THE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF THE SOVIET FOOD SUPPLY

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• Sequence Number: 6
• Publication Date: December 1, 1984
• Content Type: REPORT

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+tE f Directorate of %,uuuuviltial
Intelligence;
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The Nutrient Content of the
Soviet Food Supply 0 25X1
A Research Paper
ON FILE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
RELEASE INSTRUCTIONS APPLY
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SOV 84-10219
December 1984
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The Nutrient Content of the
Soviet Food Supply
A Research Paper
This paper was prepared by Dof the Office
of Soviet Analysis with the technical support of the
Human Nutrition Information Service, US
Department of Agriculture.
Confidential
SOV 84-10219
December 1984
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Preface Western researchers have paid considerable attention to the economic and
political issues associated with the imbalances between the supply of and
demand for livestock products and other quality foods in the Soviet Union.
Over the last two decades, growth in discretionary income and the
maintenance of low and increasingly subsidized retail prices, along with
greater awareness of the better availability and variety of foods in the West
and in some East European countries, have pushed up Soviet consumer
demand for high-quality foods. Although the composition of the food
supply has changed somewhat to reflect consumer preferences, the Soviet
Union has not solved the economic problem of providing a food supply that
matches consumer preferences. 25X1
Little research, however, has been devoted to a parallel but separate issue,
the nutrient content of the Soviet food supply. The Soviet Union does not
publish systematic data on per capita levels of calories and nutrients. Nor
does it provide in any one source the sufficiently detailed breakdown of
food availability by type necessary to do an accurate nutrient composition
series. Undertaken as a contribution toward filling this gap in our
understanding of Soviet consumer welfare, this paper presents the results
of research conducted jointly by the Office of Soviet Analysis of the
Directorate of Intelligence and the Human Nutrition Information Service
of the US Department of Agriculture. Using a broad range of Soviet
sources, the Office of Soviet Analysis prepared detailed data on per capita
food availability consistent with USDA methodology. The Human Nutri-
tion Information Service, which conducts the annual nutrient analysis of
the US food supply, provided the technical analysis of this data.0 25X1
The study presents calculated levels of 25 nutrients and food components
(including calories, protein, carbohydrates, fat, fatty acids, vitamins, and
minerals) in the Soviet food supply. To provide a frame of reference, the
per capita levels of nutrients in the Soviet food supply are compared with
US data based on comparable methodology. We must emphasize, however,
that the data presented for both countries represent per capita levels of
nutrients in the food supply, not their actual ingestion, which is lower
because of losses in food and nutrients after the point of measurement of
the food supply. In addition, the per capita levels of nutrients in the Soviet
food supply as measured in this study likely cover a wide spectrum of
averages for regions and subgroups. 25X1
Because the quality and nutrient content of the Soviet food supply relate to
public health and to consumer welfare and satisfaction, we also discuss the
implications of our findings in these areas. Alterations in traditional
nutrition patterns may be associated with changing trends in Soviet
mortality, especially among Soviet men of able-bodied ages. 25X1
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The Nutrient Content of the
Soviet Food Supply 25X1
Summary The nutrient content of the Soviet food supply resembles that of the US
Information available food supply in many respects. The per capita level of food energy (calories)
as of 30 November 1984 nearly matches that in the United States. The protein level also nearly
was used in this report.
equals that of the US food supply. The level of carbohydrate remains
higher, and that of fat lower, but the gaps have narrowed somewhat since
1965. In both countries-but especially in the USSR-the nutrients
actually ingested by the population are less than the nutrients available in
the food supply because of both quantitative,and qualitative losses that
occur in processing, distribution, and food preparation subsequent to the
point of measurement. The data represent average per capita per day
nutrient levels and do not indicate the differences that exist among various
regions and population groups; these differences likely are more pro-
nounced in the USSR than in the United States. 25X1
Shifts in the structure and nutrient content of the Soviet food supply
occurred from 1965 to 1981, largely as a result of the increased availability
of livestock products. While the per. capita level of food energy increased 6
percent, the level of protein increased 8 percent, and that of carbohydrate
decreased 2 percent. The most pronounced change occurred in the per
capita level of fat, which increased 26 percent during the period studied.
The share of protein in the food supply from livestock products also
increased markedly, from one-third to nearly one-half. 25X1
The trends for the major nutrients within the period studied also varied
considerably. Most of the.changes occurred in the 1966-75 period. The per
capita level of calories rose through 1978 and then declined slightly in the
final two years examined in this study, mostly as the result of decreases in
the use of milk and milk products, grain products, and potatoes. The most
rapid rise in the calorie level took place during 1966-70. This period also
accounted for nearly all of the rise in the protein level, which subsequently
remained at the 1970 level with only small fluctuations. The level of
carbohydrates also increased slightly in 1966-70 and then began to fall,
also with some fluctuations. The level of fat held to a steadier pattern, ris-
ing through 1980 with only a minor decrease in 1981; it too, however, rose
most rapidly between 1965 and 1975. 25X1
The Soviet consumer has wanted a diet of the kind that prevails .in Western
industrialized societies-one characterized byy a relatively high intake of
animal products. And, indeed, the Soviet leadership has attempted to
accommodate this preference by giving priority for many years to the goal
of providing more livestock products. As the availability of livestock
products has increased, consumers have eagerly substituted them for the
traditional starchy staples-potatoes and grain products. 25X1
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For the most part, per capita levels of specific vitamins and minerals in the
USSR's food supply are close to those in the United States. With one
exception, the per capita levels of vitamins and minerals for most of the pe-
riod studied are also above US or Soviet recommended dietary allowances.
Because of the losses of food and nutrients occurring subsequent to the
point of measurement of the food supply, however, satisfying the recom-
mended dietary allowances (which are for nutrients in food as ingested)
calls for higher per capita levels of nutrients in the food supply. How much
higher cannot be stated, since the degree of loss before ingestion is
unknown. Nonetheless, we believe that such losses are higher in the USSR
than in the United States. Indeed, a primary objective of the Soviet Food
Program is to improve the food production complex so as to reduce losses
from waste and spoilage and to retain more of the nutrient value during
food processing. 25X1
The findings of this study suggest that the impact of shortages of quality
foods-items high on the Soviet consumer's scale of preferences-may be
primarily on consumer satisfaction rather than on physiological need. The
marked improvement in availability of meat, milk and milk products, and
some fruits and vegetables that occurred through the mid-1970s enhanced
consumer welfare in the USSR but also whetted consumer desire for
further improvement. The findings, however, are not without implications
for some public health issues. The relatively high level of calories and the
rapid growth in the per capita level of fat may be related to changing Sovi-
et mortality patterns, including the rapid increase in death rates from
coronary heart disease among Soviet men of able-bodied ages. A high fat
diet has also been associated with some forms of cancer. 25X1
Finally, the findings that the per capita levels of calories, protein, and most
food components in the Soviet food supply are close to or exceed Soviet rec-
ommended dietary allowances (RDAs) suggest that a sound strategy is to
eliminate waste and spoilage so as to increase the proportion of agricultural
production reaching the consumer and maintain the nutrient level of the
foods actually ingested. The food supply is basically adequate in nutrient
levels and could be augmented through loss reduction. An investment
approach aimed at reducing losses in harvesting, transport, and storage,
and at raising the efficiency of food processing (important components of
the May 1982 Food Program) thus probably would be more cost effective
in increasing the nutrient content of the food supply than a strategy of in-
creasing gross agricultural output, especially given the recent difficulties
the Soviet farm sector has experienced. 25X1
Nonetheless, the Food Program is designed to increase the output of nearly
all agricultural commodities. The current production of some foods,
notably meat and fruit, is still not sufficient to satisfy consumers even if all
losses between farm and consumer are eliminated. Moreover, population
growth necessitates production growth simply to maintain per capita
availabilities; and the Soviet leadership would like to reduce if not
eliminate food imports. 25X1
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Contents
Page
Preface
iii
Summary
v
Methodology
1
The US Food Supply
1
The Soviet Food Supply
1
Accounting for Losses in the Soviet Food Supply
2
Other Adjustments to Data
2
Evaluation of the Effects of Imperfect Data
3
Changes in the Calorie and Nutrient Content of the Soviet Food Supply
5
Consumer Sa
tisfaction
9
Health Implications of Trends in Nutrient Levels
10
Calorie Levels
10
Fat Intake
10
Other Health Conditions That May Be Related to Diet
11
Soviet Concern Over Nutritional Inadequacies
13
Outlook
13
Tables
1.
