RAMENSKOYE FLIGHT TEST CENTER

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: NGA Records (Formerly NIMA)
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP83T00574R000102880001-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 24
• Document Creation Date: December 28, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 2, 2010
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: November 1, 1982
• Content Type: REPORT

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RICA-09/0026/82
'NOVEMBER 19 2
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Ramenskoye Flig
DMAAC. USATC, Series 200, Sheet 0167-5, scale 1:200,000
CATEGORY 1BE NO.
1. (S/WN) This report updates NPIC report Z-20035/81 on Ramenskoye Flight Test Center
(FTC), USSR, and discusses construction and aircraft activity observed from the 25X1
information cutoff date for the previous report, through F- 25X1
FIGURE 1. LOCATION OF RAMENSKOYE FLIGHT TEST CENTER, USSR
WNI NTEL
Z-14620/82
RAMENSKOY
CENTER
1 0 2
111111 I 1
NAUTICAL MILES
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2. (S/WN) Significant developments in new and modified aircraft systems are discussed,
including related activity observed at other facilities.
3. (S/WN) This report includes 30 annotated photographs, including an overview of the FTC
with functional areas delineated; a location map; and a table of mensural data.
BASIC DESCRIPTION
4. (S/WN) Ramenskoye FTC is approxi- Construction Activity
mately 20 nautical miles southeast of Moscow
(Figure 1). An overview of the FTC with the 5. (S/WN) Three small structures were
functional areas delineated (Figure 2) is keyed built in the new llyushin area (Figure 2). A
to Table 1-an outline of construction ob- small quonset-type aircraft shelter (item 1,
served during this reporting period. Figure 2 and Table 1) had been completed by
Table 1.
Mensural Data for new Construction, Ramenskoye Flight Test Center, USSR
(Items keyed to Figure 2)
This table in its entirety is classified SECRET/WNINTEL
1 Aircraft shelter
2 Admin/engr bldg
3 Spt bldg
4 Spt bldg
5 Hangar
6 Spt bldg
7 Stor bldg
8 Admin/engr bldg
9 Admin/engr bldg
10 Prob shop
11 Prob spt bldg
12 Prob spt bldg
13 Aircraft shelter
14 Prob spt bldg
15 Spt bldg
16 Prob admin/engr bldg
17 Hangar
Dimensions*
(m)
w
522 Apr 82
1,635 Apr 82 3 stories
99 Feb 81
502 Oct 81
5,593 Aug 81 New Tupolev hangar in
east parking area
744 Ucon
455 Jul 81
8,688 4 stories; ucon
1,014 2 stories; ucon
3,791 Jun 82 Multistory with 5-story
admin/engr sect
86 Footings measured; ucon
231 Footings measured; ucon
645 Mar 81
374 Ucon
202 1 story; ucon
519 Foundation only
admin/engr addition 2,166
18 Admin/engr bldg 12,719
- Unid bldg 361
6 stories; ucon
5- and 10-story wings; ucon
Construction stopped
Horizontal measurements are accurate to within lof measured distance), and vertical measurements are accurate to
within f measured distance), both at a 95% confidence level.
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a small administration/engineer-
ing building (item 2) had been completed by
and a small support building
(item 3) had been completed by
6. (S/WN) A quonset-type support build-
ing (item 4) had been completed by
in the Tu olev area. A hangar (item
5), completed by~in the east
parking area, is discussed in greater detail in
paragraph 18, No further progress has been
made on the unidentified building started dur-
ing the previous reporting period. This con-
struction appears to be for a building with at
least one story underground or possibly for a
personnel shelter.
7. (S/WN) Construction of a support
building (item 6) in the Tupolev area, begun
during the previous reporting period, contin-
ued. In the support area, a quonset-type stor-
age building (item 7) had been completed by
and construction continued on a
four-story administration/engineering build-
ing (item 8) and a two-story administration/en-
gineering building (item 9).
8. (S/WN) A probable shop with a five-
story administration/engineering section (item
10) has been completed in the Yakovlev area,
Two probable support buildings (items 11 and
12) are under construction in the support area.
