SELF-EVALUATION OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAMS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 116
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 28, 2008
• Sequence Number: 33
• Content Type: REPORT

Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
SELF-EVALUATION
OF OCCUPATIONAL
SAFETY AND HEALTH
PROGRAMS
ev~
QRti
oQ~
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Center for Disease Control
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Division of Technical Services
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
DISCLAIMER
Mention of company names or products does not constitute
endorsement by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health.
DREW (NIOSH) Publication No. 78.187
Library of Congress No. 78-600123
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
FOREWORD
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has a
continuing responsibility to develop new approaches to the problem of
ensuring a safe and healthful work environment through involvement
with basic and applied research.
Toward this end, NIOSH has developed and expanded the concept of
occupational self-evaluation as an additional approach to promoting
safety and health among employers and employees in industry.
This concept as contained here is offered as an adjunct to existing
regulatory procedures for compliance with the Occupational Safety
and Health Act of 1970 and is intended to provide greater awareness
of potential hazards in the development of comprehensive
occupational safety and health programs.
~Ll 11 lcc
J. Michael Lane, M.D.
Acting Director, National
Institute for Occupational
? Safety and Health
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
PREFACE
Most employers and employees recognize the need to create a safe and
healthful workplace, but they may find it difficult to interpret
appropriate regulations. Organized labor groups recognize the need
for employees to practice good work habits, and many workers
appreciate the benefits to be gained by so doing. Recent evidence
suggests the desirability on the part of management to provide
comprehensive occupational safety and health programs as an
effective way to reduce the cost of absenteeism, production time losses,
and cost of workers' compensation and disability insurance. An
approach to assure a safe and healthful work environment for working
men and women is that of self-evaluation.
Self-evaluation is a systematic approach to be used by both employer
and employees to readily identify and correct potential workplace
hazards. The concept of self evaluation, although not new to some
businesses, has not been generally used in any well-designed or
industrywide manner. Through its use, employers and employees will
become aware of existing and potential occupational safety and health
problems, and, in a spirit of cooperation, are stimulated to take
corrective action. Thus, in-place resource persons, with outside
assistance if necessary, can work to improve the quality of their own
work environment.
This document, the basic core, "Self-Evaluation of Occupational
Safety and Health Programs," is applicable to all industries. It
provides comprehensive information to help implement occupational
safety and health self-evaluation programs. It must be used with a
complementary document, "Self-Evaluation Instrument" (SEI),
which is written for specific types of industries. Within the SEI are
comments and questions applicable to specific within-plant situations
where both hazards and potential hazards may exist. These sections in
the SEI are designed to be reproduced; each section should be: given to
the persons responsible for supervising the area to which it applies,
and they, along with the employees working there, are to complete
them. The various responses to the questions may then be used to:
?analyze the work situation,
?develop a plan whereby corrective action may be taken around
work and production schedules,
?form the basis for educational and training programs, and
?emphasize for employers and employees the areas of potential
concern.
Although work sites may vary depending on the product or service
provided, the approach to recognition and correction of potential
occupational safety and health problems, through the use of this
instrument, are common to all. Thus, the SEI and the basic core
document will assist employers and employees to better understand
the desirability of meeting requirements of federal or state OSHA
regulations and of going even beyond this minimum to develop and
implement a comprehensive occupational safety and health program.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
As each establishment completes the SEI and periodically repeats the
process, employers and employees will gain insight into the wide range
of potential occupational safety and health problems and acquire a
certain measure of assurance that the workplace is in compliance with
state and federal OSHA standards.
When the SEI has been completed and the results analyzed, priorities
should be set for any necessary corrective measures based on:
*the seriousness of the potential problem,
*the planning necessary to minimize expense,
?production and working schedules,
*the availability of expertise, and
?other priorities.
Use of this document, then, provides a method to develop preventive
strategies to reduce the need for disability determinations and reduce
existing costs of worker compensation - a method whereby immediate
measures can be taken to improve the safety and health of the work
environment.
Loren L. Hatch, D. 0., Ph.D.
Medical Officer (Occupational Medicine)
P. G. Rentos, Ph.D.
Scientist Director (Industrial Hygienist)
Frank W. Godbey
Industrial Hygiene and Safety Specialist
Edward L. Schrems, Ph.D.
Operations Research Analyst (Decision
(Scientist)
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
ABSTRACT
"Self-Evaluation of Occupational Safety and Health Programs"
presents a concept of self-evaluation whereby management .and labor
can join together in self-assessment to recognize and prevent or control
the potential hazards of their own plant and working area and,
thereby, ensure a safer and more healthful work environment.
This document presents a basic information core applicable to most
industries. The program for self-evaluation is outlined and the steps
needed for its implementation are given. Within plants, problem areas
offering the potential for improved safety and health are specifically
described.
A "Self-Evaluation Instrument" applicable to a specific industry is
to be used with this basic document. It offers questions and comments
designed to pinpoint plant situations that need upgrading.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
CONTENTS
Foreward, iii
Preface, iv
Abstract, vi
Acknowledgments, viii
Introduction, 1
The Program, 3
Employee-Centered Safety and Health Program, 4
Recognizing and Controlling Safety and Health Hazards, 20
Matching the- Employee to the Job: Selection and Training, 27
Measuring Program Effectiveness, 38
Sources of Information and Consultation, 46
Worksite Safety and Health, 55
Plant Safety and Health, 56
Chemical Agents, 79
Biological Agents, 94
Physical Agents, 96
Psychological Hazards, 107
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The self-evaluation concept developed in this document is not unique;
the particular use to which we have applied this concept is, however,
the result of the interest and guidance given the project by Dr. John F.
Finklea, M.D., former Director of the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
NIOSH personnel have devoted much time, talent, and expertise in
preparing this volume. Specifically, we acknowledge and appreciate
the efforts of the:
Division of Technical Services -
Marshall LaNier, Director
A. F. Schaplowsky, Deputy Director
Technical reviewers -
James A. Oppold
Robert D. Mahon
F. M. Dukes-Dobos
Secretarial support -
Gayla Osborne
Ann Battisone
Teresa Mineer
Technical Information Development Branch -
Gerald Karches
Lorice Ede
Marion Curry
Forest Holloway, Jr. (cover design)
The authors wish especially to thank Marion Curry for editing and
preparing these documents for publication.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
INTRODUCTION
Your Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)
program is an essential activity. Its goal is to
provide a work and a physical environment for
each employee that is as free as possible from
potential hazards to safety and health. Good
management and work practices, as well as
legal requirements, make safety and health
priority concerns for all employers and
employees.
Self-evaluation offers a system by which you
and your employees can identify and
systematically attempt to solve safety and
health problems. The approach is private and
voluntary. It assists workplaces in improving
the quality of their environment by using in-
house resources along with outside assistance
and consultation where needed.
The most successful safety and health
programs translate internal commitment and
individual awareness into action. The self-
evaluation approach sensitizes employers and
employees to their work environment and
encourages them to share responsibilities in
this area.
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS AND
SELF-EVALUATION
Self-evaluation, with subsequent corrective
action, should provide satisfactory assurance
that the establishment has identified and
addressed the problems that would be cited by a
federal or state inspector. Most establishments
recognize the need to comply with the law, but
many find it difficult to interpret the law and
define their responsibilities. This process will
help you to understand not only your legal
responsibilities, but will assist you to appreciate
the benefits of going beyond the minimum
requirements of the law, i.e., into the
development and implementation of a
comprehensive OSH program.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970 (Act) essentially requires employers to
provide employment free from recognized
safety and health hazards that could result in
injury, illness, or death. All establishments
employing one or more persons are subject to
the Act. The administration of the Act falls
under several agencies:
-OSHA (The Occupational Safety and
Health Administration), in the U.S.
Department of Labor (DOL), establishes
and enforces occupational safety and
health standards through inspections,
citations, and fines.
-NIOSH (National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health), in the
U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare (DHEW), recommends
safety and health standards and
conducts research, investigations,
demonstrations, and programs of
education and training relating to
occupational safety and health.
-OSHRC (The Occupational Safety and
Health Review Commission), an
independent government body, holds
hearings on appeals from DOL or the
employer and renders decisions, which
may be appealed.
-State OSHA Programs (State
Occupational. Safety and Health
Administration Programs). Some states
(20 in October 1978) have chosen to
assume responsibility for administration
of the Act. Under special plans
negotiated with DOL, states agree to
establish programs of inspection,
citation, and training that meet or exceed
the minimum standards promulgated
under the Act. (Many of these standards,
in addition to other accepted guidlines for
professional practice, have been used in
the Self-Evaluation Instrument (SEI).
The Act also authorizes DOL inspectors (or
state inspectors in states with OSH programs)
to enter any working establishment at any
reasonable time. Inspectors or compliance
officers may look at whatever they wish and
may question any employer, owner, operator,
agent, or employee. OSHA compliance
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
procedures provide for citations and fines for
noncompliance.*
As your establishment completes an SEI, you
will have an idea of the wide range of
potentially hazardous areas an OSHA
compliance officer will consider in inspecting or
reviewing. A compliance officer would
probably concentrate on some key areas of your
establishment and issue citations if you are in
violation of any OSHA standards. This would
not necessarily imply, however, that you are in
compliance in areas in which you were not cited.
The SEI helps you and the employees appraise
potentially hazardous areas and operations
throughout the workplace and set priorities for
improvement. This self-evaluation manual
describes recommended approaches for
problem solving.
OSHA'S VOLUNTARY
COMPLIANCE PROGRAM
The main emphasis of OSHA has been on
mandatory, government-enforced compliance.
Now, however, OSHA is also promoting the
concept of voluntary compliance. Their
voluntary compliance program encourages
employers and employees to seek information
about the Act and to make improvements
within their establishment with onsite
technical assistance and consultation from
federal or state personnel, or both. This
consultation, however, focuses only on OSHA
standards as they apply to a particular
workplace; it does not provide help in
establishing a total program, which would
include preventive occupational medical
practices.
Self-evaluation provides employers with a
means of establishing good safety and health
programs in a voluntary manner. The
education and professional consultation
provided by this system should enable you to
pinpoint problem areas and to correct them
with measurable results. Self-evaluation
*In Marshall, Secretary of Labor, et al. u. Barlow's, Inc.,
May 23,1978. Docket No. 76-1143), the U.S. Supreme Court
indicated that the employer could require a search warrant
be obtained by the OSHA inspector prior to entry on the
premises for inspection in holding that the employer "was
entitled to a declaratory judgment that the Act is
unconstitutional insofar as it purports to authorize
inspections without warrant or its equivalent and to an
injunction enjoining the Act's enforcement to that extent."
complements OSHA's inspection and
consultation efforts by assisting employers to
go beyond the minimum requirements.
TOWARD
IMPLEMENTATION OF
COMPREHENSIVE OSH
PROGRAMS
Compliance with OSHA standards emphasizes
the correction of conditions that are, or can
become, hazardous. Many such conditions,
however, result from individuals' unsafe acts,
which may reflect managerial apathy or
oversight. To have an acceptable safety and
health program, your program must include:
-Employee involvement. Even the best
conceived program will have little effect
where employees do not function as the
key safety and health resource.
-Management direction. Effectiveness
requires management commitment both
financially and philosophically.
-Accountability and responsibility. Who
does what within the OSH program must
be clearly fixed within your organization
and understood by all.
-Supervisory participation. Essential to the
success of any program is participation
at the supervisory level.
-Self-evaluation. Regularly conducted
walk-through surveys by management,
supervisors, and employees are needed to
identify and correct potential hazards.
-Training. Health and safety training
should be conducted on a regular basis,
and safety meetings should be held
monthly.
-Medical controls. As a minimum, a first-
aider, trained according to OSHA
standards should be present on all shifts
at even the smallest establishment.
-Accident and absenteeism records.
Records should be analyzed to uncover
physical or psychological problems
affecting safety and health that might
not be apparent during regular walk-
throughs.
This program manual for self-evaluation has
been tailored to your particular needs, with
action steps that you can take now.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
CONTENTS
Employee-Centered Safety and Health Program, 4
Overview, 4
Setting OSH Goals and Objectives, 4
Specific Program Elements, 5
Program Staffing and Organization, 7
Techniques for Employee Involvement, 9
Budgeting for the Program, 15
Recognizing and Controlling Safety and Health Hazards, 20
Overview, 20
Recordkeeping, 20
Inspections, 21
Building Safety into Your Operations, 22
Priority Setting, 22
Controlling and Correcting Hazards, 23
Incentives, 23
Matching the Employee to the Job Selection and Training, 27
Preplacement Examinations, 27
Medical Followup and Surveillance, 27
Ergonomics, 28
Alcoholism and Drug Abuse, 31
Developing a Training Program, 34
The Role of the Supervisor in Training, 35
Measuring Program Effectiveness, 38
Objective Program Measures, 38
Subjective Program Measures, 39
Program Activity Measures, 39
Relative Risk Assessment, 45
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
EMPLOYEE-CENTERED
SAFETY AND HEALTH
PROGRAM
OVERVIEW
The size and scope of your OSH program will
depend upon the size of your workplace, the
number of employees, your geographic location
in relation to emergency care facilities and
medical clinics, and the number and extent of
potential hazards inherent in your operations.
For optimum effectiveness, regardless of size
and employee complement, your program must
have certain major elements:
-A comprehensive safety and health
policy, published and distributed to all
employees.
-A written set of basic objectives outlining
the results expected and the timetable for
their completion. These should be
reasonable and attainable with feedback
to monitor results.
-A functional organization chart
specifying reporting relationships and
responsibilities for all staff and
consultants involved in the program.
-A commitment from management, as
part of permanent policy, acknowledging
its responsibility to initiate and maintain
a continuous program of safety and
health.
-A plan for "shared responsibility," and
representation such that all functional
groups and organizational levels
participate in setting priorities and
implementing action steps.
-A system, with identifiable benchmarks,
for reporting progress and evaluating
performance and effectiveness.
SETTING OSH GOALS AND
OBJECTIVES
The goals of your OSH program should reflect
the priorities of your workplace and should
serve as the underlying principles for more
specific policies and procedures.
This list of goals might address such priorities
as:
-Assuring employees of safe and healthful
working conditions.
-Facilitating the proper placement of
employees according to their physical
capabilities, mental abilities, and
emotional stability so that they can work
efficiently without endangering their
own health and safety or that of others.
-Providing medical care and rehabilita-
tion for the occupationally ill and injured.
-Encouraging all employees to maintain
personal health.
-Avoiding adverse effects on the
surrounding community through undue
exposure to toxic effluents in air, water,
or soil.
These principles must, be clearly stated and
naturally addressed to key issues; they need
not, however, be lengthy or complex. These
goals, which may be objectives, should provide
the philosophical framework for more specific
objective setting. It is these measurable
objectives by which your program's
performance can be measured. Examples of
such objectives are to:
-Create and maintain a worker placement
program that evaluates employees as to
their physical capabilities, mental
abilities, and emotional make-up to
maximize their effectiveness without
endangering their own health, or safety,
or both.
-Create a medical care and rehabilitation
program for the occupationally ill and
injured.
-Provide the information and education to
employees and their families on specific
occupational hazards and the basic
principles of preventive health
maintenance and practices.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
In setting program objectives you should seek
the widest range of input. A questionnaire
might be developed and circulated to all
employees to obtain their ideas. This will ensure
employee involvement in establishing the
program itself and will provide you with first
hand knowledge of problems and situations
that should receive attention. Refer to the
section on Techniques for Employee
Involvement for more specific information.
The feedback you receive from this survey
should be analyzed to identify common
concerns and interrelated problem areas. Only
after this is done can you rank these objectives
and develop time frames for attainment.
SPECIFIC PROGRAM
ELEMENTS
Depending on the size of your establishment
and the nature of your operations, your OSH
program will need to include elements of first
aid, safety, industrial hygiene, and
occupational health nursing and medicine.'
Although large workplaces may have
professionals in these disciplines on staff, it is
unlikely that smaller work places would have
the need or resources to hire full-time
professionals in these areas. In these instances,
a hot-line, the services of insurance companies,
local health departments, industrial clinics,
governmental agencies, or independent
consultants could be used for specialized
assistance. With training and experience, the
staff you now have can perform some
environmental evaluation techniques such as
noise monitoring or air sampling thereby
lessening your dependence on outside
resources. Reliance on existing staff to carry
out your OSH programs demands a clear
organization structure identifying individuals
with specific responsibilities.
Following is a brief overview of the key
factors in safety, health, and hygiene.
Safety
A safety program is not imposed on company
organization, but must be built in to every
process or product design. The critical elements
in any successful program are:
-employee involvement,
-management leadership and support,
-assignment of responsibility,
'Occupational Health Services and HMO's. L L. Hatch. In:
Proceedings, 1978 Group Health Institute. Group Health
Association of America. 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20036. September 1978.
-maintenance of safe working conditions,
-establishment of safety training,
-an accident record and investigation
system,
-medical and first aid systems, and
-acceptance of personal responsibility by
all employees.
Managerial interest in safety must be sincere
and constantly visible; without this even the
best policies will be meaningless. No matter
how small your organization, any attempts you
make to stop accidents without a definite
guiding policy will fail and you will find
yourself continuously "fighting fires."
Your safety policy should contain a few
essential assumptions:
-Employee awareness and involvement
are keys to program success.
-Safety is paramount and will take
precedence over any short cuts.
-Every attempt will be made to reduce the
possibility of an accident or any other
undesirable outcome that might occur.
-Your company intends to comply with all
safety laws and is willing to go beyond
their minimum requirements.
Behind these statements must lie a total safety
program including:
-Development and application of safety
standards for equipment, work methods,
and products.
-Safety inspection to identify potential
hazards, both in production and in
products. Packaging and instruction
sheets designed to alert users to hazards
inherent in the product.
-Accident investigation to determine
future preventive action.
-Accident records and accident-cause
analysis to determine accident trends
and provide targets for corrective action.
This record keeping system is also
required by OSHA.
-Education and training in safety
principles.
-Personal protective equipment to provide
injury protection.
-Safety publicity to step up program
interest and participation using
motivational techniques and behavior
modification,
-Off-the-job accident prevention.
Health
Regardless of the size of your establishment, a
good occupational health program should
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
maintain the health of your work force, prevent
or control occupational and nonoccupational
diseases and accidents, and prevent and reduce
disabilities and the resulting lost time.
Specifically, your program should provide for
the following:
-Health maintenance activities such as:
?disease prevention; maintenance of a
healthful environment in cooperation
with environmental engineering,
industrial hygiene, and safety
personnel;
*early detection and treatment of
illness through medical survelliance
and biological monitoring, as well as
special tests for employees potentially
exposed to toxic agents and stressful
environments;
*emergency medical care;
*rehabilitation of disabled workers;
*placement of workers in accordance
with their physical and mental
abilities;
?maintenance of workers' physical
fitness.
-Medical records containing complete
information on employees' physical
conditions, with reference to
environmental sampling records.
-Immunization programs.
-Health education and counseling.
-Communication by employees with their
personal physicians regarding any
medical services they receive at their
place of work and reporting of off-site
medical care to medical department, for
purpose of determining possible work-
related illness patterns.
Industrial Hygiene
The science of industrial hygiene deals with the
identification, evaluation, and control of those
physical, chemical, and biological agents and
psychological stresses in the workplace that
may affect . workers' health. These agents
include such common workplace hazards as:
-toxic materials that may be breathed,
swallowed, or absorbed into the body as
fumes, vapors, dusts, or mists;
-noise and vibration;
-ionizing and nonionizing radiation;
-extremes of temperature, and humidity,
and barometric pressures;
-light;
-bacteria and fungus;
-viruses;
-plant and insect pests; and
-shift work stress, elevated or deep work
area stress.
An industrial hygiene program involves the use
of sampling equipment, measurement
instrumentation, and laboratory analysis to
assess your occupational environment. Any
equipment and facilities you use must meet
acccepted professional standards and be used
properly. Industrial hygiene surveys are
necessary to identify potential health hazards
and to develop necessary control measures.
Most smaller establishments cannot afford to
maintain all the equipment and facilities they
need; they must depend upon outside services
and rentals for much of their program. It is
extremely important to study your equipment
needs thoroughly before you make any
purchases so you will not acquire equipment
that is too complicated or is not well suited to
your particular measurement needs. The
determination of your equipment needs should
be carried out as a cooperative effort with the
use of employees, consultants, and equipment
distributors. If you use consultants or available
technical assistance for most of the
measurement work, you should have less need
to purchase equipment.
If your measurements require laboratory
assistance, you should use an industrial
hygiene laboratory where the staff can often
provide valuable advice on measurements and
has experience in industrial hygiene
monitoring and analytical techniques.
An industrial hygiene program should provide:
-Plant inspection and identification of
potential health problems.
-Measurement or evaluation of these
potential problems (e.g., noise
measurement, air sampling to determine
employees' exposure to airborne
contaminants, measurement of air
velocities at ventilation hoods, etc.).
-Information to both management and
employees of the existence and
magnitude of industrial hygiene
problems and the need for engineering
and administrative controls, personal
protection, and suggestions for biological
monitoring (e.g., high lead exposures,
need for local ventilation, periodic blood
tests).
-Advice to management of the most
effective engineering and administrative
controls.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
-Coordination of corrective action and
subsequent evaluation of its
effectiveness.
-Application of ergonomics (human
factors).
Health, hygiene, and safety must operate
together as a single program. The activities of
each element interrelate and support each
other, so that your staffs responsibilities in
these areas can and should be closely
integrated.
PROGRAM STAFFING AND
ORGANIZATION
The makeup of your occupational safety and
health staff will depend largely on the size of
your establishment, the number and degree of
potential hazards, and the resources available
for salaries and consulting fees. A very small
establishment, employing only a few people,
will not find it practical to hire a full-time
physician or nurse even if their operations have
potentially high hazard potential. On the other
hand, a large establishment, with relatively few
potential hazards, might well employ a full-time
physician with an emphasis on preventive
health maintenance.
This section begins with a discussion of the
minimum staffing requirements for any
workplace and then recommends health and
safety professionals normally found in larger or
more hazardous establishments.
First Aider
Every establishment, no matter how small,
should have one person on each shift who is
trained in first aid. In a small establishment,
this person will undoubtedly have regular
duties not related to first aid, whereas in a large
establishment, full-time first aiders might be
employed.
In selecting first aiders, you should look for
employees who are people oriented and who
have demonstrated some leadership qualities.
You might consider a person who has been
permanently injured and must be given lighter
duties. Former military corpsmen, firemen, or
para-medics often have training and experience
especially qualifying them for the job with
additional training.
First aiders must have formal training, such as
the senior life saving courses offered by the
American Red Cross. You can obtain more
information through your local chapter of the
Red Cross. Military corpsman training may be
acceptable for first aiders, and in individual
cases, previous training and job experience can
be substituted for the formal Red Cross course.
Consulting Physician
Every establishment not directly employing a
full- or part-time physician must have available
the services of a consulting physician. This
might be a doctor from a nearby hospital with
which you have emergency care arrangements
or a private practitioner in the community
oriented to occupational medicine.
The consulting physician must approve all first
aid supplies and be available to give medical
directions to nurses employed by or serving
your establishment.
Part-Time Nursing Services
Many small establishments employ a part-time
nurse directly or by arrangement with a local
nursing service that can send a nurse to the
plant to hold sick call on a regular basis or visit
the plant on request. For example, public health
agencies run by the city or county sometimes
supply nursing services to industry for a fee.
Also, the Visiting Nursing Association or
Community Health Association, both
voluntary groups, often are willing to serve
industry for a fee. If you receive nursing
services from an outside source, it is important
that the same nurse always be assigned to your
plant so he/she can maintain familiarity with
your working conditions and environment. Any
nurse, whether employed directly by your
establishment or serving the employees must
receive medical direction from a physician and
should be occupationally oriented.
Full-Time Occupational Nurse
Larger establishments or those with high levels
of potential hazards should employ a full-time
nurse. For the maintenance of complete health
services, it is recommended that there be one
nurse for up to 300 employees, two or more
nurses for up to 600 employees, and three or
more nurses up to 1,000 employees. There
should be one nurse for each additional 1,000
employees up to 5,000 and one nurse per each
additional 2,000 employees. Additional nurses
may be required because of hazards present in a
particular plant and to supply service for
second and third shifts. This number will be
reduced in inverse ratio to the number of
technical and nonprofessional workers
employed in the medical department.' The
tThe New Nurse in Industry. J. A. Lee. DHEW(NIOSH)
78-143. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1978.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
structure of reporting responsibilities is a
significant factor in the effectiveness of an
occupational nursing program. The nurse
should report to two people. Ideally, the first
should be a top administrator, such as a
personnel manager, who knows and
understands plant policies, budgets,
purchasing, etc., and has decision making
power; and the second, the responsible
physician. Just as a part-time nurse cannot
function in a medical vacuum, a full-time nurse
must receive medical direction. Although some
establishments have traditionally had the
nurse report to the safety director, this is not
recommended. In addition to nurses'
accountability to management and to a
physician, they are legally bound to the
Nursing Practice Act in the particular state.
The nurse should be a graduate of an accredited
school of nursing and licensed to practice in the
state where he or she is employed. Because the
registered nurse represents the physician and is
more accessible, this person must be qualified to
serve as your employees' professional advisor,
educator, and counselor in health matters. The
nurse should be a member of professional or
speciality nursing organizations and make
good use of the speciality journals, books, and
guides available in the occupational health
field. The American Board for Occupational
Health Nurses, Inc., is the certification board
for the speciality of occupational health nurses.
Upon satisfactory completion of a
comprehensive examination, qualified
occupational health nurses become certified
and must show evidence of nursing competency
every 5 years. The nurse becomes indispensable
almost in inverse proportion to the lack of
medical service provided by a licensed
physician.
The nurse should be in the plant when the
physician is there. In balancing nursing and
physician services, a ratio of 1 hour of
physician's time to 3 hours of nurse's time has
worked out satisfactorily in many plants. A
ratio of 3 hours of physician's time to 9 hours of
nurse's time per 100 workers is desirable, and
when comprehensive preplacement and
periodic physical examinations are done, this
ratio is necessary.
Full- or Part-Time Occupational Physician
Generally only large establishments (over 3,000
employees) will find it possible to have a full-
time occupational physician on site. Medical
programs for small establishments commonly
provide for periodic visits by a physician under
contract or on call, with emergency cases
referred to the physician for treatment.
Several formulas have been suggested for the
apportionment of the physician's in-patient
time. One approach is to allow 2 physician-
hours per week for the first 100 employees and 1
additional physician-hour per week for each
additional 100 employees.
Any such formula should be modified to fit the
needs of your particular plant. You should also
consider the extra time the physician devotes to
completing medical records, insurance,
worker's compensation, and other forms, as
well as to planning, telephone consultations,
correspondence, and conferences with your
management, aside from the actual hours
he/she spends at your plant seeing employees
or assessing the work environment.
It is likely that most of the occupational health
programs at small plants will continue to be
operated by physicians who are primarily
family physicians rather than by specialists in
occupational medicine. Nevertheless, the
physician who serves your plant should know
something of occupational medicine and how it
differs from general medicine. The physician
should have an understanding of the
occupational safety and health and worker's
compensation regulations in your state. He/she
should be knowledgeable concerning the
potential toxic hazards in your plant and methods
for eliminating or controlling them as well as
be able to treat occupationally related illnesses.
The physician should be a member of the local
medical society and be acquainted with your
state medical association's committee on
occupational health as well as with other
specialists in occupational medicine qualified
to provide additional information and
guidance. If possible, your physician should
become a member of one or more occupational
medical specialty societies and, if he/she is
working full time in occupational medicine,
should apply for diplomate status in
occupational medicine from the American
Board of Preventive Medicine.
