C. N., Malayan Fishes, Singapore., 1921.
? Day, F., The Fauna of British India, Fishes, London., 1, 1889.
9 Chacko, P. I. and Kuriyan, G. K., Proc. Indian. Acad. Sci.
28, 166-176, 1948.
THEORY OF THE CORONA DISC COLOURS
The coronas are rainbow coloured concentric
rings seen around a bright source of light, when viewed
through a thin cloud or a fog. With monochromatic
light, the corona consists of alternate bright and dark
rings. The first, order dark ring, experimentally obser-
vable, has angular aperture varying between 3? to 20?
in the direction of observation. The central disc of the
corona is illuminated with maximum intensity of light
when monochromatic light is used. With white light,
the central corona becomes intensely coloured, the
colour depending on the size of the drops. The colour
changes abruptly with the change in the size of the drops
and can best be observed by allowing an artificial cloud
formed in a flask to evaporate slowly.
The corona formation is explained by the diffrac-
tion theory due to Verdetl. , This theory explains the
maximum intensity of the central corona disc with mo-
nochromatic light, but fails to give a satisfactory account
of the preponderance of one colour over the others,
when white light is used. According to the diffraction
theory the central disc colour should be white. Aitken?,
Barus3 and others have studied the colouration of the
corona discs, but no satisfactory explanation of this
has been obtained.
5
THE tDITO'R
In 1908, Mie4 had proposed a general theory of
light scattering, which was used by the author5 and
co-workers to study the scattering of light by large
sized water drops. This required the evaluation of
a number of scattering functions depending on Bessel
functions of high order. These theoretical results
explained the experimental observations of the scat-
tering of light. These results are also found to be useful
in explaining a number of optical phenomenon in the
atmosphere. Meeke6 used the Mie's theory to explain
the formation of the rainbow and the supernumery
bows. The numerical results of Mie's scattering theory
are capable of explaining not only the colours of the coro-
na discs, but also of coronas, Broken Bows and trans-
mission of light. In this note an explanation of the
colours of the corona discs is given on the basis of
?Mie's theory.
The angular apertures of the corona discs does not
exceed by about 20? in the line of observation. It is
therefore necessary to find the maxima of intensity for
the angles of scattering lying between 71. and r -20?.
The intensity of light depends mainly on a = 27rp/X ,
the ratio of the circumference of the drops of radius
p to the wave length of light A. The results of the
intensity of scattered light5 within these angular aper-
tures for different values of a indicate that the intensity
fluctuates with change in a and is a maximum for values
of a =6, 8 or 15. Thus for a given wave length of light,
there are three distinct sizes of the drops for which the
intensity of light becomes a maximum. The following
table shows relatively the experimental observations
of Bartle and the results from Mie's theory.
485
Colour of the
corona discs
Radius of drops in it for different a
a=8 a=8 a = 15
Mie Barus Mie Barus Mie Barus
Rod (7000 AU.)
0.621
0.828
0.80
1.55
1.60
Croon (5000 A. U.)
0.470
0.637
0.65
1.19
1.15
Violet (4000 A.D.)
0.380
.. 0.509
0.55
0.955
0.95
The above table indicates that there is a fairly
good agreement between theory and experiment. A
fuller account of the applications of Mie's theory to
other optical problems will be published elsewhere.
Further experimental work in this direction is iia
progress.
Y. G. NAIK
Gujarat College,
Ahmedabad.
31-12-1949.
1 Verciot, Ann. chim. et. Phys. (3), 34, 137. Physics of the Air
by ? Humphrey pp. 528
2 Aitken, Proc. Roy. Soc., 17, 135, 1890.
8 Barns, Carnegie institute of Washington, 3rd Report, p. 60,
1908
? Mie, Ann. d. Phys., 25, 377, 1908.
? Paranjpe, Naik and Vaidya, Proc, Ind. Acad. Sci., 9, 353,
1939 ; ibid, 9, 352, 1939
? Meoke, Ann. d. Phys., 61, 471, 1920; ibid, 62, 623 1920';
ibid, 65, 257, 1921.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
486 SCIENCE AND OUtTIrB VOL 15, No. 12
ENERGY OF HOMOPOLAR BONDS
l'he object of this note is to present a simple method
of calculating the purely covalent bond energy of homo-
polar diatomic molecules. This energy is given by
(it ) where e is the electronic charge; r
21.1./4(+2)
the internuclear distance and ?In(n -I-2) is the spin
factor of the shared electrons. The value of n is 1
for halogens and 2 for hydrogen and akali metals.
The parely covalent energy is therefore I /3.46 of the
Coulombie energy .for halogens and L5.66 in the case
of hydrogen and alkali metals. The results are given
in the following tables.
Bond
(A-A.) dist.
7"A
TAM,F1 I
ionic bond ohs. coy cal. coy. spin
nature energy bond bond factor
energy to tergy
h
?P' p8
r I 2 /
4_ 2)
-1-1, 1.7414e 0.05 103.4 81.4
F-10 1.448c 0.014 70 . OSp 66.
Cl-C1 1.98P 0.024 56.9Sp 52.9
Br-Br 2.28T 0.032 45.2Sp 41.0
1-I 2.661' 0.043 35.611 30.0
Bond
0. -A )
Li- Li
N Na
Cs-Cs
TAnkP, 1B
distance ohs. bond
energy
'A B
2.6711i
3.07Ri
3.91 Ri
4.50Ri
26.3
18.4
12.6
10.1
79.3
66.6
48.4
4.2.0
33.0
cal. bond
energy
tri(n 2)
2r v
22.0
19.1
15.0
13.0
V'nifl+2)
2.82
1.73
1.73
1.73
1.73
spin factor
n(n+ 2)
A/n(1742)
2.83
2.83
2.83
2.83
Herzberg-Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure.
Se Schomakor and Stevenson- ?tour. Amer. Chem. Soc.,
(1:, 47, 1941.
P -Pauling- The Nature of the Chemical Bond.
Rice., Electronic Structure and Chemical Binding.
Sp Spektren.
According to Pauline the bond in the hydrogen
molecule is due to the resonance of two electrons between
the two nuclei which contributes 80% to the total bond
energy. The remaining energy should crime from the
partial ionic binding.. An assumption of 5% total.
ionic character i.e., 2.5% for each of the resonance
structure .11. 11. and R H would be in agreement with
the observed result. On this basis the ionic binding
energy is 22 K. Cals. fhe balance of the observed
bond energy and the ionic binding energy, 81.4 K Cal.
compares favourably with the value 79.3 K Cal. calculated
from the equation (1) and also is in full agreement
with the calculation of James and Coolidge2, which
are based upon a thoroughly satisfactory theoretical
treatment. It is not therefore necessary to ascribe
15% of the bond energy of hydrogen to complex inter-
action and deformation terms" (Pauline. Although
the small ionic character of hydrogen has been indiea-
ted by a moment 0.015 measured by Watson,2 this value
is not enough to account for the observed value of 5%
from bond energy data. The covalent bond energy
calculated from equation (I) by taking the internuclear
distance of hydrogen as 0.6' observed in ? all covalent
bonds, is however in full agreement with the observed.
In the case of halogens small electric moments
of the order of 0.1 to 0.4 have been reported which would
indicate definite partial ionic character, due to resonat-
ing structures I -0 I., 01-C1, 01-Cl. These values are given
in Table 1, column (3). The purely covalent bond
energies, after correcting for the ionic binding, given in
Table I. column (5) compare favourably with those
calculated from the formula (1) and are within the
uncertainties of the bond energy values.
In the case of alkali metals the agreement between
calculated and observed values is fair.The bond ener-
gies are not known with any degree of accuracy.
S. K. KFLK ARAI JATKAR,
(Miss) S. B. KIMKARNI
General Chemistry Section,
Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 3,
21-1-1950.
Tattling., The Nature of the Chemical Bond.
James and Coclidge., Jour. Chem. Phys., 1, 825, 1933.
8 Watson. H. E., Proc. Roy. Soc.., 132, 569, 1931.
EFFECT OF REFINING AND DEODORIZATION OF
COCONUT OIL ON CALCIUM UTILIZATION
It has been shown by balance experiments on hu-
man subjects' that the detrimental effect of coconut
oil on calcium metabolism is aggravated when the oil
is subjected to the processes of refining and deodori-
zation. Since a large amount of coconut oil in the
refined and deodorized conditions is consumed for die.
trypurpose, further investigation dealing with the
problem of nutritional importance of refined. and deo-
dorized coconut oil using rats instead of human sub-
jects as the experimental animals was carried out.
Four adult rats were selected and they were first
given the diet D-1 containing refined and deodorized
coconut oil (cocogem of Tata oil Mills Ltd.) at 10 P.C.
level of intake. After a preliminary period of four days
on this diet the urine and faeces of the animals were
collected for a further period of four consecutive days
on the same diet. They were then given the diet D-11
in which the refined and deodorized coconut oil of D-I
has been substituted by the crude coconut oil as sold
in the market. The urine and faeces of the animals on
this diet were also collected for a further period of four
days after a preliminary period of equal days.
Both the diets supplied high grade animal protein
and utilizable calcium in the form of defatted milk
powder. The diets were further enriched with calcium
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 487
and other minerals by the inclusion of Osborne and
Mendel Salt Mixture at 5 p.c. level so as to counteract
the detrimental effect of ordinary crude coconut oil
on calcium utilization as observed by Basu and Nath2
and De, Karkun and Roy3 in their experiment with
low calcium rice diet. The composition of the diets
are shown in table I. The calcium contents of the
daily diet consumed and of the urine and faeces were
estimated according to the standard permanganate
method as adopted in our previous communication'.
TABLE I
SHOWING TBE COMPOSITION OP THE TWO DIETS BASED ON
CRUDE COCONUT OIL AND REFINED & DEODOBIZED COCONUT
OIL. THE FIGURES ARE EXPRESSED IN GM.
Name of the food stuff
Experimental diet
D-I
D-II
Rico
70
- 70
. Pulse
5
Defatted milk powder
10
10
Salt mixture (Osborne & Mendel)
5
5
Crude cbconut oil
10
Refined and deodorized coconut oil
('eocoume of Tata oil Mills)
10
The results of the balance experiments presented
in Tabe II show that with almost an equal intake of
calcium when the dietary fat of D-I is changed from
the refined and deodorized variety to the ordinary crude
variety as in diet D-II the daily calcium retention is
improved from +55.0 mg. to +73.2 mg. The above
low retention of calcium due to refined and deodorized
variety of coconut oil is mostly due to higher excretion
of this element in faeces and thus indicating that under
the influence of the above variety of coconut oil the
absorption of calcium through the intestine does not
take place properly. The present results substantiate
our previous observations to show that coconut oil
produces highly detrimental effect on calcium utili-
zation when the oil is subjected to the processes of
refining and deodorization.
TABLE II
SHOWING THE INTAKE, EXCRETIONS AND RETENTION OF
cALCIUM. IN RATS WHEN THEY ARE KEPT ON CRUDE AND
REFINED COCONUT OIL DIET. THE FIGURES ARE EXPRESSED
AS DAILY AVERAGE VALUES PER RAT IN MG.
Diet
Dietary Urinary Faecal Totsl Balance
intake output output output
Refined and deo-
dorized coconut
oil diet DJ
Crude coconut oil
diet D-II
146.4
4.8
86.6
91.4
-1?55.0
143.3
6.1
64.0
70.1
4.73.2
In consideration of the results of the present and
previous experiments the authors are of opinion that
the manufacture of refined and deodorised coconut
oil for edible purpose should not be encouraged.
Our thanks are due to the Indian Research Fund
Association for a grant to the Nutrition Research
Unit of this laboratory which enabled us to carry out
these investigations.
H. N. DE
J. N. KARKUN
Biochemistry and Nutrition Laboratories,
Dacca University.
Dacca, Pakistan.
4-2-1950.
1 De, H. N. and Karkun, J. N. Ind. Jour. Dair. Sci., 2, 114, 1949.
Basu, K. P. and Nath, H. P. Ind Jour. Med. Res, 34,27,1946.
De, H. N., Karkun, J. N. and Roy, J. K. Unpublished data.
Thesis, 1949.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
OF ORYZA COARCTATA ROXB
The archesporium, being hypodermal in origin is
differentiated and distinguished in the second layer
of the nucellar tissue as a polygonal cell of comparatively
larger dimensions with thicker and denser cytoplasm
and relatively large nucleus. It is strictly confined to
a single cell, as was observed by Kuwada2 in 0. sativa.
No parietal cell is observed to be cut off and the arches-
porium acts and functions directly as a megaspore
mother cell after proper nourishment and development.
The m. m. cell then undergoes a period of rest be-
fore meiosis starts. In the resting stage the nucleus
contains one conspicuous nucleolus embedded in the
chromatin network. The general cytoplasm is minutely
vacuolated throughout at first but bigger vacuoles
appear later in the general plasma along with the growth
of the cell. Its apex is broader and the lower end is
tapering. After the reduction division a cellplate is
formed near about the central region, thus dividing
it and thereby forming two dyads. The second divi-
sions follow simultaneously in both the cells (upper as
well as lower) resulting in a linear tetrad of four megas-
pores. Kuwada2, Terada4, and Juliano and Aldama"
observed similar type of development in 0. sativa.
Some time after, the upper three megaspores show
various types of contraction leading to the ultimate
degeneration and the chalazal one alone functions.
These three upper cells after complete degeneration
and disintegration are observed as dark-staining
shapeless masses covering and capping the functional
and developing megaspore. This disintegrated cap
lasts till the 4-nucleate stage of the sac.
The development of the female gametophyte is
of the usual monosporic eight-nucleate (Normal) type.
0D s
:w .4
? rei.
abreebeA
Fig. 1. The haploid chromosome number of 0. coarctata
Roxb. X 2000
The haploid chromosome number is counted as
24 (Fig. 1) from the p.m. cells as was previously
reported by Parthasarathy3.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
488
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE A
Fuller details will be published elsewhere.
Wd offer our sincere and grateful thanks to Sri
il-yotirrpoy Datta, office of the Dictionary of Economic
Products of India (C.S.I.R.), New Delhi for kindly
helping with some literature references from his perso-
nal library.
A. K. PAUL
It. M. DATTA
,-lute Agricultural Research Institute,
'Raikes House", Hooghly,
1.-4-1950.
Juliano, J. B. and Aldama, M. J. Philippine Agric., 26,1-134,
1937.
2 ikuwada, Y. Bot. Mag. Tokyo. 24, 267-281, 1910.
Parthasa,rathy, N Cytologia, 9, 307,1938
4 Teranda, S. Jour. Coll. Agri.. :Hokkaido Imp. Univ., Sapporo,
japan. 19, 245-260, 1928.
NEW REAGENTS FOR THE CHARACTERIZATION
AND PURIFICATION OF S-GUAIAZULENE
During our work on some sesquiterpenes derived
from S-guaiazulene, it was thought of interest to deve-
lop a few new reagents, which should form sparingly
soluble, stable, complexes with azulenes, and should
possess high crystallizing power. It should also be
possible to readily and easily regenerate the azulene
in a pure form from such a compound. With this end
in view a large number of polynitro compounds were
tested for their capacity to form double complexes
with S-guaiazulene. Picramide has been found to be
superior to all the formerly known four reagents',2.
which are being used for the identification of azulenes.
Picryl chloride can also be used for the -purpose and is,
in fact, Auperior to styphnic acid and possibly to pi-
cric acid in this respect.
Picramide readily forms a double compound with
S-guaiazulene in alcohol-acetic acid solution. The
compound crystallizes in black needles with a coppery
red luster and is obtained in a very good yield in a more
)17 less pure form from the crude azulene directly. The
imp. of 163.5 is quite sharp. For the regeneration of
pure S-guaiazulene from the picramide complex, three
techniques have been developed. The compound is
refluxed with cyclohexane containing a small percen-
tage of dry benzene, when the azulene is regenerated
and the picramide precipitates out. On cooling the
picramide is filtered off and the .filtrate after dilution
with petroleum ether is passed through a column of
alumina to remove the last traces of picramide. For
larger quantities the addition compound is mixed
with an equal amount of an inert material, like alumina,
and placed in the thimble of a soxhlet, apparatus and
extracted with cyclohexane, till the ext met, is no longer
coloured blue. The third method makes use of the
decomposition of picramide with alkali,
Pieryl chloride also gives a complex, crystallizing
in black crystals with a coppery hue, m.p. 97-98?, from
alcohol. The azulene can be liberated from this com-
pound by treatment with alkali.
ND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 12
All these methods have been described for S-guai-
azulene, but it is hoped that these reagents may also
prove to be equally useful for other azulenes.
Full details will be published elsewhere.
K. B. DuTT
-imsH DEV
P. C. GUTIA
Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry,
Indian Instit ate of Science, Bangalore 3.
3-4-19150.
' Ituzicka and Ruddolph. Hely. Chim Acta., 9, 118, 132, 1926,
' Pfan and PlOtnor, /bid.. 19, 858, 1936,
NEED FOR INVESTIGATION ON SYNTHETIC
MOTOR AND AVIATION FUEL FOR INDIA
Financial value of loss being sustained by owners
of motor cars and transport vehicles year after year
since the commencement of restricted supply of petrol,
can hardly be over estimated.
Two projects' relating to the poSsibility of produc-
ing synthetic petrol, from Indian coal, one costing
Rs.23 erores and the other Rs.40 crores are under
consideration of the Government of India.
In course of a symposium held in Allahabad in 1949,
Dutta Roy2 correctly adduced statistical support for
the establishment of Research Institute on the subject.
Stuart3 discussed the need for synthetic liquid fuel to
replace natural petroleum, which is limited, and the
two chief alternative processes now in use in U. S.A.
are economically unsound. The Minister of Fuel and
Power, U. Ic4 stated that the Fuel Research Station
of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
are carrying out researches for several years, but re-
sults so far obtained do not yet justify .plans for opera-
hon on commercial scale in that country. We have,
however, now before us the "Report on the Petroleum
and synthetic Oil industry of Germany"?by a Mis-
sion from the Ministry of Fuel and Power, Published.
by His Majesty's Stationary Office, London. This
publication offers very little hope for economically
successful production of petrol from Indian coal.
-Instead of depending too much on mere reproduction
of what Germany was economically unsuccessful ins-
pite of persistent efforts for years, it seems quite worth
while for India to take up the problem on independent
lines, based on abundant cheap raw materials which are
either available or may be developed with planned long
term policy.
Berthelot4 eighty one years ago combined carbon
and hydrogen in his research laboratory at high tem-
perature and produced acetylene: The subject is
therefore an absolutely old one, and has been extensively
investigated in different scientifically advanced countries
for over 80 years so far with no commercial success.
Let the fuel technologists imitate one of the plants for
defence purpose exclusively. Such step however should
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
'LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
not console private motor car and transport vehicle
owners and industrialists of the country.
Just now molasses has again become surplus in
India and undoubtedly will continue to be so. Fuel
technologists do not usually get training in high level
researches in organic synthesis, therefore, co-ordinated
efforts headed by synthetic organic chemists seem to
be reasonable to research for production of motor
and aviation fuel. Amongst possibilities, (1) ethyl
alcohol from molasses and mohua, awl (2) products of
wood distillation from forest wood need careful consi-
deration. Long term policies have to be thought out and
worked up step by step. By organized and planned
developments molasses may be developed easily as
a bye-product from sugar factories, and mohua may
be grown in course of grossly neglected forest regenera-
t.ion. Cost price of ethyl alcohol was about four annas
per gallon before, and it can be easily brought down
to that level by normal efforts. Having based on the
production of ethyl alcohol at normal cost, experiments
have to be varied, for example, ethylene produced
from it may be polymerized and thereafter different
processes of cracking have to be adopted to get ulti-
mately some molecules as effective as iso-octane.
Wasteful? methods of wood distillation was done
in Mysore. If however, the entire process is done cor-
rectly, then ingredients necessary for production of
synthetic petrol are all plentifully obtainable from Wood
distillation, quite similarly as those from coal. By
making use of wood tar and a suitable catalyst, it is
reasonable to expect usual hydrogention of carbon atom
from wood or charcoal. Ford Motor Company of Ameri-
ca get about 20 percent by weight of inflammable gas
at no additional cost. This gas is quite rich in methane,
and its production is expected to increase by suitable
variation of technique of wood distillation. Our
whole country is full of unlimited forest area though
grossly neglected. Bye products of wood distillation
may be converted with advantage into motor and avia-
tion fuel.
Research laboratories in organic chemistry may
now think on similar lines as above and formulate
probable avenues of commercial success, leaving
aloof fuel technologists to reproduce hyrogenation
of coal for defence purposes, irrespective of cost of
production and normal trade competition. It is quite
serious that owners of private cars and transport
vehicles and industrialists need not expect any relief
from Indian coal under the planned arrangement for
production of oil from coal, from economic aspects.
1
Calcutta, 3-4-1950.