9. (S/WN) A quonset-type aircraft shelter
(item 13) in the crossover parking area had
been completed by
10. (S/WN) A probable support building
(item 14) in the MIL area will probably be
completed by late 1982. In the flight research
institute (LII; formerly Myasishchev) area, con-
struction included a small support building
(item 15); the foundation for a probable
administration/engineering building (item 16);
a six-story administration/engineering addi-
tion to the largest hangar in the LII area (item
17); and a multistory, multiwing administra-
tion/engineering building (item 18). When
complete, these buildings will significantly
increase the floorspace in the LII area.
11, (S/WN) New, unidentified construc-
tion (area Q, Figure 2) is underway beyond the
south-southeastern end of the FTC. This con-
struction may represent a substantial addition
to the FTC.
12. (S/WN) In the spring of 1981 in sub-
area Q1, grading, backfilling, and the con-
struction of three rectangular structures be-
gan. Grading for a probable taxiway to con-
nect the structures to the runway was also
observed. This construction has proceeded
slowly. Additional activity was observed in
March 1982, when trenches, possibly for foot-
ings, were observed.
13. (S/WN) Subarea Q2 was previously
reported to be an FTC-related area.' During
the previous reporting period, mounds that
had been under construction near the south-
ern corner of subarea Q2 were paved with
concrete. The mounds resemble electronics
mounds, although no electronics equipment
has been observed.
14. (S/WN) The first observation of the
BLACKJACK A, the new Soviet strategic bomb-
er, on (Figure 3) was the
most significant observation at the FTC during
this period. The BLACKJACK A, originally
designated the RAM-P, is a variable-geometry-
wing aircraft similar to the Rockwell B-1B
strategic bomber. Although approximately
one-third larger than the B-1B, the
BLACKJACK A has a similar wing-fuselage
blend, empennage configuration, and engine
placement (Figures 4 and 5).
15. (S/WN) The overall length of the
BLACKJACK A is and the unswept
wingspan is The BLACKJACK A
has not been observed with the wings in the
swept position, but calculations indicate that
the swept wingspan is approximately
ters. The vertical stabilizer is approxim
ately
meters high. The strakes, inboard of the en-
gines on each side of the fuselage, are approx-
imatelyF____-] long.
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17. (S/WN) The maximum takeoff weight
of the BLACKJACK A cannot be determined
without refined mensuration. The Rockwell B-
1B, which is smaller than the BLACKJACK A,
has a maximum takeoff weight of 477,000
pounds.2
18. (S/WN) Statements made by Soviet
leaders in recent years indicated that a strate-
gic bomber developmental program was un-
derway, and, therefore, this aircraft was not
unexpected. In June 1980, an area in the east
parking area across from the Tupolev area was
graded, and construction of a uniquely shaped
hangar (item 5, Figure 2 and Table 1) began. By
late summer 1981, the Tupolev hangar was ex-
ternally complete (Figure 6). Based on size and
configuration, the hangar was thought to be
related to a new aircraft program, either
bomber or transport. This hypothesis was sup-
ported by the introduction of the BLACKJACK
19. (S/WN) Snow melt from engine run-
up and numerous observations of vehicles
around the aircraft suggest that the
BLACKJACK A was undergoing flight testing.
Another significant activity related to the
BLACKJACK A occurred in March 1982 at
Akhtubinsk FTC where foot-
ings for a hangar, which will be similar in size
to the one housing the BLACKJACK A at
Ramenskoye, were observed. Akhtubinsk is
the main weapons testing/integration facility
for aircraft in the USSR. The BLACKJACK A
will probably be flight tested for at least 2
years at Ramenskoye before going to Akhtu-
binsk for weapons systems tests.
20. (S/WN) The BLACKJACK A will prob-
ably be produced at Kazan Airframe Plant
Gorbunov 22 where the
BACKFIRE B and C are currently in produc-
tion. A large assembly hall under construction
at Kazan could be completed by the summer
of 1983.
BACKFIRE Bomber Fuselage Section
21. (S/WN) The center fuselage section
of a BACKFIRE bomber was identified onF
lage section was not seen at the FTC after F
(Figure 9). The BACKFIRE fuse-
fied as an aerodynamic object and designated
the RAM-N when first observed on a barge at
the pier on the southern side of the airfield on
(Figure 8). It had been identi-
RAM-M Aircraft
area near this apron since
RAM-M fuselage has been in the engine test
A portion of another probable
and civilian markings were evident (Fig-
ure 11). The aircraft was again observed on[
0 two small, white, unidentified objects
were on the apron in front of the aircraft (Fig-
ure 12). The objects, long with ap-
parent fins on one end, could be underwing
fuel tanks.