USSR Food Supply: Levels of Nutrients and Food Components Per
Capita Per Day, Selected Years
4
2.
United States and the USSR: Recommended Dietary Allowances
for Adults
6
3.
US Food Supply: Levels of Nutrients and Food Components Per
Capita Per Day, Selected Years
7
4.
Fat in the Soviet Food Supply: Shares Contributed by
Major Food Groups
9
5.
Cholesterol in the Soviet Food Supply: Shares Contributed by
Major Food Groups
9
6.
USSR and United States: Per Capita Availability of Selected
Foods, 1981
14
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Figures
1.
Soviet Food Supply: Changes in Per Capita Levels of Calories
and Nutrients, 1965-81
5
2.
Protein in the Soviet Food Supply: Amounts Contributed by Crop
and Livestock Products, 1965-81
8
3.
USSR and US: Levels of Fat in the Food Supply, 1965, 1975,
and 1981
8
4.
US and Soviet Food Supplies: Sources of Energy (Calories)
10
5.
US and Soviet Food Supplies: Contributions by Major Food
Groups
15
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The Nutrient Content of the
Soviet Food Supply
Methodology
This study was structured to examine the nutrient
content of the Soviet food supply and to facilitate
comparison with measurements of the nutrient con- .
tent of the US food supply. Every effort was made to
array information on the Soviet diet in a manner
consistent with the methodology employed by the
Human Nutrition Information Service of the US
Department of Agriculture.'
The US Food Supply
US food supply data prepared by the Economics
Research Service of USDA represent the amounts of
food that "disappear" into the food distribution sys-
tem. They are derived by deducting data on exports,
military use, yearend inventories, and nonfood use
from data on production, imports, and beginning-of-
the-year inventories. Because of the complexity of the
food distribution system, consumption is measured at
different stages of processing and distribution, from
the raw or primary state to the retail product. Food
losses that occur subsequent to the point of measure-
ment (that is, in processing, marketing, and home use)
are not taken into consideration. Therefore, estimates
of the nutrient content of the US food supply are not
intended to measure actual food ingestion by specific
age-sex groups, but rather to serve as a valuable tool
in assessing long-term trends in food and nutrient
levels.
The Soviet Food Supply
The measurement of the Soviet food supply is also
based on the "disappearance" concept, that is, the
amount of food disappearing into the food distribution
system. Our data development on the Soviet food
' More highly aggregated data on Soviet food consumption is used
by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in its
production' yearbook. The FAO methodology, which estimates per
capita intake of 12 nutrients,.has produced some results that differ
from this study; caloric consumption, for example, is estimated by
the FAO to be considerably higher. Using FAO data, the World
Bank calculated the per capita per day level of calories in the
USSR in 1981 to be 30 percent above the per capita recommended
dietary allowance. World Development Report 1984.
supply began with Soviet statistics on per capita
consumption of 10 general categories of food prod-
ucts. The data to a large extent represent food in
unprocessed form. These Soviet data were cross
checked (as far as data allowed) for consistency
between availability for human consumption on the
one hand, and production, net trade, and other end
uses on the other hand. These consumption data, in
kilograms or other physical units,.have been published
regularly since 1965.2 They are based on a variety of
sources, principally on balances of the supply and uses
of agricultural products and on periodic family budget
surveys. While the latter have been criticized by other
Soviet sources for lack of representativeness, the
results they give, according to Soviet statements, are
checked against availabilities given by the product
balances. Consumption of some food items-honey,
yeast, tea, and margarine-not included in the 10
categories of food were developed from Soviet produc-
tion and trade data.3
Although the absolute levels of food availability in
any one year must be used with great care in interna-
tional comparisons because of definitional problems
(which were addressed in subsequent steps in our data
development), the data are considered reliable indica-
tors of trend. They are reasonably consistent with
statistics for production, intermediate uses, changes in
inventories, and net imports. Some data series, howev-
er, may be less reliable than others. For example,
potatoes and vegetables, large shares of which are
produced by the private sector and which are used for
animal feeds, are.more difficult to check for consist-
ency between production and their various uses.
'The method of calculating the physical measures of per capita
consumption is described in Vestnik statistiki, No. 2, 1968, pp. 46-
50. The more detailed methodology for calculation of consumption
data by the Central Statistical Administration is set forth in
"Instruktsiya po raschetu fondov potrebleniya naseleniyem oblas-
tey, krayev i ASSR," Upravleniye balansa narodnogo khozyaystva,
Moscow, 1972.
' Vegetable oil consumed in margarine is not included in Soviet per
capita consumption statistics.
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Accounting for Losses in the Soviet Food Supply
Soviet methodology in calculating food balances ac-
counts for losses at some stages subsequent to harvest-
ing.4 Discounts are made for losses on the farm during
initial processing, storage, and further processing (if
such processing takes place in an enterprise on the
farm). Soviet-calculated balances, however, generally
do not take account of losses that occur between
delivery of products from the farm to other enterprises
or losses that occur in off-farm processing. Because
our methodology, wherever possible, converted Soviet
data given in terms of unprocessed foodstuffs to an
industrially processed basis (see next section), some of
the losses during manufacturing were captured. Sovi-
et data on food balances also incorporate at least
partial allowances for the household feeding of bread,
other grain products, and several other foods to
privately owned livestock, as well as for some food
waste that takes place in the home.
Because some losses in transport and processing are
the result of theft rather than spoilage (and thus
remain a component of food consumption), we did not
apply further across-the-board discounts for food
losses. Genuine losses of food do, of course, occur in
the Soviet transport and manufacturing systems, but
we have provided no adjustment for these. The impact
of the resulting error on our estimate of the Soviet
food supply in terms of the US measurement concept
is offset to some small extent by the adjustment
present in Soviet data for household losses-an ad-
justment not made in calculation of the US food
supply.
No adjustments could be made, however, for the
nutrient losses in fresh foods arising from poor Soviet
storage procedures. To some extent, however, our
inability to discount for nutrient losses in storage was
at least partially offset, because no upward adjust-
ments were made for the limited enrichment of foods
that takes place in the Soviet Union.
Other Adjustments to Data
Particular attention was paid to the necessity of
discounting and/or adjusting Soviet data to account
for processing practices different from those in the
United States. Soviet technical handbooks and indus-
try serial publications were used to obtain the specific
information necessary for these detailed calculations.
' Harvesting losses consist of output left in the field at harvesttime
or lost in transporting the harvested output to the point of weighing
or recording. These amounts are not recorded as gross output.