4
J. N. RAKSR1T
SOIENCE AND CULTURE 15, 64, 1949.
Dutta Roy, R. K. Ind. New. End. Jour. Ind. Chem. Soc.,
28, 1949.
Stuart, E. R. Journal & Proceedings, Royal Institute of Chemis-
try, Feb. 1949, 29.
Gaitskell, ibid. p. 15.
M. Berthelot, Compt. Rend. 67, 1868.
489
SEARCH FOR NEW ANTIBIOTIC PRODUCING
FUNGI FOR CONTROLLING PATHOGENIC
ORGANISMS
The recent discovery of a large number of antibio-
tic substances from the metabolic products of micro-
organisms tends to support the view that it is quite
possible to search for newer types of antibiotic-produc-
ing organisms from their natural habitat. Extensive
work on this line has been carried out in U.S.A. and
Great Britain and an enormous array of literature have
accumulated during the last decade. These have been
reviewed by Duemling et al', Waksman2, Benedict and
Langlykke3, and Bailey and Cavallito4. Already there
are more than hundred different compounds isolated
from micro-organisms, and there is sufficient evidence
to believe that a great many others can be obtained,
if the organisms are studibd in greater detail. There
are various methods of approach to this problem and
the method suggested by Waksman2 has been followed
in the present investigation.
Cultures of fungi were isolated from various sources,
viz, soil, compost and vegetable waste by plating with
Waksman's acid-agar medium. The isolates were
grown in subculture and were subjected to rapid screen-
ing tests as suggested by Raper et (115 and a primary
selection of the positive antibiotic-producing strains
was made. Of 540 isolated fungi, 139 were found to be
capable of producing inhibitory substances. These
are mostly species of Penicillium or Aspergillus and a
few strains of Fungi Imperfecti. The activity of 20
better antibiotic-producing strains are reported in the
present communication.
TABLE
Diameter of inhibition zones (mm.) of test organisms
Cultures
Staph. aureus
E. coli
V. cholerae
Rb. typhosa
---
P,
28
,-
20
o
0
136
30
30
30
30
F, (10)
16
17
0
16
F2(20)
20
20
0
17
F? (43)
12
16
o
17
IF, (54)
23
18
12.5
14
FX, (63)
16
14
o
17
F, (64)
18
13
15
17
FX, (64)
25
13
13
13
F, (66)
21
0
o
o
FX,(68)
15
15
0
21.5
F2(69)
F, (70)
. 24
26
o
10
o
o
o
o
F, (71)
24
0
o
0
F, (71)
30
9.5
0
0
FY, (71)
30
10
o
o
F, (82)
25
o
o
0
FX, (82)
28
o
o
0
F, (83)
23'
o
o
0
F, (83)
19
11.5
9
9
Phenol(5%)
26
22
20
22
Mercuric
Chloride
(1:500)
30
22
25
24
The cultures were grown in modified Czapek-Dox
solution with 0,2% malt extract for 10 days at 24?C.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
490
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND CULTURE
The culture fluids were assayed according to the agar-
cup method using 4 test organisms?Staph. aureus,
E. cob:, V. cholerae and Eb. typhosa and the results are
given in Table 1.
The selected test organisms were all human patho-
gens, of which only Staph, aureus is Gram-positive and
tire remaining three are Gram-negative. It will be seen
from the table that the antibiotic-producing organisms
used in the above experiment, show a wide specificity
in their antagonistic activities. It is remarkable that
Fibrin cholerae is the least sensitive amongst all the test
organisms as in this case the inhibition zone was observed
only in 5 instances. Eb. typhosa and E. coli were inhi-
led in 10 and 14 cases respectively while Staph. aureus
was inhibited in every case.
One strain of Penicillium (No. 136't was found to
be effeetive equally against Gram-positive and Grain-
negative . test organisms, and the zones of inhibition
produced here were highest amongst all the active cul-
hires employed in this experiment. Arrangements are
now in progress to test the toxic effect of the purified
preparation of the .active substances in experimental
annuals and a detailed investigation on the Method of
un provement of production of the antibiotic agents
will be reported in future.
S. K. MUKHERJEE
S. hN
P. N. NANIJI
Section of Microbiology,
Bose Institute,
Calcutta, 19-5-1950.
nuemtinT,W W. Vi. et. at. Ann. New York Acad. Sci, 48, 31-228,
1946.
Wilkarnan. 8. A., Microbial Antagonism and Antibiotic
Sulistences, 1947.
Benedict, R. G. and Langlykke A. F., Ann. Rev. Microbiol.,
I. 193-236. 1947
Bailey, . H. and Cavanita, C. J. ibid, 2, 143-182, 1948.
1,'?,ipor it al. dour. Bact., 48, 644-45, 1944.
SUNSPOT ACTIVITY AND COSMIC RAY
DISTURBANCES
It was reported in Nature' that "a big group of
sunspot Urought into view by the sun's rotation on the
14th February will cross out of sight on Feb. 21. In
Northern latitude 11?, the centre of the complex group
(Tossed the meridian on February 20.2 U.T This
roup will probably have not been exceeded in size
since 1947 (the peak year of the present 11 years suns-
pot cycle) when the outstanding group had an area
nearly oamble the present. Judging from the size
alone the present group is likely to be associated with
geomagnetic and ionospheric disturbances".
17he results of cosmic ray intensity measurements
during the period February 17, to March 2, 1950,
carried out in the premises of Bose institute, Calcutta
by one of us (i.L.C.) is a continuation of the investi-
gations reported earlier by Chakraborty and Chatterjee
015 eosnne ray intensity measurements by means of a
pressure ionization chamber. The apparatus used is
Vol. 15, No. 12
the same as described in the latter communication2 and
the results are given in Curve I.; one of us (P.K.S.C.)
while engaged in an investigation on the nature of
secondary radiation produced by cosmic rays in different
thickness of lead, noticed on 28.2.50 an increase by
almost one hundred per cent in the frequency of coin-
cidences in a counter telescope placed under 10 ems.
of lead. The curve representing the variation in fre-
quency of coincidences with time on 28.2.50 is given
in Curve IL The counts were taken for one hour in.
tervals.
In table I. appended herewith we have collected
together all data available for the present on (i) the
number of sunspots visible on different dates at Kodai-
kanal and the position on the sun's disc of the large
group of sunspots as reported in Nature; (ii) solar flare
observed at different places; (iii) radio fade out observed
by A. in Delhi ; (iv) magnetic storm as recorded at,
Kodaikanal and (v) variation in cosmic ray intensity
as recorded at the Bose Institute, Calcutta. It may be
mentioned that the pressure ionization chamber was
installed in an air conditioned room on the roof of
the main building of the Bose Institute and the coin-
cidence counter arrangement was housed in a hut in
the garden at a distance of over 100 yds. from the
former,
Table I
fren.fly
12
14
10
10
17
IS
II
20
21
21
03 OS
24
27
NU779ER Or
SUNS m.r.s,
74
11.,
Jodi.
Of
Pa
071
IS
130
070000
Mr..
.....
1.52
ASO
-
,
SOLAR
FLARE
Ai.
.r?
RAMO
MOE OUT
'
014017lETIC:7:
STORM
LIAM, SIP.
,
,,,,,,,,,,,
,
CAL
."....
..........e 4
COSMIC RAY
UNIENSITY
trr.
r
?a'.
?
"
The principal points of interest elucidated from
Table I are discussed below :
(i) The relative number of sunspots which were
observed at Kodaikanal increased from 74 on 13th
Feb. to 116 on 14th, the date on which the large group
of sunspots mentioned in Nature appeared on the sur-
face of the sun's disc; on the 15th the number increased
to 139 which coincided with a complete radio fade out
observed at Delhi between 11.55 to 12.55 hrs. I.S.T.
On the 15th a slight disturbed magnetic storm was also
observed at Kodaikanal. (ii) On the 17th a solar flare
of intensity 2 was observed at Kodiakanal between
02.10 to 02.44 hrs. I.S.T. In curve I, there is an indi-
cation of diminution in cosmic ray intensity with a
minimum of about 1.82% at 16 hrs.. I.S.T. There was
however, no magnetic storm; the Kodaikanal report
states calm from 16th to 18th Feb. and on the 19th it
was slightly disturbed. (iii) According to Nature the
centre of the complex group of spots crossed the meri-
dian on Feb. 20.2. U.T. In our record there is a sudden
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1050 tt'kElIS O TIM MITOR
increase of intensity from 6 to 20 hrs. with a maximum
of 7.9% at 12 hours. A magnetic storm of the sudden
commencement type began at 23.40 hrs. I .S.T . The storm
was followed by a sudden decrease in cosmic ray inten-
sity with a minimum of 4.82% at 0.0 hours on 21st Feb.
At Delhi a partial severe type of radio fade out was
observed on 21st between 15.40 to 16.20 hrs. I.S.T.
On the 22nd there was another rise in intensity of about
3.7% at llhrs. .I.S.T., following which there was a drop
in intensity below the mean value which continued
till the 25th, during which period the magnetic storm,
as reported from Kodaikanal, persisted. On the 26th
it was slightly disturbed and on 27th and 28th it was
calm. No solar flare up was observed during 20th
-22nd Feb. at Kodaikanal, probably due to bad weather.
There was, however, a newspaper report of observation
of such an occurrence on 22nd Feb. from Japan. The
group of phenomenon found usually associated with
an intense solar flare up was thus observed during the
Period 20th-25th Feb. The cosmic ray intensity attained
Curves I and II
wAriaa
?
Mil.
KAM.
PM
14.100eNee
:It
3I
ii
1., 6
1,
.4.
AR
111111
NI
1111r
#
14,
71
I
-molt
confirm
MOM
AT Alla'
uocaN
141./flIC
t
0/7 0/0 0/9020 0 21 0 77 2 2
- rie-Rd0- ?Al? -MARCO
the normal value from early 26th Feb. (iv) On
the 28th. Feb., the ionization chamber record showed
an increase in cosmic ray intensity with a maximum
of about 7.3% at about 16 hrs. I.S.T. and the counter
telescope arrangement recorded an increase about 100%
at 13.30 hrs. approximately (Curve II). The higher
percentage increase in counter telescope arrangement
seems to indicate that the increase was mainly due to
particles of higher energy which also arrived earlier.
The increase recorded on Feb. 28 was of a simple nature,
neither accompanied by radio fade out nor followed
by any decrease in intensity indicating, thereby, the
absence of any ionospheric and magnetic disturbances.
As this increase could not be correlated with an increase
in the number and activity of sunspots or magnetic
storm and radio fade out, the question arises whether
it could be attributed to solar flare up. According
to the report in Nature the group of large sunspots went
out of sight on the 27th February. Several observa-
tions have also been recorded by Ehmert3 (1941-43) in
491
which increase in cosmic ray intensities could not be
correlated with any sunspot activities or radio fade
outs:
Our thanks are due to Dr. A. K. Das, Director,
Solar Physics observatory, Kodaikanal and to the Re-
search Engineer, All India Radio, Delhi for supplying
us with information used in preparing the present
note. One of us (P.K,S.C.) is indebted to the National
Institute of Sciences of India for the award of an I.C.I.
Research Fellowship. We are also indebted to Dr.
D. M. Bose, Director, Bose Institute for many helpful
discussions.
I. L. CHAKRABORTY
P. K. SEN CHOWDHTIRY
Bose Institute, Calcutta,
12-5-1950.
1 'A Eig Sunspot'---Nature, 165, 301, February 25, 190.
2 Chakraborty, I. L. & Chatterjee, S. D., Ind. Jour. Physics,
23, 525, 1949.
0 Ehrnert, A. Zeit F. Naturforschung, 3a, 264, 1948.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING, III.
The population to be sampled is a p-dimensional
'rectangular' field consisting of H n, strata, each of
II le, cells. Let (x1, x2,...xy) be the co-ordinate of a cell
11
in the field. Along xi-direction, there are ni sets, each
containing k, 'rectangles' of (p-1) dimensions. Then
systematic sampling may be defined as follows:-from
a stratum v cells are taken at random and every kith
cell along x, direction from every chosen cell is taken,
comprising a systematic sample of size v ni (c.f.
Das2). Under stratified sampling v cells are taken at
random from each stratum and under random sampling
v Uni cells are taken at random out of all the cells in
the population.
This population is considered to be a sample from
an infinite population in which the expectation and
variance of the yield of each cell is constant and the
correlation between the yield of two cells is a function
of the gap between them (c.f. Cochran')
Let cri.2, o-st2 and crsy2 be the variances of the
sample-mean under random, stratified and systematic
sampling as in Das (1949), p , u2,...up) be the cor-
relation between two points of gap (u,, u2,...up) and
p (u1, 1 u2, u?) is such that for p=3
p (u,, u2, u3) p (u,, U2, u3) p (u,,?u2, u,)
+ p (u1,-112, u3) P ud).
Let 41 and Si are the usual difference notations with
tnpo(tued1, bly and 8,2 rosPee-
respect to ui, anbde
8,2 P (111) u2, "? UP) ??? up) and
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
42 SCIENCE AND CULTI7RE Vol, 15, No. 12
Then rri.2, rrst 2 and (7"2 have been calculated and
the following theorems proved giving sufficient condi-
tions for all infinite populations :
Theorem 1. if (i) 0, and (ii) 2> 0 for
j = 1,2, ... p, and j then stratified sampling with
strips r = const. is more efficient than random
sa,rnpling.
Theorem. 2. If (i) A, 0, (ii) < 0 and (iii)
0 for i = 1, 2, p; then stratified, sampling
with strips x, const. and x const. is more effi-
cient than random sampling.
We can state more general theorems equivalent
to theorem 2 for stratification by stripes.
Theorem 3. If (i) < 0 and (ii) 812 > 0, both
for i = 1, 2, ... p ; then stratified sampling in general is,
more efficient than random sampling.
,
Theorem 4. If 8,2 0 for = I, 2, ... p, syste-
matic sampling defined here is more efficient than
stratified sampling.
[N.B. This theorem is true even if the strata have
got different expected means and variances.]
Theorem 5. Under conditions of theorem 3, stated
above, systematic, stratified and random sampling
methods are in decreasing order of efficiency;
o-?.2 < o-,2 < 0r2.
s
Department of statistics,
Calcutta University,
21-2-1950.
coolman. W. 11., Ann. Math. Stat; 17, 164-177, 1946.
Das, A. C. Two dimensional systematic sampling, SCIENCE
AND CULTURE, 15, 157-158, 1949.
BOOK REVIEWS
The Characteristics of Electrical Discharges in
Magnetic Field?By A. Guthrie and R. K.
Wakening. Published by McGraw Hill Book
Inc. ,\I". V. Price $3.50.
"The characteristics of electrical discharges in
magnetic -fields" by Guthrie and Wakening published
by McGraw Hill Book Company in their Manhattan
Project Technical section series supplies a book in a
field where there were previously none. In the rapidly
growing fields of mass spectroscopy and ion accelerators
the conditions under which, the sources of ions operate.
have not received that attention it deserved until
the growth. .of the American Manhattan project. The
present volume describes the work on characteristics
of ion sources produced by discharges in magnetic
fields by ilte group at Radiation la,rboratory, at the
(lniversity of California, in connection with the magne-
tic separation of Uranium isotopes and related fields.
The book is comprehensive and lacking only in certain
technical and engineering details which have perhaps
been omitted for obvious reasons. The practical ex-
perience embodied. in the book will make it an obliga-
tory reading and reference book for all those who wish
I o work on mass spectroscope and ion accelerators.
1' here is a last and useful chapter on the Phillips Toni.
Aation gauge for measuring high vacua which works on
the principle of ionization by collision in magnetic
iields. This chapter though not quite related to the
i'est, of the book is an. Useful addition and is the most
.orriplete description of the Philips type gauge that the:
i:oviewer has seen.
In printing and the diagrams -the conformity with
previous volumes of the series has been maintained
and the price has been kept low.
B. D. N.
Vaccum Equipment and Techniques?By A.
Guthrie and R,. K. Wakerling. Published by McGraw
Hill Book Co. Inc. N. Y. Price $2.50.
The publication of the volume on vacuum equip-
ment and techniques in the Manhattan Technical series
is welcome addition to the inadequate literature On this
subject. The first chapter on basic designs of vacuum
systems is not usually met with in most books on
vacuum technique. It is well 'written and will be use-
ful to all who want to design vacuum systems for any
purpose. The description of the conventional pumps
in the second chapter is useful although, incomplete
and is not meant to be used as a guide to marketed
mechanical and diffusion pumps. Vacuum gauges
have been fairly completely described. Vacuum
materials and equipment are also quite comprehensively
treated as far as metal systems are concerned. Glass
systems, however, have not been dealt with and the
omission 1 suppose has been purposely made, although
the matter of insulated leads into vacuum systems,
glass seals, and certain types of metal and glass systems
are of importance in certain types of vacuum work.
The chapter on detection is again something of great
usefulness to all workers in the field. It is regretted
that the palladium tube hydrogen ion gauge for detec-
tion of leaks which is of general interest and usefulness
in this field has been overlooked,
As a handbook to all those who work with evacua-
ted systems this book will be indispensable. As a
manual that one can turn over at any page and use as
reference it will be useful in any laboratory bookshelf.
The printing is good and the diagrams are clear and in
eomformitv with the other books of the series.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
B. D. N.
June, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
BOOK
Bengal Famine (1943)?By Tarak Chandra Das,
University of Calcutta, 1949. pp.154, Price Es. 6/-.
The report under review is a survey of the socio-
economic condition of the destitutes who were driven
from the villages to the city of Calcutta for food. The
survey was carried out by the teachers and students
of the department of Anthropology of the UniAersity
of Calcutta. The report consists of two parts, in the
first of which the destitutes have been described, in.
detail and the second part consists of a test survey of the
famine condition in a few Bengal villages.
The destitutes were studied mostly in the free
kitchens under the jurisdiction of District IV of Cal-
cutta Corporation. They numbered 2537. persons of
which 1200 were males and. 1337 females. The majority
(81.24%)of the. above number hailed from the distinct
of 24-Parganas, because of its close proximity and the
railway system by which it is connected with the city.
Thanks to the railway authorities who carried. these
destitutes free of cost to the city and back. This free
railway transport was a fillip to the influx of the desti-
tutes and its largest number from the district of 24-
Parganas.
Mr. Das has very rightly gone into the details of
the methodology of the survey and claims that the data
collected by the present survey are not comparable
with one of the earlier surveys on this famine. It is
high time therefore that all such surveys are based. on
an approved scientific method so that their results are
comparable and show a composite picture. Chap. ELI
of the report shows the ago, sex and community distri-
bution of. the destitutes. Mr. Das has laboured very
much to explain the high preponderance of males over
females in the lower age groups (0-10) and that of female
over males in the higher age groups. He is of opinion:
"Aparently, it is not duo to biological causes but
appears to be the result of socio-economic factors pro-
duced by the famine". To the reviewer, however it
appears that the biological factor is the chief cause.
The male sex-ratio is always high in the younger
ages and as it is accompanied by higher male mortality
than the females it is almost balanced during the
reproductive periods. In India we have high female
mortality towards the fall of their reproductive period
and the same has been found in the present destitute
samples (p.46). The sex distribution found among the
destitutes is entirely in conformity with our present
biological knowledge and they are stronger than the
socio-economic reasons put forth by Mr. Das. The
present report also shows a high male mortality (p.93)
and one is reminded of Prof. Crew's apt remark?
"the true recipe for longevity is to be born a girl".
The destitutes have been grouped into four commu-
nities?" Caste Hindus", "Scheduled Castes", "Muslims"
and "Christians". A further subdivision of the first
two groups into the different castes would have been
better for purposes of indentification and understand-
ing. The reviewer is a native of a village (28 miles
from Ballygunge) in 24-Parganas, which sent out a
number of such destitutes and the majority of them
1-1,1W110,,V8'
43
belong to the Bagdis. This caste was probably the
hardest hit in this district and quite a large number of
these Bagdis used to come to the town daily in the
morning and go back to their villages in the evening.
Mr. Das has mentioned (P. 72) that 55.47% of the units
did not possess any homestead land. This is rather
peculiar in a village and it is doubtful that the destitutes
told the truth. There are few public shelters in a vil-
lage and the communal ways of livlihood among the
scheduled castes of 24-Parganas are rare. The desti-
tutes have not always told the truth as the reviev, er
personally knows the Bagdis of his village and quite
a few of them roamed about the free kitchens of Bally-
gunge. They have posed to be destitutes in a largo
number of cases and came to the city owing to the high
price of food-stuffs, etc. in the village.
Mr. Das has discussed at length the causes of
the famine in Chap. XI. The most important
point of Mr. Das, contributory causes is the moral de-
generation of the people. It is doubtful how far the
destitute sample were real destitutes. Further, the
report has not mentioned anything of the efforts in
the villages to help the poor. The rcviewer is aware of
two such benefactors in his own village ? one giving
dry doles and another giving kich,uri and quite a few
of the Bagdis took advantage of these and of the town
as well.