24. (S/WN) Frequent observations of ve-
hicles and equipment near the RAM-M indi-
cated that an active test program was under-
way. Two functions for this aircraft are possi-
ble. First, because of the civilian markings, the
RAM-M may be an earth-resources exploita-
tion platform. The Soviets have no modern air-
craft, such as NASA's U-2, to perform this task.
Second, it may be a high-altitude battlefield
reconnaissance platform such as the US Air
Force's TR-1. The determination of these
possible functions was based primarily on the
long, high-aspect-ratio wing. A narrow fuse-
lage and wings of this type have typically been
associated with high-altitude aircraft.
25. (S/WN) Portions of a fuselage, similar
in configuration to the RAM-M, were on the
main apron in the LII area from to
seen without a canvas covering on
22. (S/WN) An aircraft section on a barge
at the pier on has been desig-
nated the RAM-M (Figure 10). The final air-
craft configuration could not be determined
until by which time the nose
and wings had been attached to the aircraft.
The RAM-M has a high-aspect-ratio wing with
a 40-meter span (Figure 11).3
23. (S/WN) The RAM-M wings were first
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FULCRUM A Fighter Aircraft
26. (S/WN) Activity associated with the
FULCRUM A (formerly known as the RAM-L)
continued at the FTC during this period
(Figure 13). A FULCRUM A tail section was
frequently seen protruding from the quonset-
type hangar.
27. (S/WN) Although aerodynamic flight
testing of the FULCRUM A will probably con-
tinue at Ramenskoye, most flight testing will
probably be conducted at Akhtubinsk FTC,
where weapons test and integration exercises
have been in progress.
RAM-K Fighter Aircraft
28. (S/WN) The RAM-K flight test pro-
gram continued at Ramenskoye. The RAM-K
was usually parked outside the LII area on a
designated spot on the crossover taxiway.
However, on a RAM-K was
involved in pre- or postflight activity in the
crossover parking area (Figure 14).
29. (S/WN) Although RAM-K flight test
activity continued at the FTC during this
period, the observation of a highly modified
RAM-K at Komsomolsk Airframe Plant Ord-
zhonikidze 126 a production
facility, on was of greater
significance (Figure 15).
30. (S/WN) The modifications consisted
of repositioned vertical stabilizers, the addi-
tion of possible wingtip pylons, and an exten-
sion to the tail section. The vertical stabilizers
appear to have been placed on the edges of
the fuselage rather than in their usual position,
centered over the engine bays, and were not
canted outward, as on previous models. The
presence of possible wingtip pylons would not
be unusual for this type of aircraft. The
pointed tail extension was in the area where
the parabrake housing is usually located. A
similar modification on US aircraft houses a
spin chute for spin testing.
31. (S/WN) Highly modified aircraft are
usually seen at an FTC rather than at a produc-
tion facility. Although one or more of these
modified aircraft may have been at the FTC,
the RAM-Ks observed there have all had verti-
cal stabilizers in the usual location.
32. (S/WN) One RAM-K fuselage, which
may have a tail extension, was in the Sukhoy
area on but a canvas covering pre-
cluded confirmation. This fuselage was still
present on but very little activity was
FROGFOOT A Ground Attack Aircraft
33. (S/WN) Moderate activity was associ-
ated with the FROGFOOT A, formerly known
as the RAM-J, during this period. FROGFOOT
A aircraft were seen in the aircraft shelter
(item 13, Figure 2) in the crossover parking
area and in the Sukhoy area. Wing tanks were
usually attached to the aircraft, and, on several
occasions, unidentified stores were also
attached.
RAM-H and RAM-E Aircraft
34. (S/WN) The RAM-H has been at the
FTC since the early 1970s. During the reporting
period, it was removed from its usual parking
location in the LII area and placed in the Su-
khoy area. By portions of
the RAM-H, including the vertical stabilizer
and wing sections, had been removed from
the aircraft and were on the ground next to
the fuselage (Figure 16).
35. (S/WN) Between
= the RAM-H fuselage, wings, and vertical
stabilizer were removed from the Sukhoy area.