Industrial Hygiene Services
You can obtain industrial hygiene services from
many sources. Although many large
establishments, particularly those dealing with
toxic products or potentially hazardous
conditions, employ full-time industrial
hygienists, small workplaces may find this is
impractical or overly expensive. Outside part-
time services may be much more feasible. Many
workers' compensation insurance carriers have
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
industrial hygiene services available to you as a
policy-holder. You might also contact federal,
state, and local labor and health departments,
nearby universities, or a large corporation in
your area that employs industrial hygienists.
Also, there are a few independent consultants
with general comprehensive and specialized
industrial hygiene capabilities (see the section
in this manual for sources of information and
consultation).
No matter what the source is, it is important
that the industrial hygienist you select has the
proper education and training. Your consultant
should have at least a B.S. degree in one of the
hard sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology,
etc.) or engineering and possibly an advanced
degree such as a M.S., Sc.D., or Ph.D. The
American Academy of Environmental
Engineers and the American Board of
Industrial Hygiene administer specialty board
certification examinations for exceptionally
well-qualified industrial hygienists. When you
make a decision to use the services of an
industrial hygienist, his or her educational
credentials should be considered along with
their particular experience.
Safety Director
Regardless of your company's size, one staff
person should be assigned responsibility for
overall safety activities on either a full- or part-
time basis. Just as other managers are selected
for their specific knowledge and initiative, so
should the Safety Director be. Although he or
she may hold collateral duties in your safety
and health program, this person should have
some experience and training in safety
management. If possible, your director should
be a safety professional. The Board of Certified
Safety Professionals sets standards in this area
and certifies competent individuals. The
American Society of Safety Engineers is a
professional organization to which many
directors and safety staff members belong. At a
minimum, your director should take the short-
term safety courses such as those provided by
OSHA and the National Safety Council.
Continuing education and a budget providing
funds for obtaining resource materials and
current literature should be available.
OSH Program Director
The director of your safety and health program,
who should understand the objectives and be
able to develop and carry out programs to meet
them, may be the same person who is your in-
house source of safety and health information.
Your director may spend either full or part time
on these responsibilities depending upon the
size and scope of your program. .In smaller
plants, with no in-house safety and health
expertise, the director may have responsibilities
other than the OSH program (such as a
personnel director would have) and will depend
on state and federal government agencies,
insurance companies, or consultants for advice
on program development. It is especially
important that the director have the authority
to implement programs and procedure, to
acquire funding and make expenditures, and to
delegate responsibilities to other personnel
through their supervisor. Your director should
be familiar with processes and materials within
your workplace and should have knowledge of
the principles of occupational safety and
health. Regardless of the size of your
operations, for clarity of program structure, you
should assign one person with the responsbility
of implementing the overall program.
Figures have been provided to help you in
analyzing your staffing needs (Figures 1 and 2)
and in outlining a reporting structure (Figure 3).
TECHNIQUES FOR EMPLOYEE
INVOLVEMENT
Just as top management commitment to your
OSH program is essential to its success, no
program can operate effectively without the
support and active participation of all
employees. Each employee should recognize
that an effective program is in their self-interest
and should act as a continuing source of
information and suggestions. There are two
essential elements for ensuring employee
involvement in improving the work
environment: an overall climate that motivates
them toward involvement and specific
programs that offer them opportunities for
participation with both tangible and intangible
rewards.
What specifically can your establishment do to
create a favorable climate for employee
activity? Here are some of the essentials:
-Conditions of work. The work
environment must be as safe, healthy,
and comfortable as possible for
employees. Potential hazards resulting
from inadequate or faulty equipment or
from air contaminants must be
minimized. Employees cannot be
motivated to adopt safe work practices or
to use protective equipment if
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH STAFF REQUIREMENTS
OSH program
activities/
procedures
Frequency
(per week
or month)
Time required
(per week
or month)
Qualifications
of
individual
Number of
staff needed
In-house
or
consultant
Figure 1. Sample form to be used in analyzing staff requirements, by program activity or
procedure.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH STAFF REQUIREMENTS
Position
Needed,
yes/no
Time, week
No. of
individuals needed
Duties
performed
First aiders
Registered nurse(s)
Part time
Full time
Consultant
Practical nurse(s)
(licensed)
Part time
Full time
Hygienist
Part time
Full time
Consultant
Technicians (Laboratory,
Medical, etc.)
Part time
Full time
Consultant
Physician
Part time
Full time
Consultant
OSH program director
Safety engineer
Safety committee
Clerical
Figure 2. Sample form to be used in analyzing staff requirements, by organization or position.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
J
N
a
N
0
0
z
0
x
0
J m
z =? 2';; ^
H W .. O. 4 a V1
Z m m y m r 0
O~ao-=Hm o
O
U
a C m O
y
z
s w
a
w 0 C m cm Of 0 6i
Q N
j
o E O1
12
c =
$ `
o .a m
r
4 m a ',. `O ~ m
u
m
A
vi m
C
a m? a.3
r
W
9 N
cn A Vl C l0
E>-
c
N V
m
V m N N
F
N
L m N U 7
z = U ci
W m 9 ~i m m
O c t y
CL o
?
- m E
m
N N 0 g Q
fJ) > 'C ~ V F
J q 2 m 9
W
J y
H O m
m E
O `
o
11 W
C7 N co
> > m
Q = 3
N
W
C
E
O "
1.i
O
W
}
O
)-
Z C
CL V
W
LL
U _
c/1 u E
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
o
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
REASONABLE WEIGHT LIMITS FOR
OCCASIONAL LIFTING
Age
(years)
Male
Female
14-16
33 lb
22 lb
16-18
42 lb
26 lb
18-20
51 lb
31 lb
20-35
55 lb
33 lb
35-50
46 lb
29 lb
Over 50
35 lb
22 lb
From the Swiss Accident Insurance Institute.
You should be careful not to use different
physical capabilities as a basis or excuse to
discriminate. With the proper equipment and
training, most jobs can be performed by people
with widely varying statures and strengths.
Installation of equipment and machinery for
lifting and carrying heavy objects is often the
best way of eliminating excessive physical
stress.
If manual lifting and carrying are going to be
done, instruction of employees in proper
methods is essential. Several such methods can
reduce stress and the risk of injury. The
illustrations (p. 32) suggest some techniques.
Adjustable chairs, stools, and benches for
sedentary employees are essential to work
comfort. Sometimes a new, overall work layout
with better access to materials, equipment, and
controls will ease the work.
If the work pace is such that employees become
physically exhausted, you might try more
frequent or differently scheduled rest periods.
The same can hold for mentally fatiguing or
boring work. Rotation of work assignments, or
redesigning jobs, or both might also prove
helpful. Don't overlook other environmental
conditions, such as noise, that can add to the
mental or physical stress of a job.
A wide variety of special tools has been created
for static, repetitive work. For example, a rachet
screwdriver is preferable to an ordinary one.
The pushing motion required to operate a rachet
tool is often less stressful than the twisting
motion. Specially designed pliers with curved,
padded, spring-open handles and thumb stops
are much easier to use repeatedly than standard
pliers. Easy access to parts in table assembling
operations is also important to avoid constant
reaching and stretching motions.
ALCOHOLISM AND DRUG
ABUSE
Alcoholism, or problem drinking, is only one of
many factors that can affect employee morale
and performance. Of the 100 million people in
the United States who use alcoholic beverages,
it is estimated that 8 million, or about 1 in 13
(7.7%), have a drinking problem. Over four
million of these people work in industry. The
cost to the national economy in hospitalization,
days lost from the job, inefficiency at work,
accidents, and loss of skilled workers because of
alcoholism is in excess of $10 billion a year. On
the basis of numerous studies, it has been
determined that 5% of the employees in any
industry will have a drinking problem. Problem
drinking ranks third along with heart disease,
cancer, and mental illness as one of the
nation's four most serious disorders.
Studies indicate that employees with drinking
problems lose an average of 22 to 30 working
days each year from the effects of alcohol alone
and have twice as many accidents as other
employees. In addition, they have three to four
times as many off-the-job accidents and a 21/2
times greater absence rate. An employee with a
drinking problem is in desperate need of help.
Much can be done to rehabilitate the employee if
the disorder is recognized.
For years, the only method of handling the
alcoholic in industry was dismissal. This led to
ignoring or covering up for the problem drinker
until the situation became so bad that punitive
action was taken. Not only the drinker's family
was affected; the employer lost the services of a
skilled employee with years of investment in
training. The present method of dealing with
the problem drinker is treatment rather than
punishment. By adopting definite policies,
which are carried out consistently, you can
solve many of these problems.
There are three main elements in a problem
drinking situation:
-the individual problem drinker himself
(rehabilitation),
-the people who surround the problem
individual, and
-economics of the situation relating to the
problem drinker.
Your workplace's policy on alcoholism and drug
abuse must be clearly stated and understood by
employees and management. The direction of
this policy can have a significant effect on
whether your employees seek help on their own
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Indirect
method cf lifting a sack
Correct method for lifting. A. Step close to the load with
legs slightly apart: adopt a balanced squatting position; "flatten" the
back and tense the back and abdominal muscles. 8. Lift by straightening
the legs. C. Raise the upper body.
Tip the sack over on to its
bottom left corner so that it
rests against the thigh.
Direct method of lifting
a sack to the shoulder.
Squat and grasp
sack.
Rise with
straight back.
Grasp the sack and rise quickly, keeping the back straight. With the
help of the knee, and using the momentum ofjthe swing, lift the sack
on to the platform.
Swing to and fro Stand up and at same time use momentum of
between legs. swing to lift sack to shoulder.
Grasp the supported sack around the Straighten the body, bal-
middle and, assuming a half-squatting ance the sack on the
posture with the back held straight, shoulder, and carry it
tip the sack on to the shoc.lder. away.
Figure 12. Manual handling of various loads in industry. (Reprinted with permission from:
Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety. Vol. /l. International Labor Office.
McGraw-Hill. 1974. pp. 778-779.)
Iq 9,
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
or wait for managerial action. A typical policy
statement might include the information below:
The use of alcohol by an employee becomes
a matter of concern to this company when it
interferes with his or her job performance,
conduct, attendance, and safety. This
company is committed to the rehabilitation,
wherever possible, of the employee whose
drinking becomes a problem.
Certain principles should underlie the operation
of your establishment's program. These could
include such points as:
-Alcoholism, or problem drinking, is an
illness and should be so treated.
-Your company's concern is only with
problem drinking. There is no interest in
social drinking and no desire to intrude
upon the employee's private life.
-The majority of employees who develop
alcoholism can be helped to recover, and
your company will offer appropriate
assistance.
-The decision to seek diagnosis and accept
treatment for any suspected illness is the
responsibility of the employee. However,
continued refusal of an employee to seek
treatment when it appears that
substandard performance may be caused
by any illness is not tolerated. Alcoholism
will not be an exception to this commonly
accepted principle.
-It is in the best interest of employees and
your company that when alcoholism is
present it should be diagnosed and
treated at the earliest possible stage.
-Confidential handling of the diagnosis
and treatment of alcoholism is essential.
Although there is no typical alcoholic person,
industry has historically developed a pattern of
reaction to "alcoholics," whether real or
imaginary. Alcoholism has been covered up
until work performance and behavior have
become so intolerable that the person was fired.
This means that alcoholism has become a
recognized problem mostly for people who have
many years of service and are at their peak of
experience, skill, and productivity.
Despite the efforts of your program, not all
problem drinkers will cooperate in their
treatment and you may have to consider
termination or dismissal in cases where no
improvement can be expected.
The person in a key position to help the
employee with a drinking problem is the
supervisor. However, problematic behavior and
changing work patterns can indicate any
number. of disorders, not necessarily
alcoholism. No one expects the supervisor to
determine whether someone is an alcoholic or
whether he or she has a personal problem. The
vital role of the supervisor in solving the
problem of alcoholism should be very clearly
defined.
To provide your supervisors with guidelines for
handling possible alcoholism-related problems,
the following procedure is suggested:
What NOT to do:
-Do not diagnose. Supervisors should not
attempt to identify employees having
alcoholism and other behavioral
problems. This is a case-finding and
diagnostic function that calls for special
training and expertise.
-Do not discuss "drinking. " Except in
situations where drinking or evidence of
intoxication occurs on the job or while
performing job-related duties,
supervisors should not discuss drinking
or "drinking problems" with employees
under their direction.
-Do not write "alcoholism" into the record.
No supervisor should enter any document
or memorandum into an employee's
personnel record bearing the diagnosis or
supposition that an employee has
alcoholism.
-Do not dismiss without offering
alternatives. No supervisor should
terminate a previously satisfactory
employee for unsatisfactory performance
before giving the employee an
opportunity for diagnosis of any disorder,
including alcoholism, that could be
remedied through treatment.
-Do not forget company policy. No other
actions should be taken by supervisors
that are in any way inconsistent with
your company's policy of recognizing
alcoholism as a treatable disorder.
What TO do:
-Document performance. Performance of
employees should be thoroughly
documented (by time and date) through
the use of confidential standard appraisal
forms and observational data kept by
supervisors. The supervisor should
periodically compare these notations
with previous observations of an
employee's work to determine what
changes, if any, have occurred.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
-Schedule performance interview. If
performance deteriorates significantly,
the supervisor could then schedule a
special performance appraisal interview
with the employee to:
?Establish a plan for improvement.
?Advise him/her that: work behavior
must be corrected; private or company
counselors are available on a
confidential basis to assist him/her if
personal problems are contributing to
the performance decline; and medical
assistance is available to help with
any physical ailments that may cause
performance problems (it is
recommended that the supervisor send
the employee for a medical exam).
-Arrange for appointment with counselor.
If the employee indicates an interest in a
confidential interview with a counselor,
the supervisor should arrange for an
appointment.
-Review improvement plan. The
supervisor should meet periodically with
employee to review the established plan
for improvement.
-Schedule second performance interview.
If the problems continue, the supervisor
should schedule another performance
review within a few weeks, depending
upon the seriousness of the problems.
-Take appropriate action. If these
interviews and counselling do not result
in more adequate performance, the
supervisor will take the appropriate
disciplinary action.
-Handle alcoholism as a chronic illness.
An employee with alcoholism who
accepts treatment may or may not have
an occasional relapse. If such relapses are
long enough to affect attendance or
performance, the suggested criteria for
administrative decisions is, "What action
would be consistent with the way this
company would handle any other chronic
illness affecting performance to a similar
degree?"
The role and responsibility of counselors within
your program include:
-Confidentially discussing potential
alcoholism and/or related problems with
employees.
-Referring employees to treatment
agencies.
-Advising supervisors, upon request, on
the handling of an employee with a
drinking problem within the job
situation.
-Maintaining followup of all cases.
-Developing and maintaining training
programs for supervisors in dealing with
troubled employees.
-Developing a thorough acquaintance
with all community resources for helping
those with drinking problems and other
behavioral disorders.
Although statistics are available that estimate
the number of problem drinkers in the work
force, no reliable statistics exist on employees
suffering from drug abuse. As in the case of
alcoholism, potential drug abuse problems can
be initially identified by monitoring work
performance.
Many of the techniques suggested for
alcoholism can be equally useful in dealing with
drug addiction problems.
DEVELOPING A
TRAINING PROGRAM
An effective accident prevention and
occupational health hazard control program
demands proper job performance. When people
are trained to do their jobs properly, they will do
them safely. This means that your supervisors
must know how to train an employee in the safe,
proper way of doing a job, as well as know how to
supervise. It also means that supervisors should
be familiar with good. training techniques.
Safety professionals (whether on staff or
consultants) can help your supervisors design
such training programs.
Training Needs
You should employ training programs:
-for new employees,
-when new equipment or processes are
introduced,
-when procedures have been revised or
updated,
-when new information must be made
available, and
-when employee performance needs to be
improved.
Here are some indications that you might need a
good training program:
-proportionate increase in accidents and
injuries,
-insurance rates higher than other
companies in the same type of work, or a
rate that is on the upswing,
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
-excessive equipment damage or product
spoilage,
-high labor turnover, and
-expansion of plant and equipment.
Program Objectives
Training programs should have clear objectives
that determine the scope of the training and
guide in the selection and preparation of
training materials. To make sure the objectives
really cover the needs of those to be trained, you
should review the trainees' job descriptions and
job analyses. Hazards or potential accidents
associated with each step of a job should be
identified, and a solution for each hazard should
be developed to minimize or eliminate the
exposure. These, along with personal
observations and performance tests, will reveal
where training is needed. As a minimum, all
safety training programs should cover the work
station, personal protective equipment, general
housekeeping, and emergency action plans.
Training New Employees
When new employees come to work, they
immediately begin to learn things and to form
attitudes about your company, their jobs,
bosses, and fellow employees. This happens
whether or not you make the effort to provide
training. So new employees can learn the things
they need to know and develop good work
practices, you should develop systematic
training programs.
When beginning employment, each of your
employees should know your company's safety
policy. Unfortunately, the amount that can be
learned during the induction procedure is
limited, and unfamiliarity with their
surroundings and interest in matters of more
immediate concern make it difficult for your
employees to absorb and retain much safety and
health instruction. You should consider,
therefore, what information must be given first,
and the best way to present it. The following
things should be communicated to each
employee:
-The management of your company is
sincerely interested in preventing
accidents and illnesses.
-Most accidents are preventable.
-Although a program of safeguarding and
controls operates throughout the
workplace, management is willing to go
further as needs and methods are
discovered.
-Employees are expected to report any
unsafe conditions encountered while
working to their supervisors.
-No employee is expected to undertake a
job until he or she has learned how to do
it and is authorized to do it by his or her
supervisor.
-No employee should undertake a job that
appears to be unsafe.
-Any employee suffering an injury, even a
slight one, is required to report it at once.
In addition to these points, any rules that are a
condition of employment, such as wearing of
eye protection or safety hats, should be
understood and enforced at once.
Preliminary Instruction
A safety film can do a good job of stimulating
and instructing new employees. It changes the
pace, relieves the monotony of much talking,
and can present a carefully planned message in
exactly the same way to every new employee.
When new employees have a preplacement
examination, the doctor or nurse should tell
about the work of the medical department as it
relates to the employees and encourage them to
make use of its services. Medical personnel, as
well as staff providing general safety
information, should emphasize the importance
of reporting all injuries, day or night, on any
shift.
The final step in the safety and health training
provided by your employment office should be to
emphasize the importance of the supervisor.
Your employees must understand that the
supervisor is responsible for job training and
that such training will include safe work
procedures. So there will be no gap and no
contradiction between the information given in
the employment office and that given later,
supervisors should be familiar with the full
scope of your company's safety training
program.
THE ROLE OF THE SUPERVISOR
IN TRAINING
In each department, supervisors should give
new employees additional safety instruction.
Although this may cover some of the points
made in the employment office interview, it
should focus specifically on the kind of work the
employee will perform.
On-the-job training is widely used because the
trainee can be producing while being trained.
Whether the supervisor or another staff member
does the instructing, the training should be
carefully planned and organized.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
In too many cases, on-the-job training is a hit-or-
miss procedure where the trainee is told to learn
a job by following another worker around. In
these situations, the lead worker may be too
busy to do any training, may not know good
training procedures, or may even be reluctant to
train another employee to do his job. Therefore,
the person to whom the trainee has been
assigned should be one who knows the job
thoroughly, is a safe operator, and has the
patience, time, and desire to help others.
Some advantages of on-the-job training are:
-The worker is more likely to be highly
motivated because the guidance is
personal.
-The instructor can identify specific
performance deficiencies and correct
them promptly.
-The training results can quickly be judged
since real equipment is being used and the
finished work can be evaluated.
-The training is practical and realistic and
can be geared to individual needs.
Timing is important; not only do the trainees
like to get help when needed, but the supervisor
can judge the trainee's progress continually so
the next unit or phase of instruction can be
presented when the trainee is ready.
The immediate job of preventing accidents and
controlling work health hazards logically falls
upon the supervisor because safety and
production control are closely associated to
supervisory functions.
Whether or not your company has a formalized
safety program, the supervisor has certain key
responsibilities in preventing accidents and
illnesses:
-Establishing work methods that are well
understood and consistently followed.
This is essential, since many injuries and
health problems are initially reported as
resulting from "unsafe methods or
procedures," when later investigation
discloses that no standard method or
procedures had ever been set up for these
operations.
-Giving job instructions with an emphasis
on the safety aspects of the job. This will
help eliminate the lack of knowledge or
skill, which is the most frequent cause of
accidents.
-Analyzing job demands and worker
capabilities before making job
assignments. Safety, as well as good job
performance, requires that a supervisor
be sure the worker is qualified to do the job
and thoroughly understands the work
method. Since even experienced workers
need some direction, continued
supervision is necessary even after a safe
work method has been established and
workers have been instructed according
to that method. When people deviate from
established safe practices, injuries result.
To prevent this, supervisors must
continually watch for unsafe work
methods and correct them as soon as they
are observed.
-Maintaining equipment and workplace in
safe condition. Accidents often result
from tools and equipment in poor
condition, from a disorderly workplace, or
from using make-shift tools because the
right tools are notavailable. By correcting
these situations you will also be
maintaining your workplace in the most
efficient condition..
These five functions are a. normal and necessary
part of the supervisor's job, which no one else
can perform. To be sure that supervisors
perform this role, it should be included in your
company's policy statement. You should issue
clear orders defining the safety duties of all
persons and the lines of authority between
them. In addition, a careful program of
education should be instituted to help
supervisors understand their role and to give
them help in their work of preventing accidents.
Specifically, the objectives of this program
should be to:
-establish supervisors as the key in
preventing accidents and involve them
fully in your company's accident
prevention program,
-provide supervisors with information on
causes of accidents and health hazards as
well as methods of prevention,
-give supervisors an opportunity to
consider accident prevention problems
for their operations and to develop
solutions based on their own experience.
The following outline is based on the National
Safety Council's "Key Man Development"
course and suggests some subjects that you
could include in a safety course for your
supervisors. The knowledge and philosophy of
accident prevention is not "just common sense,"
as some slogans proclaim. Rather, most
successful programs follow a fairly well-
established pattern and include a specialized
body of information accumulated over a period
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
of many years. Visual aids are available
through the National Safety Council on these
subjects and should be used at every meeting.
-Safety and the supervisor. Safety and
efficient production go together.
Accidents affect production, profits,
morale, and public relations.
-Know your accident problems. Elements
of an accident. Unsafe acts, unsafe
conditions, accident investigations,
measurements of safety performance.
Accident costs.
-Human relations. Basic needs of workers.
The supervisor as a leader.
-Maintaining interest in safety.
Committee functions, maintaining good
employee relations. The supervisor's role
in off-the-job safety.
-Instructing for safety. Importance of job
instruction. Making a job safety analysis.
Job instruction training.
-Industrial hygiene. Environmental
health hazards. Skin diseases. Lighting,
noise, ventilation, temperature effects.
-Personal protective equipment. Eye
protection, face protection, foot and leg
protection, hand protection. Respiratory
protective equipment. Protection against
ionizing radiation. OSHA requirements.
-Industrial housekeeping. Results of good
housekeeping. The responsibility of the
supervisor. OSHA requirements.
-Materials handling and storage. Lifting
and carrying, handling specific shapes.
Hand tools for materials handling.
Motorized equipment. Hazardous liquids
and compressed gases.
-Guarding machines and mechanisms.
Principles of guarding. Benefits of good
guarding. Types of guards. Standards
and codes. OSHA requirements.
-Hand and portable power tools. Selection
and storage. Training in the-safe use of
tools.
-Fire protection. Determining fire
hazards. Understanding fire chemistry.
Fire brigades. Review the supervisor's
job.
All supervisors should be given a basic course of
this type which has been tailored to the
particular needs of your workplace. It should be
repeated on a regular basis as a refreshed course
for your experienced supervisors and as
training for new and prospective supervisors.
Prepared courses (such as the "Key Man"
course) are usually available complete with
textbook, supervisors' safety manual,
instructors' guide, student kit, certificate
of completion, and visual aids. The use of a
prepared course saves a great deal of time and
effort and can be adapted to your particular
needs.
In order to be effective, the instruction must be
well organized and interesting. No matter what
combination of teaching methods are used
(lecture, case study, demonstration, etc.), there
should be a well-organized lesson plan to ensure
that the following elements are covered:
introduction, objectives, presentation, training
aids, application, summary, test, and
assignment.
Safety and health training for supervisors needs
to be a continuing program to be effective. A
limited effort, such as holding a few meetings,
may cause supervisors to do a better job for a
short time, but interest will lag if the initial
effort is not followed up. Supervisors usually
reflect the attitudes of the management level
above them as to what is important and what
can be ignored. If a superintendent clearly
communicates his commitment to safety and
health, supervisors are likely to give greater
attention to safety and health.
To hold its own in an atmosphere of change and
shifting priorities, your safety and health
program must not be allowed to become static.
Companies having formal induction training
programs are convinced that they pay off in
lower labor turnover, good employee relations,
and prevention of accidents. In these programs,
it is important that safety and health receive as
much emphasis as any other element. Health
and safety issues must not be submerged in a
mass of information so that they will be
remembered only vaguely, if at all. Employees
must carry away a deep, personal conviction
that health and safety are important to them
and to their company.
Training is only one way to influence human
behavior. Safe performance is encouraged by
your example as an employer who spares no
effort to create healthy and safe working
conditions and procedures and who insists that
these procedures be taught and followed.2
2Material condensed from Accident Prevention Manual for
Industrial Operations. Seventh Edition, Chapter 9,
National Safety Council, Chicago, IL 1974.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
MEASURING PROGRAM
EFFECTIVENESS
Any program or activity in which you invest
time and resources on a continual basis should
prove its worth. A well-structured OSH program
should lend itself to objective performance
measurement as well as to more subjective
evaluation.
OBJECTIVE PROGRAM
MEASURES
Statistical data are your principal evaluation
tool in this area. Essentially, you should
concentrate on inspection results and accident
data in making analyses. Your findings in these
areas can be compared over time within your
own company (e.g., interdepartmental
comparison) or reviewed against the
performance of other work places engaged in
similar operations.
Your inspection reports should show a
decreasing number of hazards as your OSH
program continues in operation. These reports
should also indicate the period of time for which
a hazard has existed. Naturally, you should
distinguish between those hazards that are
relatively simple and inexpensive to correct and
those that will require substantial expenditures,
or broad-scale administrative action, or both.
In conducting these inspections and in
preparing reports, you must consistently use the
same "yard stick" (i.e., the same activity/
situation must be measured by the same
criteria). This consistency requirement can be
much more easily met when a well-structured
OSH program operates consistently throughout
your company. Your program should have
already defined the standards, practices, and
responsibilities against which assessments can
be made. Supervisors should understand that
health and safety activities are part of their
performance appraisal.
In addition to inspections, an ongoing cause
and cost analysis of your illness and injury
experiences indicates the overall effectiveness
of your program and identifies areas of
weakness. Good recordkeeping is essential to
making this kind of evaluation. You should
consider both lost time and nonlost time
illnesses and injuries for a comprehensive
picture of your program's performance. (See
Chapter II for more information on
recordkeeping.) This can be done by charting
the first aid services used by your employees
(i.e., in what department do most minor injuries
occur, to what part of the body, during what
shift, etc.) A reporting system (through your
nurse or physician) of common employee
complaints (e.g., headache, respiratory
irritations, etc.) can provide early warning of
potential health hazards.