The report concludes with some useful suggestions
in the form of long term and immediate measures in
order to combat famine. It appears that the primary
necessity for the benefit of agriculture lies in the resus-
citation of tho old irrigation channels. This will not
involve the State into an enormous expenditure. As
an agriculturist the reviewer feels this to be the prime
importance than the other suggestions of Mr. Das
which will involve a lot of social change.
/.9. 8. 13.
Artificial Radioactivity?By P. B. Moon, F.R.S.
Published by Cambridge Monographs on Physics.
Cambridge University Press 1949. Pp. 102. Price
12s. 6d.
This Monograph on Artificial Radioactivity is a
timely publication embodying our present state of
knowledge on this branch of Nuclear Physics. In
recent years the advancement of Nuclear Physics has
been so enormous and rapid that such monographs
are particularly welcome by those engaged in the study
of Nuclear Physics, as more comprehensive treatment
of individual subjects is obtainable than available in
in standard text books.
T his monograph gives an outline of the main pheno-
mena and techniques of radioactivity as observed
in the study of artificially radioactive nuclei. A great
variety of artificial radioactive nuclei has been produced
in recent years and more data are pouring in. At present
more than 500 artificially radioactive nuclei are known.
The inclusion of such a large amount of nuclear data
has not boon attempted in a small volume like this.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
-1-94
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND CTILTURE, Vol. 15, No. 12
Bather it is intended to provide a basic conception of
the main radioactive processes viz., electron and positron
activity, IC-capture and gamma emission, and the ex-
perimental data of some typical nuclei are elaborately
discussed to illustrate the processes involved.
The first chapter develops an introductory concep-
Lien of the formation and different modes of decay of
euelei produced. by artificial transmutation. In chapter
11 the main experimental methods for detection in
it teriry measurements of electrons, positrons and gamma-
rays are briefly discussed. The third chapter is devoted
to electron and positron emissions from nuclei.
comprehensive discussion of the beta-decay theory
including the K-capture process has been given and
-Apical experimental results of a few nuclei are discussed
-.o bring out the corelation with the theory. The last
ihapter deals with the process of gamma-emission from
,mclei. After a concise introduction to the theoretical
.tspect of gamma-emission process, follows a compre-
iensive discussion of some interesting gamma-emitting
cclei including those exhibiting isomeric transition.
As the author has limited the discussion to light
(1(1 medium-heavy nuclei, the process of alpha-emission
from artificially radioactive nuclei such as the transur-
ale elements has not been included. The book includes.
Ire references of recent literature on the subject from
itittil earlier references may be obtained This mono-
raph will be much helpful to those interested in the
study of this branch of physics.
Proceedings of the National Conference on
Industrial Hydraulics Vol. II, 1948. Confer-
ence Secretary, Armour Research Foundation of
Illinois Institute of Technology, Technology Center,
Chicago Ili, Illinois, U.S.A. Paper cover, 6" >< 9",
pp. xxi--i--154, 1949. Price $3.00,
The Proceedings of the 1947 conference were re-
viewed in this journal some time back, (S(;ience, and
;altam. Jan, 1950, p. 228). This second volume contains
'fillers presented during Oct. 20-21. 1948, and maintains
the- same high standard evidenced in the first volume
aiei anticipated in the present one.
As compared with ten papers in Vol. I, this volume
eentains 13 papers which can he classified into five
Ic rant groiips comprising of servomechanisms, hydraulic
equipment standards, pumps and turbines, hydraulic
components and recent applications. The subject of ser-
vomechanisms is dealt with in two papers, one dealing
with the general history and industrial applications and
the other with the prediction, design and test of hydrau-
lic mechanisms by mathematical, mechanical and elec-
tronic tools. As in other fields of engineering, standardi-
zation of hydraulic equipment is now recognised as
aiming towards the advancement of the art of hydraulics,
and promoting safety of personnel , uninterrupted produc-
tion and a long life for machine or other equipment.
These aspects are covered in two general papers present-
ing a clear explanation of the first hydraulic standards
for industrial equipment. Pumps and turbines which -
form the veritable nerve centres of industrial hydrau-
lics are covered in three papers. They deal with the
subject of hydraulic surges in pump discharge lines,
prediction of liquid jet pump performance and the most
recent developments in large hydraulic turbines. This
last subject is dealt with in a very illuminating manner
wherein the advances in materials for turbine construc-
tion are surveyed. These newer developments are
characterized by the use of welded plate steel structures,
and increased applications of strainless steel a,nd new
types of bearings and seal rings.
Three papers cover the field of hydraulic
components. The paper on flanged joints,- their deve-
lopment and testing will interest many technologists
as their - applications stretch over a very wide field.
The two other papers survey hydraulic paekings and
seals and gasket design and selection. The applications
of hydraulics are dealt with in two papers. one on
polyphase torque converter and the other on hydrau-
lic circuits for farm tractors.
A very unusual paper for a subject like this comes
from the pen of R. E. Gilmor, Vice-Chairman of the
U.S. National Security Resources Board. Entitled
"Our Economic Missions in Europe", the paper surveys
very lucidly the purposes, benefits, difficulties and the
modulus operandi of the Marshall-aid Plan. It is no
doubt a very good paper presented in an authoritative,
intelligent and clear way and would form ideal for pre-
sentation in a journal on economics and management.
Its relation however in this volume especially among
the teelmical papers is a little stray and although the
reviewer throughly enjoyed reading and appreciating
its contents the reason for its inclusion here has left him
wondering.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
K (J.
June, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Xiii SCIENCE AND CULTURE
1imiiiiiIiiIiiiiiiri11111111111111111iiiiIiiiiIiiiIi01111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111,111111111iiiiiiiiniiiiiIiiliiiiiimiiiiIiIiImmiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilmminimanioliminifiviiii111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111,111h11111111111111111111
8eYefi 5#r
Surf rige
AC/4961 household ref+potoPs
now assembled in India
with finest American and
British components
utly
built
orcelain
interior
Large frozen
food storage
space.
4
V
Twin hydrator
trays with
glass covers
P
1111111111111111114111
fakt+,b,
Low current
consumption
4100111?.'"g_
One year's ser-
vice guaranteed.
Specially maul-
fated for the
tropics.
SUR INDUSTRIES LIMITED
24, Middle Road, Calcutta--14.
Sole Distributors
REFRIGERATORS ( INDIA ) LIMITED,
59c, Park Street, Calcutta ; Hasan Imam Road, Patna ;
25, Mahatma Gandhi Road, Lucknow ; The Mall, Kanpur
Queensway & Scindia House, Connaught Circus, New Delhi.;
efframezrmususi
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111' 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111010111111111114111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111H11111111111M11111111111111111111111101111111111
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that y011 have seen the advertisement in Science and CultuTe
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
.1 [nip, l950. xiv
II I: liI
UDAY an honoured name in
SCIENCE AND CULTURE
SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY
APPARATUS & INSTRUMENTS
? Precision Workmanship
? Prompt delivery
? Competitive price
,`,"recitilitieR in
.thninntacture
A iftoclaves
liaths Also holds stork A. R.
Burners Quality Chemicals.
Forign and Indian
>istilling Stills Classwares, Procelain-
n ouba tors wares and other
Pliarroceutical Machines apparatus &.outfits.
Physical apparatus
Procelain Wares
tr. etc.
Uday Scientific Industries ffi
;111111111M 011111TiiiIIIIIIIIiillit1111111111111111111111111111111111i11111111;1111111tiillli[11111111111111111i111111111111fi[11111111111111111111,1111111111111111111111111111I11111111111111111C111111111111101111111111ihillingffillIIIIIMPIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMINIEINIIIIIMI111111111111111111111111111111111111111111Illilill111111111111111111111111111111111111111AIIIIEDi'iiii,iiiiiiiioii iii
12, CALIF STREET, CALCUTTA-3 Pone: B,B, 575
COMPLETE?
X-Ray Plants
FOR DIFFRACTION AND RADIOGRAPHY
TRANSFORMERS OF VARIOUS VOLTAGE RATIO
UP TO 150 K. V.
IMPORTED X-RAY TUBES AND KENOTRON
ALVES (MACHLETT)
[110 lti IIE
7, SIRD AR SANK AR ROAD, KAL (GHAT.
C A LCUTTA.26.
Phone :---South 1773.
-74
4111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111Mmmimiummiummmd,1
IrVfert replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
June, 1950
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
ii
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
`Tot eatutant ?Supriy cra
PAPAIN
MALT EXTRACT
PITUITARY-
POWDER
VITAMIN 'A'
eantact with :
CIEMCE TRADERS LIMITED
26, Nakuleswar Bhattacharya Lane,
Calcutta 26.
VS, ??? - .....
II
II
II
II
XV
SCIENCE AND CULTURE
B.Iilli1111111111111111111111111111111111111V1111111111111111111111111111111n11 II11111111111111101111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111N11111111111111111111111111111111111111$111011111RIIIME
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
OF
Accuracy
ADJUSTABLE RESISTANCES
JOULE'S CALORIMETERS
BUNSEN BURNERS.
POTENTIOMETERS.
METRE-BRIDGES.
ETC:, ETC.
Full Literature from :
THE STANDARD
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS CO
MYLAPORE, MADRAS 4.
.17-71110 A
11111111111111111111RIIIIINIllg1111111111111111?11111111i1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111116111111115111111111111111111111111111111011111111111111V1151D1111111111g IT:
I
Ii)
ii
iii
1
iil
GLASS APPARATUS
for
Laboratory, Hospital, College
and Scientific Research
Insist on
Products
All kinds of Graduated Apparatus, Chemical
Th?r mometer, Hydrometer, U rin ?meter,
Lactometer, Stopcock, Separating Funnel,
Soxhlets, Spiral Condenser, Weighing Bottle,
Filter pump, Milk and Blood testing
apparatus, etc. etc.
Price list on request
al-anufactured by
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT MEG. CO.
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
MII
U
M
n
II
I
E
1
Eii
E- 11
II
II
3, SASTIT ALA ROAD,. CALCUTTA I I
GRAMS: METER HOME
E
kislissiiinsmssuissimsismosissesisumismissimilisssussa
For
Clin-ics, Laboratories, Hospitals Science
classes and Chemical Works
Always USE
HIND SCIENTIFIC GLASS
The best
Indian graduated glass ware
available in the market
They are better in quality and competi-
tive in price
For particulars please enquire
HIND SCIENTIFIC GLASS
WORKS
6/2, KAMARDANGA ROAD, TANGRA,
CALCUTTA
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Seience and Culture
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
IIIr
.1 lino, 1950.
v.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
-
xvi
SCIENCE A ND CULTURE
-U I
FABRICATION OF THE FOLLOWING:
1. Agitators.
2. A utoclaves.
3. Bacterial Filter
(Seitz Type).
Condensers.
Critteliers.
Crystallisers.
Clotting VesselsDistilling .
gostors
& Rectifying
Columns.
Dissolvers.
11. Dryers (for vitamins,
Soaps & Chemicals).
12. Evaporators (with open
and vaccum type).
13. Heat exchangers.
14. Kettles.
15. Percolators.
16. Pressure Vessels,
17. Reactors.
1S. Special Filters.
19. Storage V( ssels.
20. Sterilizers.
21. Steam Jacketted Vessels.
B. Materials of Construction :
(1)
(2)
FABRICATORS
1. Complete Process Units.
2. Complete Process Plants.
3. Pilot Plants for Develop-
ment of New Products.
4. Special Process
Equipment.
5. Distilled Water Plant,
Single, Double & Tripple
distilled.
1. Power Alchohol Plant.
Mild Steel, Copper, Stainless Steel, Monet Metal, Lead.
Quotations are sent against Specific enquiry.
CONTACT:
CHEMICAL PLANT &, EQUIPMENT LTD.
IOW
7, LOWER CHITPUR ROAD,
LALBAZAR, CALCUTTA ?1.
11 t IIrr:
To keep pace
with the marching of time
GET A copy OF
004 Ad44\66\?
=11101=1:=1EZ1111
ast a
sto
EVERY MORNING
IT WILL TAKE YOU TO
THE NEWS?WORLD
tor
TWO ANNAS DAILY
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement io Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Juno, 191O.
SCIENCE
and
GLASS
Research is possible only when
your Laboratory Is well equipped
with most modren outfits and
reliable reagents. We stock only
quality goods and welcome your
esteemed Enquiries.
filet7*
IMO ,Iff friff I t
Jr
BENGAL INDUSTRIAL
4SCIENIFIC WORKS LTD
DEM.ERS IN :?
.
FINE & ANALYTICAL CHEMICALS, REAGENTS, SUGARS & STAINS,
SCJENTIFIC OUTFITS, GLASS?BLOWN APPARATUS, ETC.
35-I ? VI VE KA NA NDA flOAD.CALCUtTA
GRAm;eiswoRKs PHONE 0.8.50O4
SCIENCE AND OtTLTtitt
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111E
Latest introductions in
Laboratory HARD-WARES
'GS' No III, Gas Burners with easy
E adjustments for gas and air;
F. Retort Stands with turned and Cadmium
2 plated iron rods:
E.
-12
Fr. Other
Pressed Stainless
Steel CLAMPS
and
Precision BOSS-
HEADS for above
E.
All kinds of Gas Burners & Rings:
^ Petrol GAS Plants. Sterilizers, Ovens,
Incubators etc., etc.
GANSONS LTD.
.7; P.O. Box 5576 BOMBAY 14. E
6, WEST VIEW, DADAR
=?
poiiiiiiiinuummummumutuumniminimumummummuninumnimitimm
ii11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111110.-:
F.-.
LATEST FROM U.S. A. S.
each
Rs. 6-8 each
a--.
Eirz
Rs. 15-0 Oz.
Rs. 10-8 Oz.
Rs. 10-8 ()z.
Rs. 1]-8 Oz.
Rs. 11-8 Oz. -
COPLIN STAINING JARS,
with ground glass lid, to
hold 5 single slides Rs. 5-8
COPLIN STAINING JARS,
with black moulded plastic
screw cap
PRECISION MADE
MICROSCOPIC COVER
GLASSES Proper Select
Quality, Thinness No 2.
*Rectangles 22 x 50 mm.
*Squares 18 x 18 mm.
22 x 22 mm.
*Circles 18 x 18 mm.
22 x 22 mm.
Available in oz. Packing
ASHA SCIENTIFIC COMPANY
Lotlikar Mansion, 503, Girguam Road
BOMBAY 2
A Dependable Source for Laboratory Requirements
F.
Rilfill11111111111111111111111111131111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111i111111111111111111111111111111rE
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Jane, 1950.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Xviii CIENCE ANE CULTURE
Which of these
quality
Du Pont products
can help
your business?
Perhaps you may find just the chemical or material
you need to improve your product, or increase
your production efficiency. These Du Pont com-
pounds are the result of years of patient, persistent research,
for which Du Pont is world-famous. And manufacturers
everywhere use them with complete confidence.
We couldn't list them in detail, so please write us for more
information on those that interest you. Tell us your problem.
We'll offer individual Technical Service?help you in any
way we can. Write to: Organic Chemicals Department, Room
'14) Export Section, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. (Inc.),
Wilmington 98, Delaware, U.S.A., or to your local Du Pont
distributor.
For uniformity and high quality, count on these products
of Du Pont Chemical Research
for the TEXTILE industry
A complete line of dyestuffs to meet
practically every color requirement for
cotton, rayon, nylon, silk, wool, linen,
jute and other fibers. Hosiery finishes.
Ian" and "Aridex" water repellents.
Softening, finishing, cleaning, wetting,
scouring agents.
for the RUBBER industry
Accelerators and antioxidants for rub-
ber or synthetic rubber ? Colors for
dry rubber and latex ? Stabilizing, wet-
ting, blowing and peptizing agents ?
Neoprene (synthetic rubber for mak-
ing products which resist the action of
oils, solvents, heat, oxidation, sun-
light).
for the PETROLEUM industry
Antioxidants ? Colors ? Metal deacti-
vator ? Tetraethyl lead (gasoline anti-
knock compounds) ? Lubricant as-
sistants.
for many other industries
Dyes for paper, leather, wood ? Inter-
mediates ? Camphor (tablet or bulk) ?
Aromatic chemicals ? Fatty alcohols?
Resin products ? Solvents ? Vitamins ?
"Delsterol" (Vitamin D3) ? "Cel-0.
Glass" (plastic-coated wire mesh).
BETTER THINGS FOR BETTER L YING ... THROUGH CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC CHEMICALS DEPARTMENT
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Regd. No. C.-2252
DEDICATED TO kail444 SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS
MANUFACTURERS
;/,
PRECISION BUILT MICROSCOPES
AND TRAVELLING MICROSCOPES
INSTRUMENT RESIEARCH LABORATORY LIMITED.
309, BOWBAZAR STREET, CALCUTTA - 12 ? PHONE: CAL. 5586- GRAM: INRELABTRY
Published by HeritriAlanWitiii p4r,
e ai rVire6beit'QVF!
Circular Road, CalCliffri,-a7na-piinT Cliti14, pa a ak erjee ka A_at5?I)bazaT/4-9PtrgijarUs.er,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Holumetionnamonano pHooliminvir
itiout availaoie afain
R YIN OXI
5-hydroxy indole ethyl dimethyl amine auxin.
A product of the skin glands of the Toad
for the treatment of CANCER
Box of ampoules :
6 >.; 2 c. c.
Rynol
Oil for external application only.
Indicated in open ulcers, glands,
turnouts (malignant), Hodgkin's
disease.
Bottle: 2 oz.
Rynin Pills
Recommended for cancer
and precancerous condition.
Voctila tive Xitatatute c>n tepait
1111EXIIN liAll
MitHillJAM E. 11. R., ( DUNIKA ),, ilN.E:111A a
8-?
linfalianiE,fillini:ildmiliiiiiimuliiiiiIi111101311..1111111. 1111111111,077;8
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved orA4eleas 04/09106 "T-C
VOL. 115
APRIL 1950
No. 10
'
" SIGCOL "
INDEX GLASS
IS A BOROSILICATE GLASS OF HIGH
SILICA & LOW ALKALI CONTENT WHICH
ENSURES ITS RESISTANCE TO HEAT.
SHOCK& ITS CHEMICAL DURABILITY.
THE "SIGCOL" GLASSWARE HAVE
OBTAINED A RECOGNISED PLACE IN
EVERY INDIAN LABORATORY FOR THEIR
OUTSTANDING QUALITIES.
ASK FOR A NEW PRICE LIST
from your nearest dealers or from US
.1111,-?/
WINKEL -ZEISS &
SPENCER MICROSCOPES
SARTORIUS & K- ROY'S
BALANCES
LEYBOLD& METRO-VAC
VACUUM PUMPS
--DISTRIBUTORS?
ADAIR, DUTT &CO. (INDIA) LTD.
CALCUT"TA
BOMBAY : MADRAS
CAMBRIDGE INSTRUMENT CO., LTD. England
PYROMETERS
ALL TYPES
//:,A RLE FROM 8TOCK FOR IMMEDIATE DELIVERY
Balmer latutie al Co., Ltd.
CALCUTTA
5/991
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 :?.CIA-RDP83700415R006100060001-7
EDITED BY
D. M. BOSE A. C UKIL S. K. MITRA P. RAY S. N. SEN
For 'Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
45aineeZD4racs2D (9=c_
LAKSHMIBILAS
HAIIIP2
The Medicated Hair Oil for
LADIES & GENTS
Aanagetetated 4g--
NIL IL & CO., 11111
CALCUTTA.
ESTD. 1874.
LAKSHMIBILAS
BARLEY
it 13 genuine and' #591ente
Ptapatt2C1 by.
M. L. II
==========
miS
CALCUTTA
C
0)
E STD. 1874.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950. gOIENCB A.1411 CUITtIftE
Phone: 3176 B.B.
Grams: "NADIACHEMI"
Nadia Cher-Indic-all Works Ltd1.1
C-44, 45, & 46, COLLEGE STREET MARKET, CALCUTTA
JUST ARRIVED from ENGLAND and AMERICA
LARGE STOCKS
of
APPARATUS and CHEMICALS
for
Schools, Colleges, Analytical and Research Laboratories
Please send your enquiries to us
p-raxr-r----A)Ca=e),0-eS(a)
Insist on I I I Balance
An Ordinary to a Super Sensitive
E GENE]
1rkiIIIcI
Analytical balance at your Service'
Warning!
Look to the above Registered Trade
Mark on your instrument you buy.
kkAll MANUFACIRMING (0,
SONARPURA : BENARES
When repyiWorthe ad.vartisers Is
ovea Far-RgeaVele1691611toe? an-ft51389340Y4tiSR006900050001411-011tu",
 J
?INS.
April, 1950.
ANN
.???????