The RAM-H has been inactive for a long peri-
od, and the ro ram has probably been termi-
nated. On~ the RAM-H was assembled
and on static display in the aircraft museum at
Moscow/Monino Airfield
36. (S/WN) The RAM-E was also at the
Moscow/Monino museum on this
program probably has also been terminated.
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37. (S/WN) Three unidentified, probable
fighter aircraft were seen at the FTC during
this reporting period. One aircraft, seen onE
was just outside the LII area, on
the crossover taxiway (Figure 17). The aircraft,
which somewhat resembled an L-39 trainer,
may have delta wings. The overall length was
approximately and the fuselage
length was approximately An
accurate wing span could not be determined.
The aircraft could be a trainer because of its
size and long forward fuselage section.
38. (S/WN) Another aircraft (not shown
because of extremely poor interpretability of
imagery), seen on was just
outside the Sukhoy/Mikoyan areas. The over-
all fuselage length was approximately C
meters, and the wing span was approximately
41. (S/WN) The usual level of BACKFIRE
activity continued throughout this period. By
the BACKFIRE B in the test and
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derelict area had been removed. By
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a BACKFIRE B had been returned to the
test and derelict area; it had a finlike object on
the top of the fuselage just behind the cockpit
area (Figure 20). The function of this object is
not known, and it had apparently been re-
moved by mid-March 1982. A BACKFIRE C had
been returned to the FTC by
after having been absent since December
1980. This aircraft has probably been undergo-
ing intensive flight testing since vehicles and
fuel trucks have usually been nearby. Two or
three BACKFIRE Bs and one BACKFIRE C have
usually been seen in the Tupolev/east parking
areas.
The length is comparable to that of
the FULCRUM A; however, the aircraft ap-
peared to have only a single vertical stabilizer.
The wings appeared to be swept; however, the
presence of a. crane that appeared to be
emplacing or removing a canvas covering
precluded an accurate analysis of wing shape.
39. (S/WN) The third unidentified air-
craft was seen on in the crossover
parking area (Figure 18). The wing of the
aircraft was approximatelwhich is
comparable to that of the Mikoyan-designed
FLOGGER, but wing tips, wing sweep, and
overall appearance indicate that it is not a
FLOGGER. The crossover parking area is pri-
marily for Sukhoy-designed aircraft. Little else
could be determined regarding this aircraft
because of the poor interpretability of the
imagery.
40.
seen on
(S/WN) The
was
BEAR IF Variant Aircraft
42. (S/WN) The BEAR aircraft usually
seen at the FTC were a BEAR A Mod, BEAR B,
BEAR B Mod, BEAR C Mod, BEAR F, and BEAR
F variants (mainly numbers 6 and 8). The BEAR
A Mod has not been seen since December
1981. A new BEAR F variant (number 10) was
identified at the FTC during this period.
Variant 10 has several unique features. Al-
though it has the high-lift wing common to
most BEAR F variants, it does not incorporate a
forward fuselage extension, no pods are on
the vertical or horizontal stabilizers, and no
pods or blisters are on the fuselage (Figure 21).
This aircraft has a solid nose with a small, chin-
mounted radome; all previously identified
BEAR F variants have a greenhouse nose.
43. (S/WN) Analysis of imagery of BEAR
F Variant 10 when at Akhtubinsk FTC suggests
that this aircraft may be capable of carrying
air-to-surface missiles (ASMs). Only BEAR B
and C aircraft have been equipped to carry
ASMs; both of these aircraft have large ra-
domes. The presence of a radome on Variant
10 may indicate an ASM capability. Further,
Variant 10 has not been seen at Kirovskoye
BACKFIRE B in the Tupolev area (Figure 19).
No particular activity could be associated with
the airframe, and no new details of its configu-
ration could be determined.
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Airfield the primary Soviet
naval aviation test and development center,
where antisubmarine warfare testing is con-
ducted. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume
that the aircraft is not associated with antisub-
marine warfare.
44. (S/WN) Several developments involv-
ing CANDID aircraft occurred at the FTC dur-
ing this period. Two CANDIDs (bort numbers
had previously been modi-
fied with a long tail extension. These
aircraft, when at the FTC, have almost always
been parked in the transient parking area. In
the spring of 1981, however, CANDID
was returned to Tashkent Airframe Plant B
Chkalov 84 where the tail ex-
tension was removed. This aircraft was subse-
quently returned to the FTC.