The calculation most frequently used to
summarize OSH performance is the "incidence"
rate:
Frequency or Incidence Rate (F.R.)'
No. disabling illnesses
or injuries x 200,0002
No. man-hours worked
The following measures provide additional
weighting to help you gain further insight as to
the scope of your problem andits relationship to
similar work places:
Severity Rate (S.R.)
No. man-days lost x 200,000'
No. man-hours worked
Disabling Injury/Illness Index (DII)
S.R. x F.R.
Accident Facts. National Safety Council,- Chicago, IL
1974. p. 32.
2The 200,000 is equivalent to 100 full-time workers at 40
hours per week for 50 weeks and automatically adjusts for
differences in hours of exposure.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
An effective program should reduce these
measures or maintain them at acceptable levels.
The data used for these measures should be
collected on a monthly, quarterly, and annual
basis for comparison purposes. (They can be
obtained from OSHA forms 101 and 200, which
you are required to complete.) These forms
should fit into your action plans for correction.
To determine acceptable severity and frequency
rates for your particular industry, you should
obtain information on the performance levels of
other work places engaged in comparable
activities. These figures can be obtained from
your trade association or from the National
Safety Council.
The last objective criterion by which program
effectiveness may be judged is cost. Your OSH
program should reduce costs associated with:
-illness,
-injury,
-absenteeism, and
-employee turnover.
In calculating the savings you receive from
lessened costs in these areas, you should look
for.
-fewer and smaller insurance claims,
-fewer lost hours, and
-fewer training costs, or start-up costs, or
both associated with hiring new
employees.
It is difficult to set guidelines for any dollar
savings your program should create in these
areas. They will vary based on your particular
industry and past safety and health
performance. You should be wary, however, of
relying too heavily on financial return as an
effectiveness measure or as a selling point for
an OSH program itself. Much of the economic
impact of well-run OSH programs will be in
costs you never incur (e.g., fatalities, costly legal
suits resulting from occupational illnesses or
injuries). The purely economic savings you
receive may be offset in part by the increased
costs associated with an effective program (e.g.,
physical improvements in your work place and
additional consultant service).
SUBJECTIVE PROGRAM
MEASURES
As a result of an effective program, you should
be able to perceive a number of changes in your
employees' behavior. Employees should exhibit
more awareness of safety and health and should
give feedback in these areas by inspecting their
worksites, reporting unsafe conditions, and
volunteering suggestions for program
improvement. An effective program should
contribute to improved health and morale
within your workforce. The program should
address problems such as alcoholism and drug
abuse; it should make employees sensitive to
these issues and offer them counselling and
treatment. An effective program should
generate interest and participation in health
and safety committees. Membership on such a
committee should offer prestige and the
opportunity to influence company operations in
a critical area.
A recent study by the federal government
indicates that several key factors are associated
with low illness/injury rate companies.'
-Low-rate plants had greater management
commitment and involvement in safety
matters.
-Low-rate plants used a more humanistic
approach in dealing with employees.
They provided greater levels of employee
supervision and managed production
procedures to a greater extent.
-Low-rate plants had a higher level of
housekeeping. In addition, the quality of
the environment at the low-rate plants
was better than that at high-rate plants.
-Low-rate plants had less turnover and
absences and a more stable work group
than did the high-rate plants.
PROGRAM ACTIVITY
MEASURES
An adequate assessment of your OSH program
should include an evaluation not only of results
but of activity. This analysis focuses on what
activities your program stimulates (e.g.,
management involvement, environmental
assessment, etc.) and assesses the quality of
performance in each of these areas. The
"activity list" that follows identifies a range of
activities and performance criteria that can be
tailored to your particular workplace.4 To
quantify the results of your assessment, the
"rating form" appended to the "activity list"
3Safety Program Practices in High Versus Low Accident
Rate Companies; An Interim Report. A. Cohen, M. Smith,
and H. H. Cohen. DHEW(NIOSH) 75185. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati,
Ohio. June 1975.
'A Quantitative and Qualitative Measure of Industrial
Safety Activities. R. F. Diekemper and D. A. Spartz. ASSE
Journal, 15:12-19, December 1970. The Activity Standards
and Rating Form are reprinted with permission of the
American Society of Safety Engineers.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
ACTIVITY STANDARDS
A. ORGANIZATION & ADMINISTRATION 0
Activity Poor
In addition to "Good"
Loss Control policy is
reviewed annually and
is posted. Responsibil-
ity and accountability
is emphasized in super-
visory performance
evaluations.
1. Statement of policy, No statement of Loss
responsibilities Control policy. Re-
assigned. sponsibility and
accountability not
assigned.
2. Safe operating No written SOP's.
procedures (SOP's).
A general understanding Loss Control Policy
of Loss Control, re- and responsibilities
sponsibilities and written and distributed
accountability, but not to supervisors.
written.
Written SOP's for some, Written SOP's for all
but not all, hazardous hazardous operations.
operations.
3. Employee selection Only pre-employment In addition, an aptitude In addition to "Fair"
and placement. physical examination test is administered to new employees' past
given. - new employees. safety record is con-
sidered in their em-
ployment.
4. Emergency and dis- No plan or procedures. Verbal understanding onWritten plan outlining
aster control plans. emergency procedures. the minimum require-
ments.
5. Direct management No measurable activity. Follow-up on accident In addition to "Fair,"
involvement. problems. management review!;
all injury and property
damage reports and
holds supervision
accountable for
verifying firm correc?
tive measures.
6. Plant safety rules. No written rules. Plant safety rules have Plant safety rules art
been developed and incorporated in the
posted. plant work rules.
B. INDUSTRIAL HAZARD CONTROL
1. Housekeeping- Housekeeping is
storage of generally poor. Raw
materials, etc. materials, items being
processed and finished
materials are poorly
stored.
2. Machine guarding. Little attempt is made
to control hazardous
points on machinery.
Housekeeping is fair.
Some attempts to
adequately store
materials are being
made.
Partial, but inadequate
or ineffective, attempts
at control are in
evidence.
3. General area Little attempt is made Partial but inadequate
guarding. to control such hazards attempts to control
as: unprotected floor these hazards are
openings; slippery or evidenced.
defective floors: stair-
way surfaces: inade-
quate illumination, etc.
4. Maintenance of No systematic program Partial, but inadequate
equipment, guards, of maintaining guards, or ineffective mainte-
handtools, etc. handtools, controls nance.
and other safety
features of equipment,
etc.
All hazardous opera-
tions covered by a
procedure, posted at
the job location, with
an annual documented
review to determine
adequacy.
In addition to "Good"
when employees are
considered for pro-
motion. their safety
attitude and record
is considered.
All types of emer-
gencies covered with
written procedures.
Responsibilities are
defined with backup
personnel provisions.
In addition to "Good"
reviews all investi-
gation reports. Loss
Control problems are
treated as other oper-
ational problems in
staff meeting.
In addition, plant work
rules are firmly en-
forced and updated at
least annually.
Housekeeping and Housekeeping and
storage of materials storage of materials
are orderly. Heavy and are ideally controlled.
bulky objects well
stored out of aisles,
etc.
There is evidence of Machine hazards are
control which meets effectively controlled to
applicable Federal and the extent that injury is
State requirements, but unlikely. Safety of
improvement may still operator is given prime
be made. consideration at time
There is evidence o1
control which meet!.
applicable Federal and
State requirements--
but further improve-
ment may still be
made.
Maintenance program
for equipment and
safety features is
adequate. Electrical
handtools are tested
and inspected before
issuance, and on a
routine basis.
of process design.
These hazards are
effectively controlled to
the extent that injury
is unlikely.
In addition to "Good-
a preventative mainte-
nance system is pro-
grammed for hazard-
ous equipment and
devices. Safety reports
filed and safety depart-
ment consulted when
abnormal conditions
are found.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Activity Poor
5. Material handling Little attempt is
-hand and made to minimize
mechanized. possibility of injury
from the handling of
materials.
6. Personal protective Proper equipment not
equipment- provided or is not
adequacy and use. adequate for specific
hazards.
Fair
Partial but inadequate
or ineffective attempts
at control are in
evidence.
Partial but inadequate
or ineffective provision.
distribution and use of
personal protective
equipment.
C. FIRE CONTROL AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
1. Chemical hazard No knowledge or use
control references. of reference data.
2. Flammable and Storage facilities do
explosive materials not most fire regula-
control. tions. Containers do
not carry name of
contents. Approved
dispensing equipment
not used. Excessive
quantities permitted
in manufacturing
areas.
3. Ventilation- Ventilation rates are
fumes, smoke and below industrial
dust control. hygiene standards in
areas where there is
an industrial hygiene
exposure.
4. Skin contamination Little attempt at
control. control or elimination
of skin irritation
exposures.
5. Fire control
measures.
Data available and
used by foremen
when needed.
Some storage facilities
meet minimum fire
regulations. Most
containers carry name
of contents. Some
approved dispensing
equipment in use.
Ventilation rates in
exposure areas meet
minimum standards.
Partial, but incomplete
program for protecting
workers. First-aid
reports on skin
problems are followed
up on an individual
basis for determination
of cause.
Good
Loads are limited as
to size and shape for
handling by hand, and
mechanization is pro-
vided for heavy or
bulky loads.
Proper equipment is
provided. Equipment
identified for special
hazards, distribution
of equipment is con-
trolled by supervisor.
Employee is required
to use protective
equipment.
Excellent
In addition to controls
for both hand and
mechanized handling.
adequate measures
prevail to prevent con-
flict between other
workers and material
being moved.
Equipment provided
complies with stand-
ards. Close control
maintained by super-
vision. Use of safety
equipment recognized
as an employment
requirement. Injury
record bears this out.
In addition to "Fair" Data posted and fol-
additional standards lowed where needed.
have been requested Additional standards
when necessary. have been promul-
gated, reviewed with
employees involved
and posted.
Storage facilities meet In addition to "Good"
minimum fire regula- storage facilities
tions. Most containers exceed the minimum
carry name of contents. fire regulations and
Approved equipment containers are always
generally is used. labeled. A strong policy
Supply at work area is is in evidence relative
limited to one day to the control of the
requirement. Con- handling, storage and
tainers are kept in use of flammable
approved storage materials.
cabinets.
In addition to "Fair"
ventilation rates are
periodically measured.
recorded and main-
tained at approved
levels.
The majority of work-
men instructed con-
cerning skin-irritating
materials. Workmen
provided with approved
personal protective
equipment or devices.
Use of this equipment
is enforced.
Do not meet minimum Meets minimum
insurance or municipal requirements.
requirements.
6. Waste-trash Control measures
collection and are inadequate.
disposal. air/water
pollution.
In addition to "Fair"
additional fire hoses
and/or extinguishers
are provided. Welding
permits issued.
Extinguishers on all
welding carts.
In addition to "Good"
equipment is properly
selected and main-
tained close to maxi-
mum efficiency.
All workmen informed
about skin-irritating
materials. Workmen in
all cases provided with
approved personal
protective equipment
or devices. Use of
proper equipment en-
forced and facilities
available for mainte-
nance. Workers are
encouraged to wash
skin frequently. Injury
record indicates good
control.
In addition to "Good"
a fire crew is organized
and trained in
emergency procedures
and in the use of fire
fighting equipment.
Some controls exist for
disposal of harmful
wastes or trash. Con-
trols exist but are
ineffective in methods
or procedures of collec-
tion and disposal.
Further study is
necessary.
Most waste disposal
problems have been
identified and control
programs instituted.
There is room for
further improvement.
Waste disposal hazards
are effectively con-
trolled. Air/water
pollution potential is
minimal.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
D. SUPERVISORY
Activity
1. Line supervisor
safety training.
2. Indoctrination of
new employees.
Fair
Good .
All supervisors partici-
pate in division safety
training session a
minimum of twice a
year.
A written handout to
assist in indoctrination.
All supervisors have All shop supervisors
not received basic have received some
safety training. safety training.
No program covering Verbal only.
the health and safety
job requirements.
3. Job hazard analysis. No written program. Job hazard analysis JHA conducted on
program being imple- majority of operations.
mented on some jobs.
4. Training for special-
ized operations
(Fork trucks, grind-
ing, press brakes,
punch presses,
solvent handling,
etc.)
5. Internal self-
inspection.
6. Safety promotion
and publicity.
7. Employee/super-
visor safety contact
and communication.
Inadequate training
given for specialized
operations.
An occasional training Safety training is given In addition to "Good"
program given for for all specialized an evaluation is per-
specialized operations. operations on a regular formed annually to
basis and retraining determine training
given periodically to needs.
review correct
procedures.
No written program to Plant relies on outside
identify and evaluate sources, i.e., Insurance
hazardous practices Safety Engineer and
and/or conditions. assumes each super-
visor inspects his area.
Bulletin boards and Additional safety dis-
posters are considered plays, demonstrations,
the primary means for films, are used
safety promotion. infrequently.
Little or no attempt Infrequent safety
made by supervisor to discussions between
discuss safety with supervisor and
employees. employees.
A written program Inspection program is
outlining inspection measured by results.
guidelines, responsibili- i.e., reduction in acci-
ties, frequency and dents and costs.
follow up is in effect. Inspection results are
followed up by top
management.
Safety displays and Special display
demonstrations are cabinets, windows, etc.
used on a regular are provided. Displays
basis. are used regularly and
are keyed to special
themes.
Supervisors regularly In addition to items
cover safety when covered under "Good"
reviewing work prac- supervisors make good
tices with individual use of the shop safety
employees. plan and regularly
review job safety
requirements with each
worker. They contact at
least one employee
daily to discuss safe
job performance.
Excellent
In addition, specialized
sessions conducted on
specific problems.
A formal indoctrination
program to orientate
new employees is in
effect
In addition, job hazard
analyses performed on
a regular basis and
safety procedures
written and posted for
all operations.
E. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, STATISTICS AND REPORTING PROCEDURES
1. Accident investiga-
tion by line
personnel.
2. Accident cause and
injury location
analysis and
statistics.
3. Investigation of
property damage.
No accident investiga-
tion made by line
supervision.
No analysis of dis-
abling and medical
cases to identify
prevalent causes of
accidents and location
where they occur.
4. Proper reporting Accident reporting
of accidents and procedures are in-
contact with carrier. adequate.
Line supervision makes Line supervision
investigations of only trained and makes
medical injuries. complete and effective
investigations of all
accidents; the cause is
determined; corrective
measures initiated
immediately with a
completion date firmly
established.
Effective analysis by
both cause and
location maintained on
medical and first-aid
cases.
Verbal requirement or
general practice to in-
quire about property
damage accidents.
In addition to effective
accident analysis,
results are used to pin-
point accident causes
so accident prevention
objectives can be
established.
Written requirement
that all property
damage accidents of
$50 and more will be
investigated.
Accidents are correctly
reported on a timely
basis.
n addition to items
covered under "Good"
investigation is made
of every accident
within 24 hours of
occurrence. Reports are
reviewed by the depart-
ment manager and
plant manager.
Accident causes and
injuries are graphically
illustrated to develop
the trends and evaluate
performance. Manage-
ment is kept informed
on status.
In addition, manage-
ment requires a
vigorous investigation
effort on all property
damage accidents.
In addition to "Fair" In addition to "Good"
accident records are there is a close liaison
maintained for analysis with the insurance
purposes. carrier.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
RATING FORM
Poor Fair Good Excellent Comments
A. ORGANIZATION & ADMINISTRATION
1. Statement of policy, re- 0 5 15 20
sponsibilities assigned.
2. Safe operating procedures 0 2 15 17
(SOP's.).
3. Employee selection and 0 2 10 12
placement.
4. Emergency and disaster 0 5 15 18
control planning.
5. Direct management in- 0 10 20 25
volvement. 5 8
6. Plant safety rules. 0 2
Total value of circled
numbers rt X .20 Rating
B. INDUSTRIAL HAZARD CONTROL
1.
Housekeeping-storage 0
of materials, etc.
2.
Machine guarding. 0
3.
General area guarding. 0
4.
Maintenance of equip- 0
etc
nd tools
h
d
.
,
a
s,
ment guar
5. Material handling- 0
hand and mechanized.
6. Personal protective equip- 0
4 8 10
5 16 20
5 16 20
5 16 20
10
3 8
4 16 20
ment-adequacy and use.
Total value of circled X .20 Rating
numbers
C. FIRE CONTROL & INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
1. Chemical hazard control 0 6 17 20
references.
2. Flammable and explosive
0
materials control.
3. Ventilation-fumes, smoke
0
and dust control.
4. Skin contamination
0
control.
5. Fire control measures.
0
6. Waste-trash collection
0
and disposal, air/water
pollution.
Total value of circled
1-
6 17 20
2 8 10
3 10 15
8 10
2
7 20 25
+ -}- X .20 Rating
D. SUPERVISORY PARTICIPATION, MOTIVATION & TRAINING
'1. Line supervisor safety 0 10 22 25
training. 10
2. Indoctrination of new 0 1 5
employees. 8 10
3. Job hazard analysis. 0 2
4. Training for specialized 0 2 7 10
operations.
5. Internal self-inspection. 0 5 14 15
6. Safety promotion and 0 1 4 5
publicity.
7. Employee/ supervisor 0 5 20 25
contact and communi-
cation.
Total value of circled
numbers ? +
X .20 Rating
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Poor Fair Good Exce
llent Comments
E. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, STATISTICS & REPORTING PROCEDURES
1. Accident. investigation
by line supervisor.
2. Accident cause and
injury location analysis
and statistics.
3. Investigation of property 0 10 32 4
0
damage.
4. Proper reporting of 0 3 8
10
accidents and contact
with carrier.
Total value of circled
numbers
SUMMARY
The numerical values below are the weighted ratings
calculated on rating sheets. The total becomes the
overall score for the location.
A. Organization & Administration
B. Industrial Hazard Control
C. Fire Control & Industrial Hygiene
D. Supervisory Participation.
Motivation & Training
E. Accident Investigation, Statistics
& Reporting Procedures
TOTAL RATING
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
weights each factor and performance level. You
can use this form to score your program activity
by specific area and develop a simple summary
of overall performance.
RELATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT'
Industry and businesses need to know how to
assign priorities to potential hazards in order to
plan the most effective use of materials,
personnel, and finances and to design facilities
control. Many experienced administrators and
managers can quickly make risk assessments
because of the nature of the problems. Not all
situations lend themselves to easy analysis,
however. A simple statistical procedure can be
used where:
-detail needs to be provided,
-answers are not readily apparent,
-statistical support is required, or
-weighting factors need to be applied.
As an example, let us take the problem of
deciding whether a plant should become
involved with research or pilot production
plants and the potential risk of workers using
viral vectors to produce recombinant DNA
molecules.
Relative risk (RR) is an estimate of the chance
that individuals performing research or
production involving the use of viral vectors in
the production of DNA molecules will develop
work-related illnesses as compared with the
chance that individuals performing similar
duties, not invloving viral vectors to produce
recombinant DNA molecules, will develop
work-related illness.
An estimate of RR can be calculated from data
displayed in a 2 x 2 contingency table of the
general form:
DNA Workers Non-DNA Workers Total
Work-related illness A B A + B
Nonwork-related
illness (controls) C D C + D
If sex-specific frequencies are needed for some
study, the following notations could be
substituted.
A,. B,, Cr. D,. = females
A.. B.. C.. D. = males
information on which each is based. Thus, C
become C', D becomes D'; this represents the
expected numbers that would result if the total
number of nonwork-related illness was the same
as the total number of work-related illness in the
DNA and non-DNA workers. Hence,
C'=(A+ B) [C+(C+D))
D'=(A+B)[D+(C+D))
The resultant 2 x 2 contingency tables (by age)
can be summed to a single combined
contingency table:
DNA Workers Non-DNA Workers Total
Work-related
illness
A. +A,
B. + B,
(A, + A,) + (B, + B,)
Nonwork-
related
illness
C', + C',
D', + D':
(C'. +C',)+(D'i + D':)
Then the estimated age-adjusted RR summary
is computed as:
RR = (A. + A,) ? (D'. + D',/(B. + B,) ? (C', + C':)
This pooling is only possible if the true
probabilities corresponding to ratios A./(CA. + B,)
and A,/(A, + B2) are equal and if the true
probabilities corresponding to ratios c,/(c, + D,)
and C,/(C2 + D,) are equal. It does not take
into account the number of controls in determining
weights.
A more accurate weighting system would be to
use the population age distribution to determine
weights. Then the age-adjusted RR would be:
(a,A, ? mA,) (,r.C. + mC, + ,r.D, + mD,) /
(,r,C, + mCa)(mA + mA, +,r,B, + mB,)
where ,r, = proportion of the population in the
first age group (below 50)
rrz = 1 - in = proportion in the second age
group (50 or over)
Probability values associated with a chi-square
test of the basic (not adjusted or pooled) 2 x 2
contingency table greater than .05 can be
assumed to be nonsignificant. A significance
test of the age-adjusted RR would be needed.
Bibliography
Some Methods for Strengthening the Common
Chi-Square Tests. W. G. Cochran. Biometrics
10:417-451. 1954.
Epidemiology, Principles and Methods. P.
MacMahon. Little, Brown & Co. 1970.
The RR is estimated by the quantity:
RR z (A/B) + (C/D) = AD/BC ("odd's ratio," or "cross-product ratio")
If an estimate of age-adjusted RR is desired (for
example below age 50 and over age 50) this may
by computed by a procedure that weights the
age-specific RR according to the amount of
'Presented at meeting of the Committee on Genetic
Experimentation (COGENE) of the International Council
of Scientific Unions (ICSU), Key Biscayne, Florida, June
1-2, 1978, L L Hatch.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
INFORMA TION AND
CONSULTATION SOURCES
You are involved in the self-evaluation process
primarily because employees and management
have made the commitment to strive for
optimal safety and health conditions. A
fundamental goal of this program is to
encourage employees and employers to work at
self-improvement of the worksite using existing
staff and in-house resources.
In doing so, you should begin program
development with the resources provided by the
self-evaluation procedure (i.e., Self-Evaluation
Instrument, which is used with this Program
Manual) and then look to public and private
agencies providing free or minimal cost
information and services (e.g., federal, state,
and local health and labor departments,
insurance carriers, nearby universities, etc.).
After exploring these sources, you should
consider using private consultants for
assistance in solving particularly difficult
problems.
This program manual should be used first for
initial direction. If the information provided
here is insufficient for your particular needs,
you should next try referral to literature or
agencies that might be helpful. Following is a
list of information resources:
-If you have a carrier for workers'
compensation insurance, the company
probably has safety and health
specialists on staff who are familiar with
minimum standards and technical
information currently available and who
can be quite helpful in advising you in
accident and illness prevention and
control.
-Trade associations often have technical
materials, programs, and industry data
available for your specific needs.
-The Department of Labor through the
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) has invaluable
data interpreting the law and providing
additional information for meeting the
standards that apply to you. This
information is available free of charge or
obligation.
-The Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare through the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) provides invaluable
printed material. Staff from this agency
will do industrial hygiene surveys of
particularly hazardous plants as time
permits upon request of employers and
three or more employees.
-Machine or product manufacturers can
be helpful in providing additional
information on precautions you might
take in using their products. Any special
problems should be referred to them first.
-Professional societies in the safety,
industrial hygiene, and medical fields
issue publications in the form of journals,
pamphlets, and books that may be quite
useful (e.g., American Society of Safety
Engineers, Occupational Health
Institute). They can also recommend
individuals from their societies to serve
as consultants.
-Local colleges and universities
sometimes have industrial hygiene,
public health, medical or other relevant
departments with faculty and libraries to
assist you.
After you have exhausted all your resources,
hiring a private consultant may be an
alternative. The consultant should be selected
by matching his/her specialty and your specific
problem. Try to select; consultants in your .
geographic'location (most professional societies
have lists of their representatives by region) to
save on travel expenses. When considering the
expense of hiring a consultant, you should also
be aware that paying consulting fees might still
be considerably less expensive than adding a
permanent specialist to your payroll. Also,
consultants, because they are independent from
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
your establishment, can often contribute fresh,
original, and unbiased viewpoints.
Specific references and resources that may be
helpful are listed below.'-2 By using these
resources, you may be able to solve many of
your problems inexpensively and effectively.
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of
Atmospheric Contaminants. Fourth Edition.
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH. 1972.
Gives instrument description and source of
supply for U.S. distributors.
The Determination of Toxic Substances in Air;
A Manual of ICI Practice. N.W. Hanson, D.A.
Reilly, and H. E. Staff, editors. W. Heifer &
Sons, Cambridge, England. 1965. Includes
some procedures not given elsewhere.
Industrial Dust: Hygienic Significance,
Measurement and Control. Second Edition.
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. 1954.
The Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation
and Control. Third Edition. DHEW (NIOSH)
74117. National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Cincinnnati, OH 45226.
1973. An industrial hygiene textbook, rather
than a syllabus, covering a broad range of
subjects from mathematics to medicine.
Industrial Ventilation-A Manual of
Recommended Practice. Thirteenth Edition.
Committee on Industrial Ventilation,
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Lansing, MI. 1974.
Provides new developments and standards for
industrial ventilating systems.
Noise and Vibration Control. L.L. Beranek,
editor. Academic Press, New York, N.Y. 1970.
The practical treatment of noise control design
and construction.
'Sources of Consultation and Reference Aids. W. R. Lee.
Section XI, Occupational Diseases: A Guide to Their.
Recognition. M.M. Key, A.F. Henschel, J. Butler, R.N. Ligo,
I.R. Tabershaw, and L Ede, Editors. DHEW (NIOSH) 77'-
181. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Cincinnati, OH 45226. 1977. pp. 523-556. Also
available as: Consultation and Reference Sources for
Occupational Health. W.R. Lee. Journal of Occupational
Medicine, 17(7):446-456, July 1975.
'Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations.
Seventh Edition. National Safety Council, Chicago, IL
1974. pp. 591.630.
Respiratory Protective Devices Manual.
Committee on Respirators, American
Industrial Hygiene Association-American
Conference of Governmental Industrial.
Hygienists. Lansing, MI. 1963.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND
RELATED JOURNALS
Occupational Safety and Health: Standards,
Interpretations, Regulations, and Procedures.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
Washington, DC 20210. (Distributed by the
Superintendent of Documents.) Vol. I - General
Industrial Standards; Vol. II - Maritime
Standards; Vol. III - Construction Standards;
Vol. IV - Other Regulations and Procedures;
Vol. V -Compliance Manual. The information
subscription service provided by OSHA for
current awareness. 1973-
SAFETY DATA SHEETS,
GUIDES, MANUALS
AIHA Hygienic Guide Series. American
Industrial Hygiene Association, 66 South
Miller Road, Akron, OH 44313. Separate data
sheets on specific substances giving hygienic
standards, properties, industrial hygiene
practice, specific procedures, and references.
ANSI Standards, Z37 Series, Acceptable
Concentrations of Toxic Dusts and Gases.
American National Standards Institute, 1430
Broadway, New York, NY 10018. These guides
represent a consensus of interested parties
concerning minimum safety requirements for
the storage, transportation, and handling of
toxic substances; they are intended to aid the
manufacturer, the consumer, and the general
public.
ASTM Standards with Related Material.
American Society for Testing and Materials,
1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103.
Data Sheets. Manufacturing Chemists'
Association, 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20009. Includes information
on properties, hazards, handling, storage,
hazard control, employee safety, medical
management, etc., of specific chemicals.
Industrial Safety Data Sheets. National Safety
Council, 425 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago,
IL 60611. Information and recommendations
regarding the safe handling of chemicals and
safe practices in the work environment.