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For example, Soviet data on per capita whole-milk
availability had to be adjusted downward because
much of the nutritionally valuable byproducts of
butter and cheese production included in these data
actually are discarded or used for animal feed. Simi-
larly, official Soviet statistics on meat consumption
had to be adjusted to account for the slaughter fat
included in these statistics, so these amounts would be
counted as fat, not meat.' Additional adjustments
were made for edible offals included in Soviet meat
consumption statistics so that their specific nutrient
values could be included. Margarine consumption was
adjusted downward to account for animal fat used in
its production (to avoid double counting of animal fats
included in the animal fat category.) Slaughter fat
from cattle was adjusted downward to account for
production of tallow.
In addition, because Soviet food-use numbers for most
categories of foods are given in terms of fresh,
unprocessed equivalents (even though some food is
purchased by the consumer in processed form), it was
necessary to recalculate the amounts of food available
for consumption in fresh form. Soviet food processing
is generally less efficient than in the United States,
using more raw material per unit of output. There-
fore, reported industrial output for as many food
products as possible was located, and the amounts of
various unprocessed foods required to produce these
processed foods were calculated (taking account of the
lesser Soviet efficiencies). The amounts of unproc-
essed foods required to produce processed foods were
then subtracted from the Soviet-presented food-use
numbers to obtain the food amounts actually available
to the consumer in unprocessed form.
It was necessary to develop disaggregated data for
each year covered by the study. The operating princi-
ple was that greater specificity in the data would
reduce the likelihood of errors in the calculation of
nutrient content. Such data included the shares of
processed and fresh foods in certain categories and the
proportions of the specific foods in each basic catego-
ry. For example, the various types of fish and seafoods
included in the general category of "fish" and the
' Slaughter fat as a percentage of slaughter weight without the hide
is 5 percent for beef, 12 percent for pork, 8.5 percent for mutton
and lamb, and 5 percent of the "other" category, which includes
rabbit, horse, and reindeer. Poultry consumption was broken down
by type, and fat content was calculated by type of poultry.
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various types of flour included under the general
category of "flour and other grain products" had to be
determined. Then, as much as possible, item-specific
data were developed or estimated; for example, quan-
tities of milled wheat products in the food supply in
the form of flour or groats were estimated. Each food
item was then described in as much detail as possible
so that nutrient values specific to that food could be
assigned. For example, the various types of fish and
the quantities sold whole, dressed, and filleted were
estimated. When specific data could not be located-
for example, oranges by varietal type-the procedure
was to assign average nutrient values for all types that
might be expected to be used in the USSR.
Following USDA practice, commercially produced
alcohol and the grain and sugar used in alcohol
production were not included in the food supply. No
adjustments were made to Soviet food supply data for
diversion of food products into home-brewed and
home-distilled alcoholic beverages, although the ex-
tent of such diversion is probably larger in the USSR
than in the United States.' This decision was made in
6 In the USSR, alcohol consumption per person 16 years and older,
if Soviet statistics on alcohol consumption are used, amounts to 130
to 140 calories per day. Vladimir G. Treml, in Alcohol in the
USSR: A Statistical Study (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press,
1982), has calculated amounts of pure alcohol consumption per
person 15 years and older for a series of years. Using these
estimates, the amount of alcohol consumed (excluding homemade
wine and beer) would equate to 220 to 230 calories per day per
person 16 years and older in 1979. These amounts include some
distilled spirits illegally produced in households from foods included
in per capita consumption of food. Sugar, sugar beets, grain, flour,
bread, and potatoes are used in the illegal production of distilled
spirits. Treml believes that the illegal production of distilled spirits
results almost entirely from the use of refined sugar. Using the high
end of the range for the amount of sugar Treml estimates is used to
produce distilled spirits in households, we estimate that about 7 kg
of sugar per capita could have been diverted from the food supply at
the household level that year. This amounts to 75 calories per day
per capita, or slightly over 2 percent of the per capita per day
calorie level for 1978 and 1980 calculated in this study. Because the
estimates of the consumption of illegally produced distilled spirits
are subject to considerable uncertainty and because the estimates of
materials used in that portion of alcohol consumption arising from
illegal production are subject to even more uncertainty, the net
impact upon nutrition levels cannot be calculated with reasonable
certainty. For example, if one were to assume that potatoes rather
than sugar were the major raw material used in illegal household
production of distilled spirits, the level of ascorbic acid and some
other vitamins not present in sugar would decrease in the food
supply. If one were to assume sugar beets were the primary raw
material used, then no nutrient loss would occur, because sugar
beets (unlike table beets) are considered to be a "technical crop,"
are used in the industrial production of starch and sugar, and are
not counted as part of the food supply. In the United States,
consumption of alcohol per person 15 years and older amounted to
between 180 and 190 calories per day (not including nontaxed
production of alcoholic beverages) in 1979.
accordance with the standard USDA practice of not
applying discounts for losses occurring after the stage
of processing and distribution at which food supply
measurements are made.
Use of Soviet-derived nutrient values for the various
foodstuffs was considered, but many unexplained
differences in nutrient data were found.' These differ-
ences could not be attributed to measurement incon-
sistencies or to varietal and production differences.
Nor were data available for all foods and nutrients.
Therefore, in this study, the nutrient values for food-
stuffs are those used by the USDA Human Nutrition
Information Service. Food composition data were
based on chemical analysis of food available in the
United States, adjusted to take into account specific
descriptions of Soviet foods. Discounts are made for
refuse, such as bone in meat and fish, and rinds,
peelings, pits, and seeds in fruit.
Evaluation of the Effects of Imperfect Data
We believe that the adjusted data have, on the whole,
allowed us to accurately identify trends. Confidence
in the data for individual years is somewhat lessened
by our inability to fully account for Soviet losses of
foods at some stages between the farm and retail
outlet in the USSR, primarily in transport and manu-
facturing. The Soviet system of wages and bonuses
encourages underreporting of losses, but we lack
sufficient data to accurately calculate the differences
between reported and actual losses. Although the
Soviet press frequently reports large-percentage losses
of fruits and vegetables, for example, these reports
generally do not define at what points losses occur
before or after the stage at which the Soviets measure
the food supply. We believe, however, that our meth-
odology captures a large portion of these losses. F
We consider our measurements of the Soviet food
supply in its disaggregated form to be sufficiently 25X1
accurate for comparison with the US food supply in
an assessment of their respective nutrient contents. To
the extent that error exists in the results, it likely
stems from some overestimation of the Soviet food
supply because of our inability to calculate all losses.
'USDA Agricultural Research Service Agriculture Handbook (and
subsequent revisions), No. 8, Composition of Foods, 1975, and
USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, Khimicheskiy sostav pish-
chevykh produktov, pishchevaya promyshlennost', Moscow, 1977.
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Table I
USSR Food Supply: Levels of Nutrients and
Food Components Per Capita Per Day, Selected Years
1965 1970
1975
1978
1980
1981
Food energy (calories) 3,065 3,183
3,221
3,271
3,258
3,248
Protein (gm) 91.0 98.6
98.6
99.9
98.3
98.2
Fat (gm) 82.1 89.6
100.0
102.5
103.7
103.3
Carbohydrate (gm) 499.8 505.0
491.1
496.6
492.1
490.6
Calcium (mg) 589 802
738
788
760
761
Phosphorus (mg) 1,530 1,696
1,646
1,673
1,632
1,629
Zinc (mg) 11.0 12.1
12.3
12.4
12.2
12.1
Iron (mg) 15.4 15.6
15.7
15.6
15.4
15.4
Magnesium (mg) 427 445
430
429
420
418
Pantothenic acid (mg) 6.78 7.36
7.30
7.39
7.25
7.24
Thiamin (mg) 1.92 1.95
1.92
1.90
1.85
1.84
Riboflavin (mg) 1.66 1.97
1.99
2.06
2.01
2.01
Niacin (mg) 19.56 19.73
20.07
19.97
19.61
19.52
Folacin (mcg) 254 269
266
267
266
266
Vitamin' C (mg) 124 127
123
126
125
125
Vitamin A (IU) 4,223 4,900
5,202
5,357
5,790
5,808
Vitamin B, (mg) 2.09 2.13
2.11
2.12
2.06
2.05
Vitamin B12 (mcg) 4.68 5.98
6.55
6.73
6.63
6.55
Cholesterol (trig) 265.5 326.9
392.0
406.0
412.8
414.3
Total saturated fatty acid (gm) 29.6 33.9
37.6
38.2
38.3
38.0
Oleic acid (gm) 23.2 25.7
29.4
29.9
30.2
30.0
Linoleic acid (gm) 18.9 18.4
20.7
21.9
22.5
22.6
Total monounsaturated fatty
acid (gm) 25.8 28.8
32.8
33.3
33.6
34.4
Total polyunsaturated fatty
acid (gm) 20.5 20.4
22.6
23.7
24.5
24.6
Fiber (gm) 7.43 7.63
7.30
7.12
6.94
6.96
Source: Nutrient data calculated by Human Nutrition Information
Service, US Department of Agriculture, based on data provided by
the Office of Soviet Analysis.