45. (S/WN) In mid-February 1982, CAN-
DID again had a tail extension (Figure
22), but the tail extension on CANDID=
had been removed. The reason for this is not
known, but it is possible that equipment on
CANDID had malfunctioned and that
the tail extension was reattached to in
order to continue the test program. CANDID
was observed in the transient parking
and old Ilyushin parking areas.
46. (S/WN) A CANDID with a tail exten-
sion has been at Arkhangelsk/Kholm Airfield
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when missile tests were being
conducted at Nenoksa Naval Missile ' Test
Center One CANDID has also
been at Akhtubinsk FTC when missile tests
were being conducted at Ka ustin Yar Cruise
Test Complex D Site 1 Both
aircraft have probably been involvied with the
flight test phase of a cruise missile test.
47. (S/WN) CANDID
modified with a new engine
(Figure 22). This engine, wi
by
thin a
.diameter nacelle, is over 6 meters long.and is
probably a prototype of a large, fuel-efficient,
high-bypass-ratio turbofan engine. It is proba-
bly designed to power a very large transport
aircraft.4 It is not unusual to mount a new en-
gine on an operational aircraft in order to ob-
tai.n test data not available through static
bench testing.
CLOBBER A Transport Aircraft
48. (S/WN) On a CLOBBER
A with a conical tail extension just above the
rear exhaust nozzle was in the old Ilyushin
area. This modification was not seen again
until the spring of 1982, when an aircraft with
this modification was in the Yakovlev area
(Figure 23). The purpose of this modification is
not known.
CUB Transport Aircraft
49. (S/WN) A CUB modified with a fin-
like structure on the top of the fuselage, just
aft of the wing, was first observed in the Anto-
nov area on (Figure 24).
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50. (S/WN) A CUB modified with a ped-
estal-mounted dome on the top of the fuse-
lage and a tail extension was in the old Ily-
ushin area between
the transient parking area from
was probably being backed into its temporary
parking position in the old Ilyushin area. This
aircraft has usually been parked in the Anto-
nov area; little activity has been associated
with it.
Modified COOT Transport Aircraft
51. (S/WN) On a COOT
modified with a high, T-shaped tail was in the
new Ilyushin area. It was moved to the test and
derelict area in mid-December 1981 (Figure
25). The purpose of the T-shaped tail modifica-
tion is not known, although, in conjunction
with other modifications, it suggests a short-
takeoff-and-landing configuration.
Helicopter Lifting Exercise
52. (S/WN) On a helicop-
ter lifting exercise was underway on the
crossover taxiway in front of the LII area. One
HIP C helicopter was on each side of an
aircraft fuselage section on a dolly (Figure 26).
The two HIP Cs, with rotors turning, were
connected by cable to the dolly and were
probably preparing to lift the dolly and the
fuselage.
53. (S/WN) A similar lifting exercise oc-
curred in July 1981. The exercise was appar-
ently training in lifting heavy objects using two
helicopters. While the technique is potentially
dangerous, such expertise would permit the
use of medium-lift helicopters when heavy-lift
helicopters are not available.
Aerospace Components
54. (S/WN) One of the more significant
programs underway at the FTC involves aero-
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space components. Although this activity was
observed during the previous reporting peri-
od, little was known of the program at that
time.
55. (S/WN) The history of the aerospace
components is complicated. It involves activity
at two facilities besides Ramenskove-Kuv-
b shev Aerospace Production
and Tyuratam Airfield 3
56. (S/WN) The exact function of these
aerospace components is not known; how-
ever, they are probably components of a space
launch vehicle.