Safety Guides. Manufacturing Chemists'
Association, 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW,
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Washington, DC 20009. Information and
recommendations pertaining to safe practices
in the work environment.
TLVs. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical
Substances and Physical Agents in the
Workroom Environment.... American
Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists, P.O. Box 1937, Cincinnati, OH
45201. Annual; threshold limits based on
information from industrial experience and
experimental human and animal studies;
intended for use in the practice of industrial
hygiene.
AIHA Ergonomic Guide Series. American
Industrial Hygiene Association, 64 Wolf Ledges
Drive, Akron, OH 41313. A valuable source of
information on ergonomics.
SAFETY SOURCES OF HELP
American National Red Cross Safety Service,
17th and "D" Streets, NW, Washington, DC
20006. Offers free courses in first aid.
National Society for the Prevention of
Blindness, Inc., 79 Madison Avenue, New York,
NY 10016. Addresses industry, safety, and
educational meetings to project NSPB
recommendations and program aims.
National Fire Protection Association, 470
Atlantic Ave., Boston, MA 02210. The clearing
house for information on fire protection and fire
prevention. Nonprofit technical and
educational organization.
Underwriter Laboratories Inc., 207 East Ohio
Street, Chicago, IL 60611. Not-for-profit
organization whose laboratories publish
annual lists of manufacturers whose products
proved acceptable under appropriate
standards.
INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS
The American Association of State
Compensation Insurance Funds, P.O. 5922, San
Francisco, CA 94101. Produces technical
information available to safety engineers.
American Mutual Insurance Alliance, 20 North
Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606. Disseminates
information on safety subjects; conducts
specialized courses for member company
personnel. Prints several publications.
American Insurance Association Engineering
and Safety Service, 85 John Street, New York,
NY 10038. Issues many publications on
accident prevention.
STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATION GROUPS
American National Standards Institute, 1430
Broadway, New York, NY 10018. Coordinates
and administers the federated voluntary
standardization system in the United States.
American Society for Testing and Materials,
1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103.
World's largest source of voluntary consensus
standards for materials, products, systems, and
services.
FIRE PROTECTION
ORGANIZATIONS
Factory Insurance Association, 85 Woodland
Street, Hartford, CT 06015. Composed of a
group of captial stock insurance companies to
provide engineering, inspections, and loss
adjustment service to industry.
Factory Mutual System, 1151 Boston-
Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062. An
industrial fire protection, engineering, and
inspection bureau established and maintained
by mutual fire insurance companies.
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
American Foundrymen's Society, Golf and Wolf
Roads, Des Plaines, IL 60016. Serves as a
clearinghouse for information in this industry.
American Gas Association, 1515 N. Wilson
Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22209. Serves as a
clearinghouse and advisor to its member
companies.
American Iron and Steel Insitute, 1000 16th
Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036.
American Meat Institute, 1600 N. Wilson
Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22209.
American Mining Congress, 1200 18th Street,
NW, Washington, DC 20036.
American Paper Institute, 260 Madison
Avenue, New York, NY 10016.
American Petroleum Institute Safety and Fire
Protection Service, 1801 D Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20006.
American Public Power Association, 2600
Virginia Avenue, Washington, DC 20037.
American Pulpwood Association, 605 Bird
Avenue, New York, NY 10016.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
American Road Builders Association, 525
School Street, SW, Washington, DC 20024.
American Trucking Association, Inc., 1616 P
Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036.
Membership available to any person concerned
with truck safety.
The American Waterways Operators, Inc., 1250
Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 502,
Washington, DC 20036.
American Water Works Association, 2 Park
Avenue, New York, NY 10016.
American Welding Society, 2501 NW 7th Street,
Miami, FL 33125. Devoted to the proper and
safe use of welding by industry. Booklets and
other publications available.
Associated General Contractors of America,
Inc., 1957 E Street, NW, Washington, DC 20006.
Association of American Railroads, 1920 L
Street, NW, Washington, DC 20006.
Can Manufacturers Institute, Inc., 1625
Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC
20036. Acts as a clearinghouse of information
on the metal can industry in the United States.
The Chlorine Institute, 342 Madison Avenue,
New York, NY 10017. Provides a means for
chlorine producers and firms with related
interests to deal with problems.
Compressed Gas Association, Inc., 500 Fifth
Avenue, New York, NY 10036. Provides
information on safe handling and storage of
gases.
Edison Electric Institute, 90 Park Avenue, New
York, NY 10016.
Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615
Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
Gray and Ductile Iron Founder's Society, Inc.,
Cast Metals Federation Building, Rocky River,
OH 44126.
Industrial Safety Equipment Association, Inc.,
2425 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22201.
Devoted to the promotion of public interest in
safety.
Institute of Makers of Explosives, 420
Lexington Avenue, New York, NY 10017.
Booklets on the safe transportation, handling,
and use of explosives.
International Association of Drilling
Contractors, 211 N. Ervay, Suite 505, Dallas, TX
75201.
International Association of Refrigerated
Warehouses, 7315 Wisconsin Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20014.
Linen Supply Association of America, 975
Arthur Godfrey Road, Miami Beach, FL 33140.
Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Inc.,
1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington,
DC 20009. Information available on safe
handling, transportation, and use of chemicals.
National Association of Manufacturers, 1776 F
Street, NW, Washington, DC 20006.
National LP-Gas Association, 79 W. Monroe
Street, Chicago, IL 60603. Programs and
information to train the public in safe handling
and uses of LP-gas.
Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N.
Lynn Street, Arlington, VA 22209.
Scaffolding and Shoring Institute, 2130 Keith
Bldg., Cleveland, OH 44115. Booklets on
shoring available.
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., 250
Park Avenue, New York, NY 10017.
Information available on plastics and safety.
U. S. ORGANIZATIONS
Air Pollution Control Association, 4450 Fifth
Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
The American Occupational Medical
Association. School of Public Health,
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261.
American Chemical Society, 1155 Sixteenth
Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036.
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, P.O. Box 1937,
Cincinnati, OH 45201.
.American Industrial Hygiene Association, 66 S.
Miller Road, Akron, OH 44313.
American Medical Association, Committee on
Occupational Toxicology and Council on
Occupational Health, 535 North Dearborn
Street, Chicago, IL 60610.
American National Standards Institute, 1430
Broadway, New York, NY 10018.
American Public Health Association, 1015
Eighteenth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036.
American Society for Testing and Materials,
1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
American Society of Tropical Medicine and
Hygiene, Emory University Branch, P.O. Box
15208, Atlanta, GA 30333.
The Fertilizer Institute, 1015 18th Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20036.
Industrial Health Foundation', Inc., 5231 Centre
Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15232.
Industrial Medical Association, 150 North
Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606.
Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Inc.,
1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington,
DC 20009.
National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan
Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611.
Society of Toxicology. Robert A. Scala,
Secretary, Medical Research Division, Esso
Research and Engineering Company, P.O. Box
45, Linden, NJ 07036.
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
Atomic Energy Commission, Division of
Biomedical Environmental Research,
Washington, DC 20545.
Department of Commerce
National Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC 20234.
National Technical Information Service
(NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,
VA 22151.
Department of Labor
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fourteenth
Street and Constitution Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20210
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, Fourteenth Street and
Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC
20210
Department of Interior
Bureau of Mines, C Street between
Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets, NW,
Washington, DC 20240.
Mining Enforcement and Safety
Administration, C Street between
Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets, NW,
Washington, DC 20240.
Environmental Protection Agency,401 M
Street, SW, Washington, DC 20460.
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA 30333
National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) Parklawn Building,
5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20852;
4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH
45226; 944 Chestnut Ridge Road,
Morgantown, WV 26505.
NIOSH Regional Offices
DHEW, Region I
(CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VT)
Government Center
(JFK Federal Building)
Boston, MA 02203
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region II
(NJ, NY, PR, VI)
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10007
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region III
(DE, DC, MD, PA, VA, WV)
3525 Market Street
P.O. Box 13716
Philadelphia, PA 19101
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region IV
(AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN)
101 Marietta Tower
Suite 502B
Atlanta, GA 30323
Tel.: 404/22-:2396
DHEW, Region V
(IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI)
300 South Wacker. Drive
Chicago, IL 60606
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region VI
(AR, LA, NM, OK, TX)
1200 Main Tower Building
Dallas, TX 75202
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region VII
(IA, KS, MO, NE)
601 East 12th Street
Kansas City, MO 64106
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region VI]:I
(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY)
11037 Federal Building
Denver, CO 80294
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region IX
(AZ, CA, HI, NV)
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
50 United Nations Plaza
San Francisco, CA 94102
Tel.: [phone]
DHEW, Region X
(AK, ID, OR, WA)
1321 Second Avenue
Mail Stop 502
Seattle, WA 98101
Tel.: [phone]
Health Resources Administration
National Center for Health Statistics,
330 Independence Avenue, SW,
Washington, DC 20201.
National Institutes of Health
National Cancer Institute, Bethesda,
MD 20014.
National Clearinghouse for Mental Health
Information (NCMHI), National Institute
of Mental Health, 5600 Fishers Lane,
Rockville, MD 20852.
National Heart and Lung Institute,
Bethesda, MD 20014.
National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences (NIEHS), P.O. 12333,
Research Triangle Park, NC 22079.
SCHOOLS OF PUBLIC HEALTH
IN THE UNITED STATES
AND CANADA
University of California School of Public
Health. Earl Warren Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720.
University of California at Los Angeles School
of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA 90024.
Columbia University School of Public Health
and Administrative Medicine, 600 West 168th
Street, New York, NY 10032.
Harvard University School of Public Health, 55
Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115.
University of Hawaii School of Public Health,
-1860 East West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822.
University of Illinois at the Medical Center,
School of Public Health, P.O. Box 6998,
Chicago, IL 60680.
Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene
Health, 1325 Mayor Memorial Building,
and Public Health, School of Medicine, 60
College Street, New Haven, CN 06510.
Loma Linda University School of Public
Health, Loma Linda, CA 92345.
University of Michigan, School of Public
Health, Ann Arbor, MI 48104.
University of Minnesota School of Public
Health, 1325 Mayor Memorial Building,
Minneapolis, MN 55455.
University of North Carolina School of Public
Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27514.
University of Oklahoma School of Health, 800
North East 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK
73104.
University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of
Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA 15261.
University of Puerto Rico School of Public
Health, Medical Sciences Campus, GPO Box
5067, San Juan, PR 00905 (teaching in
Spanish).
University of Texas at Houston, School of
Public Health, P.O. Box 20186, Astrodome
Station, Houston, TX 77025.
University of Toronto School of Hygiene,
Toronto 5, Ontario, Canada.
Tulane University School of Public Health and
Tropical Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New
Orleans, LA 70112.
University of Washington School of Public
Health and Community Medicine, F 356d
Health Sciences Building, Mail Drop SC-30,
Seattle, WA 98195.
Yale University Department of Epidemiology
and Public Health, School of Medicine, 60
College Street, New Haven, CN 06510.
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCE
CENTER PROGRAM DIRECTORS
(July 1978)
NIOSH has funded the following schools,
colleges, and universities for the purpose of
developing educational programs for
occupational health specialists.
Marcus M. Key, M.D., The University of Texas
Health Science Center, P.O. Box 20186,
Houston, TX 77025. [phone].
Gareth M. Green, M.D., The Johns Hopkins
University, School of Hygiene and Public
Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD
21205, [phone] or 3537.
David A. Fraser, Sc. D., Department of
Environmental Sciences and Engineering,
School of Public Health, University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, [phone].
John T. Wilson, M.D., Sc. D., Department of
Environmental Health, University of
Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, [phone].
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Raymond R. Suskind, M.D., Department of
Environmental Health, University of
Cincinnati College of Medicine, 3223 Eden
Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45267, [phone].
John M. Peters, M.D., Sc.D., Harvard
University, School of Public Health, 665
Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, (617)
732-1260.
Conrad P. Straub, Ph.D., University of
Minnesota, School of Public Health, 420
Delaware Street, S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455,
[phone].
Herbert K. Abrams, M.D., Department of
Family & Community Medicine, University of
Arizona Health Sciences Center, Tuscon, AZ
85724, [phone].
Bertram W. Carnow, M.D., School of Public
Health, University of Illinois at the Medical
Center, P.O. Box 6998, Chicago, IL 60680, (312)
996-7811.
ENCYCLOPEDIAS
Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and
Safety. Second Edition. International Labor
Office. McGraw-Hill. 1974. Two volumes. A
concise, single access (A-Z) illustrated reference
giving fully referenced information on all facets
of worker safety and health.
GOVERNMENT REPORTS
Annual Survey of Manufacturers. U.S. Bureau
of the Census, Industry Division, Washington,
DC 20233. Includes statistics on wholesale and
retail trade.
Injury Rates by Industry. U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Fourteenth Street and Constitution
Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20210.
(Distributed by the Superintendent of
Documents.) An annual report on industrial
injuries.
DIRECTORIES
AIHA Membership Book. American Industrial
Hygiene Association, 66 South Miller Road,
Akron, OH 44313. Annual.
Chemical Guide to the United States. Seventh
Edition. Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge,
NJ. 1973. Describes over 400 of the largest U.S.
chemical firms with index to companies; no
subject index.
Directory of Chemical Producers. Stanford
Research Institute, 855 Oak Grove, Menlo Park,
CA 94025. Four volumes published
continuously on a quarterly installment basis
listing a total of 1,600 chemical producers and
10,000 individual commercial chemicals,
arranged alphabetically by company, product,
and region.
Directory of Federally Supported Information
Analysis Centers. Third Edition. Library of
Congress, Science and Technology Division,
National Referral Center, Washington, DC
20540. 1974.
Directory of Governmental Occupational
Safety and Health Personnel. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Rockville, MD 20852. Annual.
A Directory- of Information Resources in the
United States. Library of Congress, Science and-
Technology Division, National Referral Center,
Washington, DC 20540. (Distributed by the
Superintendent of Documents.)
Informative subject-indexed directories to
information resources in science.
Biological Sciences, 1972
Federal Government, 1967
General Toxicology, 1969
Physical Sciences Engineering, 1971.
Directory of State Control Officials (in:
Environment Index). Environment
Information Center, Inc., 124 East 39th Street,
New York, NY 10016. Annual.
Environmental Protection Agency Directory of
Information Sources. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 401 M Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20460. Annual.
International Directory of Occupational Safety
and Health Services and Institutions.
International Labour Office, Geneva,
Switzerland. 1969.
Keystone Coal Mine Directory. McGraw-Hill,
Mining Information Services, 1221 Avenue of
the Americas, New York, NY 10020. An annual
compilation of mines and coal producing
companies, coal sales organizations, major
consumers, and statistical indexes.
NIH Public Advisory Groups. DHEW
Publication No. (NIH) 72-11. U.S. Public Health
Service, National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda, MD 20014. 1972.
Occupational Safety and Health Consultants.
Office of Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, 5600 Fishers
Lane, Rockville, MD 20852.
National Directory of Safety Consultants. G.A.
Peters, editor. Third. Edition. American
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Society of Safety Engineers, 850 Busse
Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068. 1974.
Environmental Information Sources,
Engineering and Industrial Applications-A
Selected Annotated Bibliography. C.
Schildhauer. Special Libraries Association, 235
Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10003.1972.
Well-annotated bibliography of all types of
publications in the field of environmental
health.
State and Local Environmental Libraries, A
Directory. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 401 M Street, SW, Washington, DC.
1973.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
CONTENTS
Plant Safety and Health, 56
Ventilation, 56
Lighting, 58
The Physical Plant, 60
Sanitation, 64
Personal Protective Equipment, 66
Machine Guarding, 70
Potentially Hazardous Operations, 74
Handling and Storage of Hazardous Materials, 75
Toxicology, 77
Chemical Agents, 79
Acids, 79
Alkalies, 81
Gases, 82
Inorganic Dusts, 84
Asbestos, 85
Silica, 86
Metals, Metalloids, and Their Compounds, 87
Organic Dusts, 88
Organic Solvents, 89
Pesticides, 90
Plastics and Plasticizers, 92
Biological Agents, 94
Physical Agents, 96
Temperature Extremes, 96
Radiation, 99
Noise, 103
Vibration, 105
Barometric Pressure Changes, 106
Psychological Hazards, 107
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
PLANT SAFETYAND HEALTH
VENTILATION
Ventilation is one of the most important
engineering controls available for improving or
maintaining the quality of the air in your
establishment. It may be used for one or for a
combination of the following reasons:
-heating, cooling or humidity control;
-removing a contaminant (dusts, fumes,
mists, gases, vapors);
-diluting the concentration of a
contaminant;
-providing pressurization to prevent cross-
contamination between different work
areas; or
-supplying make-up air (air supplied to
replace exhausted air).
These basic uses of industrial ventilation can be
divided into three major applications:
-the prevention of fire and explosion,
-the control of atmospheric contamination
within acceptable levels, and
-the control of temperature and humidity
for worker comfort.
General ventilation, sometimes known as
dilution ventilation, controls the air quality by
diluting the concentration of contaminants
before they reach the workers' breathing zone. It
is most effective in controlling the
concentration of low toxicity contaminants
from minor or decentralized sources. General
ventilation does not, however, reduce the
amount of hazardous material released into the
air. Therefore, employees working close to a
source of air contaminants may not be
adequately protected by general ventilation
alone.
Local exhaust ventilation is the preferred
method of controlling contaminants in the work
environment. A local exhaust system is one in
which the contaminant being controlled is
captured at or near its source or point of
dispersion. For example, grinding wheels and
dip tanks are often provided with a local
exhaust system. In contrast to dilution or
general ventilation, local exhaust ventilation
places much more reliance on mechanical
methods of controlling air flow. A local exhaust
system usually includes the use of hoods or
enclosures, ductwork leading to an exhaust fan,
and an air cleaning device (e.g., filters and
cyclone separators)for air pollution abatement.'
All local and general exhaust ventilations
systems must have air to exhaust, and that air
must be replaced pound for pound by a make-up
air system. The supply and distribution of
make-up air is often overlooked or neglected in
the design of ventilation although it is
fundamental to its successful operation.
A local exhaust system is usually superior to
general ventilation for the purpose of
contaminant control. Its advantages include
the following:
-If the system is properly designed, the
capture and control of a contaminant can
be complete, preventing any worker
exposure.
-The required volume rate of air exhausted
is less than local ventilation and as a
result, the volume of make-up air required
is less. Local ventilation saves in both
capital investment and heating costs.
-The contaminant is contained in a
smaller exhausted volume of air.
Therefore, if air pollution control is
needed, it is less costly.
-Many local exhaust systems can be
designed to capture large settleable
particles or at least to confine them
within a hood and thus greatly reduce the
labor required for good housekeeping.
-Other equipment in the workroom is
better protected from the harmful effects
of the contaminant, including corrosion,
abrasion, or clogging between joints of
moving parts.
-The performance of the local exhaust
system is not likely to be adversely
'The Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation and Control.
DHEW (NIOSH) 74-117. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH 45226.
1973. p. 574.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
affected by wind direction or velocity,
inadequate make-up air, etc. This is in
contrast to general ventilation, which can
be greatly affected by seasonal factors.'
Usually the best indicator that your ventilation
system is inadequate is the detection of
environmental problems that should be
controlled by ventilation. These include-
-high air contaminant concentration as
indicated from air sampling; and
-complaints about odors, heat, cold,
humidity, or specific health problems
related to contaminant exposure.
If any of these conditions exist, local exhaust
and general ventilation air flow measurements
should be made. These measurements should be
made by a person well qualified and experienced
in ventilation measurements (e.g., safety
engineer, industrial hygienist, or heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning engineer). If
your ventilation systems appear to be
inadequate, there are a few simple checks you
can make in locating the problem. These are:
-Be sure dampers in ductwork are set
properly.
-Be sure there are no holes, cracks, etc., in
ductwork resulting from corrosion or
structural failure.
-If dust is being exhausted, open some
sections of ductwork to check for
excessive dust deposits.
-If an air cleaning device is used, check to
see that it is clean.
-Have an engineer check to see that the
exhaust fan is operating properly.
-Check inlets and outlets for obstructions,
and for free movement of motorized or
free-swing louvers.
If these problems do not exist, you should
analyze the basic design of your system. In
checking this and in considering design
changes in a system, professionals with
experience in this area should be consulted.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) requires that air pollution control
equipment be used to prevent the discharge of
excessive amounts of air contaminants to the
atmosphere. A qualified professional should
determine the need for and the type of control
equipment. In some cases, air pollution control
will not be necessary because of the nature of the
contaminant or the amount being exhausted.
Professional help can prevent needless
installation of equipment.
Bibliography
Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial
Operations. Seventh Edition. National Safety
Council, Chicago, IL 1974.
Heating and Cooling for Man in Industry.
Second Edition. American Industrial Hygiene
Association, Akron, OH. 1975.
The Industrial Environment, Its Evaluation
and Control. DHEW (NIOSH) 74.117. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Cincinnati, OH 45226. 1973.
Industrial Ventilation-A Manual of
Recommended Practice. Thirteenth Edition.
Committee on Industrial Ventilation, American
Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists, Lansing, MI. 1974.
Plant and Process Ventilation. W. C. Hemeon.
The Industrial Press, New York, NY. 1955.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
LIGHTING
Adequate, well-balanced lighting is essential
for safe working conditions as well as for
maintaining the quality and the quantity of
your production. Poor illumination can create a
number of hazardous conditions such as:
-direct glare (bright lights),
-reflected glare (reflective surfaces),
-dark shadows,
-excessive visual fatigue, and
-delayed adaption from bright to dark.
Recognizing and correcting these conditions is
an important part of your OSH program.
Lighting systems usually consist of general
illumination and local or supplementary
illumination. Use of supplementary
illumination is important to prevent eye fatigue
that occurs on certain jobs and that may
contribute to poor eyesight. If employees
complain of eye fatique and headaches, it is
usually an indication that lighting is
inadequate.
If there is any question as to the adequacy of
lighting in any work area at your
establishment, illumination measurements
should be taken with a light meter. Although a
visual check may identify many lighting
problems, a survey with an illumination
measurement device such as a light meter is the
only certain way of identifying all such
problems.
Illumination measurements are made in units
known as footcandles. When conducting a
lighting survey:
-Measurements should be taken at points
where tasks are being performed as well
in aisles and general routes of travel.
-Measurements should be taken away
from the body and any other objects that
might cast shadows and give distorted
measurements.
The results of your measurements should be
compared with some recommended
illumination levels such as those listed on the
following table.
If illumination levels in some areas are
inadequate, engineering modifications or
maintenance controls should be considered.
Some examples include:
-different general lighting fixtures for
varying illumination levels.
-supplementary lighting such as localized
incandescent lamps for small tasks.
-painting room surfaces light colors to
reflect the present, lighting; improving
surface lighting.
-paint machinery and equipment to help
make the machinery more visible than
the surrounding area.
-a regular maintenance program for
cleaning and replacing light bulbs.
If you have illumination problems at your
establishment, you probably will want to
consult with an expert in lighting before
deciding on the purchase and installation of
equipment.
If you have employees working in areas with no
natural lighting or in nondaylight hours,
emergency lighting is necessary for their safety.
The amount of emergency lighting does not
have to match the intensity of normal lighting,
but it does need to be adequate for employees to
safely exit from the building. The lighting
should be continuous along the entire exit route
with no areas of total darkness, however small.
Additional emergency lighting is necessary for
establishments such as hospitals, hotels, etc.,
where a complete evacuation of people would be
impractical.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION CURRENTLY RECOMMENDED'
Footcandles
Footcandles
Area on Tasks2
on Tasks2
Assembly
Rough easy seeing
Rough difficult seeing
30
50
Extra-fine bench and ma-
chine work, grinding, fine
work
1000'
Medium
Fine
Extra fine
100
5W
1000'
Materials handling
Wrapping, packing, label-
ing
50
Building (Construction)
Picking stock, classifying
30
General construction
10
Loading, trucking
20
Excavation work
Building exteriors
Entrances
Active (pedestrian and/or
conveyance)
Inactive (normally locked,
infrequently used)
Vital locations or structures
Building surrounds
Garages-automobile and truck
Service garages
Repairs
Active traffic areas
Parking garages
Entrance
Traffic lanes
Storage
Inspection
2
1
5
1
100
20
50
10
5
Inside truck bodies and
freight cars
Offices
Cartography, designing, de-
tailed drafting
Accounting, auditing, tabu-
lating, bookkeeping,
business machine opera-
tion, reading poor repro-
ductions, rough layout
drafting
Regular office work, read-
ing good reproductions,
reading or transcribing
handwriting in hard pen-
cil or on poor paper, ac-
tive filing, index refer-
ences, mail sorting
100
Ordinary
Difficult
Vryldiffi difficult
100
50200
0'
Reading or trascribing
handwriting in ink or me-
dium pencil on good qual-
ity paper, intermittent fil-
Most difficult
Loading and unloading platforms
Freight car interiors
Locker rooms
Machine shops
Rough bench and machine
work
Medium bench and ma-
1000'
20
10
20
ing
Reading high-contrast or
well-printed material,
tasks and areas not in-
volving critical or pro-
longed seeing such as
conferring, interviewing,
inactive files, washrooms
30
chine work; ordinary auto-
matic machines, rough
grinding, medium-buffing
and polishing
Corridors, elevators, esca-
lators, stairways
Storage rooms or warehouses
Inactive
5
Fine bench and machine
work, fine automatic ma-
chines medium grinding,
Active
Rough bulky
Medium
10
20
fine buffing and polishing
500'
Fine
50
'Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene. J.B. Olishifski and F.E. McElroy. National Safety Council. Chicago, IL 60611.
1971. pp. 232.233.
'Minimum on the task at any time.
'Can be obtained with a combination of general lighting plus specialized supplementary lighting. Care should be taken .
to keep within the recommended brightness ratios. These seeing tasks generally involve the discrimination of fine
detail for long periods of time and under conditions of poor contrast. The design and installation of the combination
system must not only provide a sufficient amount of light, but also the proper direction of light, diffusion, color and eye
protection. As far as possible it should eliminate direct and reflected glare as well as objectionable shadows.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
THE PHYSICAL PLANT
The physical environment of all employees
should be as free as possible from hazards. A
strict regular maintenance program for your
physical plant is an essential part of your safety
and health program.
All buildings should be designed, constructed,
equipped, and maintained so as to be in
compliance with applicable building codes, fire
prevention codes, state and federal
occupational safety and health standards, and
the Life Safety Code of the National Fire
Protection Association. These codes and
standards cover a wide variety of aspects- of.
your physical plant and standard equipment
These include the following basic elements
present at most establishments: .
-walking surfaces,
-stairways,
-exits,
-ladders,
-elevators,
-heating system, and
-electrical system.
You should examine each of these aspects
present at your establishment and, after
reviewing the relevant codes and standards,
make your own inspection checklist. Much of
what is required is simply a matter of common
sense, and many hazards can be corrected by
your employees with minimal expenditure or
training. This chapter will review each of these
areas briefly and then refer you to the applicable
codes and standards.
Walking Surfaces
Walking surfaces must be properly protected
and maintained to prevent slipping and
tripping. Hard, high-polished surfaces should
be treated with slip-resistant floor wax. Stairs,
elevator entrances, and areas around building
entrances may require additional protection
through the use of mats, carpeting, runners, or
tapes. Quick cleanup of any spillage is also
essential.
Tripping often results from objects or
projections such as open file cabinets, stock, and
wastepaper baskets left in the aisles. Defective
tiles, boards, and carpeting can also cause
tripping accidents.
For specific requirements, check:
-Safety Requirements for Floor and Wall
Openings, Railings, and Toeboards
(A12.1). American National Standards
Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York,
NY 10018.
-Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, Subpart D - Walking and
Working Surfaces. Federal Register, 29
CFR 1910, June 1974.
Stairways
Stairways, like walking surfaces, can be a
constant source of slipping or falling accidents
if they are not properly designed and
maintained. The following protection and
maintenance procedures should be adopted-
-Slippery stairs should be protected with
special tapes or mats.
-If carpeting is used to prevent slipping, it
should be kept in good repair.
-Handrails should be provided for all
stairways consisting of more than three
steps.
-Since exterior, unenclosed stairways and
catwalks are extremely hazardous when
wet, securely fastened metal gratings
should be placed on treads.
Since the design and construction of stairs is so
important, you should consult the relevant
standards before installation.
For specific codes and standards relating to
stairways, refer to:
-Safety Standards for General Industrial
Stairs (A64). American National
Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,
New York, NY 10018.
-Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, Subpart D - Walking and
Working Surfaces. Federal Register, 29
CFR 1910, June 1974.
Exits
All too often, the adequacy and condition of
exits are overlooked until an emergency arises.
Exits should be inspected and properly
maintained not only for normal use by
employees but to ensure rapid emergency
evacuation. Here is a checklist of points that
should be considered-
-Exits should be easily accessible and
visible at all times.
-Illuminated signs should clearly indicate
the location of exits.
-Exit doors should swing open in the
direction of the exit movement.
-Exits doors should never be blocked or
locked by chain or cable when the
building is occupied.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
-Exits should be located to minimize
employee passage through areas with
hazardous operations.
-Guidelines for walking surfaces,
illumination, etc., are particularly
important near exit doors.
For specific information regarding the size,
number, and location of exits, refer to:
-Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, Subpart E - Means of Egress.
Federal Register, 29 CFR 1910, June 1974.
Ladders
Ladders must be of sound construction, properly
set-up, and regularly inspected. Each new
ladder should be thoroughly inspected before it
is put into use and once every three months
thereafter. Here are some specific checkpoints
recommended by the National Safety Council:'
-Never place a ladder in front of a door that
opens toward the ladder unless the door is
locked, blocked, or guarded.
-Face the ladder when going up or down
and never slide down a ladder. Check the
shoes for grease, mud, or anything
slippery before climbing.
-Hold with both hands when going up or
down. If material must be handled, raise
or lower it with a rope.
-Do not climb higher than the third rung
from the top on straight or extension
ladders or the second tread from the top
on stepladders.
-Use ladders during a strong wind only in
emergencies, and only if securely tied.
-Do not leave placed ladders unattended,
especially outdoors, unless they are
anchored at top and bottom.
-Avoid placing tools or other items where
they may cause slipping and falling
hazards.
For specific-codes and requirements relating to
ladders, refer to:
Occupational Safety and Health Standards,
Subpart D - Walking and Working
Surfaces. Federal Register, 29 CFR 1910,
June 1974.
The National Safety Council Ladder Inspection
Checklist' (that follows) can be used in making
routine inspections.
'The Ladder Inspection Checklist, which is reprinted with
permission of the National Safety Council, 444 N.
Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, is from: Accident-
Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations. Seventh
Edition. National Safety Council, Chicago, IL. 1974. p.415.
Elevators
Careful maintenance of elevators and
escalators can reduce the incidence of accidents
and the need for repairs. Inspections and tests of
all installations should be performed only by
qualified persons on the following
recommended schedule:
-every 3 months for power passenger
elevators.
-every 6 months for escalators and power
freight elevators.
-once it year for hand elevators and power
and hand dumbwaiters '
The elevator code= and the inspector's manual'
should be used by those making the inspections.
Most elevator related accidents occur at
landings and are due to tripping or slipping at
the entrance; being caught by the car door,
falling down the hoistway; or being caught by
the car itself. To assist in preventing this:
-The automatic car leveling device should
be adjusted by a competent mechanic.
-The condition of landing sills should be
constantly checked for slipping and
tripping hazards.
-Illumination should be adequate.
An alarm connected to a central station should
be provided for elevator occupants to use when
an elevator is stuck. As an additional
precaution, elevator equipment rooms should be
locked to prevent entry by unauthorized
persons.
Heating System
Heating systems should be properly operated,
inspected, and maintained according to the
following safe work practices:
-Follow established operating
instructions.
-Keep controls operative; never block out
or bypass any safety control.
-Purge gas-fired equipment to remove
combustible mixtures before igniting
burners. Follow proper igniting procedure
and stand clear of burners, doors, and
other furnace openings to avoid burns if a
flareup occurs.
-Follow good housekeeping practices to
prevent accumulation of flammable
materials around heating equipment.
'Safety Code for Elevators, Dumbwaiters, Escalators, and
Moving Walks (A17.1). American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). New York, NY. 1971.
'Practice for the Inspection of Elevators, Escalators, and
Moving Walks (A17.2). American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). New York, NY. 1973.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
LADDER INSPECTION CHECKLIST
Needs Condition
General Item To Be Checked Repair
O.K.
Loose steps or rungs (considered loose if they can be moved at all with
the hand) .................................................................................................
^
^
Loose nails, screws. bolts, or other metal parts ...............................................
^
^
Cracked, split, or broken uprights, braces, steps, or rungs ...............................
^
^
Slivers on uprights, rungs. or steps ................................................................
^
^
Damaged or worn nonslip bases ....................................................................
^
C7
Stepladders
Wobbly (from side strain) ..............................................................................
^
^
Loose or bent hinge spreaders ......................................................................
C
^
Stop on hinge spreaders broken ....................................................................
G
^
Broken, split, or worn steps ..........................................................................
Loose hinges .............................................................................__..............._
CI
U I
O
^.
Extension Ladders
Loose, broken, or missing extension locks ........:..............................................
^
^
Defective locks that do not seat properly. when the ladder is extended ..............
Cl
0
Deterioration of rope, from exposure to acid or other destructive agents...........
Cl
^
Trolley Ladders
Worn or missing tires ...................................................................................
O
^
Wheels that bind ..........................................................................................
CJ
^
Floor wheel brackets broken or loose ............................................................
CJ
^
Floor wheels and brackets missing ................................................................
^
0
Ladders binding in guides .............................................................................
CJ
0
Ladder and rail stops broken, loose, or missing ..............................................
C7
0
Rail supports broken or section of rail missing ...............................................
:]
^
Trolley wheels out of adjustment ...................................................................
^
^
Trestle Ladders
Loose hinges ...............................................................................................
^
^
Wobbly ......................................................................................................
^
^
Loose or bent hinge spreaders ......................................................................
^
^
Stop on hinge spreader broken .....................................................................
^
^
Center section guide for extension out of alignment ........................................
O
^
Defective locks for extension .........................................................................
^
^
Sectional Ladders
Worn or loose metal Marta
,
^
Fixed Ladders
Loose, worn, or damaged rungs or side rails ..................................................
^
^
Damaged or corroded parts of cage ..............................................................
^
0
Corroded bolts and rivet heads on inside of metal stacks .................................
0
^
Damaged or corroded handrails or brackets on platforms ................................
O
^
Weakened or damaged rungs on brick or concrete slabs .................................
Base of ladder obstructed .............................................................................
O
^
C
^
Fire Ladders
Markings illegible .........................................................................................
0
0
Improperly stored................ .........................................................................
^
^
Storage obstructed .......................................................................................
O
O
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
-Wear personal protective equipment as
needed.
-Prepare and use a maintenance
inspection checklist for each heating
device as a guide to ensure that all
components are inspected.
-Adjust, repair, or replace faulty items
promptly.
Inspections should be conducted regularly by
individuals who have specialized technical
training and experience as heating engineers or .
the equivalent. Records of these inspections
should be maintained and used to help identify
hazardous or faulty equipment. Inspections
should include:
-adjusting air-fuel supply to provide
proper buring mix;
-testing safety shut-off valves, flame
safeguard, temperature control switches,
interlocks, and other safeguards; and
-checking for leaks in gas piping and
equipment.
Electrical System
The safety of your electrical system, like that of
your heating system, is dependent on safe work
practices and the regular inspection and
maintenance of all equipment. Electrical
equipment should be selected carefully, since
most equipment is designed and built for
specific types of service. It will operate with
maximum efficiency and safety only when used
for the purposes and under the conditions for.
which it was designed.
Your electrical system should be regularly
inspected by qualified, experienced electricians,
and written records of the inspections should be
retained. The person who is responsible for the
inspection and maintenance of your system
should be aware of the particular hazards it
poses, and should be thoroughly familiar with
the National Electrical Code. You should
formulate your own checklist based on all the
codes that are applicable to equipment present
at your establishment.
References you can use to determine codes and
requirements applying to your system include:
-National Electrical Code. 1975 edition.
No. 70-1975. National Fire Protection
Association, Boston, MA.
-Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, Subpart S - Electrical,
Federal Register, 29 CFR 1910, June 1974.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
SANITATION
Sanitation is concerned with controlling the
spread of infection and other health hazards not
inherent in your particular manufacturing
process. This includes monitoring and
controlling the following:
-a safe, potable, and adequate water
supply,
-collection and disposal of liquid and solid
wastes,
-a safe food supply,
-control and elimination of insects and
rodents,
-adequate sanitary facilities and personal
services,
-maintenance of general cleanliness_
within the workplace, and
-personal hygiene.
Monitoring and controlling sanitation can be
accomplished through a regular inspection
program. Initial inspections should be aimed
toward identifying inadequate facilities, poor
cleanliness, and general unsanitary conditions.
Once the necessary procedural and physical
corrections have been made, inspections should
only be concerned with the general cleanliness
and maintenance of these facilities. The
following is a general checklist for conducting a
sanitation survey:
-Make general inspections of facility for
cleanliness, rodents, insects, etc.
-Make inspections of toilet facilities and
any other personal service areas for
cleanliness.
-Inspect food preparation facilities for
general cleanliness. Frequent inspections
by a local health department would help
to ensure cleanliness and safe practices.
-If a private water supply is being used, be
sure that the water is tested for physical,
chemical, and bacteriological impurities.
-Inspect the facility for any piping and
equipment cross connections between
potable and nonpotable water systems.
-Inspect to be sure that nonpotable water
is not being used as potable water.
-Inspect to see that waste disposal
containers are emptied and cleaned out
regularly.
-Respond to any complaints about insects
or rodents by using an in-house or
professional exterminator.
-Be sure that there area sufficient number
of drinking fountains available such that
employees need travel only a short
distance for their use (i.e., no more than
200 feet).
-There should be approximately one
fountain for every 50 employees.
Discourage use of any portable drinking
water dispensers. If they are used, be sure
that they are closed tightly and have a
tap.
-Dipping cups of common drinking cups
should not be used. If ice is used in direct
contact with drinking water, be sure the
ice is made from potable water to avoid
contamination.
-Be sure that nonpotable water sources are
clearly marked.
-Be sure that all waste - products are
disposed of properly so that they don't
contaminate water supplies or the
surrounding environment.
Liquid wastes should be handled by
some acceptable water treatment
process.
Solid wastes should be handled by
incineration or sanitary landfill.
-Vending machines should be kept clean
and sanitary. Perishables should be
refrigerated.
-Separate toilet facilities should be
provided for each sex. They should be
private with a door and partitions, and
they should be equipped at all times with
toilet tissue and with covered receptacles
for women. The number of facilities can
be calculated as shown on the following
table.
Number
employees,
each sex
Minimum
number
toilets
1 -15
1
16 -35
2
36 -55
3
56 -80
4
81 -110
5
111-150
6
151-
7 + 1 added
for each 40 employees
Lavatories should be provided according to the
following table. They should be properly
equipped with hot and cold running water, hand
soap, and individual paper towels or hot air
dryers so that employees do not dry. their hands
with a common towel.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Number Minimum number
employees lavatories
1 -100 1 fixture/10 employees
101- 1 fixture/each
additional 15 employees
-If -showers are needed or provided,
there should be one shower for each ten
employees of each sex who may use them.
They should have body soap, hot and cold
water, and individual clean towels or hair
drying system. Showers are especially
important where contaminants and
irritants get on skin and hair.
-If employees need to wear protective
clothing, changing rooms with separate
storage facilities for street clothes and
protective clothing should. be provided.
Washing and drying facilities should be
provided if workers' clothing becomes
wet, or excessively soiled, or both, or
become contaminated by toxic or
irritating materials. Many companies
keep spare outer clothing available for
workers whose own clothes become
contaminated.
Records should be kept of employee illness,
whether work related or not, so that any
sickness resulting from unsanitary conditions
can be detected. This is especially important for
problems such as food poisoning where an
epidemiological study may be necessary.
You should have an ongoing program to advise
employees on good personal hygiene, especially
when they might be handling toxic and
irritating materials. This should include
advising them that family members could be
exposed to toxic and irritating materials
through exposure to their clothing.
Consequently, work clothing should be changed
or specially cleaned before going home.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
An effective program of personal protection is
essential for any employee who uses potentially
hazardous equipment or is exposed to
potentially hazardous agents. Although
equipment is available that can literally protect
a person from head to toe, too much protective
equipment can be extremely uncomfortable for
employees and can greatly reduce their
productivity. Therefore, determining priorities
for using personal protective equipment is very
important. The three broad applications are:
-emergency situations such as fires or
chemical leaks,
-protection from accidental injury by
falling objects or chemical splashes, and
-temporary protection while engineering
or administrative controls are being
designed or implemented but are not yet
complete.
The success of your overall OSH program
depends strongly on staff management
involvement and clearly defined organizational
and responsibility; this also applies to your
personal protective equipment program. A
single person should be responsible for the
program. At larger or more hazardous
establishments, this could be the Safety
Director, the Director of Occupational Safety
and Health Program, the Industrial Hygiene
Director, the Personnel Director, or another
staff person. At a smaller establishment where
these positions may not exist, the plant
manager or foreman might assume this
responsibility.
Regardless of the size of your establishment,
you should follow some basic steps in setting up
your program:
-Identify operations, situations, and work
areas where protective equipment is
needed.
-Determine potential hazard level.
-Decide on general "sense" (e.g., hearing,
sight) or function (e.g., respiratory,
motion) to be protected.
-Determine need and type of professional
consultation, if any.
-Initiate engineering/ administrative
control programs identifying goals and
time frames.
-Investigate the available protective
equipment, including a "hands-on"
examination, and individual pieces using
consultants where necessary and
employees where possible.
-Establish education/awareness program
to stimulate employee involvement.
-Set up an ongoing fitness/maintenance
program for protective equipment.
Although the person in charge of the program
might delegate some responsibilities to their
employees, he or she must maintain overall
control and followup. In some instances, it will
also be necessary to use the services of
consultants, especially if health hazards are
present (or suspected of being present) at your
establishment and you do not have either an
industrial hygienist on your staff or proper
monitoring equipment
The first step in your program is to determine
which operations and jobs require personal- -
protective equipment. This evaluation can be
-
done by properly trained employees, or by
qualified health and safety professionals, or
both. Under all circumstances, the people
involved in the management of your program
should be familiar with the basic concepts and
categories of protection available. These
include:
-eye protection from flying particles, dust,
sparks, splashing chemicals, and mists,
and harmful radiation from welding,
bright lights, or extremely hot objects;
-hearing protection from high noise levels;
-head protection from falling objects and
chemical splashes, and from bumping
head on equipment;
-face and eyes protection from flying
particles, chemical splashes, dusts,
mists, and welding rays or other
radiation;
-lung protection from dusts, mists, gases,
vapors, fumes, and smoke, and
-limb, foot, and torso protection from
falling or flying objects, splashing
chemicals, mists, heat, cuts, electricity,
machinery welding? etc.
Selection of proper equipment is not always a
simple matter so equipment should be
investigated thoroughly before purchase.
Again, depending on the size of your
establishment, the qualifications of your
regular staff, and types of hazards present, you
may wish to consult with health and safety
professionals or equipment distributors.
Manufacturers and distributors of health and
safety products will be able to answer questions
and help in selection of-proper equipment ifthey
are given enough information about the
hazards involved. It is also quite likely that you
can receive assistance from them at no cost to
you. They will be able to provide information by
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
which you can evaluate various types of
equipment, especially in regard to popularity,
effectiveness, and limitations. Whenever
possible, compare at least two similiar products.
Your employees should also be consulted about
the comfort and appearance of equipment
before its purchase since it will directly affect
their willingness to use it. In some cases, you
might wish to have several employees "test" a
piece of protective equipment before you
purchase it for a larger group.
The equipment you select should be certified by
the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), or be approved by the U.S.
Bureau of Mines (USBM), the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), or the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA).
Try to select equipment that will give full
protection but that will not be so uncomfortable
as to discourage employees from using it. In
purchasing equipment, the cost can be borne by
the employer, employee, or both. However, if
your employees do the purchasing
independently, this should be controlled to
ensure that the proper equipment is selected.
(See "A Guide to Industrial Respiratory
Protection."') Some types of equipment often
used are:
-safety glasses, goggles, or special filter
lens for eye protection;
-earplugs, muffs, or helmets for hearing
protection;
-hard hats, hoods, or other special
coverings for head protection;
-face shields, hoods, or helmets for face
and eye protection;
-respirators for respiratory or breathing
protection;
-whole-body coverings, gloves, boots, or
partial coverings to protect the limbs and
torso.
You will be most likely to need professional
consultation-- if your operations require
respirators to protect employees from-
hazardous air contaminants. Basically there
are three types of respirators:
-air purifying (filters, gas masks, and
chemical cartridge);
-atmosphere (air) supplied respirators
(hose masks, air line respirators,
abrasive blasting respirators, air
supplied hoods and suits); and
-self-contained breathing apparatus.
'A Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection. J. A.
Pritchard. DHEW (NIOSH) 76-189. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH. June
1976.
Choosing the proper respirator can be a
complicated matter (see Figure 13). By
following the steps on this chart, you can use the
information you have regarding particular
hazards to estimate what types of respirators
might best meet your needs.
In addition, a medical evaluation should be
made to determine which of your employees are
physically able to use positive and negative
pressure respirators. For example, employees
with cardio-pulmonary problems could
compound those problems if they regularly used
respirators or if they used certain types of
respirators.
A similar set of guidlines for selecting eye
protection for a number of hazardous operations
can be seen in the diagram that follows.
Once needs have been determined and the
personal protective equipment has been selected
and purchased, you should plan for the
distribution of the equipment. In larger
establishments, there might be several
distribution centers. Certain types of protective
equipment might require individual fitting; this
will determine their pattern of distribution. For
example, earplugs might be distributed through
the clinic at large establishments or through a
part-time or consulting nurse at smaller
workplaces so that they can be properly fitted.
Definite locations should be designated and all
equipment should be picked up and returned to
preestablished locations. Only in this way can
you be sure that proper maintenance is carried
out and that all employees requiring equipment
have received it. Also, if equipment is available
for emergency use only, it is important for
distribution areas to be easily accessible to the
employees.
Through regular use, most personal protective
equipment deteriorates or becomes fouled with
:.contaminants. A regular maintenance program
should include cleaning, inspection, and testing
of equipment. Some equipment must be cleaned
at the end of each working day. Respirator
filters and cartridges must be replaced
periodically. Disposable type respirators, which
can be discarded after one day, are also
available for certain operations.
Finally, although employees may have the
proper equipment available to them, they often
will not use it. Motivating employees to use
personal protection is not a simple matter
especially when the equipment may be
uncomfortable. Knowing what stimulates the
employees in your establishment and
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
OXYGEN
DEFICIENCY
SELF-CONTAINED
APPARATUS
(H)
SELF-CONTAINED
APPARATUS
IH)
HOSE MASK
WITH BLOWER
(J)
IMMEDIATELY
DANGEROUS
TO LIFE
HOSE MASK
WITH
BLOWER
(J)
SELF-CONTAINED
APPARATUS
(H)
411
AIR-LINE I
PFSPIRAIM
(JI
NOT
IMMEDIATELY
DANGEROUS
TO LIFE
HOSE MASK
WITHOUT
BLOWER
(j)
IMMEDIATELY
DANGEROUS
TO LIFE
HOSE MASK
WITH BLOWER
(J)
GAS MASK
WITH SPECIAL
FILTER
(I)
GASEOUS
PARTICULATE
CHEMICAL
CARTRIDGE
RESPIRATOR
(L)
AIR-LINE
RESPIRATOR
DUST.M5T
OR FUME
RESPIRATOR
(K)
NOT
IMMEDIATELY
AIR-LINE
RESPIRAl01~
I,i)
ABRASIVE
BLASTING
RESPIRATOR
(J1
DANGEROUS
TO LIFE
HOSE MASK
WITHOUT
BLOWER
(J)
CHEMICAL
CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR
WITH SPECIAL FILTER
I L)
Figure 13. Suggested outline for selecting respiratory protective devices. Letters in
parenthesis refer to Subparts of Title 30, CFR, Part 11, which discuss the
items. (Reprinted with permission of the National Safety Council, 444 N.
Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, from: Accident Prevention Manual for
Industrial Operations. Seventh Edition. National Safety Council, Chicago, IL.
1974. p. 490.)
understanding their attitudes will usually help
you to select proper techniques to assure their
cooperation in continuing usage of the
equipment. Some methods you might use
include:
-educating employees on the seriousness
of potential hazards,
-educating supervisors in motivating
equipment usage,
-disciplining employees for failure to use
required equipment,
-enforcing the use of equipment by visitors
and other nonoperating personnel in the
area,
-selecting equipment that is as
comfortable and attractive as possible.
Employees should be given complete
instructions on the proper use and care of the
equipment. Without this knowledge, employees'
efforts to protect themselves may be ineffective.
Therefore, training sessions should be
TOXIC
CONTAMINANT
conducted at the time of initial issuance of
equipment and periodically thereafter.
Bibliography
Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial
Operations. Seventh Edition. National Safety
Council, Chicago, IL. 1974. p. 460.
Personal Protective Equipment for Employees
in Industry. Bulletin No. 271. American Medical
Association, Chicago, IL. April 1975.
Programming Personal Protection: Eye and
Face. National Safety News, 3(2):55 February
1975.
Cumulative Supplement, June 1977, NIOSH
Certified Equipment. DH.EW (NIOSH) 77-195.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, [Morgantown, WV. July 1977].
The Welding Environment. American- Welding
Society, Miami, FL. 1973.
The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding.
Twelfth Edition. The Lincoln Electric
Company, Cleveland, OH. 1973.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
CRITERIA
FOR SELECTING
EYE PROTECTION
ACETYLENE-burning. cutting. welding
sparks, rays, molten metal, flying particles
"WITTING
malten metal splash. heat
CHEMICAL HANDLING'
splash, burns, fumes
CHIPPING
flying particles, dust
COMPRESSED AIR EXPOSURE
flying particles, ale blest
OUSTS
nuisance, corrosive particles
0
FURNACE OPERATIONS'
glare, heat, molten metal splash
LIGHT GRINDING
flying particles
HEAVY GRINDING-
flying particles
HAND TOOL OPERATIONS-*01, chisel, wire
and bolt cutters, etc.
flying particles wire whiplash, etc.
LABORATORY
chemical splash,glari breakage, e^piasion
LASER USAGE*
intense infrared radiation
MACHINING
flying particles. dust
MOLTEN METALS'
heat, glare, sparks. splash
SPOT WELDING
sparks, flying particles
WORK IN VICINITY OF WELDING OR ARC WELDING*
apart. molten metal. harmful rays
Bak type indicates aperatlen-ligte type indicates hazard.
? For additional comment, see prcpased revisions for Amerwsn National Standard Z87
? ? With absorptive lenses.
2
Recommended
Optwnun Protection
'Reprinted from February 1975 NATIONAL SAFETY NEWS, a National Safety Council publication, 444 N. Michigan
Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611; Programming Personal Protection: Eye and Face. National Safety News, 3(2):55, February 1975.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
MACHINE GUARDING
Guarding is the most fundamental engineering
control you can use to protect your employees
from injury. A comprehensive program for
guarding is an essential element of any safety
program in a workplace where machinery is
necessary for productive purposes.
All "energy input" (Mechanical, thermal,
electrical, or chemical) used in production is
hazardous in varying degrees. Mechanical
eneregy used to put machinery into motion is
the most common potential work hazard.
Guards are as varied as the facilities, machines,
and operations for which they are.designed. To
be effective, these guards should encompass
both the power transmission parts of the
machine and the areas at the point of operation.
Properly employed, they will provide protection
from any of the following-
--direct contact with an injury-producing
part,
-kickbacks of materials being processed,
-mechanical failure of the machine,
-electrical failures, and
-human/machine interactive (fit) failures.
Using the same terms to describe different
circumstances can lead to confusion. Normally,
"guarding" refers to point-of-operation guards,
whereas "safeguarding" refers to any barrier or
cover that protects other danger points. As used
here, however, we will refer to both types as
guarding."
The key problem is to design a guard that
adequately protects the worker without
interfering with the worker's ability to operate
the machine efficiently and comfortably. If a
guard makes operations excessively
cumbersome, it won't be long before your
workers remove or circumvent it. The best
guards are the ones that fit well into the work
environment and become a natural part of the
machinery. A well-designed guard should
smoothly guide the worker away from the point
of danger. Rather than the guard being a
distraction, the absence of the guard should be
highly visable and uncomfortable to the worker.
Nationally accepted standards for machine
guarding are contained in the "American
National Safety Standard for Mechanical
Power Transmission Apparatus" available
from the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). This safety code has been
widely adopted by most states and
establishments that have maintained low
accident rates.
Although codes and standards can give you
overall guidance in the proper guard design, the
effectiveness of each guard still largely depends
on the skill of those who actually design and
construct the guard. Each guard is made-to-
order since each individual machine presents its
own problems. The most effective guards are
usually provided by the manufacturer of the
machine, although with sufficient knowledge
and skill, homemade guards can meet your
needs.
If there are machines in your establishment
that do not have sufficient guarding, you should
seek the help of one of the following:
-manufacturer of the machine itself,
-manufacturer or distributor of safety
equipment,
-insurance company safety consultant,
-safety consultants available through
government agencies,
-local safety council consulting engineer,
-private consulting engineers, or
-qualified engineers employed by your
establishment.
Although it is not recommended that you
attempt to design homemade guards without
consulting with a qualified person, you should
seek the ideas and opinions of those employees
who daily operate the machine. They will be
able to point out the most hazardous aspects of
the machinery, and they will also know which
guards would seriously inhibit their efficiency
and comfort.
Listed below are some very basic principles and
techniques of mechanical guarding excerpted
for OSHA pamphlet 2057. The information
provided in this booklet should be helpful to you
in understanding mechanical guarding and
establishing a program. It is suggested that you
obtain your own complete copy of OSHA 2057,
since only a portion is reprinted here.
An acceptable guard, in conclusion, should:
-conform to federal and state OSHA
requirements;
-afford maximum protection;
-be considered a permanent part of the
machine or equipment, yet not be too
difficult to remove or replace when
necessary;
-prevent access to the danger zone during
operation;
-be convenient-it must not interfere with
efficient operation or maintenance of the
machine, or give discomfort to the.
operator,
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
-not weaken the machine structure;
-be designed for a specific job and a
specific machine;
-be durable, resistant to fire and corrosion,
and easily repaired;
-be constructed well enough to resist
normal wear and shock and to require
minimum maintenance;
-not present hazards in itself, such as
rough edges, splinters, pinch points,
shear points, or sharp corners?
Design and installation of guarding for all
machinery is only one part of your program.
Regular maintenance and inspection of
guarding devices is essential to the
effectiveness of any program. Inspections
should be made periodically to determine not
only the smooth functioning of guards but also
'Handbook of Accident Prevention for Business and
Industry. Fourth Edition. National Safety Council,
Chicago, IL 1970. pp, 42-43.
whether employees are actually using guards
properly.