This upward bias, however, appears to be within figures shown represent average nutrient levels on a
reasonable' bounds and does not seriously affect the per capita per day basis for the USSR as a whole.
results. As explained earlier,, neither are all losses in They do not indicate the differences that exist in the
the US.food supply captured[ diets of different population groups, which prelimi-
nary research indicates are substantial.
In using the data presented on food availability and
nutrient content, the reader must observe that the
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Figure 1
Soviet Food Supply: Changes in
Per Capita Levels of Calories
and Nutrients, 1965-81
Index: 1965=100
130
Fat
Protein
Calories
Carbohydrate
304383 (000717) 1284
Changes in the Calorie and Nutrient Content of the
Soviet Food Supply
Between 1965 and 1981 the per capita calorie level of
the Soviet food supply increased by 6 percent, the
protein level increased by 8 percent, and the carbohy-
drate level declined by 2 percent. Particularly striking
was the 26-percent increase in the per capita daily
level of fat and the 56-percent increase in cholesterol
(table 1 and figure 1).
The trends for. the major nutrients within the period
studied also varied considerably. Most of the changes
occurred in the 1965-75 period. The per capita level of
calories rose through 1978 and then declined slightly
in the final two years examined in the study, mostly as
the result of decreases in the use of milk and milk
products, grain products, and potatoes. The most
rapid rise in the calorie level occurred during 1965-70.
This period also accounted for nearly all of the rise in
the protein level, which subsequently remained at the
1970 level with only small fluctuations, although the
share of protein contributed by animal products con-
tinued to increase through 1980. The level of carbohy-
drates also increased in the 1965-70 period by a slight
amount and then began to fall, also with some
fluctuations. The level of fat held to a steadier
pattern, rising through 1980 with only a minor de-
crease in 1981; it too, however, rose most rapidly in
the early years of the study, 1965-75. The level of
cholesterol rose throughout the period of the study,
with the rise also being most pronounced in 1965-75.
The higher rate of increase in the cholesterol level is
accounted for by steady and substantial increases in
the availability of eggs, which are high in cholesterol
content.
Per capita calorie levels exceeded Soviet recommend-
ed levels of ingestion for adults by over 200 calories in
1965 and by nearly 400 in 1981. Thus, if losses
'between measurement of nutrient levels in the food
supply and nutrients in food as ingested did not
exceed 200 to 400 calories, then the food supply
provided sufficient energy on a per capita basis to
meet the Soviets' recommended level of intake for
adults. The Soviet per capita calorie levels also exceed
current US recommended allowances for adult men
and women-allowances that are considerably lower
than Soviet recommendations (table 2).
Per capita levels of protein in the Soviet food supply
for the period studied were within the Soviet recom-
mended range of intake for adults. As with calories,
Soviet per capita protein levels now nearly match US
levels (table 3). During the period covered by this
study, the sources of protein in the Soviet food supply
have changed markedly, with a greater share now
coming from livestock products (figure 2). The share
of protein in the food supply from livestock products
has increased from one-third to nearly one-half-still
well below the 70-percent share in the US food
supply.
Although the per capita level of carbohydrate in the
food supply decreased by 2 percent over the period, it
exceeded the US level of 391 grams per capita per day
by 25 percent in 1981. While the supply of per capita
of flour, other cereal products, and potatoes was
failing, the supply of sugar has increased and is much
closer to the US levels than in 1965.
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Table 2
United States and the USSR: Recommended
Dietary Allowances for Adults a
United States
men c
women c
USSR b
Calories 2,400 to 2,900 1,800 to 2,100 2,850
Protein (grams) 56 d 44 d 80 to 100
Fat (grams) NA NA 80 to 100
Carbohydrate (grams) NA NA 400 to 500
Calcium (milligrams) 800 to 1,200 800 to 1,200 800 to 1,000
Phosphorus (milligrams) 800 to 1,200 800 to 1,200 1,000 to 1,500
Zinc (milligrams) 15 15 10 to 15
Iron (milligrams) 10 to 18 10 to 18 15
Magnesium (milligrams)
350 to 400
300
300 to 500
Pantothenic acid (milligrams)
4 to 7
4 to 7
5 to 10
Thiamin (B,) (milligrams)
1.2 to 1.5
1.0 to 1.1
1.5 to 2.0
Riboflavin (B2) (milligrams)
1.4 to 1.7
1.2 to 1.3
2.0 to 2.5
Niacin (milligrams)
16 to 19
13 to 14
15 to 25
Folacin (micrograms)
400
400
200 to 400
Vitamin C (milligrams)
60
60
50 to 60
Vitamin A (international units)
5,000
4,000
5,000 to 8,000
Vitamin B6 (milligrams)
2.0 to 2.2
2.0
2 to 3
Vitamin B? (micrograms) 3.0 3.0 2.0 to 5.0
Vitamin D (international units) 200 to 400 200 to 400 100 to 400
' Values for adults in the United States defined as 15 to 75 years.
Definition of adult was not included in Soviet source. US Recom-
mended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are the levels of intake of
essential nutrients adequate to meet the known nutritional needs of
practically all healthy persons. Setting RDAs (except for energy) to
ensure that the needs of nearly all in the population are met means
that the allowances will exceed the requirements of most individ-
uals. Soviet recommended nutritional levels are also made on this
basis. Therefore, intakes below the recommended allowance for a
nutrient are not necessarily inadequate, but the risk of having an
inadequate intake increases as intake is reduced from the level
recommended as safe.
b Per average adult.
c US recommended daily energy intake for adults given here are the
midpoints of the ranges recommended for men and women. The
ranges given here include the midpoints of the recommended daily
energy allowances for men and women in the age categories of 15 to
18, 19 to 22, 23 to 50, and 51 to 75.
d Based on recommended 0.8 gm of protein per kilogram of body
weight and assumed body weight of 70 kg for men and 55 kg for
women.
Sources: For the United States, Committee on Dietary Allowances,
Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council, Recom-
mended Dietary Allowances, Ninth Revised Edition, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1980. The Committee on
Dietary Allowances of the Food and Nutrition Board of the
National Academy of Sciences periodically updates and reissues
the authoritative Recommended Dietary Allowances. For the
USSR, USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, Khimicheskiy sostav
pishchevykh produktov, Moscow, 1977.