A
El
EL]
El
11
lill
1111)
L1C=1i 1 1 =3 = 11 1 CIEll= 1 1 EJCIflit illEE31
When repAlifittOtectMliwitatematilaOKYribilv-M3643-ocbvftgraiVediiittbolid-9 ultur''
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
r-?---111=1 11E:10E3
ti
EJEC]if
WILD
HEERBRUGG
SCitNCE AND CIILTUItE
ARRIVING!
Precision-engineered Microscopes for the Connoisseur.
They are :
Precision engineered, both mechanically and optically
of a modern pleasing design.
Very convenient to use.
Standardised for interchangeability of all parts.
Designed so that later additions can be easily made.
Unique in their self-centering phase contrast equipment.
Sole Agents :
RAJ-DER-KAR & CO.
EDE
COMMISSARIAT BLDG-, HORNBY ROAD,
Phone: 27304 (2 Lines). FORT, BOMB A Y. Gram : "TECHLAB"
IN
.MI11
El
?????
El
ED
Eli
El
EDO
April, 1950. 20011M6Approved For Release ?ICIA -R DP83-00415R006100M01-7
II
Num AND' LmIZT71111
I111111111IIIIMINIEVIIIIIIIIVINER11421311101111181111IIIM011111101111111111111111[11111MIIIRIIIIKII11211111111111111111111ifinell118111111111110111111111111111MIIIIIIIIIIMMII
I
We Illanutactute
i I I
inggralMogrn
111
A. R. SULPHURIC ACID
MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF IMPURITIES:
Non-Volatile Matter
Heavy Metal (as Pb)
Iron
0.0025%
0.0002%
0.0001%
A S, 03 0.0001%
Chloride 0.0003%
The International Chemical Industries
103B, UPPER CIRCULAR ROAD,
CALCUTTA, 9.
proungsgmaggigoigrieggimingrinignouggiggoommgamogumnagnanggoismingummeggamigagnanggogromaggrourmognmgatiggegrigggigimliiimmgagmlIgglogignmr
?
TUB! ASS,
HOSE PIPES.
STOPPERS
a
OTKER
SPECIALITIES
?
RUBBER CLOTH
HOT WATER BAGS
ICE BAGS
AIR BEDS
AIR RINGS
AIR PILLOWS
AIR CUSHIONS
SURGICAL GLOVES
SURGICAL APRONS
GUM BOOTS
ETC.
Enquiries cordially invited.
Head office: 32, THEATRE ROAD, CALCUTTA
H1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 1111111.11111111111111111111111111111 N1111111111111111Ing
F.
Woth Smoothly
Please get your Laboratory
furnished by us
with
Chemicals Apparatus
and
Other Requirements
CALCUTTA SCIENTIFIC MART
47-C, GARPAR ROAD,
CALCUTTA, 9
Town iii111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111-111Milimminna
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that ou have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950.- . iv Scrorez AND CULTUR.11
t_911111111111111111111111111111I111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111110111111111111111111111111111111111111M111111111111111111111111111111111111118.:
E E.
2
_
=
_.
. MANESTY MACHINES LTD. .
. .....,
...,... .
= MAKERS OF
E F.,
TABLET MAKING MACHINERY g
=
' AND
AUTOMATIC STILLS
FOR
E
=
E.
=
le
E
.i.:
=
.;.-.."
DISTILLED WATER E.._
=
g
OPERATED ON a?
STEAM, ELECTRICITY, GAS OR KEROSENE s
E
E
E
=
F.-.."
=
=
2
s
CALCUTTA 4, FAIRLIE PLACE. P,O. BOX 6I?
BOMBAY C/0, ARMSTRONG SMITH LTD. P.O. BOX 185'
MADRAS P.O., BOX 1700. E
E
F- DELHI P0. BOX 166. E
=
_ KANPUR 7/93, TILAK NAGAR ?
=
iiIIIIIIIIIII1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111=1110MHH1111111101111111111111111111111111111111M
SOLE AGENTS IN INDIA
KILBURN & Co.,
LTD.
, --n FJ11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111115
111 III
HI
III
HI '11'3 Iiil SIM"' 1 '
D .3. .
... 1-0fr.,`",r The Seal of 1
E
111
I
...()),. CftoilifIll'
III III I ta,;,...t
it.
Quality ri
In in
in f.10 =
rif NEUTRAL LABORATORY GLASSWARE HI a-
?". ? ikc f.-.
m
m Available from all Dealers IIIII g= 41cuiv.
iii 2
(Alum% C -3
Hi Also from m
iii 1 Essts,NTINIa ?11'S' .
=
Hi palOMArrio CliNIIFC?1S
s.
in
ni INDUSTRIAL
III III -g-
ill INDUSTR1ALli& ENGINEERING III 1
iii R- PURPOSES AND
MANUFACTURERS N..
F.
g'.
111
III III a
APPARATUS CO. LTD. m I
m =
Hi
ill HI a- NLS? F.
in ll 11 M NC .1 c, 3 ri
CHOTANI ESTATES, PROCTOR ROAD, I IT IS:N D NV-13S
m m .2 a
III
HI III 2.- pl-LIS-- -p. S =
2
oil m LI' B. P & B. FINE CHEMICALS AND
III III -?,
III GRANT ROAD, BOMBAY 7 Iii
. E
III III E. ANALYTICAL REAGENTS
HI
HI Branch offices :
III 1 FOR LABORATORY USE. pt
in m
III EE
III MADRAS , NEW DELHI III
m 23-24 SECOND LINE BEACH PAHAR GANJ ROAD,
HI MUSULIPATAM M 1=- The Calcutta Chemical Co., Ltd. i
m
in
KR Delhil SH N ClothA h4 ARMills DT e p 0 t ) hili -;:: CALCUTTA
KOJILLIPET (Near
Fil Also
III 1 MADRAS : BOMBAY : DELHI :Nalit OUR : JAMSHEDPUR : ETC.
FRIIIIIIIII11111111111111111II11111111111111111111111111I11111111111111111111H1111111111DIIIIIIIII11111111111111110
Wiley" replying to the advertisers,- please mention that.you have seen the advertisement in Science. and Culture.,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Axil, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
MIENOZ AND CULTURE -
isilEv==a)
01,_,G11;zMgMEEDteSa)
PUT IT IN WRITING
Because Paper Remembers What You Can Forget
SAVE TIME PREVENT ERRORS
gat rut Papat aat wtiting & ?tinting atom:
Raghunath Dun & Sons Ltd..
"BHOLANATH DHAM"
33-2 BEADON STREET, CALCUTTA
Phone : B. B. 4175 'Grams : "NOTEPAPER"
CALCUTTA : 20, Synagogue Street. DACCA : 31-1, Patuato
BRANCHES:
la Street.
(9 (')1???.0)(a=e)(a=====G)e*---5)(-'
immomminimaimmimmummimmummirminnumuuminnummumiumminummiummimmounimiimmimminimminummumiummutimminiimmilimumuminiiiis
a =
=
==
I ? COMPLETE? ==
F..
=
:1
1 X-Ray Plants a
==
a a
_= =?
_=
=? FOR DIFFRACTION AND RADIOGRAPHY =
=?
= =?
a
= ==
E. =
=
a =?
a =
a TRANSFORMERS OF VARIOUS VOLTAGE .RATIO _=
a ==
a UP TO 150 K. V. ==
a =?
= _=
LI ==
g. IMPORTED X-RAY TUBES AND KENOTRON I
.I. -.4
a VALVES (MACHLETT) 1
a
a _ a=
a
I l'W A 1113 0 NI 1[11 0 ti S 11E i
E ==
E _=
=.7, SIRDAR SANKAR ROAD, KALIGHAT.. =?
=
a CALCUTTA.26. E=
= ==
a
.-.: Phone :?South 1773. I
=
E:
iiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiminiumitimmim I
When replyingje the advertisers, please trientiork that yo h have span the aciverti?ehhh4 ih P(depep and CutuFe, ?
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950
$OI1Wi &077.217R1
FJ111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111M111111111109
TO OUR READERS
11111111111111011111110
Your appreciation of the journal makes us bold to suppose that
some of your friends would also like to read SCIENCE AND
CULTURE, the premier scientific monthly of India devoted to the
publication of the progress in pure and applied science. The Indian
Science News Association has been conducting the journal for the last
13 years with the editorial co-operation of the eminent scientists of
India with the object of promoting and diffusing knowledge laying
special stress on the progress of scientific studies here and abroad,
and advocating methodical application of science to problems of
national regeneration.
The Association is therefore desirous of bringing the journal to the
notice of every intelligent man and woman in this country. In order
to establish contact with prospective subscribers to SCIENCE AND
CULTURE, it will be appreciated if you would kindly bring to the
notice of your friends the value of this journal. We venture to
remark that your friends, even if they are not students of science, will
welcome the opportunity of getting in touch with the creative
thoughts of scientists.
Dues : Annual subscription : Rs. I0/- (inland), ?1/- (foreign).
Ordinary Membership of the Association: Es. 15/- (annually) inclusive
of subscription to SCIENCE AND CTJLTURE. Life Membership of the
Association: Rs. 150/- only.
Orders may be placed with tbe?
SECRETARY, INDIAN SCIENCE NEWS SSOCTATION,
92, UPPER CIRCULAR ROAD, CALCUTTA 9.
I II II II II II fl]I
II:111ii11111111111111111111111111111111111:111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111:1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111110111111111111111111111111111110111ffigname;
V4, nen replying to the advertisers, please mention that yon have seen the advertisement in Science and Oniturrit,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Scimcv Atb CutiftinD
NIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111011111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111110111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
?
i E
E.
. WE ARE ? ? ? ? i
.
.
. .
..
a
iTot a =
a
=-
= =-
ALL YOUR LABORATORY NEEDS ==
=
i 1
s
.= =
.Ba INSTRUMENTS: APPARATUS: MICROSCOPES: CHARTS: 1
a a
a. SPECIMENS: MODELS: CHEMICALS: STAINS: ETC a
=
a
a
g
E a
_ BIEN ARTIUM NATURAL SCIENCE LIMITED a
a
=
=
6, MANGOE LANE CALCUTTA -1 a
=
=
Branch : KADAMKUAN, PATNA Gram : SIENSTRADE, Calcutta & Patna =
=
=
E-
E
E
=
E
E
=
=
?
. = FA
=
le E
E e
-E :2
E FLATTERS & GARNETT CALCUTTA MODEL WORKS W. M. AINSWORTH & SONS INC Z
= a
a MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. CALCUTTA COLORADO, U.S.A.
E =
E E
=
. n.11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 111111111111111rd
SOLE AGENTS
for
-e=mmu marm (,17E3mcmgmmarm,m
A BOON TO THE INSTITUTES
by
reliable and prompt service
DIRECT IMPORTERS AND
STOCKISTS
OF
LABORATORY REQUISITES OF
:EVERY DESCRIPTION FROM A TO 3
Z INCLUDINC CHEMIACLS ETC,
Full particulars from
UNIQUE TRADING CORPTN.
51-53 NEW HANUMAN LANE, BOMBAY 2.
Grams : 'LINEAR'
elscatt6azirm waroa
kirp`
wagm (etvi.gmai*..,)(2zEore
PASCALL
III
Ill
III
III
III
INCLYNO Di
in
1si
1 TEST SIEVE VIBRATOR m
1 III
1 The machine for accurate screen in
II. analysis. This scientifically III
I
designed instrument incorpora- 1 ii,
tee patented mechanism that ill
presents the whole area of the 111
mesh of the test sieves at all hi
possible angles. III
15
Screen analysis with the In- in
clyno is accurate and obviously III
better than hand sieving. The
praticles of the material under III
test are rapidly and accurately III
segregated by this instrument. Ili
111
The machine is operated III
by a 1/6 h.p. motor, and, HI
when fitted with an auto- Hi
matic time switch, tests can III
be carried out over periods III
III
I up to 60 minutes. III
I III
I111
I III
I SOLE AGENTS: III
I III
I III
1 GlIOVANIII & CO.
1 Hi
I PEOPLE'S BUILDING IiI
iIII
I SIR PHEROZESHAH MEI-ITA ROAD, FORT, BOMBAY Iti
I 111
Iii
1
= E = ===E======E= BI5
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that yon have seen the advertiseinent in Feigns@ and Culture.
? Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
viii SorgrinIt AND Ctratl
UMW
0 421k 0 ii iii
01111111111101111finill"11111110111111110110111E111101111101[0diiiii11111111111201willlillloqillarluill1111111111111E11111110:11111111011111
0
7.
ril--.
PHILII).S .
.
._._
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
For further particulars please write to:
a PHILIPS ELECTRICAL CO. (INDIA) LTD.
2
A
a
PHILIPS HOUSE : HEYSHAM ROAD : CALCUTTA 20
l!IiI3:120000:11111111111111101114101111111130111iMIIIIIIIIHIE11111111Eilillialii1111111111011:111111111EMISMIIII:1111111111Elii11111111111111111lliliiiiiii1101111111111111M11111Billifiallill111111111:111101110111:1111111111111111111111111111111111ffillnigpim Dimilopmen g
When replying to the advertisers. please mention that youinL
buy" ewe avAtblie bodeobtf{19ulture.
s .1 U
10
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : Cl
.--
as
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS .
A
0
0
PHILIPS TECHNICAL REVIEW: A monthly publication on lighting, electronics, x-ray . 0
0
and other technical subjects. m
-.---
..---1
Annual subscription (12 issues)?Rs. 14/-. post free. -'
m
P HILIPS RESEARCH REPORTS : A two-monthly scientific journal of theoretical and kg
.F.
experimental research in physics, chemistry and allied fields. km
-0
Annual subscription (tI issues)?Rs. I7/-. post free. iu
-,...
COMMUNICATION NEWS : A quarterly journal containing articles relating not only to 0
0
transmitting but also to the entire field of P.T.T. -
0
ou
Annual subscription (4 issues)?Rs. 10/-. post fre. -,-
0
PHILIPS RESISTANCE WELDING HANDBOOK, BY PHILIPS LONDON: Corn- 0
m
piled to meet the need which undoubtedly exists for a practical manual on resistance 0
welding.
Price
,-
0
Price Rs. 7/8/- each, post free. iw
,...
PHILIPS MANUAL OF RADIO PRACTICE: Compiled by Mr. E. G. Beard, MIRE. 0
of Philips, Australia. Deals with all fundamental and up-to-date information regar-
ding operation and service of Radio equipment. Second edition (now in process) con-
Jui
taning fuller treatment of frequency modulation, television and servicing will be an ex- ...1
cellent book of reference for both amateurs and professionals. A
A
hi
Price Rs. 15/- each, post free. A
0
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COLOUR: By Dr. P. J. Bouma, Philips expert in illumina- 0
0
tion engineering, an introduction to the scientific study of colour stimuli and colour 0
sensations. w
.:,.4
Price Rs. 15/- each, post free. A
Ai
FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIO-VALVE TECHNIQUE: Book No. 1 in the series of books . 0
.4
on Electronic Valves by the Philips Technical Library?deals with the physical princi-
ples, the latest constructions and properties of Radio receiving and amplifying valves. 0
0
0
Price Rs. 24/- each, post free. 0
0
DATA AND CIRCUITS OF MODERN RECEIVING AND AMPLIFYING VALVES: 0'
w
(first supplement) Book No. III in the above mentioned series?contains the data and 0
0
circuits of the valves brought out in the years 1940 and 1941. 0
04
Price Rs. 121- each, post free. 0
4
i
Technical and Scientific Literature Dept.
El
El
El
El
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
/ ..700iesir
SIGCOL GLASS IS THE
HOST IMPORTANT
FACTOR TO BUILD THE
MODERN LABORATORIES
AND INDUSTRIES
THE
SCIENTIFIC INDIAN GLASS CO'LLD
6, C HURCH LAME-CALCUTTA
Made in E-MIL Gr. Britain
Brand
SCIENTIFIC GLASSWARE
AND
THERMOMETERS
*Thermometers
Centigrade 110?, 150?, 250? and 360?
Fahrenheit 220?, 4000, 600?
Precis:on 105?C x 1/5
50?C x 1/5
50?C x 1/10
*Beckman. Thermometers
*Bits, Micro and automatic
*Pipette q, Gra-luated and volumetric
*Measuring Flcvks, cylinders etc.
*Blood Testing Apparatus etc.
NOW AVAILAWLE IN GOLD LINE' (8 test) and
GREEN LlIstE(kitest) -for 'IMMEDIATE SHIPMENT
In.slitation-s and "Dealers holding Valid
Import Licenses, Please Apply to :?
Manufacturers' Representatives
ASHA,SCIENTIFIC -COMPANY
Lotlikar 'Mansion, 503 Girgaum Road,
BOMBAY, 2
M
IE
SCitti-Ot Aith Cut;Ttrit
Lqui111111111101111:11;111111011010001101110011111110WHIMMIUM1111111111111111111111111111IIIIE
I
LII .
S U IR A IN1 C IE
Every family protected means a happier home:
every income assured for life means more
contentment and less unrest. Every fortun8
secured against waste means greater stability
to business and finance. The message that Life
Insurance brings is one of hope. Its objective is
financial security for each -and all.
Obtain this security through a Hindusthan
Policy.
L--
rt- CO-OPERATIVE INSURANCE SOCIETY LTD. g.
.. =
= HINDUSTHAN BUILDINGS =
a =
CALCUTTA _
Ei
=
:111111111111111111111111,111111111111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIII1111111111117
DUST]
A 1.41
11111111111113111111.1111i11111:11111111.111(111111
Iii
III
Ill
III
Iii
iii
III
III
III
ill
Iii
ill
iii
hl
Iii
III
III
III
III
Iii
hi
hl
iii
III
iii
III
THE ARYAN PATH
Editor: SOPHIA WADIA
Principal Contents for April
WHAT IS PERSONAL GREATNESS,
AND HOW IS IT ACHIEVED? Arthur E.
: 'Morgan
IDEALS OF MARRIAGE M. A. Venkata Rao
SOME PRINCIPLES OF MAHAYANA
BUDDHISM Christmas Humphreys
THE INDIVIDUAL IN SOCIAL REGENERA-
TION C. R. K. Murti
WORLD WITHOUT WAR Hannah Torr
Annual Subscription Rs. 6/? Single Copy -/12/-
Editorial Office:
"ARYASANGHA", MALABAR HILL, BOMBAY 6.
lktana'gerial Office:
GANPULE BUILDING, RAOPU RA, BARODA.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06
ii
II
ii
ii
ii
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
ii
II
II
II
II
ii
II
II
II
II
ii
II
ii
Ii
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
=-=----;E:151MMEMMMEMF-Flit
: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
.Aprii,.iOSt. AND, tptittrDit
IIIMMICON IMMO 111 1111111 VIIV111111111111111111111111111711113 "P[1.1911111IR :411111111M 11111111111111111:11111 111[111111111111!111111111iEll 1:1:1111111111111113111?1110111:11111:11111 HIM a Ica matImal toomm
at least twice and
find it quite invigorating. I am not aware that it has
produced any harmful effect on my health. On the contrary,
the morning cup makes me ch rf
for starting the day's work."
Dr. Meghnad Saha, D.Sc., FRS,
Pali! Professor and Head of the
Department of Physics, Calcutta
University, is one of the most eminent
scientists of India and is famous
internationally for his work on
Nuclear Physics, especially on the
Theory of Stellarspectra which brought
him the Fellowship of the Royal
Society, lie represented India at the
220th Anniversary of the foundation
of the Russian Academy of Sciences
La 1945.
U1E /64 eq-laWiaticit
INSERTED BY THE CENTRAL TEA BOARD
117 326
ANINME____1111k MMU111?11 1111311r1111111111111111111111111111111111111VM11111111111I1?111q IMO 11111 111111 fihlOULi5U15 U1 ii
When replying to the advertisers please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
25X1 C
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 :CIA-RDp834/415R006100050001-7
Published bu the
. ? INDIAN SCIENCE
NEWS ASSOCIATION
Editor. -
D. M. Bose
S. K. Mitra A. C. Ukil
P. Ray S. N. Sen
Associate Editors
A. K. Gliosh
R. Chatterjee B. Mukherjee
Cotlaboratar.
S P. Agharkar Atmaram
G C Mitra K. G. Bagchi
A. C. Banerjee K. Banerjee
S. K. Banerjee K. P. Basis
D. N. Wadia K. V Giri
H. P. Bhaumik K. Biswas
N. N. Chatterjee N. K. Bose
D. Chakravarti N. R. Dhar
3. C. Chatterjee J C. Saha
S. P. Chatterjr e A. C. Joshi
N. N Dasgupta S L. Hora
G. J. Fowler N. R. Seri
S. S. Bhatnagar 1tP. Malty
P. C. Nlahaliti B. Mukerji
S. C. Mitra S. R. Palit
J. N. Mukherjee N. C. Saha
Kamalesh Ray B. B Sarkar
S. K. Ghaswala J. M. Sen
V. Subrahmanyan S. N. Sen
B. C. Kundu S. C. Sirkar
S. S. Sokhey J. N. Bhar
Maneck B. Pithawdlla
K. P. Chattopadhy.iy
S. P. Ray Chaudhtiry
H K. Mookherjee
Surendra Nath Sen
editorial 45 Pubbcation Office,
92, Upper Circular Road,
Calcutta 9.