In addition, a guarding program should include
education and training of your employees in
this area.
Bibliography
Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial
Operations, Seventh Edition. Chapter 29,
"Point of Operation and Transmission
Guards." National Safety Council, Chicago, IL.
1974.
Handbook of Accident Prevention for Business
and Industry, Fourth Edition. National Safety
Council, Chicago, IL. 1970.
The Principles and Techniques of Mechanical
Guarding. OSHA 2057. U.S. Department of
Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration. Washington, DC. Revised
August 1973.
Since safety standards cannot be drawn which will cover
every conceivable hazardous mechanical exposure, it is
often necessary to use imagination and ingenuity to
protect unusual situations. If the basic hazardous
actions and motions are understood, it is easier to
evaluate the hazard and to develop effective control
measures. whatever the machine. Actions or motions
involving the most hazardous exposures may be
classified as:
Rotating, Reciprocating, and Transverse Motions.
In-Running Nip Points.
Cutting Actions.
Punching, Shearing, and Bending Actions.
Rotating, Reciprocating, and Transverse Motions
Rotating, reciprocating, and transverse motions create
hazards in two general areas-at the point-of-operation
where work is being done, : and at the points where
-power or-motion is being-transmitted from one part of a
mechanical linkage to another. Since guarding at the
point-of-operation will be discussed under the other
classifications of action or motion, this section will be
devoted primarily to situations where power is being
transmitted or the point-of-operation is not clearly
defined (extractors. mixers. etc.)
Any rotating object is dangerous. Even smooth, slowly
rotating shafts can grip clothing or hair, and through
more skin contact, force an arm or hand into a dangerous
'The Principles and Techniques of Mechanical Guarding. OSHA
2057. U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration. Washington, DC. Revised August 1973,
position. Accidents due to contact with rotating objects
are not frequent, but the severity of injury is always high.
Collars, couplings, cams, clutches, flywheels, shaft
ends, spindles, rotating bar stock, lead screws, and
horizontal or vertical shafting are typical examples of
common rotating mechanisms which are hazardous.
The danger increases when bolts, oil cups, nicks,
abrasions, and projecting keys or screw threads are
exposed when rotating.
In many cases, the rotating mechanism is located within
a stationary case or shell and consists of a revolving
cylinder, a screw, agitator blades, or paddles. Washing
machines, extractors, raw material mixers, and screw
conveyors are typical examples of this type of hazardous
rotating mechanism.
Reciprocating and transverse motions are hazardous
--because, in the back and forth or straight line action, a
-worker may be struck or caught in a pinch or shear point
between a fixed or other moving object.
In-Running Nip Points
In-running. nip points are a special danger existing only
through action of rotating objects. Whenever machine
parts rotate toward each other, or where one rotates
toward a stationary object, an in-running nip point is
formed Objects or parts of the body may be drawn into
this nip point and be bruised or crushed.
The in-running side of rolling mills and calendars, or
rolls used for bending, printing, corrugating, embossing
or feeding and conveying stock, the in-running side of a
chain and sprocket, belt and pulley, a goat rack, a gear
and pinion, and a belt conveyor terminal are typical
examples of nip point hazards.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Cutting Actions
Cutting action results when rotating, reciprocating, or
transverse motion is imparted to a tool so that material
being removed is in the form of chips. The danger of
cutting action exists at the movable cutting edge of the
machine as it approaches or comes in contact with the
material being cut. Such action takes place at the point-
of-operation in cutting wood, metal, or other materials
as differentiated from punching, shearing, or bending by
press action.
Typical examples of mechanisms involving cutting
action include band circular saws, milling machines,
planing or shaping machines, turning machines, boring
and drilling machines, and grinding machines.
Punching. Shearing, and Bending Actions
Punching, shearing, or bending action results when
power is applied to a ram (plunger) or knife for the---- --
purpose of blanking, trimming, drawing, punching,
shearing, or stamping metal or other materials as
differentiated from removing the material in the form of
chips. The danger of this type of action lies at the point-
of-operation where stock is actually inserted,
maintained, and withdrawn.
Typical examples of equipment involving punching,
shearing, or bending action include power presses, foot
and hand presses, bending presses or brakes as well as
squaring, guillotine, and alligator shears.
METHODS OF GUARDING ACTIONS AND
MOTIONS
Whenever hazardous machine actions or motions are
used, a means for providing protection for the operator
and fellow workers is essential. And, there may be
several ways to guard a situation, particularly at the
point-of-operation.
This does not mean that certain guarding methods are
not preferable to others, but the type of operation, the
size or shape of stock, the method of handling, the
physical layout, the type of material, and production
requirements or limitations may present important
considerations. A certain flexibility in operations may
also determine the practicability of the method to be
used.
As a general rule, power transmission apparatus can be
protected by fixed enclosure guards. It is when guarding
the point-of-operation, where work is being done on an
object, that the most effective and practical of several
means of guarding must be selcted.
The methods of guarding may be grouped under four
main classifications:
1. Enclosure Guards
a. Fixed enclosures.
b. Adjustable enclosures.
2. Interlocking Guards
a. Enclosure or gate guard with electrical or
mechanical interlock.
b. Barrier with electrical or mechanical interlock
activating a brake.
c. Electronic or other type field or beam
connected with operating and stopping
mechanism.
3. Automatic Guards
a. Moving barrier connected to operating
mechanism of machine (push away).
b. Removal device connected to operator, and
operating mechanism of machine (pull-
away).
c. Limitation of stroke.
d. Automatic pressure release devices.
4. Remote Control, Placement, Feeding, Ejecting
a. Two-hand tripping devices (also multiple--
operation). -
b. Automatic or semiautomatic feed. --
c. Special jigs or holding devices.
Enclosure Guards
Fixed enclosure guards should be used in preference to
all other types. They prevent access to dangerous parts
at all times by enclosing the hazardous operation
completely. They are also used to restrain bursting
machine parts from flying about. They admit the stock
but will not admit hands into the danger zone because of
limited feed opening size. They may be constructed so as
to be adjustable to different sets of tools or dies, but once
adjusted they should be fixed.
Enclosure guards may be installed at the point where
cutting, bending, punching, or shearing action takes
place on material being processed, and at other places
where there may be a hazard to men inserting or
manipulating stock. They may also be used to prevent
contact with rotating, reciprocating, and transverse
motion of machine members away from the point-of-
operation.
Interlocking Guards
When a fixed enclosure guard is not practicable, an
interlocking enclosure or barrier should be considered
as the first alternative.
An interlocking enclosure guard is not fixed and may be
opened or removed as the operation requires. However,
due to an electrical or mechanical interlocking
connection with the operating mechanisms, the
operation of the machine is prevented until the guard is
returned to an operating position and the operator can
no longer reach the point of danger.
An interlocking enclosure guard should do three things:
1. Shut off or disengage the power to prevent the
starting of the machine when the guard is open.
2. Guard the danger point before the machine can be
operated.
3. Keep the guard closed until the dangerous part is at
rest, or stop the machine when the guard is opened.
When gate guards or hinged enclosure guards are used
with interlocks, they should be so designed as to
completely enclose the point-of-operation before the
operating clutch can be engaged.
An interlocking barrier guard quickly stops the machine
or prevents application of injurious pressure when any
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
part of the operator's body contacts the barrier. The
barrier may be a bar, a rod, a wire, or some similar device
(not an enclosure), extended across the danger zone and
interlocked electrically or mechanically with a braking
mechanism. Electrical interlocking devices should be so
designed that if they fail, they fail safe, making the
guarded machine inoperative.
Another type of interlocking barrier may be in the form of
an electric-eye beam, a magnetic, radioactive or similar
type circuit so designed and installed that when the
operator's hand or any part of the body is in the danger
zone, the machine cannot be operated, or if the hand or
any part of the body is inserted while the machine is in
motion, it will immediately activate a braking
mechanism.
Automatic Guards
When neither an enclosure guard nor an interlocking
guard is practicable, an automatic guard may be used.
An automatic guard acts independently of the operator,
repeating its cycle as long as the machine is in motion.
This type of guard removes the operator's hands, arms,
or body from the danger zone as the ram, plunger, or
other tool closes on the piece upon which work is being
done. It is operated by the machine itself through a
system of linkages connected to the operating
mechanism.
Common types of automatic guards are sweep and
push-away devices which are moving barriers crossing
the danger zone when the machine is activated, and
pull-away devices consisting of hand and arm
attachments which pull the operator away from the
danger zone.
Sweep and push-away devices should be designed to
prevent the operator from reaching behind or across the
protective device into the danger zone before the
machine has completed its closing cycle. The device
itself should not offer a hazard by creating a shear point
between the moving guard and a stationary or moving
part of the machine.
Automatic pressure release or pivoting arm devices
provide utility, yet protect in-running nip point
situations.
Remote Control, Placement, Feeding, Ejecting
Although they are not guards in the technical sense,
there are certain methods which can be used to
accomplish the same effect, that is, of protecting the
operator from the hazardous point-of-operation. They
may be used to complement one of the other types of
guards,. or may be used in lieu of guards.
Two-handed operating devices may be used to activate
the machine. These devices require simultaneous action
of both hands of the operator on electrical switch
buttons, air control valves, or mechanical levers. On
presses with a noninterrupting stroke, two-handed
operating devices should require manual operation until
a point is reached in the cycle at which the hazard
ceases. Hand controls may be interconnected with foot
controls to permit operation of the machine. The
actuating controls should be so located as to make it
impossible for the operator to be able to move his hands
from the controls to the danger zone before the machine
has completed its closing cycle. The two-handed
controls should be so designed as to prevent the
blocking, tying down, or holding down of one control to
allow one hand free access to the point-of-operation.
When more than one man is working a machine,
additonal controls should be installed and designed so
that all men must simultaneously activate the starting
mechanism from remote locations.
Automatic or semiautomatic feeding mechanisms such
as roll, plunger, chutc, slide and dial feeds, and revolving
dies may be used in conjunction with ram enclosures.
Special soft metal handtools may be used to place or
remove parts in conjunction with an enclosure,
interlocking or automatic guard. Special jigs, holding
device and dies may be used to manipulate stock at the
point-of-operation, yet keep hands safe. Mechanical or
air-operated ejecting mechanisms may be used to
remove parts, thus eliminating the need for the hands to
be placed in the danger zone.
The theory behind these methods is that if for good
reason it is impossible to completely enclose or isolate
the hazard, the next best device or combination of
devices should be used to keep the exposure to a
minimum.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS
OPERATIONS
The term "hazardous operation" is used to refer
to processes or activities at your establishment
that expose one or more individuals to
psychological or physical harm.
Many hazardous operations are hazardous only
because we let them be so. In some
circumstances, present technology or the nature
of the operation may make it impossible to
remove all personal danger. At best, your
establishment will have few if any hazardous
operations. Sometimes this can be achieved
easily, involving only a slight change in
procedures. At other times, there may be no
economical method of changing a particular
piece of machinery or a process so that it is
reasonably safe, and the only practical solution
may be complete replacement or redesigned
production process.
No one safeguard should be relied on to reduce
the danger of personal injury to acceptable
levels. Single protective measures have a way of
becoming inoperative, being ignored, or
otherwise failing to do their task, thereby
indicating the need for backup measures.
Neither the primary nor the backup safeguard
must necessarily be mechanical; employee
training, education, rules, and procedures can
be relied on as a safeguard.
As an example, a punch press is equipped with a
device to prevent double cycling. In addition,
each operator has been thoroughly trained in
the operation of the machine, has been
instructed about the danger of inserting his
hands into the danger zone, and received
instructions, periodically reinforced, not to
place his hands under the dies. If he forgets or
becomes careless, the built-in safeguard is likely
to prevent an accident, or if the press double
cycles, as it may do, normal operator procedure
will prevent an accident. Both safeguards-
mechanical and procedural-must fail
simultaneously for personal injury to occur. The
probability of this happening is slight, provided
there is a routine, continuing procedure to
ensure that no safeguard is inoperative for any
significant length of time. Even where dies are
fully enclosed, operator training and awareness
of the hazard are needed as a backup to ensure
that the press is not operated with the guards
damaged or removed.
Where the hazard is severe, one backup system
may not be enough. In such a situation, two or
more engineering controls may be provided
against a particular hazard, in additon to
administrative controls. For instance, a
railroad crossing may simply have a warning
sign, which alone will not force anyone to stop.
The driver is expected to "stop, look, and listen,"
but experience has shown that the sign alone is
ineffective. To assist in warning the driver, the
train will give audible signals, and further,
flashing lights may be installed. But all of these
depend on the driver reacting to warning
signals; if the road over the tracks is still clear,
inattentive drivers do ignore the signals.
Crossing-gates, which place a physical barrier
across the road as the, train approaches, are
considerably better in reducing the hazard to
acceptable levels.
In many situations, the danger of personal
injury may not be severe enough to warrant any
special safeguard, so that you can reasonably
rely on common sense and prudence to avoid an
accident after suitable training. For example,
no guard is necessary to keep typists' fingers
from "pinch points" under the movable
carriage, nor is it necessary to devise
engineering controls to keep one's fingers from
being burned while changing light bulbs. These
are commonly encountered hazards with which
all of us are likely to be familiar, and even if we
become careless, the consequences are not
usually severe.
The variety of equipment and procedures that
can constitute hazardous operations is so great
that it would be impossible to review the specific
dangers and controls applicable to each. The
hazards of a single piece of machinery can vary
according to its specific design.
This entire manual, in a broad sense, deals with
hazardous operations. Chapters on guarding
and personal protective equipment are
particularly relevant. You should review them
with each hazardous operation in mind. If
necessary, you should then seek outside
assistance-from equipment manufacturers
and distributors, engineering consultants,
reference books, agencies, and associations.
The chapter in this manual on sources of
resources (information and consultation) will
assist you in locating appropriate help. Finally,
do not neglect your greatest resource-the
employees-for analyzing and controlling each
hazardous operation.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Hazardous materials are generally considered
as such because of some inherent characteristic
not easily abated without destroying the
qualities that. make the product useful. Alcohol,
which is flammable, can be diluted with water to
the point where it no longer presents a flash fire
hazard, but by doing so we may have destroyed
its usefulness as a solvent or chemical reactant.
Similarly, sodium in its pure form is
dangerously reactive. It causes deep flesh burns
on contact with the skin and explodes in contact
with moisture; in chemical combination as
sodium chloride (i.e., table salt), sodium is
harmless, but also useless, if the special
properties of the pure sodium were needed.
In some cases, and particularly if the hazard
from a material is especially. severe, another
material may be substituted that is less
hazardous. However, the basic approach to
safeguarding employees from hazardous
materials is not to eliminate the material, but to
provide protective measures for storage and use.
A material may be hazardous from more than
one standpoint, and the labeling provided by
the manufacturer may not identify all of the
hazards or their true severity. A useful reference
work for any establishment that handles a
variety of chemicals, solvents, or other
potentially dangerous materials is "Dangerous
Properties of Industrial Materials." The
characteristics which make a material
hazardous include:
-toxicity,
-flammability,
-reactivity,
-corrosiveness,
-nuclear radiation, and
-irritation (skin, eyes, nose, lungs).
The. degree of hazard. is also.. influenced by
factors_ such as particle size, volatility,
concentration, temperature of storage and use,
quantity used, and method of use. A highly
reactive and explosive material like an organic
peroxide may be shipped to you in a "safe"
container (under alcohol, in the case of
peroxides), but if during use, the protective cover
or encasement is removed or lost, the material
becomes much more hazardous than the
container label might indicate.
`Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. Fourth
Edition. N.L Sax. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York,
NY. 1975.
The first step in the control of hazardous
materials is to identify them: their location by
room or work area, quantity, and in what
operations they are used. All chemicals,
solvents, cleaning fluids, compressed gases, or
any other substance about which you have any
doubts should be included. List the complete
chemical name if available, the manufacturer or
supplier (including telephone number), trade
name, warnings given on the label ("eye
irritant," or "extremely flammable," etc.),
quantity stored or used, and the purpose for
which the material is present. DO NOT
ASSUME THAT A MATERIAL IS
HARMLESS JUST BECAUSE THERE IS NO
WARNING ON THE LABEL.
Unless the quantities are quite small and no
potential danger can be envisioned from their
storage and use, you should list the substance
and be. certain that you have complete data on
the hazards it presents. Manufacturers' data
sheets and catalogs are useful in compiling this
information, as is the "Dangerous Materials"
handbook mentioned previously. The
Manufacturing Chemists' Association
publishes chemical data sheets, available at
nominal cost, on many commonly encountered
materials. More specialized reference works
may be needed in certain instances, and if any
doubt remains as to the hazards of a material
and the precautions that must be taken, you
should contact a specialist in this area.
Information on hazardous materials is also
available free or at a nominal charge from:
-National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH),
-Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA),
-Energy Research and Development
Administration (ERDA) (for nuclear
safeguards),
-National Safety Council,
-American Chemical Society,
-Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI),
and
-Trade associations.
For more specific information, refer to the
chapter in this manual on Information and
Consultation Sources.
Once hazardous materials have been identified,
controls should be established for their
purchase, storage, distribution, and use. It is not
uncommon for a particular establishment to
"outlaw" a substance as too hazardous for its
operations, only to have the material
repurchased because of lax controls. Another
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
common problem arises in quantity purchases
of a hazardous material for purposes of
economy. A 5-gallon drum may be bought even
though only small laboratory quantities are
needed. Obviously employee exposure is much
greater from bulk quantities than small,
individual containers, unless specially
constructed storage facilities are provided. The
audit of hazardous substances in your
establishment should indicate the normal
consumption of a substance by each
department; the staff responsible for
purchasing should be instructed to limit stocks
to those reasonably necessary.
Procedures should be established to screen
potentially hazardous materials before
purchase and to review manufacturer's safety
data sheets. As the need for a new material
arises, an. analysis should be made of the
problems that are likely to occur in its storage
and use; only after the proper controls have been
initiated, should purchase be permitted.
Preferably, purchase of all hazardous
substances should be centralized.
Safe storage facilities must be provided. Laxity
in this area causes many injuries due to
container leakage and incompatability of
jointly stored materials. Strong oxidizers,
flammable and explosive substances, highly
corrosive materials, and radioactive substances
should be assigned special storage areas. They
should be segregated not only from general
storage and use areas but also from each other.
The amounts permitted to be stored at a location
will depend on:
-the relative hazard of the material;
-the type of storage container (e.g., bulk
50-gallon drums versus 1-gallon sealed
cans);
-the distance of the storage area from
other parts of the establishment;
-the effectiveness of controls provided
(ventilation, fire extinguishing system,
explosion relief panels, drains, etc.);
-theiracti ssibility in case of emergencyand
-the availability of explosion-proof
refrigerators.
? 76
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology is the study of the nature and action
of poisons and other substances otherwise
harmless that prove toxic to living organisms
under certain conditions. Any material can
cause bodily harm if present in excessive
concentrations. You are probably aware that
some agents used at your establishment are
potentially hazardous to employees, but you
might be uncertain about others. To determine
if a particular substance contains toxic
materials and what those materials are, you
can check with the following sources:
-manufacturer or distributor of the
material,
-toxic substance list published annually
by NIOSH,
-OSHA General Industry Standards
-Subpart Z, `
-resource books on-toxicology,
-consultants, and
-university bio-hazard committee.
All known chemicals can enter the body by
various routes. The main routes of entry and
absorption are:
-inhalation through the lungs,
-skin contact, and
-ingestion.
The concentration of a toxic material reaching
a critical organ or tissues will vary according to
the route of .entry. Although inhalation is the
most common mode of industrial exposure, skin
contact with hazardous substances can cause
percutaneous absorption. Some substances
such as organic solvents, phosphorus, and
mercury can pass through the skin and be
absorbed directly into the body. Therefore,
direct skin contact with toxic materials should
be avoided. For this reason, hands must be
washed before using toilet facilities.
- Ingestion of substances in toxic quantities is
not common in industry, although it may occur
. by eating food or smoking, etc., that have been
-.-contaminated. with. the -toxic substance or by
putting contaminated hands in the mouth.
Although toxic substances may be classified
according to their physical and chemical
properties, toxicology is concerned more with
the body's response to various substances. The
following are some of the common
classifications of toxic substances:
'Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Part 1910, Subpart Z,
Occupational Health and Environmental Control
-Irritants-corrosive materials, such as
acids, alkalies, and ozone, that cause
inflammation of mucous surfaces in
lungs, eyes, and skin.
-Asphyxiants (simple and chemical)
?Simple-inert gases, such as methane,
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, that, as
they increase in concentration, dilute
the oxygen in the atmosphere to a
point inadequate to sustain life.
*Chemical-gases, such as carbon
monoxide and hydrogen cyanide, that
prevent the body from utilizing
oxygen.
-Anesthetics and narcotics-organic
substances, such as acetylene, ethylenes,
ethyl ether, propane, or acetone, that
have depressant action on the central
nervous system (resulting in lowered
breathing and heart rates).
-Systemic poisons-substances that
cause:
?liver damage (e.g., carbon tetrachloride
and tetrachloroethane),
?kidney damage (e.g., halogenated
hydrocarbons and uranium),
?nervous system disorders (e.g.,
mercury, manganese, carbon
disulfide, and lead);
?blood or blood producing tissue
damage (e.g., arsine, benzene, and
nitrobenzene).
-Lung damaging substances-substances
such as silica, asbestos, and toluene
diisocyanate (TDI).
The health effect an air contaminant may have
depends upon:
-the severity of the toxic effect,
-the concentration of the substance
inhaled, and
-the period of exposure to the air
contaminant.
Where other factors influence effects, the last
two- of the three listed above are the ones we
have most control over. TLVs (Threshold Limit
Values) are guidelines used for controlling the
concentrations and lengths of exposures. The
TLV is the concentration of an airborne
substance that a worker may be exposed to,
averaged over an 8-hour period, for 40 hours a
week during a working lifetime without
harmful effects. In considering this concept, it
must be remembered that the TLV is a guideline
and the best policy is to minimize air
contaminant concentrations no matter what
the TLV. Also, some substances do not have a
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
TLV. For these, the best policy again is to
minimize concentrations as far as possible. This
is especially important since some individuals
are more susceptible to certain substances than
others and may experience ill effects from
exposure to concentrations even at TLV.
In determining individual exposure, the
concentration and duration of exposure must be
considered so that a time-weighted average
(TWA) may be calculated. The TWA can be
calculated from the following formula:
TWA (8 hours) = C,T, + C:T:.....+ CnTh
8
where Cn is the concentration of the air
contaminant during any time period Tn (hours).
The TWA exposure can then be compared with
the TLV to judge whether a person is
overexposed to an air contaminant.
Air sampling to evaluate toxic substances in the
work environment should be conducted by
industrial hygienists or employees trained in
sampling techniques.
Some persons may have physiological
characteristics due to their age, sex, state of
health, previous exposure to toxic substances,
or genetic inheritance, such that they would be
considered hypersusceptible. It is important to
recognize that even though these individuals
may have very low exposures, they may be
adversely affected. For example, it is known
that pregnant women are more susceptible to
toxic substances. During pregnancy, women
have altered blood flow volumes and
composition and altered lung function that can
affect the maternal and fetal response to toxic
substances. It is also known that physical
stress can affect the fetal heart rate, depending
upon the intensity of the stress and the physical
capabilities of the mother. Certain toxic
substances such as carbon monoxide, lead,
benzene, carbon disulfide, nitrobenzene, and
many others can injure the unborn child and
possibly the mother.
The best way to prevent overexposure to
susceptible individuals is through maximum
control of contaminants. Where this is not
achieved or where the material is unusually
toxic to the unborn child, medical screening and
special placement programs may be required to
keep the hypersusceptible persons away from
the toxic substances.
Some toxic substances have an increased toxic
action when in the presence of other potentially
hazardous agents or conditions. This is known
as the synergistic effect. For example, each of
the two substances may be considered slightly
hazardous at certain concentrations. However,
exposure to both at once may produce an
extremely hazardous condition. The question of
mixed-substance exposure is extremely
difficult, and specialized consultation should be
obtained. It is important to realize these
possibilities and consider possible occurrences
in your establishment.
You should determine what specific toxic
substances present are potential hazards to
employees at your establishment and refer to
the chapter covering that substance for more
information.
Bibliography
The Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation
and Control. DHEW (NIOSH) 74-117. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, OH 45226. 1973. p. 63.
Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Second
Edition. F.A. Patty. Interscience Publishers,
Inc., New York, NY. 1963. pp. 145-146.
Occupational Health Problems of Pregnant
Women: A Report and Recommendations. V.R.
Hunt. HEW Catalogue Number 77-30. U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Washington, DC. HEW Order No. SA-5304-75.
1975. p. 40.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
CHEMICAL AGENTS
ACIDS
Acids are corrosive substances (with a pH value
less than 7) that are used for a variety of
purposes in industry and that can have toxic
effects. The degree of toxicity depends upon the
particular acid and its concentration.
It is important to know all the types of acids
used in your establishment, what processes they
are used in, and how many.. employees are
actually or potentially exposed to them. Most
acids are liquids, but a few exist in solid form.
Health hazards can also arise from acid mist or
dust. The following are examples of acids
commonly found in industry:
-acetic -oxalic
-chromic -perchloric
-formic -picric
-hydrochloric -phosphoric
-hydrocyanic -sulfuric
-nitric
Examples of industrial processes using acids
include:
-metal cleaning, pickling, and etching
-electrolysis
-electroplating
-battery making
-paper making
-chemical synthesis
Your establishment might use acids or
processes.other than those listed above. If-you
are - uneer-tain :::, as _. to, whether . a particular
substance contains acids, check with the
manufacturer, refer to a suitable reference book,
or contact a knowledgeable person.
After you have identified potential problems,
they should be studied in detail to determine
their seriousness. A large part of this evaluation
should consist of air sampling conducted by an
industrial hygienist or a person trained in air
sampling techniques. Individual employee
exposure to acids should be measured to
determine the needs for controls and personal
protective equipment.
Engineering and administrative controls can be
used to reduce employee exposure to acid mist or
dust in the air, as well as to lessen the hazard of
direct contact of acid with the skin and eyes.
Engineering controls include:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation, or
-a combination of the above.
Administrative controls include:
-eliminating the use of a particular acid;
-replacing one acid with a less toxic one;
-instituting procedures to reduce accidents
associated with the handling,
transporting, and storing of acids;
-limiting employees' exposure time to
vapors, mists, or dusts.
For example, when mixing concentrated acids
with water, the acids should always be poured
into the water, never the reverse. This lessens
the danger of acid being splashed.
When engineering and administrative controls
have failed to limit employees' exposures,
personal protective equipment should be used.
Depending on the use of acids at your
establishment, the following types of equipment
-might be needed by employees:
-gloves and aprons for handling acids,
-eye and face protection against splashes,
-respirators for emergency or short-term
use where high concentrations of acid are
present in the air, and
-protective shoe covering.
In addition, emergency eye wash, routine
washing facilities, and overhead showers
should be present in each department or work
area where acids are regularly used. These
should be in good working condition and simple
to operate and provide a minimum of 15 minutes
of copious water flow. The chapter on personal
protective equipment provides more specific
information on strategies for limiting exposure.