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Table 3
US Food Supply: Levels of Nutrients and
Food Components Per Capita Per Day,
Selected Years
Year 1965 1970 1975 1978 1980 1981 1982
Food energy (calories)
3,190
3,330
3,260
3,340
3,410
3,410
3,380
Protein (gm)
96
100
99
100
100
100
99
Fat(gm)
150
160
152
158
163
164
162
Carbohydrate(gm)
370
379
380
387
392
391
388
Calcium (mg)
916
897
874
884
896
874
884
Phosphorus (mg)
1,493
1,513
1,485
1,493
1,499
1,477
1,473
Zinc (mg)
11.8
12.3
12.2
12.2
12.1
12.0
12.0
Iron (mg)
15.9
16.9
16.9
16.9
16.8
16.8
16.6
Magnesium (mg)
334
336
336
333
333
330
331
Thiamin (mg)
1.84
1.95
1.97
2.07
2.16
2.12
2.07
Riboflavin (mg)
2.21
2.26
2.28
2.35
2.36
2.30
2.28
Niacin (mg)
22.3
24.0
24.6
25.8
25.7
25.8
25.6
Folacin (mcg)
267
275
283
280
284
282
283
Vitamin C (mg)
95
107
117
116
120
117
118
Vitamin A (/U)
7,500
7,900
7,800
7,700
7,600
7,700
7,800
Vitamin B6 (mg)
1.82
1.97
1.96
1.98
2.00
1.97
1.97
Vitamin B? (mcg) 8.9 9.6 9.2 9.0 9.0 9.1 8.7
Cholesterol (mg) 523 526 484 487 490 486 479
Total saturated fatty acids (gm) 55.3 55.1 51.2 53.2 53.7 54.1 54.1
Oleic acid (gm) 61.0 65.6 61.8 62.6 64.3 64.8 64.5
Linoleic acid (gm) 17.7 21.8 22.4 24.4 25.2 25.7 25.5
Fiber (gm) 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1
Source: National Food Review, Winter, 1984, and unpublished
data; Quantities of nutrients are computed by Human Nutrition
Information Service, Consumer Nutrition Division, US Depart-
ment of Agriculture, on the basis of estimates, prepared by the
Economic Research Service, of per capita civilian food consumption
(retail weight). No deductions are made in nutrient estimates for
loss or waste of food in the home, use for pet food, or for destruction
or loss of nutrients during the preparation of food. Data include
estimates of home garden produce and iron, thiamin, niacin, and
riboflavin added to flour and cereal products; other nutrients added
primarily as follows: Vitamin A to margarine, milk of all types,
flavored milk extenders; Vitamin B6 to cereals, meal replacements,
infant formulas; Vitamin B? to cereals; ascorbic acid to fruit juices
and drinks, flavored beverages and dessert powders, flavored milk
extenders, and cereals.
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Figure 2
Protein in the Soviet Food
Supply: Amounts Contributed
by Crop and Livestock Products, 1965-81
? Livestock
0 Crop products
Protein per capita per day, grams
Source: SOYA-USDA study.
304384 (000718) 1284
The per capita levels of vitamins and minerals (with
the exception of calcium) for most of the period
studied were at or exceeded Soviet or US recommend-
ed dietary allowances (RDAs) for adults. The per
capita level of calcium did not reach either the Soviet
RDA or the US RDA for the period studied, and was
below that in US per capita food supply levels. The
level of vitamin A, which remained below the Soviet
RDA, was below the US RDA in 1965, improved
significantly by 1970, and by 1975 exceeded the US
RDA. It remained below US per capita food supply
levels for the period. The per capita level of folacin
was well below the US recommended allowance, but
within Soviet recommended allowances for the period.
However, per capita levels of folacin in both food
supplies were nearly equal for the period. The per
capita levee of riboflavin was at or above the US RDA
for most of the period, but only reached the higher
Soviet RDA in 1978. It remained below the per capita
level of riboflavin in the US food supply for the
period. The per capita level of zinc was within the
Soviet RDA range but did not reach the US RDA
during the period studied. Nonetheless, it was close to
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Figure 3
USSR and US: Levels of Fat in
the Food Supply, 1965, 1975, and 1981
rams
? USSR
?US
150
100
50
0 1965 75 81
Source: SOYA-USDA study.
304385 (000719) 12-84
the per capita level of zinc in the US food supply for
the period. Large differences in the per capita level of
magnesium, niacin, and vitamin B12 in the two food
supplies should also be noted.
In connection with the availability of vitamins and
minerals in the food supply, it is important to reem-
phasize that if the food supply is to provide recom-
mended levels of nutrient intake, it must exceed
recommended levels of intake. As noted earlier, by
how much the food supply needs to exceed RDA
depends on losses of food and nutrients after food
supply measurements are made.
The per capita level of fat in the Soviet food supply
increased by 26 percent over the period, from 82.1
grams in 1965 to 103.3 grams in 1981. The per capita
level of cholesterol in the food supply increased by 56
percent, from 265.5 milligrams in 1965 to 414.3
milligrams in 1981.1 Although these were rapid in-
creases, especially when viewed against US patterns,
8 Cholesterol, a fatlike substance, generally is produced by the
human body in sufficient quantities to meet the body's needs, but it
is also present as a natural component of diets containing foods of
animal origin. It is necessary in the formation of several substances,
such as vitamin D and hormones. Another important function is as
part of the covering of nerve fibers.
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Table 4
Percent
Table 5
Percent
Fat in the Soviet Food Supply:
Cholesterol in the Soviet Food Supply:
Shares Contributed
by Major Food Groups
Shares Contributed by Major Food Groups
1965
1970
1975
1978
1980
1981
1965 1970 1975 1978 1980
1981
Meat, poultry, fish
23.4
24.0
25.9
24.9
24.8
24.9
Eggs
2.4
2.9
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Meat, poultry, fish 33.2 31.3 30.6 29.5 29.3
29.1
Dairy products
14.7
21.0
17.5
18.5
17.4
17.3
Eggs 36.9 38.5 43.6 44.8 45.8
46.8
Fats and oils (includes
50.4
43.9
46.0
46.2
47.5
47.3
Dairy products 16.0 20.3 15.5 16.2 15.1
15.0
butter)
Fats and oils (includes 13.9 9.9 10.3 9.5 9.8
9.2
Citrus fruits a
butter)
Noncitrus fruits
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
Source: Nutrient data calculated by Human Nutrition Information
Potatoes
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
Service, US Department of Agriculture, based on data provided by
the Office of Soviet Analysis.
Dark green/deep yellow
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
vegetables
Note: Numbers may not add to 100 because of rounding.
Other vegetables
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
Legumes and nuts 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5
Grain products 7.6 6.6 5.6 5.3 5.2 5.2
a Less than 0.05 percent.
Source: Nutrient data calculated by Human Nutrition Information
Service, US Department of Agriculture, based on data provided by
the Office of Soviet Analysis.
Note: Numbers may not add to 100 because of rounding
per capita levels of fat and cholesterol in the Soviet
food supply are still below US levels (figure 3).9 Large
increases in the Soviet per capita supply of meat,
vegetable oil, and especially eggs in 1965-81 are
responsible for the sharp increase in per capita level of
fat and-with respect to the animal products-choles-
terol (tables 4 and 5).
The share of fat in the Soviet food supply is still well
below the US share, but the gap has narrowed since
1965, when the share of calorie intake from fat was 24
percent, and that in the US diet was 42 percent
(figure 4).
In the United States, the level of total fat in the food supply has
increased about 30 percent since the beginning of the century,
rising from 124.5 to 164 grams per capita per day from 1909-13 to
1981. The cholesterol level of the US food supply, however, has
fluctuated considerably during this century. It reached its lowest
level of 464 milligrams per capita per day in 1917 and again in
1935. Its peak level of 596 milligrams per capita per day occurred
in 1945. Since then, the level of cholesterol in the food supply has
fluctuated downward to 479 milligrams per capita per day in 1982.