Aduertiong Offla
92, Upper Circular Road,
Calcutta 9.
Approved For
APRIL 1950
No. 10
NEM) OF A ('OM-PEET] EN SIVE PLANNING 'FOR
)1t1V ELOPMENT 0 le AO EEC LILT ORE IN INDIA 309
371
374
370
379
384
389
Agricultural Extension Service in the United State:, ?J. C. Saha
Technical Assistance to Under-Developed. Countrie- -J. C. Ohosh
The Soil and the Engineer?B. Chattcri,e
Paper Making in India- -D. C. To/aider
A Method for Comparing the Relative Quality of .1 'rte Yarns?K. R. Son
MOTES ANI) NEWS
LETTERS TO'Ill E EDITOR :
The Talik-t1alcha Origin of .Parsis
--Alaneck B. .Pithawalla ct S. F. Desai
? -Shankkherjee 390
ti?
Ionic Antagonism in Cation Exchange Reacticsll
i;raninda Ma
0:ilehicine-induced, Polyploidy in .--lmaranty,4 Nitum
? S. L. Tandon and J. J. Chino?' 398
Optical Specificity of Protein Hydrolysates? A. Ray
399
-Double Staining with Aceto-Carmine and other Rapid Techniques -IV
N. K. Tiwary and Shankarji Shrivastava. 399
A simple Method of obtaining Difference Equations of Probability
Generating Functions of Certain Distributions?P. V. Krishna lyer... 400
Bond Energy and ionic Nature of Bonds in Polyatoinic Molecules
-S. K. Kalkurni Jatkar and (Miss) S. B. Kulkarni. 400
The Food of Rona. Hexadactyla Lesson, in Relation to Fisheries
P. Chacko and B. Krishnamurthi. 401
Abnormalities in the Flowers of !Lima Rosea Linn?G. A. Kapadia 402
Structure 4)f Zingiberene-8. M. Mukherjee 403
REV I ENV'- 404
-
397
The annual subscription to the journal is Rs. 10f- (inland), ? 1 or $4.00 (Foreign). Ordi-
nary Membership fee for the Association is Rs. 15/. (? 1. 10s. or $ 5.00) per year which covers
I he subscription of the journal. A person or a Corporation paying Rs. 150f- (? 12 or $ 48.00)
shall be eligible for a Lie Membership of the Association and will ho entitled to a copy of the
journal every month.
The Indian Science News Association and the Editors of -SCIENCE AND CULTURE" assume
no responsibility or statements and opinions advanced by contributors to this Journal.
All MANUSCRIPTS should be legible and typewritten. The Editors reserve to themselves
I he right to accept or reject the whole or portions of the matter sent for publication. The
rejected contributions are not returned to authors, if postage is not prepaid.
Remittances for membership dues, subscription aim advertisement costs should be
1,ddressed to the TRPASURER, INDIAN SCIENCE NEWS ASSOCIATION, at 92, Upper Circular
load, Calcutta, 9.
Editorial communications are to be addressed t the Editor and other communications
to the Secretary, Indian Sc onco News Association, both at 92,Upper Circular Road, Calcutta, 9
Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
APIA 1950. Xii SCIENCE AND CULTURE
MMMMMMMMMMMMMENEEMMMMKOMMMMMMMMMMMMEEMMMMEEM
M ? M
M M
M M
M M
M M
M M
M M
M
M LET US HELP YOU
.
. .
. .
E IN OBTAINING M
M M
lE Au Y01/12 LABORATORY ity/MMENT 5H
m
M WE SPECIALISE IN
M Eq
M SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS M
E M
M OF ALL KINDS M
ALSO WI
EN EN
M ACIDS, SOLVENTS & OTHER M
M ' CHEMICALS OF REAGENT QUALITY EN
ES M
E
E
E OUR PATRONS INCLUDE
M REPUTED TECHNICIANS IN
E
Ei VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS AND
E . . - INDUSTRIAL CONCERNS
M THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY
M
Ei
E
E
M
1
EE
M
E
E
M
ENQUIRIES RESPECTFULLY SOLICITED
&or," ex.deal
& PHARMACEUTICAL WORKS LTD.
94, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, CALCUTTA 1 2 .
MMEMMMMMMMMEMMEMEMEMEMMEMMMEEMMMKIMMMMEMEMM
When replying to the advertisers, please mention that you have seen the advertisement in Science and Culture.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE AND CULTURE
A Monthly Journal of Natural and Cultural Sciences
Vol. 15
APRIL 1950 No. 10
NEED OF A COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING FOR DEVELOPMENT
OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
TT may have appeared to our readers that we have, of
late, devoted a considerable space to the publication
of topics dealing with agricultural and food situation
in the country. We did it consciously and purposely,
because We feel that the Government and the people
should think and act more creatively on the grave
situation the country is faced with. Production of
enough food for the people and sufficient agricultural
commodities for Indian industries is the most impor-
tant; single problem before the country to-day. And
the degree of its solution and the speed with which we
can achieve it will determine the future course?econo-
mic and political?of our country for many years to
come.
We are already beginning to see the repercussions
of the deficit food and cash crop production on the over
all economy of the whole country. Importation of
cereals alone is currently draining off the country -130
owes of rupees every ? year; and in aggregate it has al-
ready depleted the country of several hundred crores of
rupees during the past few years. Paucity of the supply
of raw materials is gradually leading two of India's
most important and biggest industries, viz., jute and
cotton, to a path of major crisis. This may have been of
recent origin especially due to devaluation and non-
devaluation, and Pakistan's policy, but the country
has got to ensure measures to produce enough of these
raw materials to meet the requirements of industry
or else to buy supplies from outside; but India at
present has no surplus foreign exchanges to do so.
The loss of such stupendous sums of money due to
food importation is beginning to jeopardize all our
post-War nation-building schemes. Multipurpose river-
valley schemes; which our leaders displayed so much
and on which common people placed so much trust,
are being affected due to cuts in financial appropria-
tions. Apart from supplying cheap electricity for
industrial uses, these multipurpose river-valleys
were meant to provide irrigation to millions of
acres and to aid in the prevention of soil erosion and
control of floods?so harmful to men and crops. Ex-
penditure on food importation is, therefore, retarding
execution of the food production schemes of the country.
The deficit economy of the country is also beginning
to have repercussions ou large scale reclamation pro-
jects. It now appears that against an original esti-
mate of 4,000 heavy tractors required to perform the
projected reclamation of cultivable fallow land,
India can now pay for 375 tractors only. Originally
India planned to import 500,000 tons of chemical fer-
tilizer, hut lack of foreign exchange is putting an im-
pediment to such a large-scale importation.
The above are only a few of the many similar ins-
tances that can be cited to show how India's deficit
production of agricultural commodities is jeopardizing
most of our nation-building schemes. But these
d?ficit food productions are not of yesterday's origin.
The frequent food scarcities have demonstrated it very
painfully, and it has now assumed a chronic aspect.
Years have passed by, reins of Government
of the country has passed from alien hands to
people's representatives, but unfortunately almost
the same situation exists to-day as it existed a few years
ago. Apart from Government claims that the country
will be turned self-sufficient (in food production)
by December 31, 1951 (now the target date is changed
to March 31, 1052), the common man does not find any
signs that the situation is gradually improving in that
direction nor it can be comprehended how the 4-million-
ton deficit in food production be met.
To become self-sufficient in production of food
commodities should not be considered an impossible
task. ? To increase the current food production by 10
to 15 per cent, by which amount the country is running
short, is not an impossible task. Agricultural knowledgd
and technological methods of production has improvee
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
370 8oto n AlstD CittttfItt Vol- 15, No. 10
so much during the past few decades that stepping up
present yield by 10 to 15 per cent is not at all difficult
and Can be done within reasonable time provided there
be, proper planning and conscientious execution of the
Saint. Since 1940, the United States of America
has increased her agricultural production by 33 per cent,
the United Kingdom could during the same period
step up her food production by 30 per cent. So, why
not we in India ? Scientific agricultural know-how is
no close preserve of ally one nation; What has been
possible elsewhere can surelybe achieved here also, provi-
ded there is the WILL, and unflinching resolution to
carry out the WILL.
Apart from having spent a few hundred crores of
rupees in foreign exchanges to buy imported foodgrains
since War 11, the Centre and the Provinces have ex-
pended so far about 50 crores of rupees on Grow-More-
Food campaign and a like amount in subsidizing sale
of rationed food commodities at the statutory fixed
prices. Even then the food supply position in the
country continues to be the same and no substantial
teerease in production seems to have been achieved.
It, therefore, becomes apparent that there is some-
thing basically wrong in the agricultural set-up in the
country. The existing defects in the system need be
remedied, the agricultural departments at the Centre
arid at Provincial level are required to be revitalized
and thoroughly reorganized -before the desired target
of agricultural production can be reached. The existing
set up has already proved its uselessness.
We, therefore, especially arranged for the publi-
cation of a series of articles' embodying the results
of a comprehensive study of the different aspects
of agriculture of U.S.A., admittedly the most
agriculturally advanced country in the world
to-day. Those articles dealt with all the major aspects
id agriculture, viz., (i) organization, (ii) agricultural
finance and credit, (iii) industrialization of cash crop
production, (iv) agricultural research and(v) how labora-
tory findings are placed in the hands of the farmers
who can put them into practical uses. A perusal of
those accounts of that dynamic Department of Agricul-
ture will in itself stimulate fresh thinking and will
provide with many a lesson as to how we in India can
revitalize our own agriculture. While publishing those
articles we, on our part, reviewed the present position
of those specific aspects of Indian agriculture and provi-
ded in the accompanied editorials2 expert advice as to
how our existing agricultural departments can be reor-
ganized, bow several of the science departments of
hid Ianuniversities can be harnessed for the purpose
of agricultural teaching and research on the model of
land-grant agricultural colleges and agricultural
experiment stations in the United States. We have
.,-----,-
1 J. C. Saha. Sd. & Cu/. 74 : 441-448, 488-494; 15 :
48-49, 127-134, 1949.
2 (Editorial.q) & Cul. 14: .139-441, 485-488; Z-5; 43-48,
125-127, 1949.
shown how agricultural credit system can be reconstruc-
ted and what organization is needed for the purpose.
We suggested ways as to how to help industrialization
of a few major commercial crops. Lastly we have
shown how research can help us to better our agricul-
tural output and the ways in which laboratory know-
ledge can be placed in the hands of farmers for applica-
tion in farming practices. We believe our endeavour
will not fail to draw the attention of the authorities
and the people of the land.
We feel convinced that one-sided measures will
not materially improve the situation. The different
problems are so much interlinked that they require si-
multaneous attacks from several aspects, at times ap-
parently unconventional actions. We need research
to gather new knowledge on several phases of agricul-
ture, to harvest bigger yield and better quality. It
needs adequate financial appropriations to finance
research of both short and long term projects ; but
more especially do we need to provide the farmers with
loans to pay for improved seed, manure and approved
farm implements. We need to do away with, or appre-
ciably cut short, the official red tape to ensure that
loan amounts, seed and fertilizer reach the cultivator
in time and not after the season is over. .Above all,
we need adequate personnel to carry modern agricul-
tural knowledge to the farmers for their uses. Know-
ledge confined, within the laboratory walls is useless ;
it becomes productive only when placed at the hands
of the actual tiller of the land to grow two blades of
grass where he grew only one before.
Whatever organization we may have on other
aspects of agriculture, we find a complete absence of
any set-up in the country comparable to the very
se,rviceful Extension Service of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture, or the National Agricultural Advisory
Service of the United Kingdom established as late as
1946. Howe ver meagre the country's research. set-
up be, it has to credit several breeds of high yielding
crop plants and dairy stock. Several strains of Pusa
wheat, a few strains of Coimbatore sugarcane, etc.,
are known to yield twice or thrice the amount compared
with the farmers' own varieties. But we still see that
the farmers, even adjoining the Government farms
yet sow their own unimproved strains and harvest
one half or even less quantity than the Government
farms although there is no physical reason for this dis-
parity. Country's economy can hardly afford to spend
money to raise high yielding strains or stock on cne
hand and not to utilize them for the common good of
the country and the people. Proper organization
should, therefore, be created to ensure that these
high yielders are grown widely over the country. Two
things are necessary to achieve this (i) the setting
up of large seed multiplication farms so that there
be enough supplies available to the farmers and (ii)
th.e organization of an agricultural extension service
on the, model of the one in U.S.A. or U.K. to popu-
larize improved breeds of crops and livestock and
to aid in other ways farmers who only can collectively
help to produce more food in the country.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE IN THE 'UNITED STATES
But by past failures and unfulfilled .promises,
the Department of Agriculture of the Centre as well
as of the States has lost faith and trust of the common
cultivator. Often he was pursuaded to sow Government
supplied seeds only to find to his miseries that they
failed to perform upto the promises. Often he received
his quota of fertilizer after the season passed by;
when he was given agricultural loan, he received it far
too late to be of any productive use to him. These and
countless other not-too-pleasant past experiences in his
dealings with Government agricultural departments
have male him suspect even the honest and most
sincere intentions of the agricultural departments.
371
However apathetic he may have grown during the
course of the past generations, his goodwill must be
earned by persistent efforts?not by empty promises
but by sure deeds. This requires a complete change
in the outlook of the officials of the agricultural
departments and a new spirit down the ranks, a habit
of demonstrating with their hands what they want the
farmers to adopt and an extensive organization of ex-
tension staff to carry to every village knowledge
regarding improved agricultural practices. But they
can be achieved only after a thorough reorganizat on
has been effected in the agricultural structure of the
country.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE IN THE UNITED STATES
J. C. SAHA
THE prosperity that is enjoyed by the farmers
in the United States of America has been made
possible by the rapid practical application to farming
practices of the new knowledge gained in the labora-
tories and experimental farms of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture and of the many agricultural experiment
stations of the land-grant (agricultural) colleges and
universities of the 48 individual States. One who
has spent any length of time in U.S.A. or made a study
of the causes behind the agricultural advancement
in the North America becomes at once amazed how
quickly, effectively and efficiently the results of labora-
tory findings are placed in the hands of farmers for
their use.
Some of the areas and ways in which the U.S.
Extension Service has achieved magnificent results
during the past few decades include:
"Counselling on farm problems; securing application of the
findings of research on the whole range of farm operations
from land use, soil treatment, crop and livestock production
to better farm management and business methods, better
homes and better farm and community living ; working with
rural youth; helping farmers solve problems through group
action: mobilizing rural people to meet emergencies ; develop.
jag an understanding of the economic and social factors affecting
family living and agriculture in general". (p.1)
ORIGIN
The Extension Service was established under
terms of the Smith-Lever Agricultural Extension Act
of May 8, 1914, as an agency under the organizational
set-up of the U.S. _Department of Agriculture2. The
Act stipulated personal contact teaching methods
among farmers to be financed by Federal grants and
conducted co-operatively through the land-grant col-
leges of the individual States. The Extension Service
1 Joint Committee Report on Extension Programs, Policies
and Goals. U.S. Department of Agriculture and Association
of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, 1948.
2 J. C. Saha. Rci. CM. 14, 4417448, 1949,
is entrusted with the responsibilities of making thus
available throughout the country the findings of investi-
gations in agriculture and home economies to those
who can put the information into practical uses.
Scam OF OPERATION
The Extension Service aims to improve the econo-
mic welfare, health, family and community life of the
rural population by making the results of agricultural
research available to the farmers,
Its sphere of' activities includes co-ordination of
the agricultural and home economics co-operative
extension work of the U.S. .Department of Agriculture
and the land-grant colleges and experiment stations
of the individual States ; it directs the country agricul-
tural agents, home demonstration agents (women)
and 4-H Clubs work. It helps to organize county
committees to render advisory assistance to war vet-
erans and others wishing to take up agricultural pur-
suits as means of livelihood.
Although the major items of extension programs
are particularly directed towards farm and rural fami-
lies, its effect is all-pervading, as practical application
of new technological development of more efficient
methods of production cannot but contribute to the
general welfare of he consumers at large and the
country as a whole.
MODE OF OPERATION
The modus operandi of the Extension Service in
agriculture and home economics are to help farmers and
rural families to help themselves by acquainting- them
with latest utilitarian developments relative ? to pro-
blems facing the farm families or rural communities.
It aims to help people to attain, through their own
initiative, a higher and more satisfying standard of
living. Nothing is done that may appear to be forced
from the top, Historically, the extension staff has
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
372 SCIENCE AND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 1
recognized the propriety of, and necessity for, the co-
operation of the people themselves in determining
problem emphasis in extension programs of the indivi-
dual counties : the methods employed for extension
activities depend upon the nature of the problem in
question. More important of the extension methods
used are :
Individual Counselling. The extension workers
visit individual homes or farms, aid the farmers or homes
to analyze their problems and counsel them as to the
best ? way of solving specific problems. Although
a limited number of families can thus be attended to
within any given time, its outstanding merit lies in
its effectiveness. Personal counsels are widely sought
by farmers ; multitudes of farmers and rural homes
that possess telephones freely use that facilities to dis-
cuss their problems with extension personnel and get
the required advices.
Demonstrations on Farmers' Estates. The practical
demonstration method is effectively used to teach home
and farm practices with effective results. The nature
of demonstration varies according to the major problems
of a locality. Where soil conservation is the pressing
problem of a locality, a badly eroded farm is selected
for demonstration work. The extension personnel,
aided by local volunteers and if necessary strengthened
by a working party of the U.S. or State Soil Conserva-
tion Service personnel, help the farmer to put his farm
into shape. If pest or disease is the problem in a loca-
lity, the extension worker will stage an Ellective method
of spraying or dusting. By such means the Extension
Service helps farmers in a locality to get acquainted
with the technique of operation and explain to them
the benefit resulting from the application of such
modern practices.
Meetings and Group Discussions. This method
of carrying extension information to farmers or rural
communities is being extensively used for the last seve-
ral years. A great advantage of this method is that
a large group of peoyie can be served at a given time.
Liberal uses are made of films, photographic slides and
other kinds of visual aids.
One of the essential features that distinguishes
these meetings is their informality. The farmers
are encouraged to raise for discussion any points they
might want information on. This yermits an ex-
change of views and pooling of information with the
feeling that the extension personnel is not there to bes-
tow on them good sermons only. It is the human touch
in -understanding the farm communities' daily problems
that has endeared these meetings to them and the
love with which the extension works are received all
over the United States.
Leaflets and Bulletins. Because of high percentage
of literacy published teaching devices such as leaflets,
letters and bulletins, often nicely illustrated, ran{ high
among the various extension methods used. Depending
whether the problem is of local or national importance,
the States land-grant colleges or the U.S. Department
of Agriculture publish such informative materials and
are distributed free to any one on request.
These publications deal with any conceiveable
phases of farm and rural community life from practi-
cal farming instructions to how to iron a shirt or
how to be happy in family life. The following
figures will speak of the great popularity of such bulle-
tins. As of June 30, 1948, the number of copies (Lis..
tributed on requests are : Home canning of fruits and
vegetables?'7.4 million copies; Removal of stains from
fabric--3.0 million copies ; Farm poultry raising-1.7
injlion copies; Roses for the home ?1.6 million copies,
the Farm home garden-1.2 million copies ; Home-made
jellies, jams and preserves-1.8 million copies; Growing
annual flowers-1.1 million copies3.
One thing that has enabled ,such wide distribution
of the bulletins, criculars, etc., is the provision in the
act establishing the States agricultural experiment
stations that" Such bulletins or reports and the annual
reports of said stations should be transmitted in the
mails of the United States free of Charge for the postage"2
Radio. Possession of radio receiving sets is a com-
mon thing with average -U.S. farmers. Several of the
land-grant colleges maintain their own radio stations,
others have specified time allotted to them by com-
mercial radio stations. Hundreds of county extension
workers utilize radio facilities to carry extension know-
ledge to the farm and rural communities.
OPERATION AL UNITS
The activities of the Extension Service are carried
on county (the opposite number of a district in adminis-
trative status and usually equivalent to a sub-division
of au Indian province) basis. Each county has
usually one County Agricultural Agent, one Home
'Demonstration Agent (woman) and one 4-H Club
Agent?indicating that each group specializes in one
aspect of a mutually complementary programs of
extension work. These categories of agents, though
paid from the joint Federal, States and Counties
funds, are under the administrative charge of the
States _extension services with headquarters at the
land-grant colleges. The extension service at the
States level is a department of the land-grant college.
Besides their official extension duties, the county
extension personnel are actively encouraged to ener-
getically co-operate with other activities of the farm
and rural community life.