Acid mists produced by liquid acids can result in
lung damage if inhaled. Routine or accidental
contact of acids with the skin or eyes can result
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
in serious burns and irritation. Some acid mists,
such as sulfuric, can corrode teeth over an
extended period of time. Chromic acid is
particularly dangerous and has been linked to
lung and skin cancer.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she is undoubtly aware of
employee exposure to acids and should be
conducting appropriate examinations and tests
on employees to identify any potential impact
on their health. If you use an outside medical
facility, you should be certain that the
physicians there are aware of the acids and
their forms of exposure (mist, fumes, etc.)
present at your establishment. Recommended
tests for employees exposed to acids include
pulmonary function tests, particularly forced
vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory
volume for 1 second (FEV,) and their ratio
(FEV,/FVC) on a scheduled basis.
Employees should be advised of the health
hazards of the particular acids with which they
work. They should be instructed in the proper
procedures for handling, transporting, and
storing acids. Training in the use of personal
protective equipment and the operation of
engineering controls should also be given.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
ALKALIES Administrative controls include:
Alkalies are corrosive materials widely used in -eliminating the use of particular alkalies;
industry. They neutralize acids and have a pH -replacing one alkalie with a less toxic one;
value greater than 7. The danger to employees -instituting procedures to reduce the
depends upon the specific alkali used and its possibilities of accidents involved with
concentration. Generally, the hydroxides are the handling, transporting, and storing
the most irritating. of alkalies;
-limiting the duration of exposure to
It is important to know all the types and vapors, mists, or dusts.
concentrations of alkalies used in your When engineering and administrative controls
establishment, the processes involved, and the have failed to limit employees' exposures,
number of employees potentially exposed. personal protective
Alkalies are common in chemical process equipment should be used.
Depending on the use of alkalies at your
industries and are used as cleaning agents in establishment, the followin
many industrial operations. Most alkalies are a types protective
solids, but they are often used in a liquid equipment might be needed by by p employees;
solution. -gloves and aprons for handling alkalies,
The following are examples' of common -eye protection against splashes,
industrial alkalies: -respirators for emergency or short-term
-ammonium --calcium-sulfide use where high concentration of alkalies
hydroxide -potassium hydroxide are present, and
-barium -sodium carbonate -protective shoe covering.
hydroxide (soda ash)
-barium oxide -sodium hydroxide
-calcium chloride (lye or caustic soda)
-calcium oxide ' -sodium sulfide
(quicklime)
Your establishment might use alkalies not
listed above. If you are uncertain as to whether
or not a particular substance contains alkalies,
check with' the manufacturer, refer to.a suitable
reference book, or contact a knowledgeable
person. For more specific information, refer to
the chapter in this manual on sources of
information and consultation.
When potential problems have been indentified,
they should be studied in detail to determine
their possible. adverse effects. A large part of
this evaluation should consist of air sampling
In addition, emergency eye baths, routine
washing facilities, and overhead showers
should be present in each department or work
area where alkalies are regularly used. These
should be in good working condition and simple
to operate and provide a minimum of 15 minutes
of copious water flow. The chapter on personal
protective equipment can provide you with more
specific information.
Alkalies can severely irritate the skin, eyes, and
throat. If alkalis vapor, mist, or dust are
concentrated enough, the lungs can also be
irritated.
If you have a physician present at your
establishement, he or she should be aware of
employee exposure to alkalies and should be
conducting appropriate examinations and tests
to determine what effect, if any, the exposure is
y
yg
- employee> trained in air sampling techniques..having on your employees' health. If you use an
The 'air:- sampling will indicate employee :7 outside medical facility, you should be certain
exposures.
Engineering and administrative controls can be
used to reduce exposure to alkali vapor, mist, or
dust in the workroom air and can lessen the
hazard of direct contact of alkalies with skin or
eyes.
Engineering controls include:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation, or
-a combination of the above.
conducted b
an industrial h
ienist or an
alkalies present at your establishment.
Recommended tests for employees exposed to
alkalies include spirometry, particularly forced
vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory
volume for 1 second (FEV,) and their ratio
(FEV,/FVC).
Employees should be advised of the health
hazards that can result from overexposure to
alkalies. They should be instructed in the proper
procedures for handling, transporting, and
storing alkalies; emergency procedures; and the
use of personal protective equipment.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
GASES
Many different gases used in industry can have
a potentially toxic effect on employees. Some are
directly manufactured products and others are
byproducts of other processes. The presence of
any contaminant gases in the workroom
atmosphere should be investigated so that the
potential health hazards can be identified.
It is important to know all the types of gases
present at your establishment, what processes
they are used in, and how many employees are
actually or potentially exposed to them. Any
process that produces or possibly produces any
gases should be identified. To assist you in
doing this, you will find a list of common-
industrial gases and their uses at the end of this
chapter.
Your establishment might use or produce gases
not on this list. If you are uncertain as to
whether a particular substance contains a
potentially harmful gas, check with the
manufacturer, refer to a suitable reference book,
or contact a knowledgeable person. For more
specific guidance, refer to the section of this
manual listing sources of information and
consultation.
When potential problems have been identified,
they should be studied in detail to determine
their extent. A large part of this evaluation
should consist of air sampling conducted by an
industrial hygienist or personnel trained in air
sampling techniques. The air sampling will
indicate employee exposure and the need for
control measures.
Exposure to gases can be minimized through
the use of engineering and administrative
controls. Since concentrations of gases can
result from many different sources, controls
must be designed to deal with each contaminant
separately. Engineering controls that should be
considered include:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation, or
-a combination of the above.
Administrative controls are often the easiest,
most effective, and least costly. Some general
controls include:
-eliminating the gas by changing the
process to stop its generation,
-altering the process to decrease the
amount of gas generation into the air,
-limiting the duration of employee
exposure.
Often different combinations of controls can be
used to limit employee exposures more
effectively.
When engineering and administrative controls
fail to maintain exposure at acceptable levels,
respirators should be used as - as interim
measure. Some gases such as ammonia and
hydrocyanic acid can be absorbed through or
irritate the skin. Protective clothing should be
used by employees exposed to these gases. The
chapter on personal protective equipment
provides more specific information.
Gases can have negative health effects ranging
from skin and lung irritation to asphyxiation
and even death. If you have a physician present
at your establishment, he or she should be
aware of employee exposure to gases and should
be conducting appropriate examinations and
tests on employees to determine what effect, if
any, the exposure is having. If you use an
outside medical facility, you should be certain
that the physicians there are aware of the gases
present at your establishment. Tests for
employees exposed to gases depend on the
particular gas in question and are performed to
determine overexposure to gases or changes in
lung capacity. Some frequently used tests
include complete blood count (CBC), chest X-ray,
urinalysis, electrocardiogram (EKG), and
pulmonary function studies (FEV,, FVC, and
their ratio FEV,/FVC).
Employees should be advised of the potential
hazards posed by each particular gas and
should be instructed in the proper procedures for
handling and storing. Most important, they
must be informed as to the correct type and use
of respirators to control their exposure.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
GAS SOURCES OR USES GAS
Acetylene Welding, torch cutting, Fluorine
starting material for
synthesis of chemicals.
Ammonia Distillation of coal,
action of steam on
cyanamide, catalytic
combination of nitrogen
at high temperature and
Hydrogen
Freon
pressure, refrigeration, Methane and
petroleum refining, propane
manufacture of fertilizer, Nitrogen dioxide
nitr
t
i
l
ogenous ma
er
s.
a
Butane Production of fuels,
propellants.
Carbon dioxide Mining, caves, tunnels,
wells, fire extinguisher
manufacture, dry ice
manufacture,
combustion,
fermentation.
Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion
of fossil fuels.
Chlorine Laundry bleach,
manufacture of chlorates
and perchiorates, and
other inorganic and
organic compounds.
Cyanides Fumigation,
(hydrogen cyanide) electroplating, mining,
Ozone
Phosgene
Sulfur dioxide
production of resin Hydrogen sulfide
monomers, heat
treating, extraction of
gold and silver from ores,
pesticides, production of
acrylonitride.
SOURCES OR USES
Production of fluorine
itself.
Battery charging,
production of hydrogen
itself.
Refrigerant, aerosol
propellant.
Fuels, refrigerants,
propellants.
Reaction of nitric acid
with metals (dipping,
pickling, or etching),
production of explosives,
dyes, lacquers and
celluloid, electric arcs,
welding, manufacture of
nitric acid.
Electrical equipment,
electrostatic air cleaners:
Exposure of chlorinated
hydrocarbon vapors to
hot flames, hot metal, or
ultraviolet radiation.
Burning of sulfur,
combustion of fossil
fuels, refrigeration,
bleaching, fumigating,
preserving.
Decay of organic (sulfur
containing) substances,
processes using sulfur in
any form.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
INORGANIC DUSTS
Inorganic dusts are mineral dusts that, when
inhaled, can cause harmful effects on the health
of employees. Consequently, high air
concentrations of inorganic dusts should be
identified and controlled.
There are many different inorganic dusts and
many industrial processes that generate them.
Wherever a mineral is used as a raw material,
excessive dust generation is possible. An
important source of exposure is the grinding,
machining, sanding, or mixing of dry products
with mineral content. Each point of handling
dust-generating materials should be studied
closely. The following is a list of some of dusts
which are commonly found in industry:
-amorphous silica -feldspar
-asbestos -fiber glass
-calcium
compounds
'cement
'gypsum
'lime
?limestone
?marble
-carborundum
-clays
-fuller's earth
-granite
-graphite
-iron oxides
-mica
-silica
-slate
-talc
-tin oxides
Your establishment might have concentrations
of dusts not listed above. If you are uncertain as
to whether a particular substance generates
inorganic dusts, check with the manufacturer or
distributor of the product, refer to a suitable
reference book, contact a knowledgeable person,
or call a hot-line. For more specific guidance
refer to the section of this manual listing
information and consultation sources.
When potential dust problems have been
identified, they should be studied in detail to
determine their seriousness. This should be
done by taking air samples of the work
environment and personal samples for exposed
employees and comparing these with published
concentrations with the Threshold Limit Value
(TLV) for the particular dust. This evaluation
should be made by an industrial hygienist or by
an employee or other person specifically trained
in the techniques of air sampling. Samples
obtained should be evaluated on a continuing
basis by an accredited or certified (or both)
industrial hygiene laboratory.
Engineering or administrative controls or both
can be instituted in most cases to maintain dust
concentrations within an acceptable range.
Engineering controls are those that lower dust
concentrations through such modifications as:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation, and
-changing dry processes to wet processes.
Administrative controls are those that limit
employee exposure by:
-controlling handling procedures to reduce
dust generation;
-performing all cleanup through the use of
wet vacuums or wet cleaners-no dry
sweeping;
-keeping waste and scraps in sealed bags
for disposal.
When engineering and administrative controls
have failed to limit employee exposure;
respirators should be used. Refer to the chapter
on personal protective equipment for more
specific information. Employee exposure will
also be reduced by vacuuming work clothes
before they are removed.
Exposure to inorganic dusts can cause
pneumoconiosis. Some specific types of
pneumoconiosis and their causes are asbestosis
(asbestos), silicosis (silica), baritosis (barium),
siderosis (iron oxide), and stannosis (tin). Some
dusts cause pathologic changes (i.e., they cause
the formation of fibrous tissue in the'lung) and
may induce cancer. Serious lung disablement,
however, can result from exposure to almost any
dust if the concentrations are high enough and
if the duration of exposure is sufficient.
By educating employees as to the serious
hazards associated with inhaling inorganic
dust, employees may gain incentive to control
their own exposure through proper use of
respirators or through careful handling of dust
producing materials. Their training should
include when, where, and how to wear
respirators and which type. (See page 66.)
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, be sure that he or she is aware of
employee exposure to inorganic dusts. A
schedule should be set for conducting
appropriate examinations and tests on
employees to determine any health effects. If
you use an outside medical facility, you should
be certain that the physicians there are aware of
the inorganic dusts to which employees are
exposed so that scheduled medical tests can be
made. Recommended tests for employees
exposed to inorganic dusts include chest X-rays
and forced vital capacity (FVC), forced
expiratory volume for 1 second (FEV, ), and their
ratio (FEV,/FVC).
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
ASBESTOS
Asbestos produces a particularly harmful
inorganic dust. Consequently, recognition and
control of high asbestos concentrations in your
working environment are essential.
The concentrations-can result from a number of
processes or materials such as:
-heat insulation -air filtration
-brake linings -paint filler
-electrical wire -shingles, asbestos
insulation boards
-pipe and d furnace-pump packing
-asbestos textiles, -fireproofing steel
clothing, beams in the
blankets construction
-vinyl asbestos industry
tile -asbestos ventilation
ducts
Any associated handling and manufacturing of
asbestos laden products is likely to produce
dust.
Asbestos fiber problems may be evaluated by
taking environmental air' samples as well as
breathing space samples for exposed employees
and comparing these concentrations with the
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for asbestos. This
evaluation should be made by an industrial
hygienist or other person specifically trained in
the techniques of air sampling. Samples
obtained should be evaluated on a continuing
basis by an accredited or certified (or both)
industrial hygiene laboratory.
Engineering or administrative controls or both
can be instituted in most cases to maintain
asbestos dust concentrations within an
acceptable range. Engineering controls are
those that lower -concentrations through some
kind of engineering modifications such as:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation,
-changing dry processes to wet processes,
or
-a combination of the above.
Administrative controls are those that limit
employees' exposure by-
-eliminating the use of asbestos;
-limiting employees' lengths of exposure
to high concentrations of asbestos;
-controlling the handling procedures
to reduce dust generation;
-performing all cleanup through the use of
wet vacuums or wet cleaners-no dry
sweeping;
-keeping waste and scraps in sealed bags
for disposal.
When engineering and administrative controls
have failed to limit employees' exposures,
respirators should be used. In addition, clothing
should be vacuumed before it is removed. Refer
to the chapter on personal protective equipment
for more specific information.
When inhaled as a dust, asbestos can cause
pneumoconiosis, or more specifically known as
asbestosis. Lung cancer may also result from
asbestos exposure, particularly among
smokers.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she is undoubtly aware of
employee exposure to asbestos and should be
conducting appropriate examinations and tests
to determine any potential health impact. If you
use an outside medical facility, you should be
certain that the physicians there are aware of
the asbestos present at your establishment.
Recommended tests for employees exposed to
asbestos include chest X-rays and forced vital
capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume for 1
second (FEV,), and their ratio (FEV,/FVC).
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
SILICA
Silica (Si 02) is a very common compound found
in nature. It is usually of very low toxicity, but
when finely divided into particles small enough
to be inhaled, it can become harmful to health.
Harmful silica dust concentrations in the air
can result from a number of processes such as:
-abrasive -refractory
manufacturing manufacturing
-ceramics -road
manufacturing construction
-foundry work -sandblasting
-furnace and kiln -sandpaper
lining manufacturing
-granite -sandstone
cutting grinding
-mining -silver polishing
-pottery making -street sweeping
-tunnel work
Any associated handling and manufacturing of
silica laden products is also likely to produce
dust.
Quartz is 100% pure silica. Other materials
containing high concentrations of silica are:
-tridymite -cristobalite
-tripoli -flint
-chalcedony -agate
-onyx -silica flour
-sandstone -diatomaceous
earth silica
The hazards associated with each of these
substances depend upon their silica content
(i.e., the greater percent of silica in the
composition, the greater the hazard). Since
particle size is another very important factor,
processes like grinding, sanding, and chipping
may present increased hazards.
Silica problems can be evaluated by taking air
samples and comparing the dust concentration
with the Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for silica.
This evaluation should be made by an
industrial hygienist or other person specifically
trained in the techniques of air sampling.
Samples obtained should be evaluated on a
continuing basis by an accredited or certified (or
both) industrial hygiene laboratory.
Engineering or administrative controls or both
should be instituted to maintain dust
concentrations within an acceptable range.
Engineering controls are those that lower dust
concentrations through some kind of
engineering modifications such as:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation,
--changing dry processes to wet
processes, or
-a combination -of the above.
Administrative controls are those that limit
employees' exposures by:
-eliminating the use of compounds
containing silica,
-limiting employees' lengths of exposure
to silica.
When engineering and administrative controls
have failed to limit silica exposures, repirators
should be used. Also, care should be taken to
vacuum the work clothes of employees exposed
to silica dust before they are removed. Refer to
the chapter on personal protective equipment
for more specific information.
Exposure to silica can cause a severe lung
disability known as silicosis. Silicosis can
develop in employees over a period of years.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she should be aware of
employee exposure to silica dust and should be
conducting the appropriate examinations and
tests to determine what effect, if any, the
exposure is having on employees' health. If you
use an outside medical facility, you should be
certain that physicians there are aware of the
silica exposure at your establishment.
Recommended tests for employees exposed to
silica are chest X-rays and forced vital capacity
(FVC), forced expiratory volume for 1 second
(FEV,), and their ratio (FEV,/FVC).
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
METALS, METALLOIDS, AND
AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
Industry uses many different types of metals
and metalloids, some of which have been
classified as harmless through experimentation
or experience. Other metals or metalloids such
as lead, mercury, or arsenic are known to be
highly toxic. In an industrial environment, use
of toxic metals and metalloids, regardless of the
degree of toxicity, should be monitored for the
protection of your employees.
Any toxic metals or metalloids can be
considered as potential hazards. Therefore, you
should identify all metals, metalloids, or
compounds containing them as to type, nature,
or processes in which they are used and as to
quantity used per period of time. The following
is a list of toxic metals and metalloids that
should be considered hazardous:
-aluminum -mercury
-antimony -nickel
-arsenic -osmium
-barium -palladium
-beryllium -phosphorus
-boron -platinum
-cadmium -selenium
-chromium -silver
-cobalt -tellurium
-copper -thallium
-germanium -tin
-indium -titanium
-iron -tungsten
-lead -vandadium
-lithium -zinc
-magnesium -zirconium
-manganese
Some of these substances are much more toxic
than others and, therefore, of greater concern.
As dusts, mists, fumes, and vapors, they are
hazardous if inhaled, ingested, or contact the
skin.
When potential, problems have been. identified,
they should- be- studied in detail to determine
their extent. A large part of this evaluation
should involve air sampling conducted by an
industrial hygienist or employee trained in air
sampling techniques. The air sampling will
indicate employee exposure and the need for
control measures.
Air concentrations of toxic metals and
metalloids in the workroom can result from
many sources. Engineering and administrative
controls should be designed to deal with each
contaminant separately. Basic engineering
controls include:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation, or
-a combination of the above.
The following administrative controls are often
the easiest, most effective, and least costly to
use.,
-eliminating the contaminant by
substituting another nontoxic or less
toxic material,
-altering the processing or handling
procedures of contaminants to decrease
the amount released into the air,
-controlling cleanup procedures to reduce
the use of sweeping or compressed air,
-controlling waste collection and disposal
to minimize the spread of contaminants,
-limiting duration of employee exposure.
Different combinations of controls can be used
to control employee exposure most effectively.
When engineering and administrative controls
fail to maintain acceptable exposure levels,
personal protective equipment such as
respirators, protective clothing, and gloves
should be used as an interim measure.
Protective clothing should be vacuumed before
it is removed and should be cleaned regularly.
Refer to the chapter on personal protective
equipment for more specific information.
Metals can adversely affect employee health-
from skin irritation to severe nervous disorders
and even death. If you have a physician present
at your establishment, he or she should be
aware of employee exposure to metals and
should be conducting appropriate examinations
and tests to determine what effect, if any, the
exposure is having on employees' health. If you
use an outside medical facility, you should be
certain that the physicians there are aware of
the metals present at your establishment.
Recommended tests for employees exposed to
metals include pulmonary function tests,
enzyme level and substance concentrations in
blood or urine, electroencephalograph (EEG),
electromyography, and chest X-rays. The tests
relevant to each metal should be administered
to exposed employees.
A program of employee education and training
should stress proper handling procedures and
correct use of respirators and protective clothing
The employees should be aware of the health
hazards presented by metals to which they are
exposed and the proper precautions to take
against overexposure.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
ORGANIC DUSTS
Organic dusts are produced by vegetable
sources such as grain, wood, and cotton. Some
can have a harmful effect on health, especially
if present in high concentrations.
It is important to know all the types of organic
dusts to which employees at your establishment
might be exposed. There are many different
organic dusts and many processes that can
cause dust generation. The following are
examples of organic dust sources that should be
considered as possible health hazards:
-bagasse -jute
-castor bean -maple bark
-coal -paprika
-cotton -sisal
-flax -tarmarind
-grain -tobacco
-gum acacia -wood
-hay -wool
-hemp
If you are uncertain as to whether a particular
vegetable source produces potentially
hazardous dusts, check a suitable reference
book or contact a knowledgeable person. For
more specific guidance, refer to the section of
this manual listing sources of information and
consultation.
Organic dust problems can be evaluated by
taking air samples in the work environment and
personal samples for exposed employees and
comparing the dust concentration with the
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for that particular
dust. This evaluation should be made by an
industrial hygienist or other person specifically
trained in the techniques of air sampling.
Samples obtained should be evaluated on a
continuing basis by an accredited or certified (or
both) industrial hygiene laboratory.
Engineering or administrative controls or both
can be instituted in most cases to reduce organic
dust concentrations or exposures. Engineering
controls are those that lower concentrations
through mechanical modifications such as:
-local exhaust ventilation,
-general ventilation,
-changing dry processes to wet processes.
Administrative controls are those that limit
employee exposure by-
-controlling handling procedures to reduce
dust generation;
-performing all cleanup through the use of
wet vacuums or wet cleaners-no dry
sweeping,-
-keeping waste and scraps in sealed bags
for disposal;
-limiting employees' length of exposure to
high concentrations of organic dust by
rotation of workers, frequent rest periods,
etc.
When engineering and administrative controls
have failed to limit employee exposures,
respirators should be used. The chapter on
personal protective equipment will provide you
with more specific information. Exposure can
also be reduced by vacuuming work clothes
before they are removed. -
Organic dusts can cause a number of lung
disorders known as extrinsic allergic alveolitis
and hypersensitivity pneumoconiosis.
Recurrences of these disorders may lead to
brochitis, emphysema, or pathologic changes
resulting in pulmonary fibrosis. In addition to
dusts themselves, you should be aware of some
additional hazardous substances often
associated with organic dusts. Proteolytic
enzymes, which can be carried by dusts, come
from animal tissues and can cause severe skin
and lung irritation. Mycotoxins, which can also
be carried by dusts, are produced by molds and
cause allergic reactions and lung damage if
breathed.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she is undoubtly aware of
employee exposure to organic dusts and should
be conducting appropriate tests and
examinations on employees to determine what
effect, if any, the exposure is having on their
health. If you use an outside medical facility,
you should be certain that the physicians there
are aware of the organic (lusts to which your
employees are exposed. Recommended tests for
employees exposed to organic dusts include
chest X-rays, forced vital capacity (FVC), forced
expiratory volume for 1 second (FEV, ), and
their ratio (FEV1/FVC).
By educating employees about the serious
hazards associated with inhaling organic
dusts, employees may gain incentive to control
their own exposure through proper use of
respirators or through careful handling of dust
producing materials. Their training should
include when, where, and how to wear
respirators.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
ORGANIC SOLVENTS
In the simplest terms, organic solvents are
liquid or vaporous materials containing carbon
that can dissolve other materials. Today,
hundreds of organic solvents can be toxic in
varying degrees and are potentially injurious to
the health of employees if used without proper
controls. Excessive exposure to solvent vapors
can also affect the productivity and efficiency of
your employees.
It is important to know all the types of organic
solvents used at your establishment, how they
are used, and how many employees are expoed
to them. Some of the most common industrial
uses for solvents are:
-adhesives
-artificial leathers
-degreasers
-dry cleaning
-extraction of fate
and oils
-floor polishes
-impregnation
agents
-lacquers
-paints
-paint removers
-plastics
-rubbers
-shoe creams
-synthetic textiles
-textiles
-varnishes
-waxes
The hazard potential of a solvent depends on its
inherent toxicity, the vapor pressure, and use.
Solvents with low vapor pressures exist mainly
in liquid form. However, if the solvent is
sprayed or heated, vapor concentrations will
increase. Solvents with higher vapor pressures
will have higher vapor concentrations.
Health hazards from organic solvent vapors
should be evaluated through air samplings by
an industrial hygienist or by an employee or
other person specifically trained in the
techniques of air sampling. Samples obtained
should be evaluated on a continuing basis by an
accredited or - certified (or both) industrial
hygiene laboratory. Organic - solvent vapor
concentrations and employee exposure to those
..concentrations should be - measured in
assessing potential health hazards. =
If it is determined that organic solvent vapor
concentrations are too high, engineering or
administrative controls or both should be
instituted to protect workers. Engineering
controls can lower vapor concentrations
through engineering modifications such as:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation, or
-a combination of the above.
Administrative controls may also be used,
especially is they seem to be easier, as effective
89
as, and less expensive than engineering
controls. They include:
-substituting less volatile or less toxic
solvents for those solvents in use (i.e.,
using the least hazardous solvent
possible);
-controlling handling procedures to
minimize splashes, spills, or anything
that would increase vapor concentrations;
-limiting employee exposure to high
concentrations.
When engineering and administrative controls
have failed to limit complete exposure to
organic solvent vapors, personal protective
equipment should be used. Depending on the
uses of organic solvents at your establishment,
the following types of equipment might be used:
-gloves and aprons for handling solvents,
-eye protection against splashes,
-respirators for emergency or short-term
use.
When concentrations are high you should refer
to the chapter on personal protective equipment
for more specific information.
Some organic solvents in either liquid or vapor
form may be highly toxic whereas others are
not. As a liquid they can:
-cause skin irritation (i.e., dematitis),
-be absorbed into the bloodstream
through the skin,
-enter the bloodstream through ingestion,
-injure the eyes by being splashed or
sprayed into them.
As a vapor, organic solvents can:
-enter the bloodstream by inhalation,
-enter the bloodstream through skin
absorption.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, be sure that he or she is aware of
employee exposure to solvents. A schedule
should be set for conducting appropriate
examinations and tests on employees to
determine any health impact. If you use an
outside medical facility, you should be certain
that the physicians there are aware of the
solvents present at your establishment, so that
scheduled medical tests can be made.
Employees should be trained in the safe
handling of solvents and the proper personal
protection. The effects of organic solvents on
the central nervous system range from mild
symptoms to death. It is therefore important for
both you and your employees to know the
hazard potential for each solvent present at your
establishment.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
PESTICIDES
Any chemical used to control pest organisms is
referred to as a pesticide. Pesticides are
generally classified into five types: insecticides,
rodenticides, fungicides, herbicides, and
fumigants. Many cases of human poisoning
result annually from misuse of these
substances. Poisoning can cause a variety of
physical conditions, depending upon the type of
pesticide and the severity of exposure. These
include excessive sweating, tearing of the eyes,
vomiting, headaches, dizziness, tremors,
convulsions, cancer, and sometimes death. Any
establishment producing or using any type of
pesticide should have a hazard control program
to prevent overexposures.
Although there are literally hundreds of
pesticides, their purpose, chemical structure,
and toxicological properties permit them to be
classified as:
-Organophosphorous compounds.
Examples: azodrin, bidrin, demetron
(Systox), disulfoton (Disyston),
parathion, dimethoate (Cygon),
meta-systox-R, phorate (Thimet),
mevinphos (Phosdrin), tepp, and
azinphos methyl (Guthion).
-Carbamates. Examples: aldicarb
(Temick), arprocoarb/propoxur
(Baygon), carbofuran (Furadan),
methomyl (Lannate), amino carb
(Matacil), zectran, and carbaryl (sevin).
-Chlorinated hydrocarbons. Examples:
DDT, BHC, lindane, methoxychlor,
chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor,
and endrin.