National Food Review, Winter 1984.
Consumer Satisfaction
The findings of this study indicate that the Soviet
food supply on an average per capita basis has long
been generally adequate from a nutritional point of
view. These findings, however, do not mean that the
consumer is satisfied with the diet. Nearly half.of the
calories in the Soviet food supply are in the form of
grain products and potatoes. One-fourth of the calo-
ries are in this form in the US food supply. Over the
last two decades, growth in discretionary income and
the maintenance of low retail prices, along with
greater awareness of the better availability of foods in
the West and in some East European countries, have
increased Soviet consumer demand for high-quality
foods. Although the composition of the Soviet food
supply has changed somewhat to reflect consumer
preferences, the Soviet Union has not solved the
economic problem of providing a food supply that
matches consumer preferences. The imbalances be-
tween the supply of and demand for most livestock
products and some other quality foods are manifested
in queuing and black marketing.
9
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Figure 4
US and Soviet Food Supplies:
Sources of Energy (Calories)
Fat
Carbohydrate
Protein
Percent of calories
Source: SOVA-USDA study and "Nutrient Content of the National
Food Supply, 1981," National Food Review, Winter, 1983.
304386 (c00720) 12$4
Health Implications of Trends in Nutrient Levels
Declines in Soviet life expectancy have raised many
questions about the quality of life and lifestyle of the
Soviet population. Life expectancy for males, after
reaching a high point of 67 years in 1964, has
declined to 62 years in 1983; life expectancy for
females, after reaching a high point of 76 years in
1964, was 74 years in 1983. Soviet statistics show
large increases in the rates of death attributed to
cardiovascular disease and cancer during this period.
Although estimation of the specific impact of trends
in nutrient levels in the food supply upon disease and
death rates in the Soviet Union is outside the scope of
this paper, some implicit risks to health can be
identified in general terms. Although the Soviet diet
conforms more to consumer desires now than it did
two decades ago, not all of the changes have been
necessarily beneficial to health maintenance. Western
medical research in recent years has accumulated
evidence of certain linkages between diet and disease.
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The relatively high level of calorie availability and the
rapid growth in fat and cholesterol levels in the Soviet
food supply may be of interest to researchers investi-
gating these changing mortality patterns.
Calorie Levels
Although the calorie level of the Soviet food supply
increased 6 percent between 1965 and 1981, it is not
possible to judge the adequacy of intake from food
supply data. According to the Soviet journal Ques-
tions of Nutrition, however, nearly 50 percent of
Soviet adults are overweight, and the incidence of
obesity is increasing both among adults and children.1?
Obesity has been associated with an increased risk of
developing major health problems, including coronary
heart disease.
Fat Intake
A diet that contributes to high blood concentrations of
cholesterol is generally considered to be an important
risk factor associated with coronary heart disease.
Other high-risk factors include genetic background,
smoking, and hypertension." A high fat diet has also
been associated with some forms of cancer. The
relationships between diet and coronary heart disease,
and between diet and cancer, and the interrelations
Voprosy pitaniya, No. 3, 1983.
" The desirable amounts of fat, fatty acids, and cholesterol in the
diet are subjects of considerable controversy. However, the Ameri-
can Institute for Cancer Research issued guidelines in early 1984
recommending that Americans reduce their intake of dietary fat.
The guidelines were based on evidence linking diets high in fat with
heart disease and some forms of cancer. The American Heart
Association currently recommends that the intake of fat for
Americans should not contribute more than 30 percent of dietary
energy. Dietary guidelines issued in 1980 by the US Department of
Agriculture and the US Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare recommended avoiding too much fat. In 1980 the Commit-
tee on Dietary Allowances of the Food and Nutrition Board of the
National Academy of Sciences, in issuing the 9th revised edition of
the authoritative Recommended Dietary Allowances, did not make
a blanket recommendation for dietary change for the entire popula-
tion but suggested that individuals consider reducing intake of fat
so that it does not contribute more than 35 percent of dietary ,
energy. The Committee stated that a diet containing 15-25 grams
per day of appropriate food fats is adequate, but set no specific
requirement for fat as a nutrient in the diet.
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between diet, other risk factors, and these diseases
appear to be highly complex and are the subject of
much current research."
According to the Soviet statistics, in the last two
decades cardiovascular disease (which includes coro-
nary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, and rheu-
matic fever) has become the leading cause of death in
the USSR. The crude death rate from cardiovascular
disease rose by 71 percent from 1965 to 1981. Death
rates from cardiovascular disease have increased
nearly twice as fast as overall mortality increases. The
limited data available suggest that much of this
increase can be accounted for among men of prime
able-bodied ages." The crude death rate from cancer
in this period increased 15 percent.
Some Western epidemiologists postulate that the So-
viet Union has in effect joined the "coronary lifestyle
club," developing trends in mortality and morbidity
that have occurred earlier in more affluent societies.
With economic development and with a gradual rise
in the level of living, the Soviet population is increas-
ingly turning to foods that symbolize the "good life"
but earlier were in much shorter supply. Increased
consumption of those foods (many of which are high in
animal fats), combined with other trends such as
increased use of cigarettes and alcohol, they suggest,
appears to be leading to the increased incidence of
coronary heart disease and cancer."
'Z Joint US-USSR research in exploring some of these relationships
has resulted in the following publications: US-USSR Steering
Committee for Problem Area 1: The Pathogenesis of Atherosclero-
sis. "Collaborative US-USSR study on the Prevalence of Dyslipo-
proteinemias and Ischemic Heart Disease in American and Soviet
Populations," American Journal of Cardiology, 1977; 40:260-8;
US-USSR Steering Committee for Problem Area I (The Pathogen-
esis of Atherosclerosis): Population Descriptions and Methodology
for the Collaboration in Problem Area I. In: USA-USSR First
Lipoprotein Symposium: Leningrad, USSR May, 26-27, 1981.
Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services,
1982, NIH Publication No. 83-1966; and US-USSR Steering
Committee for Problem Area I: The Pathogenesis of Atherosclero-
sis. "Nutrient Intake and its Association with High-Density Lypo-
protein and Cholesterol in Selected US and USSR Subpopula-
tions," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1984; 39:942-952.
" Vesinik statistiki, Nos. 11 and 12, various years.
" See Richard Cooper, M.D., and Arthur Schatzkin, M.D., MPH.,
"Recent Trends in Coronary Risk Factors in the USSR," The
American Journal of Public Health, May 1982, Vol. 72, No. 5;
Richard Cooper, M.D., "Rising Death Rates in the Soviet Union,"
The New England Journal of Medicine, 304; No. 21, 1981; John
Dutton, Jr., "Changes in Soviet Mortality Patterns, 1959-1977,"
Population and Development Review, 1979, No. 5.
11
Soviet plans for 1990 call for an increase over 1981 of
nearly 25 percent in per capita consumption of meat,
a 50-percent increase for vegetable oil, and 10-percent
increases for eggs and milk. Although not all these
goals will be met, the per capita consumption of eggs
and milk in 1990 will likely meet and possibly exceed
plans, and some increase in meat and vegetable oil
consumption is likely. Hence, cholesterol and fat
levels are likely to continue on their upward trend.
Other Health Conditions That May Be Related to Diet
In general, the use of food supply data to imply levels
of nutrient intake and then to associate intake with
the incidence of disease has serious drawbacks. As
indicated earlier, to provide recommended levels of
nutrients for ingestion, per capita levels of nutrients in
the food supply must be higher. How much higher
cannot be stated, since the degree of loss before
ingestion is unknown.