County Agricultural Agent. The County Agricul-
tural Agent is the central figure in all agricultural acti-
v ities in a county. He acts as the representative of
the State and the Federal governments in all agricul-
tural matters. He acts as a clearing house of agricul-
tural information, takes active part in organizing
meetings mid discussion groups, directs the farmer
as to the best way of doing a thing or how to proceed
USDA. August 30, 1948.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE IN THE 'UNITED STATES
373
with in receiving benefits from various State and Federal ing?local or national, is devoted to recreational
agricultural upliftment funds. He is usually tt graduate activities.
in agriculture 'with extensive training in extension
methods.
As of June 30, 1946, there were 4,624 County
Agricultural Agents and Assistant County Agricul-
tural Agents on the roll in U.S.A.
County Proms Demonstration, Agent. - Through
group meetings, dismission circles, practical demons-
trations (such as jelly making, food .dressing, sewing,
etc.), house to house visits, the Home Demonstration
Agent helps housewives to understand how to save
time and energy through application of modern ,devices,
how to clothe their families suitably and. economically,.
how to furnish and decorate their houses decently with-
in their own income, how to beautify their home pre-
mises. Such activities assist housewives to develop
confidence, to enjoy and pride in their cemtribution
to family living.
The County Home Demonstration Agent is a woman
and is ordinarily a college graduate majoring in home
economics. There were 3,077 County Home Demonstra-
tion Agents and Assistant County Home Demonstra-
tion Agents in employment on June 30, 1946.
County 4-H Club Agent. ? The 4-H Club activities
are designed to develop the agricultural, homemaking
and citizenship abilities of the rural youth. Through
4-H Clubs* over 10 million rural boys and girls (of
the age group 10 to 21) have been taught the habit
of group actions and helped to acquire information or
gain skills valuable to them as future farmers and home-
makers.
The programs of work of the members of 4-H
Clubs include undertaking responsibility for field crops
and livestock production and their marketing, soil
improvement or wild life conservation, food preparation,
and serving, making and caring for clothings, home
gardening, etc. Boys and girls, individually or in groups
of a few, undertake one or more work projects of their
own choice, work on them at leisure at their
houses or parents' farms. In the meetings held once
a month or so the boys and girls report on the results
they have obtained and compare with those obtained
by the other groups. The boys and girls discuss their
own experiences, arrive at a decision as to the best way
of doing a thins.. The 4-H Club agents or other non-paid
local leaders that are present in the Club meetings act
as mere advisers and help the members arrive at right
conslusions.
Besides local meetings, the 4-H Clubs meet once
a year on State-wise and in all?U.S.A. gathering.
Besides reporting and discussion, a part of each meet
*the membership pledge is:
"I pledge my head to clearer thinking,
I pledge my heart to greater loyalty,
I pledge my hands to larger service, and
I pledge my health to better living, for my club, my com-
munity and ray country", - ?
On July 1, 1947, there were 558 paid workers em-
ployed as county 4-H Club workers, known either as
County 4-H Club Agents or Assistant Extension Agents.
Specialist Extension TV ?ricers. The personnel are
training specialists in their own subjects and are
expected to keep abreast with latest knowledge in their
fields of specialization. They keep the county exten.
sion workers advised of the latest developments ? of new
scientific methods and help their application to local
problems.
The specialist extension staff consists of Extension
Plant Pathlogists, Extension Entomologists, Extension
Horticulturists and several specialists in other subjects;
they are usually located at the headquarters of the
land-grant college of the State and are placed with the
divisions of Plant Pathology, Entomology, etc, as the
case may be of the land-grant college. Their constant
association with the research workers in the land-grant
college helps -them to keep up with the latest knowledge
in their respective fields. -
In 1947, there were in U.S.A. 1,827 extension
specialists in various agricultural subjects. They work
Under the directions of States dierctors of extension
Work. "
FINANCING EXTENSION ACTIVITIES
In 1948, appropriations for extension work in
U.S.A.' totalled 58.5 million dollars (i.e., about 292
million of devalued Indian rupee) : 47 per cent of the
total funds came from Federal appropriations, 29.3
per cent from individual State appropriations, and
2.7 per cent from other local sources.
Extension funds were used in 1946 as follows: 3.4
per cent on administration, 1.4 per cent on publications
of bulletins and circulars, 17.8 per cent on specialist
work, 47.2 per cent on county agent work, 24.0 per cent
on home demonstration agent work, and 6.1 per cent
on 4-H Club work.
Federal Appropriations. The methods of deter-
mining allotments of Federal funds to the various
States for extension work vary with specific provisions
made in the several acts of the U.S. Congress. The
allotments to the States are made on the basis of (a)
specified amounts for each State, (b) rural population,
and (c) . farm population.
? States Appropriations. Most of the States legis-
latures appropiate funds for extension work
biennially for the succeeding two-year period. Be-
quests for extension funds are submitted as separate
items in an integrated budget request for all divisions of
the land-grant colleges?teaching, research, and exten-
sion.
Connty A?)propriations. 'County appropriations
are made by local (county) bodies on annual basis,
and are usually ear-marked for speCifin work projects
on the basis' of local needs.
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
374
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
OROANIZATION
SCIENCE AND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 10
Aericultural extension work in the United States
is under the charge of the Extension Service,
an agency under the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Extension Service is headed by a Director, who is res-
ponsible to the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture.
Since extension activities deal with work among
farm and rural communities, the organization at the
Federal headquarters is concerned primarily to aid
in the evolution of suitable programs of extension
work, evaluation of the results obtained, co-ordination
of States and local activities where necessary and to
exert an over all supervisory function. At the head-
quarters at Washington, D.C., the Extension Service
has the following divisions
Division
Division
Div ision
Division
Division
Division
of Business Administration ;
of Extension information;
of Extension Studies and Training;
of Subject Matter ;
of Agricultural Economics;
of Field Co-ordination?
Organization at State Level. Administration : Each
State has an Extension Director, jointly responsible
to the President of the and-grant college of agriculture
and the Director of Extension Service of the U.S. De,
parement of Agriculture. The State Extension Director
administers all extension funds, is responsible for all
extension projects and programs of work within his
State.
Supervi8ion. Located at the land-grant college
also is a staff of State-wide extension workers includ-
ing Supervisors and State Extension Leaders who re-
present the State Director of Extension in dealing
with county agricultural agents, county home demons-
tration agents and 4-H Club agents, and assist in organiz-
ing county work.
Subject Matter. Subject-matter Extension Specia-
lists located also at the land-grant college of the State
serve as contact officers between the research workers
of the agricultural college and the county extension per-
senile incorporating the latest knowledge in their res-
pective subjects into the county extension programs.
Organization at County Level. The county extension
personnel are representatives of the land-grant
and the U.S. Department of Agriculture and are
jointly resoensible to these anencies. Stallone at
headquarters are ordinarily a County Agent, a County
Home Domonstration Agent and a county 4-H Club
Agent. They work as public officials and are directly
in charge of the respective branch of the extension
program of the county.
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO UNDER-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES*
A few months ago the problem of underdeveloped
' countries loomed large at a Conference on
the Utilisation of World's Resources at Lake Success.
The delegates to that Conference were told that the
population of the world had increased by 1,000 million
in 4 generations, and the forecasts are that by the end
of the century it would be increased by another 1.000
it is in this context of a rapidly increasing
and not a static population that the problems of better
living have to be tackled,
In the more advanced countries, where knowledge
ur modern science and technology has been applied
to resource development, production of the necessi-
eiee of life has grown much faster than the increase in
population; and men have been assured freedom from
hunger from the cradle to the grave and also a reason-
able expectation of freedom from want as a reward of
teirmal work, where such knowledge has been little
iitilized for the enrichment of human life, as in the
ease of under-developed countries, the standard of
liv ing for the common man has remained stationary
and even gone down. There men have to live even
cow in constant fear of untimely death by hunger .and
iscase. For example in India, about 75% of the pee-
_ ?
'13a,sed. on a speech by Dr. J. C. Ghosh at the Unesco Conference
;r1 Paris on "Technical Assistance to Under-developed countries"
itslcl in autumn, 1949.
pie live as medieval peasants often in a family of five
rarely cultivating more than 3 acres of land. The
average per capita income is no more than 36 dollars
a year with its inevitable incidence of malnutrition,
famine, disease and ignorance.
The seven hundred and fifty delegates and obser-
vers from many lands who attended the U.N.O. Confer-
ence and surveyed the world's resources in food, water,
power, fuel, and other essential raw materials were
not daunted by these facts and ca-me to the conclusion
that there was every prospect of guaranteeing an
abundant life to every man and woman, if these resour-
ces were integrated and developed -with vision and enter-
prises, on the basis of maximum production and maxi-
mum utilization of existing knowledge. There is,
in fact, no real reason to be pessimistic in our outlook
of the future.
They were, however, very conscious of the great
gap that existed between what could be done and what
was being done? and could only hope that by the united
efforts of' men of good will, public opinion all the world
over will be enlightened and this gap would be bridged
at an early date. It is not the business of the Unesco
to prepare project reports or detailed plans for the deve-
lopment of the resources of the under-developed coun-
tries ; that is the business of Governments of those
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 10M TtOlIVICAL ASSt8TAVOR TO trXDIDIrt DIWIttOPM OOTTNTIttn
countries or of the U.N.O. But it is the special res-
ponsibility of the Unesco to spread far and wide the
know-how for developing such resources and to focus
world's attention on the problem as to how to remove
all obstacles that stand in the way of the application
of such knowledge. Knowledge often remains impri-
soned in secret documents or buried in printed litera-
ture; there are often vested interests which would even
prevent its use for economic progress. It is the busi-
ness of the Unesco to make knowledge visible in action,
or as the leader of the British delegation stated the
other day, allay thoughts with the doing of things. The
Mayor of New York in welcoming us said that the store
of scientific and practical knowledge was itself the
world's greatest resource. It is a resource that grows
with use and enlarged by sharing. It is the special task
of ?Unesco to make possible such sharing of knowledge.
How can this be done? First and foremost, by provid-
ing able teachers of technology to institutions in under-
developed countries. A vigorous search should be
made for such men who would take up these responsible
positions as a vocation and not as a career. May be,
there are among the rank of technologists, men of abi-
lity, who feel that science must have a moral basis in
order to prevent the unlimited power which it offers
to man from annihilating himself. May be, there are
men of science who feel such anguish in their souls
because of evil use of science, that they interpret their
duties in terms of humanity as a whole?who feel that
they may bring peace to this world by .fighting the evils
of hunger and ignorance wherever they occur, howsoever
remote from their own homes. In my recent travels in
middle Europe, I have come across many technologists
of high ability who have been uprooted from their homes,
or who wish to settle down in a new congenial environ-
ment, because of unsettled and extremely hard condi-
tions in their own countries. Many of them have sought
help from the International ReIngee Organization.
I am glad that the Secretary of that organization is
here with us to-day and I would. request him to give
us fuller information about the possibility of engaging
such refugee technologists in useful -work in under-deve-
loped countries. If men of real talent and high purpose
can be discovered in sufficient numbers and given
the fullest facilities to teach the nationals of back-
ward countries how they can also develop their resources,
the paradox of rich countries inhabited by poor people
can be solved at no distant future.
The facilities that they would require in order
to be effective teachers are abundant supplies of cheap
books in science and technology and adequate labora-
tory and pilot plant equipment. It is difficult to make
'suggestions off hand how this could be quickly done.
Publications of cheap editions of standard books on
science and technology say, on the model of Tauchnitz
Editions which were so popular in Germany?under
the auspices of the Unesco for exclusive use in under-
developed countries will be a great boon to their poor
students. It is desirable that a small section of the
Unesco Secretariat should prepare detailed plans for
quickly achieving this end,
375
Next in importance, comes the provision of fellow-
sips which will enable talented young man from back-
ward areas to receive advanced specialized training
in foreign institutions which enjoy high reputations
as seats of such learning. But it is not enough to
acquire such theoretical knowledge from academic
institutions. In order to be successful one must learn
technology as a science, and also practice it as an art,
must acquire the skill for the making of things which
are the products of a modern industrial system. Such
skill can be acquired in the industry itself; and to-day
the enlightened management of many industries do not
hesitate to train their young nationals fresh from a
technical college in such skills. But if the student
is a foreigner, the doors of such practical training is
rarely opened to him. To open such doors will not be
an easy task. History shows that interdependence
follows industrialization?that a country in the course
of its industrial development becomes continously
the better customer of another country which is ahead of
it. This lesson of history mut be brought home to
industrial magnates who are not accustomed to look
at things from such a long range view point. There
is no reason why a determined effort by Unesco should
not be crowned with success.
We are thankful that in these International Confer-
ences, the countries that did not matter much before
are being given greater attention; that the UNO and
Unesco are seized with the determination to give these
countries such technical assistance as would quickly
enrich the life of their people. The funds provided in
the budget however, are not commensurate with the
great task that is being undertaken. I do feel, however,
that is the beginning ef good work. I agree with the
Bri'dsh delegadon that more money does not always
mean more effective work. A bird may refuse to sing
in big case. But if experience shows, as we hope it
will, that limited funds have been used for effective
work, then I believe, lack of funds will not stand in the
way of the wider application of such effective work.
But however generous may be the help that comes
from outs..de, the real progress of a country must come
from within. The leader of the Burmese delegation
referred to the saying of Lord Budelha---`work out your
own salvation'. This is true not enly in the spiritual
world but also in the material world. After all the worth
of a State is the collective worth of the citizens of the
country who constitute the State.
Men in high places are not wanting who emphasize
the right of primitive communities to live in their own
ways. Scholars in the lands of old civilizations, who
have inherited the traditional wisdom of their ancestors,
are reluctant that the faith of their people in such
ancient wisdom should be shaken. They generally
do not recognize that science is something more than
mere discovery of the facts and forces of nature, and
the principles and laws which correlate them. I
maintain, that to its votaries science also is a method,
a confidence and a faith. It is a method of controlled
observations and experiments recorded with absolute
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
376 8CIVICE AND CULTVItt
honesty. It is a confidence that truth can he discovered.
it is a faith that truth is worth discovering. It is the
i.sexice of the whole process of discovering truth, that
new crucial experiments should be continuously per-
inriried, and new facts continuously, gathered and that
mon of science should always maintain complete intel-
lectual honesty and re-examine the existing views in
the light of new facts. In a world swayed by passions,
ei.entific attitude stands for suspension of judgement,
Ili I evidence has been properly weighed. The contri-
bution which this aspect of science can make to the
solution of human problem has often been overlooked.
it is high time that every effort is made to propagate
is cultural mission of science all the world over, special-
- among people of the older civilization.
Again for under-developed countries, if science and
technology were to play their part in promoting human
.welfare, considerable change in the outlook Of life
may be necessary. For example, it will not do if pee-
pie there continue to believe that the world of today
is the degenerated product of a golden age of an earlier
period. It will not do if they decry pursuit of happi-
Vol. 15, No. 10
ness in this world for the sake of securing happiness in
Heaven. It will not do if they harbour mental inertia
under the guise of conservation of old ideas. It will
not do if they say that children are the gifts of God
and are welcome in any number. Rather should man
in these lands learn and feel that he can be master
of his own environment, that he need not be the vic-
tim of fate or of the forces of nature, supposed to be
subject only to the will of the Gods. The Director-
General of the Unesco in his opening address referred
to the famous saying?"I believe in the future because
make it." He and the Unesco will have done their
jobs very well to the old countries, if they could inspire
their people with faith in the fertility of free will and
self-decision. The transformation of helpless masses
of men, submissive by long tradition to the vagaries
of so called fate Into self- reliant communities of people
who are conscious that they are masters of their dr stiny
is an achievement worth struggling for. We, who re-
present under-developed countries in the conference,
on our part promise all assistance, and wish Unesco
success in this struggle.
THE SOIL AND THE ENGINEER
. CH ATTERJ EE
E N %AL ENGINEERING ( 'OLLEOR, ROWRAII
'RE soil is the oldest and perhaps the most
used of engineering materials. It is the upper
weathering layer of the solid earth crust. It is never
in a state of equilibrium and is changing from one state
to another, with consequent changes in its properties,
due to physical, chemical and biological prooesses
operating on the mass. The engineer is primarily'
interested in the physical, mechanical and structural
properties of soils. The size and arrangement of dif-
ferent particles and their behaviour under load with
ysriations with moisture content, temperature and air
supply are of particular interest to him. It is impera-
tive, therefore, that he should be well acquainted
,h these properties of soils so that he will be in a posi-
tien to apply successfully the acquired knowledge to
ciieineeriilg problems.
Important contributions in this field have emanated
fr no the geologist, the soil scientist, the industrial
chemist, the hig,hway engineer and the structural engine-
er. Prom systematic examinations of soils in the labo-
ratory and fields they have furnished valuable inform.a-
tion on the mechanical and physical properties of soils
in relation to their suitability for practical purposes.
This has resulted in our knowledge being crystallized
iloo definite form, and tests of an engineering nature
are now available for comparing the relative merits
different soils.
The important physical and mechanical characteris-
sies which control the behaviour of a soil are : Internal
:Friction ; Cohesion; Compressibility ; Elasticity; and
Capillarity. The engineer must be in a position to re-
cognize the effect of the above characteristics on a soil
and whether these are primarily due to the structure
of the soil, to the constituents or to field conditions,
on the basis of information gained from a number of
tests. For engineering work, tests are performed on
both disturbed as also on undisturbed samples. When
information is required on foundation for dams, bridges,
buildings, ete, undisturbed samples should preferably
he used ; but for earth dams fills or highway subgrades
disturbed samples give satisfactory data.
SELECTION OF SITE AND METHODS OF TAKING SAMPLE
The selection, of the site for taking samples for
routine tests is also of importance. For purposes of
making, a preliminary survey nod selection of site,
penetration test with a probing rod, such as Mackin-
tosh one man bore-hole outfit, is extremely useful. It
can be quickly assembled and exploration to a depth of
sidft. performed in less than an hour. ODCO the
site is located, the most satisfactory method for the
examination of the soil strata con.ditions is by sinking
a trial pit. The various strata can be studied in their
normal state and the ground water conditions exactly
determined. A record of examination must be made
at the actual time of excavation of the trial pit, as the
eonditioos of the soil change on exposure to the air or
on contact with water.
Di.sturbed sampl,?..9 from the chosen site are often
obtained by shovelling the soil directly into a sack or
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
' April, 1950 THE SOIL AND
'can. Soil augers are used for greater depths when
only a small quantity of the soil is required for explora-
tion or routine work. When large sa,mples are required,
pita are ? sunk. '
Many ingenious methods have been devised for
,collecting undisturbed sampie8. The apparatus most
suitable for this purpose consists of a catting-edge
slightly smaller in .diameter than the interior of the
retaining cylinder about 5" in diameter and 2'6" long.
The adapter head is provided with a reducer to 1--I /2"
-boring rods and a non-return valve for retaining the
sa,mple. After sampling, the cutting nose and the
head can be removed and end caps fitted in place, which
prevents drying out of the sample during transport.
The samples may also be sent to the laboratory in water-
tight containers. The undisturbed samples are kept
in a special humid room nntil actually ready for testing.
For taking undisturbed samples of granular material
at shallow depths, steel boxes about 12" on a side are
used. With the top removed, the box is inverted over
the soil and carefully forced into it while excavating
around the edge by any suitable device. When the
container is full, the sample is cut from the original
material, the box is turned right and the top is replaced,
SOIL TESTS
In interpreting the results of soil tests, the condi-
tions . of the soil in the field, its formations, history,
location and natural environment are taken into con-
sideration as all these factors contribute to the per-
formance of a soil a.s an engineering material. The
tests which furnish many of the important soil constants
and serve to indicate the presence of constituents having
dominant influence upon engineering practices, are de-
tailed in the following table. The types of samples
to be used as also the information gained on particular
properties are also indicated.
Test
1. Moisture
Content
2. Specific
Gravity
3. Apparent'
Sp. Gravity
4. Mechanical
Analysis
5. Liquid
Limit
6. Plasticity
Index
7. Centrifuge
Moisture
- Equivalent
TABLE 1.
Type of samples
Disturbed samples from
criginal location without
stones & gravels.
Undisturbed samples
from the original loca-
tion.
Disturbed sample; mate-
rial passing sieve No. 10;
stones and gravels remo-
ved and weighed.
Disturbed samples ; mate.
Properties
Adsorption capacity;
Capillarity; drainage
conditions; etc.
Void-ratio; porosity;
moisture ccntent.
ft Pt
Grading (relative pro-
portion of sands, silts
and clays).
Capillary capacity.
rials passing through sieve
No. 40
f It
Cohesion.
Combined effect of
Compressibility,
capillarity and
perFneOility-
THE ENGINEER
Test
8. Shrinkage
Limit
9. Field Mois-
ture Equi-
valent
10. Volumetric
and Linear
Shrinkages
Type of samples
Disturbed samples; mate-
rials passing through
sieve No. 40
If
11. Electroche, "
mieal Analysis
.12. Chemical
Analysis
13. Maximum
Density*
14. Shear*
15. Consolida-
tion*
16. Permeabili-
ty*
Disturbed sample; mate-
rials passing sieve No. 10
f /I ft
Undisturbed samples; on
materials without stones
and gravels.