57. (S/WN) A large structure was first
seen at the FTC in November 1980. By the
spring of 1981, the structure, which served as
environmental protection for a
meter, bullet-shaped object (Figure 27) very
similar in appearance to the external fuel tank
of the US space shuttle, had been removed. By
a 26-meter component was
seen fully assembled (Figure 27). The 26-meter
component was delivered by barge from Kuy-
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byshev to the FTC in November 1981. The
meter component was delivered the same way
the previous year. A more detailed analysis of
the Ocomponent and related activi-
ties at Ramenskoye, Kuybyshev, and Tyuratam
may be found in a previous NPIC report.5
58. (S/WN) The aerospace components
are so large that air is the only efficient means
of transportation. Two BISON B aircraft (bort
were modified to
carry the components (Figure 28). The empen-
nage of each BISON B is highly modified;
vertical stabilizers were mounted outward on
the horizontal stabilizers to allow for undis-
turbed airflow when flying with a mounted
component. The modified BISON Bs are
loaded by moving under a gantry crane
holding the component (Figure 27). The com-
ponent is then lowered onto the fuselage of
the aircraft. The pointed end of the compo-
nent is mounted facing aft to reduce vortex
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disturbance at the rear of the aircraft. The
components, gantry crane, and modified BI-
SON Bs at Ramenskoye are probably only for
flight testing and for development of flight
parameters for flying the BISON B with a large
object attached. The 26- com-
ponents will probably be removed from the
FTC after these parameters have been
determined.
59. (S/WN) The aerospace components
are manufactured at Kuybyshev Aerospace
Production Plant 1, where a gantry crane,
identical to the one at Ramenskoye, has been
constructed, and the runway is being ex-
tended. In addition, a new runway is being
built at Tyuratam Airfield 3, where another
identical gantry crane has been built. The
components will be mounted on the BISON Bs
at Kuybyshev and flown to Tyuratam, where
they will be removed and taken by transporter
(Figure 27) to their designated assembly areas.
60. (S/WN) On BISON
was seen with a V-shape support
bracket mounted just in front of the empen-
nage (Figure 29). It is not known what this
bracket was designed to hold. Subsequent
coverage showed the 26-meter component on
however, the bracket may also
have been designed to carry some other, as
yet unseen, component. The support bracket
had been removed when the BISON was again
observed in May and June 1982.
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Unidentified Object
61. (S/WN) On an uni-
dentified object was on the apron in the LII
area. This object has been seen at various loca-
tions on the apron and strongly resembles the
upper forward fuselage section of an aircraft,
primarily the flight deck area. While the object
is probably only a mock-up or a fuselage skin,
two depressions give the appearance of being
window,shaped (Figure 30).
62. (S/WN) It is possible that, because of
the other space-related activity in the LII area,
this object is also space related. It is not com-
parable in size or configuration to any known
Soviet aircraft.
Telemetry Collection and Processing Center
63. (S/WN) The Telemetry Collection
and Processing Center is on the northern side
of the Yakovlev area (Figure 2). Although the
Center has been present for some time, it has
not been discussed in any previous NPIC
report.
64. (S/WN) The Center consists mainly of
two buildings and telemetry collection equip-
ment (Figure 31). A large, probable telemetry
processing building consists of a four-story, L-
shaped wing and a two-story, rectangular
wing. The telemetry collection equipment is
usually on the access road in front of the prob-
able processing building and usually faces the
two runways. The equipment usually com-
prises four or five SHIP WHEEL radar sets. A
small, rectangular building with a roof-
mounted, movable dome is near the parking
area. This dome probably houses a theodolite.
A square building of unusual design is next to
this building. Three large, circular patterns are
on three sides of this building. It is not known
if this building is part of the processing center.
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IMAGERY
(S/WN) All available satellite imagery acquired from
the preparation of this report.
MAPS OR CHARTS
DMAAC. US Air Target Chart, Series 200, Sheet 0167-5, scale 1:200,000 (UNCLASSIFIED)
DOCUMENTS
1. NPIC. Z-20035/81, RCA-09/0005/81, Ramenskoye Flight Test Center (5), May 81 (SECRET
2. Jane's All The World's Aircraft, 1981-82, p 454 (UNCLASSIFIED)
3. FTD. Drawing 82E1015, RAM-M (S/WN), 12 Mar 82 (SECRET
4. NPIC. Z-14571/82, IAR-0058/82, Large Transport Aircraft Development Program in the Soviet Union
(S), May 82 (SECRET
5. NPIC. Z-20180/81, IAR-0223/81, Activity
(SECRET
REQUIREMENT
COMIREX J02
Project 542058)
(S) Comments and queries regarding this report are welcom
Warsaw Pact Forces Division, Imagery Exploitation Group, NPIC,
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Secret
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