Still, the finding of this study that the per capita level
of calcium in the Soviet food supply for the period
studied is below both US and Soviet RDAs for adults
may be of interest to researchers studying Soviet
health trends. Also noteworthy are the findings stated
with regard to vitamin A, riboflavin, folacin, zinc, and
vitamin B12.
A finding of average per capita levels of nutrients
above the RDA for a large population does not, of
course, provide information about the distribution of
food and nutrients among population groups or indi-
viduals and therefore does not rule out the possibility
that certain groups within a population are receiving
inadequate amounts of certain nutrients." Indeed,
Soviet medical literature indicates that nutritional
deficiencies exist among some subgroups in the popu-
lation and that, in some cases, these nutritional
deficiencies have led to deficiency diseases.
" In the United States, for example, the first Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES), conducted in 1971-74, found
dietary deficiencies among certain groups. Among the deficiencies,
iron was the most frequent, affecting particularly young children
and women of childbearing age. The survey collected data through
dietary surveys, physical examinations, and clinical tests.
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Soviet medical literature suggests, for example, that
the prevalence of rickets (a vitamin D deficiency
disease)" among children, especially infants-particu-
larly in the southern and Central Asian republics-
may be considerably greater than in the United
States, where it was virtually eliminated decades
ago." The Soviet literature also suggests that nutri-
tional anemia among children is common in some
areas."
For example, in early 1981 a pediatrician in Kazan'
(in the Russian republic) stated that, although rickets
"has lost the features of a social illness" in the Soviet
Union, this problem "nevertheless continues to trou-
ble pediatricians and attract the attention of research-
ers." " Additional evidence of rickets and anemia in
" Although rickets can be caused by other factors, it is most often
caused by a vitamin D deficiency. In the absence of vitamin D,
mineralization of bone matrix is impaired, resulting in rickets in
children and osteomalacia in adults. The exact requirement for
vitamin D has not yet been established. Although vitamin D can
readily be formed by the action of sunlight on the skin, the amount
formed is dependent on a number of variables, including length and
intensity of exposure and color of skin. (Recommended Dietary
Allowances, Ninth Revised Edition, National Academy of Sci-
ences, Washington, D.C., 1980.) In some northern areas of the
USSR, children are provided with ultraviolet light treatments to
prevent rickets.
" While some pediatric texts now label rickets as a pediatric relic in
the United States, it continues to be seen in the pediatric age range
among certain susceptible subgroups that include very premature
infants, those on long-term anticonvulsant therapy, those with
malabsorptive diseases, and some strict vegetarians with little or no
vitamin D intake. In 1927 it was discovered that the plant sterol
ergosterol acquired the property of curing rickets when irradiated
with ultraviolet light. This compound, ergocalciferol (called Vita-
min D2), has been added to almost all milk sold in the United
States and Western Europe and has been responsible for the almost
complete disappearance of rickets in the United States over the past
40 years. "Vitamin D Deficiency Rickets in American Children,"
Comparative Therapy, July 1981.
" Although many nutrients are involved in the production of red
blood cells and hemoglobin, iron deficiency is by far the most
common cause of nutritional anemia all over the world. In certain
sections of a population, especially pregnant women, folate deficien-
cy is also an important cause. Even in developed countries certain
sections of the population, such as premature infants, preschool
children, and pregnant women, are particularly at risk; in develop-
ing countries the problem is much more widespread and serious
(Bulletin of the World Health Organization, No. 56 [51, 1978). In
the United States, the Ten-State Nutrition Survey revealed that,
for children under 36 months of age, iron was the only nutrient for
which mean intakes were generally below recommended daily
allowances (USDHEW, 1972). The first NHANES survey has
provided additional evidence of intakes below the recommended
daily allowances at all income levels and among all races (The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, June 1978.)
" "Reshennye i nereshenniye voprosy rakhita," Pediatriya, No. 2,
1981.
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children in both cities and rural areas has surfaced."
Taken together, this material suggests that these
deficiency diseases were occurring in the 1960s and
1970s and are still occurring in some regions in the
USSR. The Soviets do not publish information on the
incidence of those diseases.
Rickets in infants may result from the inadequate
supply of infant formula, the lack of supplemental
vitamin D for nursing infants, and insufficient expo-
sure to sunlight." Among older children, it may result
from insufficient exposure to sunlight in combination
with inadequate intake of food products containing
vitamin D.
'? A study published in 1982 of the "actual diet and health status"
of children in Kazakhstan reported the following: "Various forms of
nutritional disturbances and diseases caused by them were found.
The most widespread finding was a shortage of essential amino
acids-lysine, methionine, and threonine-and vitamins A, C, and
the B group. Rickets, hypotrophy, anemia, and obesity were often
encountered among the diet-related diseases. A direct correlation
was established between incidence of diseases, in which the nutri-
tional factor is dominant, and infectious-inflammatory diseases that
are the greatest cause of child mortality." Vestnik Akademii
meditsinskikh nauk SSSR, No. 11, 1982. A study of child
mortality for 1974 in Azerbaijan noted that a "rather high child
mortality affects the republic's general mortality rate" and blamed
poor medical care, specifically "weak prophylaxes for rickets."
Azerbaijanskiy meditsinskiy zhurnal, No. 9, 1976. A study in
Kazakhstan in the early 1980s of the physical development and
general health of babies fed on different infant formulas, using
breast-fed babies as controls, found that 12 percent of the breast-
fed babies developed "diseases of the endocrine system," nutritional
and metabolic disorders including rickets, and that 25 percent
developed "alimentary anemia." Of the infants fed on formulas, the
percentages developing the first category of problems ranged from
I I to 42 percent; no further figures were given for anemia
(Zdravookhraneniye Kazakhstana, No. 2, 1983). In a study con-
ducted in the mid-1970s of 3,016 families in Leningrad with
children up to 7 years of age, 450 families were found with children
suffering from chronic illnesses; of these children, 8.6 percent
suffered from "rickets and hypertrophy" (Zdravookhraneniye Ros-
siyskoy Federatsii, No. 8, 1979). In a study conducted of the
medical records of 514 children up to age 3 who had died in the city
of Sumgait in Azerbaijan in 1970-72, rickets was retroactively
diagnosed in over 100 cases; the researchers believed that rickets
was a significant contributing cause of death in many of these
cases. In seven cases, anemia was diagnosed as the cause of death.
Azerbaijanskiy meditsinskiy zhurnal, No. 4, 1975. A medical
examination of children in 10 cities of the USSR conducted in
1969-71 found a large number of chronic diseases requiring
treatment, including rickets and anemia. (Pediatriya, No. 2, 1980.)
" Soviet mothers often use cow's milk or powdered milk reconstitut-
ed with water to feed their infants. Most milk and milk products in
the Soviet Union are not fortified with vitamin D. Infant formula is
still not produced in needed quantities in the Soviet Union,
although much progress has been made.
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Soviet Concern Over Nutritional Inadequacies
Soviet nutritional researchers have found the intake of
various vitamins and minerals to be inadequate
among some population and age groups in certain
regions. The concern among Soviet medical authori-
ties was clear at an all-union conference on nutrition
sponsored by the Presidium of the Academy of Medi-
cal Sciences in late 1981. The report of the conference
stated that, "Despite significant progress in rational-
izing the diet, the problem of an insufficient supply of
certain vitamins to selected groups in the population
remains serious. Studies of various occupational
groups among the population in a number of regions
in the country have revealed insufficient intake of
ascorbic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin."
The conference recommended more research on the
intake of vitamins A, C, B, B2i D, E, and folacin
among preschool and school-age children, older stu-
dents, pregnant and nursing women, and certain
unspecified occupational groups in Siberia, Central
Asia, the Far East, and the North." Soviet medical
journals regularly discuss the problem of anemia in
women of childbearing age, suggesting that it is a
widespread problem.