Undisturbed saturated
samples.
Undisturbed samples for
soils in natural state; or
compacted soil for fill
377
Properties
Combined effect of
cohesion and resis-
tance to consolida-
tion.
Combined effect of
capillarity and cohe-
sion.
Combined effect of
capillarity, cohesion
and resistance to con-
solidation.
Adsorption and base
exchange properties.
Absence or otherwise
. of deleterious mate-
rials.
Consolidation and op-
timum moisture con-
tent.
Combined effect of
internal friction and
cohesion.
Compression of satu-
rated strata.
Grading; pore-size
distribution; presence
of impermeable strata.
and embankment materials.
*Required
in special cases.
TESTS HELP IN SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Limited space does not allow me to deal with the
procedures for various tests. It is, however, of interest
to describe as to how the results of soil tests have helped
in the classification of soils for engineering purposes.
Sods have been classified into eight groups based upon
the presence of soil constituents, physical properties
and performance. These are:
A-1 : Excellent binder; contains proper propor-
tion of coarse and fine material; high internal frIction;
high cohesion ; absence of detrimental shrinkage, ex-
pansion, capillarity or elasticity.
A-2: Improper grading or inferior binding;
may be stable in dry weather and soft in wet weather
(plastic type) or highly stable when moist but becomes
loose and dusty in dry weather (friable type).
A-3: Almost pure sand; high internal fric-
tion; no cohesion; no detrimental capillarity or elas-
ticity; flows under wheel loads but furnishes excellent
support when loads are distributed.
A-4 ; Predominance of silt; internal friction
variable; practically no cohesion; no elasticity ; may
form stable road when dry but will soften in wet
weather.
- A-5: Predominance of silt but with highly
elastic properties even when -dry; will not retain com-
pacted density but will rebound on removal of load.
A-6: Predominance of clay; low internal fric-
tion; no elasticity; high expansion and shrinkage pro-
perties; can be compacted to permanent dtinsity..;
often interferes with macadam bond ? deformpitioli
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
378 SCIENCE AND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 10
occurs slowly under load and very little rebound on
the removal of load.
A-7: Similar to group A-6 excepting that
it is elastic at certain moisture contents; may have
considerable volume change and cause concrete pave-
ments ti crack.
A-8 : Contains very large amounts of peat Or
muck ; no internal friction ; low cohesion ; high capil-
larity and elasticity ; will settle under load.
In laboratory examinations, the percentage of
each soil fraction i.e., grading, is first determined.
Then such tests, as liquid limit, plasticity index, shrink-
age 1:mit, shrinkage ratio, field moisture equivalent,
etc., are performed. The range of the numerical value's
of these physical constants for the above eight groups
have been shown in the following chart :
SOIL IDENTIFICAT/ON CHART.
_
-
_
_
A
62
A 1
Ill
II
.
(
'
Ea
4111
II
1. TER
CENT COARSE
SAND
illillilli
A4
62
. _
? PER
CENT
TOTAL
SAND
IV.
Al
A
62
6
S
NO
N.
ill
glig
3
PER
LW
ILT
-
CLA
MI
MI
Al
1111
A2
4
IIA6
I
A7
illiNni
.
0
It.
Q
A
4,*
_
. LIQUID
LIMIT,
PER
IN
IIIIII
MIll
AT
';',4
Ai
mi
II!I
III!
ill
,
.0=6-
,
? ?,---
a
.
5.
PLASTICITY
MEI.
r
Al+
4
IUII
III
__AI
A
MINIM
MINI
mono=
2.?
A7mumsA5
SI
a
stun
1111111111
IIIIIII
ll
_
_
IPI
)
ill
o
ONITMENNI
. -6
.
III
MI
_
N. FIELD MOISTURE
req31IYAt.rEL CENT
IIII
Ro,vir and Streets, vol. Al no. 3. Map. 19i8
A soils belongs to A-1 group if this is indicated
to every chart. if both A?I and A--2 are indicated
although neither is indicated by every chart, the soil
should be classed as A-i; and so on.
SELECTION OF SOILS AS ENOINEERINO MATERIAL '
The next point of interest is to see as to how the
clasSifleation of soils into groups has helped in the selec-,
tibrCbf sdiii as.enginetring Inirtetial and an -suggesting'
soil amendments is specific cases. This point has been
discussed under the following three heads :
Soil for Footings , Abutments and .E mtnnkments :
An examination of the properties of the different
groups of soils indicates that the soils belonging to
A -1 to A-4 groups are best suited for foundation work.
Next come the less plastic varieties of the A-6 and A-7
groups. It is important to note that soils of the A-5,
A-8, and the more plastic varieties of the A-6 and
A -7 groups should never be used without special treat-
ment (discussed under treatment of soils for highway
and airport construction).
Soil for Fill and Dam Materials: Soils of the
A-1 to A-3 groups and the better varieties of
A-4 are suitable for use as flu materials either in
rolling or hydraulic method of construction. Moder-
ately plastic varieties of A-4, A-6, and A-7 groups can
be used for this purpose after stabilization by densi-
fication. If possible, soils of the A-5 and A.8 groups
and the more plastic varieties of the A-4, A-6 and A -7
groups should not be used in lill construction. If
unavoidable, they must oe adequately densified as per
specification laid down by soil tests.
In earth-darn construction, groups A -1 , A-2(plastic),
A-4 (plastic) and the better varieties of A-6 and A-7
are quite suitable. Friable A-2 and A-4 can be used in
the core-wall. If possible, soils belonging to the A-3,
A-5, and A-8 group and the more plastic varieties of the
A-6 and .4-7 classes should not be used in dam construc-
tion. ? When soils of undesirable qualities are used'
the densification method -of construction should be
used or recourse should be taken to compact the soils
by rolling or placement by the hydraulic method,
Soil for Highway and Airport Construction:
The soils to be used for these purposes need special
attention due to the live loads usually exceeding consi-
derably dead loads. Even soils of A-1 group need some
treatment. The requirements of soils of dfferent
groups have been ably summarized by Ifogentogleri.
These are as follows :
A-1 : Drainage when ground water level is high ;
treatment with deliquescent chemicals for stabilized
soil roads.
A-2 (friable) : Moist condition for use as stabilized
road material, bituminous surface treatment for use
as base course ; thin wearing course -in pavement ; A-2
(plastic) : Drainage to prevent softening of binder from
below ; treatment with deli q uescent chemicals ; dry
condition for use as base for thin wearing courses.
A -3 Subgrade treatment by admixture of binder
or light tars and substantial wearing courses in the
absence of binder treatinent? thick non-rigid or thin
rigid courses.
4-4 7 When drainage possible, thick macadam
or concrete pavement of medium thickness -; .stibgraile
treatment by 'admixture with coarse constituents ?
oil-
ing improves When drainage not pos6ible,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
PAPER MAKING IN INDIA
thick concrete pavement, crack control and reinforce-
ment,
A-5: Same as A-4, wet; conditions worse.
A-6: When homogeneous, thick macadam Or
rigid pavement for ample load distribution ; surface
treatment by oiling and screening; crack control.
Permeable but drainage possible, Macadam or rigid
type-; mechanical treatment under- traffic increases
stability. Permeable but drainage not possible. very
strong macadam or rigid type with crack control ;
?reinforeement ; subgrade treatment by admixture of
coarse material.
4-7 : Same as A -6-homogeneorts ; in addition,
surface treatment by mean.s Of tar-paper for preventing
expansion beneath fresh concrete.
HISTORY
379
A-8: Ample crack control and reinforcement
for pavement.
In conclusion, it may be safely said that any engine-
ering enterprise employing soil should be .preceded by
an elaborate testing of the soil in qnestion, because
the construction is either made with the soil or the
structure is built on it.. It is, therefore, needless to
emphasize that any institution where Civil Engineering
is included in the curriculum of studies, should have
a well-equipped soil research laboratory.
REFERENCES
Ilogentogler, C. A. Engineering Properties of Soils; McGraw-
PIM Book Company, 1937.
PAPER MAKING IN INDIA
D. C. TAPADAR
PirnA PAPER PULP CO., NATHATI, BENGAL
THE ancient Hindus used palm leaves, Bhurja,
patra and Sachipat (barks of Hinialyan Silver
Birch and Agaru) for writing. The paper was
introduced by the Chinese in the early Hindu period
or perhaps still earlier. The cultural relation which
is as old as the history of the two countries took shape
in the interchange of ideas, arts and sciences. The art
of paper making was well established in the border
provinces, of India before it spread to Arabia and
Turkistan. At Nowshera near Srinagar (Kashmir), the
industry is said to be of at least 1300 year oldl. Some
of the samples of Nepalese paper collected by the Indus-
trial Section of the Indian Museum are still in excellent
. condition after about 1000 years of their manufacture.
There are sonic samples collected from Manipore and
are supposed to have been made several centuries ago.
The secret of the art appears to have been kept within
the sphere of limited communities. Its growth at any
rate, must have beeii very slow and it was only in the
Mohammedan period that it developed into an industry.
In the middle of the fifteenth century Zainul Abedin
brought into Kashmir some experts from Samarkand
who intrcd iced an improved technique of softening
and bcating rags, hemp and cotton-waste into pulp,
sizing paper with rice starch and polishing with agate.
A sort of standardization of the process was thus set up
? and the quality of the paper so made has been main-
tained there ever since. The Kagzis, a class of Moha-
medans engaged in the trade spread the industry
throughout the country. New raw materials like jute,
barks of trees, leaves of date palm were gradually
intoduced and the process of manufature was modified
accordingly. At the time of the introduction of the
modern paper making process, the industry was more
or less established in Bengal, the United Provinces,
Madras, Trichinopoly and Cochin, Sind and other
places. The quality of paper ranged from ordinary
Tulat' to fairly strong writing papers for account book
and strong wrapping papers. The name 'Bally paper'
attached to a class of cheap writing paper of brown
to reddish brown colour perhaps originated with the
mill-made paper of a similar quality produced by the
Bally mills, in order to distinguish it from the hand
made paper of the `Kagzis'.
In 1812, William Carey engaged a few native paper
makers to make paper in their own way. Gradually
the process was modernised and it was in this mill at
Serampore, Bengal, that the first steam engine erected
in India was installed in 1820 for operating the beating
engine. The first Fourdrinier type continuous making
machine was also introduced here in 1832. But owing
mainly to lack of support, if not definite discouragement
on the part of the then Government, the mill was not
a success and the machine was eventually trasferred
to Bally. The Royal Paper Mills at Bally was started
in 1867 and was run on a commercial scale for a number
of years and finally absorbed by the Titaghur Paper
Mills in 1905 . The Upper India Couper Paper Mills,
the third of the series of modern paper mills, was started
at Lucknow in 1879 and is now the oldest of the existing
mills in this country. In 1913 there were in all seven
mills producing 24,000-25,000 tons of paper from Sabai-
grass, rags, hemp, jute and imported spruce wood pulp.
In this year R.S. Pearson of the Forest Research Insti-
tute, Dehra-Dun, published a comprehensive report on
the avilability and utilization of bamboo for the manu-
facture of paper, but the process of boiling with caustie
soda suggested by him could be applied to bamboo only
if the knots were excluded from the charge. The first
paper mill designed to work entirely on bamboo and
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
380
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCE A
using the entire stem was started at. Naihati in 1918.
The process, based on cooking the material with
a solution of magnesium bi-sulphite, and modified
in details, is now one of the most efficient method of
pulping bamboo. The Pearson process was also modi-
fied by William Raitt by way of cooking in stages and
was soon adopted by the Titaghur Paper Mills, followed
by various others. There are at present about twenty
mills with a total rated capacity of 1,00,000 tons per
annum.
ItAw MATERTALS
Paper is composed chiefly- of plant fibres collected
and formed into a sheet from a watery suspension.
The quality of the paper is determined by the nature
of the fibres. The method of treatment and the finish
and its durability depends mainly on the. degree of
purity of the fibres, i.e. the extent of isolation from the
non-cellulosic substance. Cellulose may be defined as the
structural basis of plants. Chemically, it is a carbohy-
drate of a very high molecular weight, being .composed
of a large number of an hydro-dextrose. units arranged
end to end to form a sort of chain structure. The
degree of resistance to chemicals is a function of this
chain length, or the degree of polymerisation. The
lower forms of cellulose which are soluble in mild acids
and alkalis are called hemicellulose. A portion of
hemieellulose yield pentose sugars on hydrolysis and
is called pentosan. The celluloses and hemicelluloses
are held in position by a sort of cementing substance
called lignin which is insoluble in water, acids and di-
lute alkalis but are soluble in. strong alkalis and sulphur-
? is acid, sulphites, chlorine and. hypochlorites.
Besides these there are starches, gum, sugar, resins,
fats, waxes, colouring matter and mineral matters
-in various proportions. The main constituents
of some of the more important fibre-yielding materials
are as shown in Table T. For fine papers like bank,
TAT3I,F. T
(!OMPOSITION Or FIBROUS RAW MATRRIALS
Material
t !otton
Cellulose %
91.2
Lign in
Pentosans %
hemp
79.3
5.2
5.5
Sisal
77.0
6.00
13.00
I tam boo
50.0
25.0
15.0
Sabi grass
46.0
5.5
12.0
Barley Straw
48.6
16.4
31.9
oath
43.8
18.6
22.8
Rico
45.5
10.9
21.5
Wheat
56.7
16.3
28.4
[ye
36.3
11.3
20.4
Flax
82.0
2.7
2.0
Ramie
85.0
1.0
2.0
ute
64.0
21.0
15.0
Spruce
57.44
28.29
11-3
Ptne
54.25
26.35
11.02
Beech
53.46
22.40
24.86
limb
45.30
19.50
27.07
Poplar
47.11
18.24
23.75
bond, ledger etc., the fibre should he long, strong,
ight in colour and durable. The length and the strue-
1,are are characteristics of the parent substance hut
ND CULTURE Vol. 15, No. 10
the colour and the durability depend, as has already
been explained, on the purity of the isolated fibres.
Generally the substances containing .high percentages
of cellulose yield fibres of good quality. As the propor-
tions of non-cellulosic matters increase, the method
of isolation of celluloses also becomes more and more
complex and often the product is degraded due to the
fragmentation of the cellulose chains and other chemical
changes. For cheap news print and boards, on the
ether hand, any fibrous raw material is good enough
if it. can be converted into pulp at a reasonably low cost.
Between these two extreme types there are various
grades of paper and the choice of the raw materials
is determined by the suitability and the cost Of ,conver-
sion to pulp. The raw material if suitable otherwise,
should he available in sufficient quantities and at a
reasonable price, in other words, it should have little
value or should be available in such quantities that the
requirements for a paper mill may not interfere with
the local demand and prices.
MAN UFACTURE OF PAPER PULP
Pulping processes can be broadly divided into two
classes-mechanical and chemical. The mechanical
process consists in grinding the fibrous material with
water to a soft workable pulp. The fibres so obtained
are weak, impure and subject to rapid deterioration
and are suitable only for low grade papers and boards.
The mechanical pulp retains about 80% of the raw
material and is the cheapest of all commercial pulp.
Soft woods of fairly light 'colour and low resin content;
are best smted for making news print. If before grind-
ing the logs of wood are softened with steam for a few
hours at a pressure of about 45 pounds per sq. inch,
a more flexible, strong and durable fibre can be obtained
which although dark in colour, is suitable for wrappers
and leather boards. The colour can be improved hy
washing the steamed logs with hot water containing
up to -2% of oxalic acid on the weight of the wood.
Such and. other processes in which the raw materials are
reduced to suitable sizes by chipping or crushing
and then subjected to a chemical treatment so as to
remove a portion of the cementing substances and then
ground or otherwise disintegrated to pulp are called
semi-chemical processes.
The chemical pulp is obtained by gradual elimina-
tion of the non-cellulosic materials and the process
usually involves a series of mechanical and chemical
treatments. The :\rield of fibre is low, the process is
complicated and costly, but the fibre is stronger and.
more durable and hence better suited for fine papers than
the corresponding mechanical pulp from the same type
of raw materials. The, impurities of fi hrous materials
can he removed by boiling with a. caustic soda solution
of suitable strength and under a moderately high pressure.
As the proportion of the impurities increases, the
strength of the solution, the percentage of caustic
s;a1a, the boiling pressure and the cooking time are all
increased proportionately. The caustic soda is largely
reclaimed from the spent liquor and re-used. in the pro-
cess, After the digestion is over, the liquor is collee-
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
' Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950 PAPER MAKT
ted together with one or more washes and concentrated
to a fairly thick consistency. The concentrated liquor
usually contains sufficient organic materials to support
its own combustion in a suitably designed furnace
whereby soda ash or a crude Carbonate of soda -is ob-
tained. This is dissolved in water and the green liquor
so obtained is then causticised with lime so as to convert
the carbonate of soda into hydroxide and thus the white
liquor after causticising is a solution of caustic soda,
ready for use once more, in the cooking process. Any
loss of caustic Soda in the process is made up with an
equivalent quantity of fresh soda ash added to the
green liquor. At high temperatures and pressures a
strong solution of caustic soda can dissolve a consider-
able portion of the isolated fibres, especially the lower
forms of cellulose and consequently the quality and the
yield of commercial soda pulp is often adversely affected.
By a partial replacement of the caustic soda with
an equivalent amount of sodium sulphide, the concert-
NG IN
381
tant pulping process -Called the acid or the sulphite pro-
cess. In practice the sulphurous acid is used in con-
junction with a certain proportion of suitable base so
as to neutralise a portion of the lignosulphoric a cid
.formed during the process of delignification, other-
wise, under the condition of high temperature, pressure
and concentration existing in the digesters the fibre
is weakened due to hydrolysis and is often so hard and
deeply coloured that it becomes unbleachable and prac-
tically useless. Resins are unaffected by the sulphite
liquor and always appear in the pulp in a higher con-
centration than in the raw material. Subject only to
these limitations the sulphite process is applicable
to any type of wood or other plants but it is mianly
Used for pulping coniferous wood.
The comparative figures for the requirements of
the fibrous and non-fibrous raw materials required for
making pulp by the. more important commercial pro-
cesses are given in the Table 11.
TABLE II
RAW MATERIALS FOR PAPER PULP
Mechanical
Sulphite
Soda
Sulphate
Wood 1-1.25 Tons
2.25 Tons
1.5-2.0 Tons
1. 5-2 .0 Tosns
Bamboo, Grass Straw
2 . 25-3. 0 Tons
2 . 5-3 . 0 Tons
2 . 5-3 . 0 Tons
Lime
150-250 lbs.
500-600 lbs.
300-400 lbs.
Sulphur
190-300 lbs.
Soda Ash
250 lbs.
Salt cake
400--500
Steam
5000-6000 lbs,
12000-13000 lbs.
9000-12000 lbs.
Water gall 40,000-50,000
100,000-150,000
100,000-150,000
100,000-120,000
Electricity 70-100 kw
200-300 kw
200-300 kw
200-300 kw
tration of the active alkali can be kept sufficiently low,
the rest remaining in reserve to make up the loss due
to the combination with pectin and lignin as the cooking
proceeds. In practice a calculated quantity of sodium
sulphate is added to the concentrated spent liquor be-
fore burning, the sulphate is thereby reduced to the sul-
phide and acts: as the buffer in the finished white liquor.
The loss of chemicals incurred in the boiling and washing
of the raw materials may be partially or wholly made
up with sodium sulphate and this modified process is
called the sulphate process to differentiate it from the
straight soda process. The sulphate pulp is generally
-stronger than the corresponding ? soda pulp and the
yield is also higher.
The general principle of the alkaline cooking process
as outlined above can be applied to all plant substances
and with proper adjustments of the cooking conditions,
vegetable fibres can be isolated in grades of strength
and purity suitable for a variety of purposes. Cotton,
flax, hemp, jute, deciduous wood, grasses, straws,
bamboo, -reeds and various type of agricultural wastes
are reduced to pulp by this process. The sulphate
process is applied to coniferous wood also. Some
varieties of specially made sulphate pulps are very
strong and durable and are called Kraft pulp.
The action of sulphurous acid on lignin to form
lignosulphoric acid is the basis of another very impor-
BLEACHING
The raw pulp whether produced by mechanical
or chemical process always retains some impurities
including lignin, colouring matters which are removed
or otherwise altered in a fashion so as to cause the pulp
to reflect more true white light by a process of treatment
technically called Bleaching. The chemicals in the
process are:.
(1) Reducing agents like sulphur dioxide, sodi-
um sulphite, caicium-bi-sulphite, zinc hydrosulphite
etc., which improve the colour of the mechanical pulp
by reducing the colouring matter to a white or colour-
less material ; the action is not permanent, the colour
reappears on oxidation or even exposure to light and air.
(2) Chlorine or chloride dioxide, sodium chlorite,
calcium hypochlorite and bleaching powder are used
for bleaching chemical pulps by way of oxidation and
solubilization of the colouring matters which are subse-
quently removed by washing. The effect is more or
less permanent depending on the partcular process
and the extent of bleaching.
Various novel processes of bleaching mechanical and
semi-mechanical pulps have recently been developed.
so that fibres of very excellent colour and durability are
now produced by quite unorthodox methods. The princi-
ple of chlorination process introduced by Cross & B an
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
382 SCIENCE AND
for isolation of cellulose from plant substances is now
widely followed in the manufacture of chemical pulps.
HERI
F.7...?.76,74.0 1 Ce, T.
t OPP., V.v. IL?
rm.,. will._ JAM
t HEAT .1 1 On01.1.
SCA Pt..,
V r,o0Era, I
,
IcooKon LIque
'[
1??"".1.'"f7-7-1
?LIAC.f.a
13L.,1,11 lemma.
Er? HACH.,
1
F-4
I
??-a[
STARCH*
PRE I
Ok SPX,. [10SIN,C.IL-Ve UM.%
r11.14.1
ALI/A-
k process devised orininally by De-Vain in -Holland
for ImIping straw has been modified by Dr. Umberto
I )1.1M no, an Italian chemical engineer for a continuous
4)peration of pulping grasses, straws, bamboo, bagasse
etc. - The removal of lignin and other impurities pro-
eaeds in stages and the pulp may be obtained in any
state of purity from crude pulp for boards to bleached
twee for fine printings. The outstanding advantage
of the process is the great saving of steam and the conti-
nuity of operation.
STOCK PREPARATION
The first sten in the preparation of the stock for
making paper is to soften or refine the fibres so as to
make an eniformiy felted sheet when the diluted stock
is filtered through a fine wire cloth. The simplest way to
do so is eo pound the pulp with a mortar and pestle
or on stones with wooden stampers (e.g. with a Dheki).
In modern mills handling a large quantity of
materials, the stuff is treated in socially designed
beating engines or refiners. The individual fibres
are thereby cut macerated and hydrated i.e., allowed
to absorb water on the exposed surface of the fine
fibrils. By a proper adjustment of conditions the desired
characteristics can be developed durieg the beating
Tirocess, so that a long fibred stuff can be used for various
grades of paper. The process of hydration can be great-
ly enhanced by using external mucilages like starch
and cellulose esters instead of disintegrating the fibres
into lThrils. In fact a certain proportion of lower
forms of. cellulose is essential for the . development
of Are/1gal and feLing quality of the fibres, the highly
purified fibre like alpha pulp, and regenerated celluloses.
like viscose silk are of little use in paper making.
Mot of the common grades of paper are furnished with
a suitable proportion of different kinds of fibre mixed
together and refined in the beaters or treated severally
and mixed later on in a mixing chest. In writing
CULTURE Vol. 16, No. 10
papers, water-repellant matters like rosin, wax, casein
etc. are added in the form of emulsion and precipitated
back by means of alum, so that the finished paper
may take a neat impression of inks on the surface
without getting wet through. Starch, sodium silicate
and various other chemicals are also added to impart
special qualities like rattle, handle etc. A suitable
proportion of mineral fillers like china clay is also
added in common grades of writing and printing
papers in order to render the texture close., flat and
the surface smooth and even. These auxilliary mate-
rials as well as the dyes are usually added in
the beater and throughly mixed with the pulp.
Parkft Matifsel
The stock so prepared goes next to the machine
where it is uniformly spread on the machine wire at La
suitable dilution, and a sheet of paper is formed after
gradual abstraction of water. The machine wire is
an endless band of wiremesh spread flat on the
supporting table rolls in Fordrinier type of machine
or round the circumference of a skeleton cylinder
drum in a cylinder machine. Water is drained out
through the wire assisted in the process by the capillary
action of the supporting rolls as well as the suction
applied by means of suitably designed vacuum boxes
placed underneath. The process of conversion of the
stock to paper on the machine wire and the subsequent
pressing, drying, calendering and reeling are all con-
tinuous. The paper after leaving the press section
is dried over a number of steam-heated cylinders arran-
ged in two tiers and passed through two or three -stacks
of chilled cast iron rolls whereby the surface of the sheet
is cidendered smooth. The paper is then removed in.
the form of reels and finally cut to proper sizes in a cutter
machine and finished ready for the market.
THE PRESENT CONDITION AND THE FUTURE
The chief raw materials used for paper making in
India are bamboo and grass. Although 85% of Worlds'
paper is made from wood its use in this country is very
limited, mainly due to the scarcity of the common pulp
woods, the minimum requirement for an economic
unit producing soda, sulphate sulphite or mechanical
pulp being about 20,000 tons on dry basis. Some
of the softer deciduous woods like Simul (Salmalla
alabarica), Pituli (Trewia Nudiflora), Gewa (Excae-
caria, Agallcha), Salai (Boswellia Serrata) etc are easily
reduceable to pulp by the soda as well as the sulphite
process. The fibres are short but can still be used as
fillers in common grades of paper. Paper Mulberry
(Broussoletia Papyrifera), Pula (Kydia Calycina), Chir
(Pings LonyVolia) Salai etc. can be. pulped mechanically
and used for newsprint with about 30% chemical
bamboo pulp or 25% chemical s,prilee 2,3. The
search for a pulp wood among rather unorthodox varie-
ties has resulted in a project for a large news print
mill in the C.P.
Most of the Indian mills were designed and:cons-
tructed by British firma who had specialised in making
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1050
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
PAPIM MAIttNet I1 fistinA. 383
paper from rags and grasses, and consegnently the cho-
ice and the method of pulping raw materials have also
been greatly influenced by foreign interest and practice.
But in reality any pulping process can be modified to
suit a particular type of raw material and if one material
iE found suitable otherwise, the particular method of
pulping to be followed is a matter of convenience.
Sabai grass and bamboo are usually cooked by the modi-
fied soda or sulphate process, but in one mill bamboo
is pulped very successfully by a modified sulphite pro-
cess. The cooking conditions in the latter may be con-
trolled so as to widen the range of pulp quality suited
for strong wrappers to fine printings. When bleached
under standard conditions the sufphite bcanboo pulp
may be purified to answer the requirements of rayon.
The process can be applied to straw and grasses as well.
The waste salphite liquor is an important source of
tanning agent, lignin plastics, green bond, power al-
cohol, and yeast. Moreover at a consistency of 60/70%
dry substance, the concentrated sulphite liquor can be
easily burnt in a suitably designed furnace and the heat
of combustion utilised to raise steam sufficient for the
entire process of pulping and concentration, and under
properly controlled conditions about 50% of the total
sulphur and 70% of the magnesia can be recovered
from the products of combustion. A similar course of ex-
periments on wood has resulted in the erection ofla large
pulp mill in Canada very recently. 425 There are seve-
ral board mills in this country using straw? bagasse and
waste paper pulped by very crude processes whereas a
modern semi chemical process like the Asplaund would be
much more efficient. Extensive researches are necessary
in the various branches of the pulp and paper industry.
The forest resources in India are not inconsiderable
but the materials required for paper are scattered and
the transport facilities are not adequate and. consequent-
ly the mills are finding great difficulties in procuring
suitable raw materials at reasonable prices. The areas
rich in bamboo and grass are being exploited without a
systematic replacement and thus the source of supplies
are gradually receding from the place of manufacture
and market. The situation has further deteriorated
due to the partition, because an additional quantity,
roughly 40,000 tons, of raw materials are now
wanted from the forests in the Indian Union.
Under these circumstances, the production target
fixed by the Paper Panel (2,64,000 tons for 1951-52 and
4,71,000 tons for 1956-57) can hardly be reached by
simply erecting more machines. The forest resources
have to be more systematically surveyed and the search
for new raw materials greatly intensified. Under
favourable conditions bamboo grows faster than wood
and the average yield per acre from cultivated forest
may be as high as 4 tons against .26----.3 tons in ca-se of
coniferous woods?. Pearson described the occurrence,
the nafare of growth, and the availability of several
types of bamboo in Bengal, Bombay and Madras. On
waste land bamboo may be a profitable crop. Some
quick growing trees like Sabad, Paper mulberry and
Shimul can be cultivated to boost the production of
paper pulp. Some of these trees can be raised in bam-
boo plantations with advantage. The waste wood
from timber works and plywood factories can be con-
verted to pulp for lower grades of paper. There are
several types of wild grasses and reeds which have riot
been exploited for paper making. Savana, grass and
Na! reeds (Arundo Donax) yield fibres not mach
inferior to that from bamboo.
An elaborate method of treatment and complicated
machineries are out of consideration for small scale
industries. So. the use of bamboo and other fibrous
plant is not practicable for making hand made paper,
the choice being often limited within cotton and linen
rags, waste cotton, hemp, waste papers and imported
wood pulp. The bast fibre from paper mulberry may
readily augment this list. It is extensively used in
Japan and Siam. In Burma it is also made into card
board blackened for use as slates for writing purposes
in schools. The wood is white and can be pulped by
mechanical as well as chemical process. The tree grows
in various types of soils and spreads by seeds and root
suckers, out-growing other species7. If the villages are
properly instructed arid encouraged this plant can be
raised in this country and exploited for paper making.
Three fundamental needs for the healthy growth
of the industry are materials, machines and men.
Materials we have got, if not enough, more can be grown;
machines can be constructed when there is a sufficient
demand; but technicians and skilled labour have to
be raised from amongst ourselves, and it is a strong
policy of the Government that is wanted to correlate
or orient the three. Training of the men for the industry
should be sufficiently encouraged. The courses of studies
in technical institutions should include Paper Techno-
logy preferably as a separate subject. An association
of the technical men in this and. allied industries should
be organised and meeting arranged in important loca-
lities whereby the technicians may discuss various
problems and share one another's experience and know-
ledge for the betterment of the industry.
REFERENCES
a A. T. Gills, Paper & Print, Spring 1046.
Forest 'Utilization Publication?B 108.
a Indian Print and Paper?March, 1942.
4 G. H. Tomlinson and R. S. Wilcoxson?The Economic Disposal
of Waste Sulphite liquor?Paper Trade Journal?April
11, 1940.
8 Paper Trade Journal?Nov. 11, 1948.
8 Indian Pulp and Paper ?July, 1947.
7 Sylviculture of Indian Trees---Troup,
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
384 it AD C1711TVRE Vol. 15, No. 10
A METHOD FOR COMPARING THE RELATIVE QUALITY
OF JUTE YARNS
K. R. SEN
TECHNOLOGICAL REsEARce LABORATORIES, INDIAN CENTRAL JUTE COMMITTEE, CALCUTTA
I NTRODTJCI ION predominate in subscribing to the quality of a yarn
le therefore attempted here.
DISCUSSION ON QUALITY OF JUTE YARN
It has been noted that the qualities of a jute yarn
of specified grist (or fineness) with which a spinner is
most often concerned, are, as in the case of any other
spun-yarn manufacture, (i) the thread strength and
(ii) the regularity. The regularity of a yarn depends
partly on the characteristics of the fibre such as, fric-
tion, multiplicity and length of each of the adhering
filamentous units which compose the material during
the different stages of processing, and also, quite largely,
on the distribution of the varying individuals before
and during processing.
All spun yarns, whatever the textile fibre used,
are more or less irregular, consisting of thick and thin
places. The irregularity is very high in the case of jute
yarn, and the smallest in the case of the man-made
staple fibre. The individuals of staple fibre are more or
less uniform in external features so that the effect
of distribution is minimum. The variations of thick-
ness are introduced during the drafting operation as
a reaction between the fibre characters as distributed
in the body of the material under draft, and the drafting
treatment and the machinery. There is of course no
process yet known, such as can altogether eliminate
this effect, particularly in the case of the natural textile
fibres. However, this may be reduced in the case of
jute in two ways :
(i) by ensuring perfect and complete splitting of
the meshy fibre-complex into single filamen-
tous units prior to drafting ; or.
(ii) by blending suitably-matched fibres.
Both these methods have however got very great
practical difficulties lying in the way of consummation.
Between the two again, action (i) is more difficult to
carry out.
Now, if not for any other reason, simply due to the
existence of the thick and the thin places, a gradient
of strength exists along the length of the yarn. The
strength of the single thread, we measure is actually the
strength of the weakest point of the yarn within the
specified test length. Variation of the strength of jute
yarn with test length has already heen studied3..
So, it is clear that apart from any direct effect
on dyeing, finishing etc., the irregularity of jute yarn
also . affects the strength of a Specified yarn. This
effect of irregularity in fact merges in the "quality
number" estimate of the yarn. This fact seems to
reduce the items of measurement for quality estimation
of jute yarn to merely one variable, viz., the strength
of a specified yarn. Now, it is a matter of practical
THE Indian Standards Institution has undertaken the
task of specifying the standard methods of estimat-
ing the testing and performance of the fibre, yarn and
fabric of jute. There are powerful factors which ope-
rate as hurdles in the way of devising easy testing
etandards in the case of jute fibre. These have already
la en discussed'. It is proposed now to examine the
factors which affect the basis of comparing the spinning
qualities of different varieties.
The technique at present in vogue for a standard
method, is a two-pronged one. In the first place, a yarn
Is spun from a jute under constant conditions of draft,
Jwist arid the mass of roving per unit length. This
yarn which thus possesses a specified grist, is tested
for the breaking load, as well as the coefficient of varia-
tion of the mass of pieces having a specified short length
by a procedure which is fixeci2. Hence, along with -the
eoellicient of variation, which is used to indicate the
degree of regularity of the yarn, the tensile strength
or the quality number (or quality ratio) is employed
to represent the bases for comparison of the spinning
quality. Between these two measures of quality,
the latter (quality number) is considered as of prin-
cipal importance, for the effect of the former estima-
tion generally merges into that of the latter, and also
ehows, numerically, a much shorter range of variation
than the latter. While the quality number expressed
as percentage, has been known to vary from about
40 to 1_20, the irregularity coefficient ranges from about
21% to 38%.
Usually, therefore the yarns from different fibres
are compared by their values of the quality number
when spun practically to the same grist and twist.
In other words, it is considered that the relative test
values giving the quality numbers of a set of standard
yarns indicate the relative spinning quality of the
fibres.
As a standard method for start i.e., until sufficient
knowledge has been foregathered, the method des-
cribed above seems the only way of solving the problem.
however, within the last decade or so, much scienti-
fic information about the physical characters of jute
fibre and yarn, as well as about the procedure of yarn
making, have been accumulated. It is now known
that when spun from one particular fibre, the quality
number at one grist may be relatively higher than that
of another similar yarn from a different fibre, while
the relative order of superiority may become inverted
at another grist. This knowledge has necessarily-
warranted a revision of the standard method
for comparing the spinning quality of different
yarns. A scrutiny of the fundamental factors which
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
April, 1950
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
A METIIOD POR COMPARING l'Isth RELATIVE QtAttlrit OF ..tint YARNS
experience that the quality of a material is usually
determined by the amount of work done on it to effect
disintegration or rupture.. So, the quality of a speci-
fied jute yarn should be a function of not merely of its
strength (for a specified test length) but also of its ex-
tension at the point of break under pull. Thus for the
study of the quality of a jute yarn under specified
conditions of testing, one must consider the grist of the
yarn, its breaking strength under tension and the ex-
tension at the breaking point. These three factors may
be reduced to two by considering the tensile, or intrin-
sic, strength of the yarn specirnen.This tensile strength
expressed as the percentage ratio of the breaking load
in pounds to the grist in pounds per spyndle (=s14,400
yards), has been nominated the quality ratio or quality
number of the yarn.
In addition to these two factors which, except
for the application of draft, admit of very little personal
control, being mainly dependent on the physical pro-
perties of the fibre vis-a-vis the yarn structure, there
is another variable factor which can to some extent
modify, through the structural medium, either of these
two quality determinants of the yarn. This variable,
however, is almost totally under human control. It
is the "twist" applied to the spun yarn.
The published methods so far available regarding
the assesment of quality of jute yarn, relyon the mea-
surement of the quality number of the yarn spun with
a specified draft and twist from a roving of fixed mass
per unit length. Such study is only supplemented
by measuring irregularity of the yarn as the coefficient
of variation of the mass of short pieces of specified
length. The factor of extension which, for the whole
range of jute yarn formation, varies from 1% to 3%
nearly, is disregarded.
On the basis of these considerations, leaving aside
the question of irregularity which affects the yarn
quality number through its breaking load, and also
neglecting the very small effect of extension, it is now
proposed to examine the validity of the quality number
of a specified yarn as a standard measure for comparing
the relative spinning qualities of jute yarns.
BASIS OF QUALITY NUMBER OF YARN
There is little doubt now that the quality of a
spun (unsized and otherwise unfinished) yarn, is a com-
plex function involving several factors broadly of the
two following categories?
(i) physical nature of the material;
(ii) spinning treatment.
The most relevant physical characters of a textile
material, known from experience in the sphere of vari-
ous other fibres to vitally affect yarn quality number
are
(i) the staple length (1);
(ii) the mass per unit length or gravimetric
fineness (m) ;
(iii) the frictional resistance (0) ;
and (iv) the breaking load (p)..
In the case of jute, there is one special character which
plays no mean part in determining the quality of the
yarn spun. It is?
(v) the splittability of the meshy complex(#).
Considering these five physical characters to be the
principal "material" factors for the production of
the resulting yarn quality number in the case of jute,
it may be understood that these fibre characters act
on the quality number through a quantity, B, which
is an involved function of 1, m,cb,p, and tr.. In other
words,
11-4(/, m, 0, 2), II)
Now, if yarns are spun from different varieties of jute
having different physical qualities of fibre, to a speci-
fied grist (0), using a constant draft (D), and a fixed
twist (T) from roves of the same mass per unit length
(I?), the Quality Number, Q., of each yarn will naturally
be a function of its B. That is to say?
. (20=-BAB)=---Mi (1, m,0):1), tt)
This is the basis of the present quality-number tech-
nique of comparing the qualities of yarn from different
varieties of jute. The practice in vogue is to spin
"standard" yarns under specified spinning conditions
from the different jute varieties, find the value of Qo's
for the products, and compare their relative order.
However, before proceeding to adjudge the value and
the width of applicability of this technique, it is neces-
sary to scrutinise the function, M1, the fundamental
and dominant element in the study of yarn quality.
The Function, M1:
It is definite that so far as jute is concerned, the
staple length (1) remains a mystery until the yarn is
spun. Although the jute strands which ultimately
go to form a yarn, are, most of them, not small like
cotton or any similar fibre, the length nevertheless has
an important function in the determination of yarn
quality. It was shown4 how the quality number for
the "standard" 10 lb. hessian weft yarn, which bears
a curvilinear relation with p/ m i.e., the tensile or intrin-
sic strength of the fibre concerned, happens to assume
a rectilinear form of relationship with ip/m. (This
is also a clear indication that the strength-reducing
"slippage"-factor which operates as a result of yarn
structure, for a j ate yarn spun under constant spinning
conditions, is insignificantly small i.e., practically
"zero', just as for long staple cotton fibres5 .)
The importance of /' in the case of the yarn quality
of jute, and the fact that '1' cannot be known prior
to actual spinning of the fibre, make it necessary to find
Some measureable characters of jute, which should
influence the generation of the staple lengths during
processing and spinning so strongly, that '1' may be re-
placed in any estimation of yarn quality from fibre
characters. No doubt much fundamental work is re-
quired to be done before such characters, relevant
Approved For Release 2001/09/06 : CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
386
Approved For Release 2001/09/06: CIA-RDP83-00415R006100050001-7
SCIENCA AND CULTURE
beyond any pale of doubt, can be found. However,
as a Working hypothesis, in absence of requisite know-
ledge, one may proceed with chaiacters which seem
nn)st probable from a priori consideration of facts
no far known.
Thus it seems possible that the eplittability, or
complexity - co-efficient, it, as defined earlier6, the
dp
strength gradient of a filament, ' where X is the
dA,
t eetolength corresponding to a filament strength., p,
nad the cross-sectional area of the filament, A (=rat)),
the area beiner assumed to be elliptical7 with the
esmi-axes 'a' and 'h' may prove to be such measures.
The reasons are :?'I7he complexity determines the
probability of transverse break down of the mesh-
work of a jute into single filaments as well as into
filaments of different degrees of multiplicity, in
course of yarn making. So, this factor indicates
the possibiiity of longitudinal break down of an ele-
ment by the drafting force. The strength gradient
well show up the minimum drafting force necessary
to break-down a iflament longitudinally; and the cross
section will indicate the weakest point within a
filament, where such minimum force will be likely to
break the filament,and so determine the length of
the parts. There is of course one definitely known
fact in this connection. It is that the maximum. pos-
sible length of a filament in the yarn cannot exceed
the "grip-to-grip' distance (L) between the feed and
the delivery rollers. So, always, l