Differences in the intake of various nutrients leading
to nutritional inadequacies among certain subpopula-
tions have many causes. A major factor is the sub-
stantial variation in availability of various food prod-
ucts and per capita food supply levels among regions
in the USSR. The Ukraine and Belorussia have the
highest per capita calorie levels with the Central
Asian republics trailing well below the average levels
for the USSR. The differences can be attributed to
income levels, preference (which varies among ethnic
groups), climate (calorie requirements tend to be
somewhat less in southern regions), age structure (per
capita calorie levels are lower in groups with higher
proportions of infants and children), and regional
differences in production. For example, in 1975 per
capita use of meat in Estonia was 80 kilograms (kg),
with per capita production at 115 kg, while in Uzbeki-
stan per capita use of meat was 31 kg, with per capita
production at only 18 kg. In 1981 the per capita use of
_2 The conference report complained that "not enough" was being
done to carry out earlier party-state and ministerial decrees on food
fortification. Voprosy pitaniya, No. 4, 1982.
13
fruit in the Siberian area of the Russian republic was
12 kg, while in the Russian republic as a whole per
capita use of fruit was 40 kg.23
In addition, the marked seasonal fluctuations in the
availability of certain foods, in large part a result of
marketing and distribution problems, may cause sig-
nificant variations in the food supply levels of some
nutrients. Fresh vegetables and fruit are often un-
available for purchase in the winter and early spring.
Researchers from the Institute of Nutrition, USSR
Academy of Medical Sciences, are beginning to study
the effects of these seasonal variations."
The effects of the regional and seasonal variations on
intake of certain foods among population subgroups
could be ameliorated if food were more widely distrib-
uted or if foods were enriched. Although a joint party-
state resolution issued in 1960 ordered systematic
enrichment of several basic foodstuffs, very little is
being done. For example, only a tiny share of industri-
ally processed milk in the Soviet Union is fortified'
with vitamin D. Soviet authorities, not unaware of the
importance of food enrichment, plan large increases in
the output of enriched food products, especially for
children.
Outlook
The nutrient content of the Soviet food supply will
continue to change as livestock products and other
foods become more available. Soviet consumer prefer-
ences for livestock products and some other quality
" Ekonomika i organizatsiya promyshlennogo proizvodstva, No. 6,
1982; Narodnoye khozyaystvo RSFSR v 1981 g. Statisticheskiy
yezhegodnik, Moscow, Tsentral'noye statisticheskoye upravleniye
RSFSR, 1982.
'? Voprosy pitaniya, No. 3, 1983. Nutritional sciences are thee
responsibility of the Academy of Medical Sciences (AMS) of the
USSR. This academy is governed by a presidium whose members
comprise the elite of Soviet medical sciences. There are numerous
medical research institutes under the control of the AMS. Among
the AMS institutes is the Institute of Nutrition in Moscow, which is
the central and lead institute for all nutrition research in the
USSR. The Institute of Nutrition has a branch located in Alma
Ata, Kazakhstan.
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Table 6 Kilograms
USSR and United States: Per Capita
Availability of Selected Foods, 1981
Meata Fish Eggs Fruit Sugar b Potatoes
USSR 53 18 14 42 44 105
United States 110 8 15 64 36 35
a Meat for the USSR and the United States excludes slaughter fat
and includes edible offals.
b If all other sweeteners are included (sweeteners other than sugar
are not available for general consumption in the USSR) the
figure for the United States would be 64.
Sources: Narodnoye khozyaystvo SSSR, 1982; Food Consumption
Prices and Expenditures, 1962-82.
foods are still far from satisfied; per capita availabil-
ities of these foods generally do not match US levels
(table 6 and figure 5). The intake of meat, dairy
products, vegetable oil, sugar, and some fruits and
vegetables will increase slowly as the availability of
these products increases. The overall result will likely
be a continued rise in the levels of fat and protein in
the food supply and a fall in carbohydrates. The
declines in carbohydrates, however, are not likely to
offset the increases in calories contributed by protein
and fat in the food supply. Per capita calorie levels
will probably climb slowly upward through the 1980s.
Preliminary estimates indicate the per capita calorie
level in 1983 was higher than in 1981.
Some steps the Soviets could take to improve nutrition
and lessen regional discrepancies in nutrient levels
could well involve conflicts between public health
considerations and the goal of increasing consumer
satisfaction. Controlling the level.of fat in the food
supply, for example, could require a rethinking of the
policy of providing more high-fat livestock products to
consumers, as well as an effort to provide more low-
fat industrially processed products. Limiting the rise
in calorie levels could be partially achieved by stop-
ping growth in sugar availability, but this would also
result in consumer dissatisfaction. Similarly, to carry
out the policy of lessening the gaps in the availability
of certain foods among regions involves difficult
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choices under present conditions. Either a sharp in- _
crease in the general availability of these foods would
have to be provided through expensive imports, or a
redistribution of available supplies of these foods
between the "have" and "have-not" regions would
have to be effected.
Other measures could improve nutrition, however,
without involving politically difficult choices. Such
measures include encouraging breast-feeding and pro-
ducing more infant formula for those who choose not
to breast-feed, increasing the vitamin fortification of
foods such as milk and flour, expanding the output of
processed foods (particularly fruits and vegetables),
and improving the storage and transportation of
foods. The Soviets are making efforts in all these
areas.
Although the nutritional content of the Soviet diet is
now closer to that of the US diet than it was in 1965,
Soviet consumers still do not enjoy substantial access
to the quantity and variety of fresh and processed food
products that the US consumer has. This is particu-
larly true with respect to meat and fruit. The US
consumer, in fact, appears to have reached the satura-
tion point in consumption of meat (excluding poultry)
and eggs; indeed, per capita consumption of these
items has been in decline for several years. Soviet per
capita increases in consumption of several foods will
continue, but at slow rates.
Finally, the findings that the per capita levels of
calories, protein, and most food components in the
Soviet food supply are close to or exceed Soviet RDAs
suggest that a strategy of eliminating waste and
spoilage to increase the proportion of agricultural
production reaching the consumer is sound. The food
supply is basically adequate in nutrient levels and
could be augmented through loss reduction. Indeed, a
primary objective of the Soviet Food Program is to
reduce losses in the vertically integrated food produc-
tion complex. An investment approach aimed at re-
ducing losses in harvesting, transport, and storage,
and at raising the efficiency of food processing would
probably therefore be more cost effective in increasing
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Figure 5
US and Soviet Food Supplies: Contributions by
Major Food Groups
Percent
=Grain products and Fats and oils- Sugar
potatoes
Meat and fish [~ Dairy and ? Other
eggs
US
3,310 calories per 3,410 calories per
day per person day per person
1967-69
1981
Source: SOYA-USDA study and "Nutrient Content of the National
Food Supply, 1981," National Food Review, Winter, 1983.
USSR
3,065 calories per 3,248 calories per
day per person day per person
1965
1981
25X1
304387 (000721) 1284
the nutrient content of the food supply than a strategy
of increasing gross agricultural output, especially
given the very high cost of expanding production on
Soviet farms.
Nonetheless, the primary objective of the Food Pro-
gram is to increase the output of nearly all agricultur-
al commodities. The current production of some
foods, notably meat and fruit, is still not sufficient to
satisfy consumer preferences even if all losses between
farm and consumer are eliminated. Moreover, popula-
tion growth necessitates production growth simply to
maintain per capita availabilities, and a declared goal
of the Soviet leadership is to reduce if not eliminate
food imports.
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