-Miscellaneous pesticides. Examples:
botanicals (pyrethrins), organomercury
compounds, organic nitrogen compounds
organic sulfur compounds, organic
thiocyanate compounds, and others.
Pesticides exist in solid, liquid, and vapor forms.
Some are highly toxic to humans and others are
not. The pesticide group most commonly
associated with toxic effects in humans is the
organophosphorous compounds. Organophosphate
exposure can cause tremors, convulsions, and
possibly death. Vomiting, excessive sweating,
tearing, headaches, and dizziness are other
symptoms of overexposure.
It is important for you to know the hazard
potential of each pesticide used at your
workplace. The degree of hazard depends upon
the particular pesticide used and the method of
application and distribution.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons are generally not
acutely toxic to humans unless ingestion,
inhalation, or massive skin absorption causes
excessive exposure. However, they present an
additional hazard in that they tend to be
persistent in nature (i.e., they do not easily
break down chemically). Although these
pesticides may cause dermatitis, nervous
excitation, convulsion, coma, and death, as do
organophosphates, the biological causes are
different and treatment will be different.
Signs and symptoms of carbamate intoxication
are similar to those of organophosphorus
compounds. In general, exposure to pesticides is
most likely to occur in their production, and
among farm workers, tree sprayers; and
professional exterminators.
Employees' exposure levels to pesticides should
be made by an industrial hygienist or by an
employee or other person specifically trained in
the techniques of air sampling. Samples
obtained should be evaluated on a continuing
basis by an accredited or certified (or both)
industrial hygiene laboratory.
The most common source of exposure results
from accidental spillage on the skin. Exposure
levels in these cases is not easily quantified.
Establishing and enforcing correct handling
procedures will greatly reduce this spillage, as
well as reduce the resulting airborne
concentrations of pesticides.
The second most frequent source of exposure is
through inhalation. In these situations, it is
especially important that you have a program of
air sampling conducted by qualified personnel.
Some engineering controls you might use to
lower concentrations of and exposure to
pesticides are:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures)
-general ventilation, or
-a combination of the above.
Some administrative controls you might use to
limit employee exposures are:
-using the least toxic pesticide that will
still fulfill your purpose;
-controlling handling procedures to
prevent accidents by spills;
-limiting employee exposure to high air
concentrations by rotating shifts,
establishing rest periods, etc.
Some general safety rules regarding
containerization and handling of pesticides are:
-Keep foodstuffs and eating utensils in an
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
area away from possible exposure. the chapter on personal protective equipment
-Do not-eat or smoke in areas of potential for details.
pesticide exposure.
-Do not put fingers in mouth or rub eyes _ you have a physician present at your
while working. establishment, he or she should be aware of
-Wash hands before eating, smoking, or
using toilet.
-Provide showering and changing
facilities for all employees exposed to
pesticides.
Proper warning signs should be posted and each
container clearly identified as to its contents
and hazard. Areas treated with pesticides
should have posted signs listing the pesticide
used, boundaries covered, date of treatment, as
well as special instructions to stay out of area
during periods of high concentrations.
When engineering or adminstrative.controls or
-
both fail to minimize exposure to pesticides,
personal protective equipment in the form of
gloves, clothing, eye protectors, and respirators
should be used as an interim measure. Refer to
employee exposure to pesiticides and should be
conducting appropriate examinations and tests
on employees to determine what effect, if any,
the exposure is having on their health. If you use
an outside medical facility, you should be
certain that the physicians there are aware of
the pesticides used by your establishment.
Appropriate medical tests can then be given to
exposed employees. Cholinesterase tests can
provide an excellent tool for measuring
exposure to certain pesticides.
Employees should be advised about the health
hazards associated with pesticides to which
they are exposed. They should be advised on
safe -work practices and handling procedures
and the use of personal protective equipment if
necessary. Emergency procedures for treating
accidental exposures to each specific. pesticide
should be reviewed with employees periodically,
as a minimum, annually.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
PLASTICS AND PLASTICIZERS
Plastic materials fall into two broad categories:
thermoplastic materials, which can be softened
repeatedly by the application of heat; and
thermosetting materials, which undergo a
chemical change when heated and cannot be
reshaped again. The thermoplastics are the
larger of the two groups and include polyolefins
(polyethylenes, polypropylene), polyvinyl
chloride, and polystyrene. Among the
thermosetting resins, the most important are
phenolformaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde,
epoxies, unsaturated polyesters, and
polyurethanes.
In addition to the toxicity that may be related to
the plastic per se, the toxicity of additives such
as catalysts, dyes, fillers, stabilizers, and
plasticizers should be considered.
The raw materials for plastics production come
from crude oil. Plastics are all polymers, which
are formed from monomers. In addition,
plastics require catalysts such as metals,
peroxides, and solvents. Dyes and fillers such as
asbestos, diatomite, mica, and sand are used for
color and texture, and may, by themselves, be
considered potentially hazardous materials.
Stabilizers are used, and plasticizers are added
for ease of shaping. It is usually the stabilizers,
plasticizers, and monomers that are the most
hazardous to employees. However, if polymers
are heated excessively, the decomposition
products may also be toxic.
You should identify all raw materials,
intermediates, and final products at your
workplace, and determine their airborne
concentrations and modes of entry into the
body. A list of common substances associated
with plastics manufacturing has been included
at the end of this chapter.
When potential problems have been identified,
they should be studied in detail to determine
their extent. A large part of this evaluation
should include air sampling; this evaluation
should be made by an industrial hygienist or by
an employee or other person specifically trained
in the techniques of air sampling. Samples
obtained should be evaluated on a continuing
basis by an accredited or certified (or both)
industrial hygiene laboratory. The air sampling
will indicate employee exposure and the need to
control exposures.
By instituting appropriate engineering and
administrative controls, airborne
concentrations and other exposures (skin
contact, ingestion) can be reduced to acceptable
levels. Engineering controls include:
-local exhaust ventilation (hoods or
process enclosures),
-general ventilation,
-control of fire and explosion, or
-a combination of the above.
Administrative controls include:
-eliminating a hazardous material or
substituting a less toxic one;
-alterating process or handling
procedures;
-controlling cleanup procedures;
-controlling waste collection and disposal;
-limiting employee exposure by
alternating workshifts, offering more rest
periods, etc.
When administrative and engineering controls
are inadequate, personal protection should be
provided for employees. Since many of these
materials affect the skin in some way, protective
clothing (e.g., overalls, labcoats, shoecovers,
gloves), or creams, or both should be used.
Where materials may splash or vaporize and get
into the eyes, goggles or face shields should be
worn. Respirators should be used where air
sampling indicates that concentrations of
airborne contaminants are excessive. Refer to
the chapter on personal protective equipment
for more specific information on selection and
use.
Eye, skin, and respiratory tract irritation; skin
sensitization; eye and skin burns; polymer fume
fever (symptoms similar to flu); allergy of the
lungs; and liver cancer can result from excessive
exposure to plastics and plasticizers. Contact
with resins or plastics before polymerization
can lead to dermatitis.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she should be aware of
employee exposure to plastics and plasticizers
and should be conducting appropriate
examinations and tests on employees to
determine what effect, if any, the exposure is
having on their health. If you use an outside
medical facility, you should be certain that the
staff there is aware of the plastics and
plasticizers present at your establishment.
Recommended tests include forced vital capacity
(FVC), and forced expiratory volume for 1
second (FEV,), and their ratio (FEV,/FVC) for
employees exposed to a pulmonary irritant.
Other tests will depend on the specific plastics
or plasticizers to which employees are exposed.
Advising employees about the hazards of
working with plastics and related materials is
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
essential to the maintenance of their health and
safety. Since exposure to even minute amounts
of some of these materials (e.g., TDI, vinyl
chloride) may cause serious health effects, it is
essential that employees know what the effects
are, how to recognize them, and how to
minimize their exposure.
Your establishment might use materials other
than those listed above. If you are uncertain as
to whether a particular substance contains
plastics or plasticizers, check with the
manufacturer, refer to a suitable reference book,
or contact a knowledgeable person. For more
specific guidance, refer to the section of this
manual listing sources of information and
consultation.
COMMON SUBSTANCES IN PLASTICS
MANUFACTURING
Thermo Sets, including:
-aminos (urea and melamine)
-expoxys (ethoxylin)
-phenolics
-polyesters (and alkyds)
-polyurethanes
-silicones .
Thermoplastics, including:
-acetals
-acrylics
-acrylonitrile, butadiene, styrene
-cellulosics (cellulose acetate, propionate,
butyrate)
-fluoro plastics
-polyvinyl chloride
-polyvinyl alcohol
-nylons
-polycarbonates
-polyethylene
-polystyrene
-polyvinylindene chloride
-polysylenes
Plasticizers, including:
-Phthalates
dimethyl phthalate
dethyl phthalate
isophthalic acid
-Phosphates
tri-ortho-cresyl phosphate.-(TOCP)
tri-para-cresy.-phosphate (TPP)
tributyl phosphate (TBP)
tri-isobutyl phosphate
chlorinated paraffins
chlorinated biphenyls
Stabilizers, including:
-lead salts
-barium
-cadmium
-benzophenones
-organonickel compounds
-phenols
"Inert" Fillers and Fibrous Reinforcements,
including:
-silica
-asbestos
-talc
-mica
-glassflakes and fibers
-lead
-beryllium
-molybdenum
-boron
-sapphire
Foaming Agents, including:
-aliphatic hydrocarbons
-methyl chloride
-methylene chloride
-trichloroethylene
Other materials, including:
-toluen& diisocyanate (used in production of
polyurethane foams)
Catalysts, including-
-organic peroxides - polystyrene
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
Occupations in which employees may be
exposed to infectious agents include scientific
research, hospital work, agriculture, and those
endeavors involving handling of animals or
plant products. New production facilities
involving the industrial use of biological
organisms have arisen. These highly
sophisticated techniques are usually monitored
by qualified biohazard safety officers.
Infections can range from mild to fatal.
Individual susceptibilities often vary.
In research and hospital work, an up-to-date
listing should be kept of all disease organisms
known to be present. Where disease organisms
are not normally present but outbreaks may
occasionally occur, such as in meat-packing
plants, it is important to be aware of symptoms
that various organisms produce so that action
may quickly be taken. Infective organisms can
generally be classified as one of five types:
bacterial, viral, rickettsial, fungal, and
parasitic.
Increasing use of viral vectors in the production
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules by
both researchers and production facilities,
while not ordinarily considered infectious
agents, must be thought of as potentially
harmful.
Here are some infections often encountered in
different occupations:
-Brucellosis. A bacterial disease
contracted by beef and pork packing
workers.
-Anthrax. A disease caused by bacterial
spores that come from animal hides or
hairs.
-Erysipeloid. A bacterial infection
resulting from contact with infected
animals, mainly fish.
-Tularemia. Bacterial infection from
infected rabbits.
-Newcastle disease. A viral disease caused
by a virus coming from chickens and
turkeys.
-Ornithosis. A viral disease of birds that
may be transmitted to humans.
-Arborvirus. A tick-transmitted disease
causing febrile infections.
-Coccidioidomycosis. A disease caused by
infection of the lungs with pathogenic
fungi. Infection among construction
workers can result from clearing or
digging infected soil.
Infective agents gain entrance into the body by
ingestion, through the skin and mucous
membranes, and through the respiratory tract.
If employees are exposed to dusts from any of
these agents, refer to the chapter on organic
dusts.
One of the most effective methods of controlling
infectious agents is through good sanitation
and strict adherence to rules for proper
handling. Gloves and other protective clothing
are effective in some situations. Respirators
should be used if dusts are present. See the
chapter on personal protective equipment for
more specific information.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she should be aware of
employee exposure to infectious agents and
should be giving the proper inoculations, tests,
and examinations to determine what effect, if
any, the exposure is having on employees'
health. If you use an outside medical facility,
you should be certain that the physicians there
are aware of the infectious agents present at
your establishment. TB tests should be given
regularly to exposed employees. All scratches
and even minor lacerations should be reported
and treated promptly with appropriate
followup. Tests for the presence of antibodies in
the blood are often used to identify past
exposure to infectious agents. Facilities
working with infectious agents should have a
full-time biohazard safety officer (BHO)
available for consultation and liaison with
regulatory agencies.
As part of their specialized training, employees
working with infectious agents should be
instructed in proper handling procedures and
personal protection. In addition, the symptoms
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
)f diseases resulting from exposure to each
agent should be known by employees.
Employees working in research labs and
'iospitals should have all necessary inoculations.
regular tests for other disease-causing
.)rganisms such as TB should be required. Strict
-ules on the handling of disease producing
)rganisms should be developed and adhered to.
In work where employees handle animal
matter, a regular testing program to ensure that
the material is disease free should be
established. Should an infection result,
procedures to be followed with regard to medical
care of employees and for destruction of
diseased material should be developed.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
PHYSICAL AGENTS
TEMPERATURE EXTREMES
Cold
The sensation of cold itself is an accurate
warning of potential danger since, without
protective clothing, the human body can
tolerate very little exposure. The body does not
adjust physically to cold and does not
acclimatize itself as it does to heat. The body has
only two mechanisms for maintaining internal
temperature in response to cold. First, the blood
vessels supplying the skin, hands, and feet
constrict so less blood flows to the body surface
and less heat is lost. Second, the body shivers, or
engages in rapid muscular contractions, which
generates heat and helps maintain inner body
temperature. Rapid muscle contractions
associated with cold exposure make work
requiring any skill difficult.
Employees with stiff, numb, or cold hands and
feet cannot perform manual tasks with
appropriate or adequate dexterity or skill.
Extended or severe exposure to cold can result in
frostbite, severe muscle damage, and possible
effects on the brain. Continued exposure can
cause lung disease, circulatory disease of the
hands, and arthritis, and increase the possibility
of viral and bacterial infections due to lowered
resistance.
Exposure hazards are dependent upon
temperature, relative humidity, wind movement
(velocity), duration of exposure, and the
protective clothing being used. Cooling of
exposed flesh increases rapidly as wind
movement (velocity) increases. High humidity
or dampness (sweat) can accumulate in
workers' clothing causing chilling as the
moisture evaporates.
Some jobs that might present cold exposure are:
-meatpacking,
-ice companies,
-work in refrigerators, and
-outdoor construction work and other
outdoor work.
A program should be set up to monitor cold
environments so that employees will not be
expected to work under severe cold conditions.
An employee trained in measurement
techniques should be in charge of monitoring
temperature, humidity, and wind chill factors.
Indoor areas will require special measurement
equipment for monitoring. Outdoor areas can be
monitored with equipment or by consulting
local weather bureaus.. The responsible
physician or outside medical consultants
should specify conditions that would be
considered hazardous to employees.
Generally, the answer to controlling exposure to
cold is to supply heat where possible. In areas
that require a cold environment, administrative
controls, or personal protective clothing, or both
should be used as stated earlier. The body,
however, does not acclimatize itself to cold. An
acclimatization program can be expected to
prevent some cold related health problems, e.g.,
employees continuously exposed to cold develop
local acclimatization in their hands as the blood
flow to them increases. Work should be designed
to minimize cold exposure, and there should be
convenient areas of warmth or protection.
Whenever possible, work should be done away
from the cold environment and then moved to
the cold environment as necessary. There
should be rotation of workers where possible,
rest periods in warm places, and warm
beverages. Other precautions that should be
taken for working in a cold area are:
-Only people with medical clearance
should be allowed to work in these areas.
-Several layers of light clothing rather
than one heavy layer should be worn.
-Clothing should be designed to allow
venting of moisture from perspiration
and should be kept clean and dry.
-Windbreakers should be used wherever
possible.
-Gloves should be worn at below zero
temperatures. Body contact with metal
surfaces should be avoided; tools with
wooden handles are preferable.
-Clothing should not be so tight as to
restrict circulation.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
-Thermal type respirators should be worn
by those bothered when breathing very
cold air (respiratory a. d cardiac
problems).
-Workers should avoid entering a cold
environment if perspiring.
-Close checks should be made on all body
extremities for numbness or skin
stiffness. Employees should monitor each
other for patches of white or greying skin,
an indication of frostbite.
Education of employees should include the
proper use and care of personal protective
clothing and thermal respirators. They should
be instructed to recognize symptoms of
excessive exposures and apply immediate first
aid treatment. They should be aware that
exposure to cold is known to have 'a synergistic
effect in combination with vibration.
Because each employee will react differently to
cold environments' all employees should learn
their limit of exposure and be advised of
temperature, windchill index, etc., whenever
conditions may be hazardous to their health.
Heat
The effects of heat in producing emotional or
physical stress and strain on humans are quite
complex and cannot be evaluated by air
temperature alone. The amount of water in the
ambient air as well as the rate of air flow must
be known. It is often difficult to accurately
determine whether continued exposure will
merely make employees uncomfortable or if it
will actually produce significant ill-effects.
Although fluctuations of 3? C above or 2? C
below workers' body temperature will impair
their performances, exceeding this 5? C range
presents a health hazard. In many
establishments, climatic heat during summer
months significantly contributes to any heat
stress already experienced from hot industrial
processes. This heat, plus heat generated by the.
body's own metabolism, may be substantial and
can directly contribute to a number ofill-effects.
The human body exchanges heat with the
environment in one of three ways:
- Conduction-direct heat transfer
between the body and a hot or cold
object.
- Convection-transfer of heat due to
the movement of air past the body.
- Radiation-the transfer of thermal
energy between individuals and their
surroundings where surface
temperatures differ from skin
temperatures. (The terms infrared,
radiated heat, and radiant heat are often
erroneously used synonymously.)
The body maintains a heat balance through
metabolism, evaporation, and respiration. The
most efficient of these is evaporation. As
perspiration evaporates into the air, it takes
heat away from the skin, which helps
compensate for the heat generated by
metabolism. When the humidity of the air is
excessive, the skin's evaporation potential is
decreased; this may prevent the body from
giving up the necessary amount of heat. On the
other hand, increased air movement over the
skin will usually increase the evaporation rate if
the air temperature is less than that of the skin,
or the air is not saturated with water vapor, or
both. The following should be considered
factors that contribute to heat stress:
-radiant heat sources,
-high temperatures,
-high humidity,
-heavy work loads, and
-absence of air movement.
If heat stress conditions are suspected or if
employee complaints regarding fatigue or heat
exhaustion indicate a problem, heat stress
evaluations should be conducted by a qualified
industrial hygienist. He or she may make
measurements and evaluations of wet bulb, dry
bulb, and globe temperatures; air movement
(velocity); and work load.
Engineering and administrative controls can
then be adopted to reduce heat stress. The
following are examples of engineering controls:
- corrugated or flat aluminum sheets to be
used to shield radiant heat from ovens
and hot equipment;
- heat exchanging screens made of iron or
steel with a stream of water flowing over
them;
- reflective clothing to be used in
- extremely hot environments;
general ventilation to be used to increase
air movement. Although air
conditioning or ventilation systems are
very helpful, air movement does not
have an effect on radiant heat.
The body can compensate for excessive
exposures to heat through a process called
acclimatization, which results in a change in
pulse rate and blood pressure. This takes many
days and depends upon age, physical condition,
heat exposure, and activity. The responsible
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
physician can prescribe medication that can
assist rapid acclimatization.
Proper acclimatization of exposed employees is
very important. After approximately 10 days of
increasing exposures, a healthy employee will
gain an increased "tolerance" to heat stress.
The beneficial effects of acclimatization will be
maintained only if there is continual exposure
to heat. Absence from heat exposure for more
than a week will make an individual more
susceptible again to ill-effects.
The use of salt (under a physician's direction)
and adequate water intake will replenish
moisture and salt lost through sweating. A cool
water supply can also absorb some of the excess-
body heat and is more palatable to employees.
Warning signs reading HEAT STRESS AREA
should be appropriately located. Allowing rest
periods in cool areas at regular time intervals is
an effective way to help prevent heat related
illnesses.
Heat exposure can cause heat strain, cramps,
exhaustion, or stroke and results in decreased
job performance and a noticeable increase in job
related accidents. Workers may also experience
fatigue and irritable sensations that can affect
their home and work life.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she should be aware of
employee heat exposure and. should be
conducting appropriate medical tests and
examinations to determine what effects, if any,
this is having on employee health. If you use an
outside medical facility, you should be certain
that the physicians there are aware of heat
exposure at your establishment and are
examining employees for signs of heat stress or
hypersusceptibility to heat stress.
Each employee exposed to a hot environment
should be given training in health and safety
procedures including:
- information regarding proper water
replacement;
- instruction in recognizing heat disorders
and illnesses including dehydration,
exhaustion, heat cramps, prickley heat,
and heat. stroke;
information concerning heat
acclimatization;
information concerning salt
replacement must come from the
physician responsible.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
RADIATION
IONIZING RADIATION
Ionizing radiation is energy in the form of
particles (alpha, beta, neutron) or waves (X- or
gamma rays) emitted from radioactive
materials or radiation producing machines or
both. This radiation causes ionization
(separating atoms into ions) of atoms that make
up living tissues and results in cellular changes
and possible genetic defects that will affect
future generations. At the time of exposure, an
individual generally cannot sense the
absorption or energy and, thus, cannot easily
recognize the danger.
Radiation can be present in different forms and
can originate from different sources.
Identification of these is necessary to properly
assess the hazards and determine the necessary
protection. The five major kinds of radiation
are: alpha particles, beta particles, X-rays,
gamma rays, and neutrons. The biological
effects of these ionizing radiations depend upon
several factors, including:
-type of radiation,
-energy of the radiation,
-time period over which the radiation is
received,
-relative biological effectiveness (RBE),
-time/dose endpoint of exposure,
-area of body exposed.
Radiation may enter the body by passing
through the skin and may damage the skin as
well as internal tissues and organs, if sufficient
energy is absorbed. This type of exposure is
generally referred to as external exposure. It
may result from:
-X-rays (from sources such as an X-ray
machine, electron- microscope when
improperly .used, X-ray diffraction-
-unit, accelerator);
-gamma rays (from. sources .such as
cobalt-60, cesium-137, radium-226,
iridium-]. 2,: iodine-131, accelerators);
-high energy beta particles (such as those
from phosphous-32, strontium-
yttrium-90);
-neutrons (from sources such as nuclear
reactors, accelerators, neutron sources).
Generally, alpha particles pose no external
hazard (i.e., they don't penetrate the skin). High
energy particles (e.g., protons, electrons)
present special problems and should also be
considered as external hazards.
If the radioactive material is sealed so that only
the radiation (alpha, beta, X- or gamma ray,
neutron) leaves the source and the radioactive
material itself (e.g., cobalt-60, strontium-90)
doesn't leak out of the sealed container, then the
primary hazard is an external one; that is, the
radioactive material is external to the body.
Other radiation sources that fall into this
category are radiation producing machines
such as X-ray machines and accelerators.
If the radioactive material is unsealed, an
additional hazard exists, i.e., the possibility of
inhaling or ingesting radioactive material from
the air, beverages, food, or cigarettes. This may
result from hands or other objects becoming
contaminated during the course of handling the
radioactive material. The main concern here is
that once a radioactive material enters the body
there is very little that can be done to remove it.
Hence, the damage to the body may occur over a
period of years. The main line of defense in this
case is to prevent the release of radioactive
material into the air or water, or onto the hands
or other objects. This can be done by use of glove
boxes, ventilation hoods, gloves, and laboratory
coats. This is particularly important since
radioactive materials that pose a minor
problem, because their radiation does not
penetrate the skin when they are outside the
body (e.g., carbon-14, tritium, plutonium-239,
polonium-210, other alpha and beta emitters),
are much more toxic when they're inhaled or
ingested.
To minimize employee exposure to external
radiation, limiting the length of exposure is very
important. If the exposure rate is 100
milliroentgens per hour (m"/hr), then after 1
hour an employee would have been exposed to
100 milliroentgens of either X-ray or gamma
radiation. If the time of the worker's exposure
was reduced to a half an hour, then the exposure
would be halved, or 50 milliroentgens (exposure
rate x time of exposure = total exposure).
-Another important method of reducing
radiation exposure is by increasing the distance
between the radiation source and the
individual. If one doubles the distance between
the source and the individual, the exposure is
reduced by a factor of 4. (Radiation level is
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the source and the point of
measurement.) A sealed radiation source should
never be picked up by hand. Tongs or some other
device should be used to increase the distance
between the radiation source and the
individual.
A third method of reducing exposure is
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
shielding (placing a material such as lead or
concrete between the individual and the source).
Generally, this control technique requires an
individual with technical training in shield
design such as a health physicist or an
industrial hygienist. Persons with this
background may be found by contacting
consulting firms in these specialities,
professional societies (e.g., Health Physics
Society, American Industrial Hygiene
Association), universities, or your parent
company or insurance company. It is also
possible for an employee who has adequate
background to receive special training through
short courses in shielding design.
Radiation levels should be measured-using a
meter that is accurately calibrated and suitable-
for the type of radiation present.- Instruments
for measurement include:
-ionization chamber,
-Geiger-Mueller counter,
-proportional counter,
-solid state detector,
-scintillation counter, or
-filter paper smears of surfaces coated
with radioactive material and counted
by one of the instruments mentioned
above.
These measurements can be used to assess the
hazard potential and determine the proper type
of control.
Personal monitoring devices should be used to
measure doses of radiation for all potentially
exposed employees. Film badges are used for
beta, X-ray, or gamma radiation; special badges
are also available to record neutron radiation.
These badges are worn over a period of time and
are used to estimate the accumulated dose of
radiation to the whole body or to certain parts of
the body. A direct reading dosimeter-a
combination of an electroscope and ionization
chamber-is also used to measure accumulated
doses of X-ray or gamma radiation. Other
specialized instruments are available for other
types of radiation and for mixed radiation
fields. A newer method called TLD
(Thermo-Luminescent Dosimetry) is also
gaining in popularity for measurement of some
types of radiation.
Internal radiation doses from alpha and beta
emitters are more difficult to measure.
Estimates can be obtained by taking air
samples in breathing zones of employees and
then measuring the radioactivity in the
samples. Body wastes (e.g., urine) can also be
analyzed, or whole body counts (i.e.,
radioactivity in the body is measured) may be
used to monitor internal radiation exposure.
All operations involving radionuclides result in
radioactive materials that may no longer be
suitable for use. These wastes must be handled
properly so as not to create a health hazard. The
two major methods for control of wastes are
dilution and dispersion into air or water.
Although disposal of low level dispersable
wastes is legally permissible under supervised
conditions, the quantities must be carefully
scrutinized as required by state and federal
regulatory agencies.
When controls such as time, distance, shielding,
and ventilation are not adequate, personal
protective equipment may be required. If
airborne radioactive materials are present,
either the filter type or self-contained breathing
apparatus type respirators may be required. The
specific type of respirator to be used will depend
upon the type of radioactive material involved
and its physical and chemical form. Gloves
should be used in the handling of unsealed
radioactive materials. Sealed sources should
never be picked up by hand. Protective leaded
aprons may be needed, depending upon X-ray or
gamma radiation levels. Protective clothing
should never be worn outside of the radiation
area. See the chapter on personal protective
equipment for more information.
Maintenance of records showing individuals'
accumulated total doses is a legal requirement
and is- essential to minimizing exposure. These
records should help determine the relationship
of radiation exposure to health and should be
correlated with diagnostic or medical therapy
radiation levels. If accumulated doses are high,
those workers should be transferred to areas of
lower exposure potential. High-risk individuals
(particularly pregnant women) should not be
exposed to ionizing radiation, or their exposure
should be kept to a minimum safe level.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she should be aware of
employee exposure to radiation and should be
conducting appropriate examinations and tests
to determine what effect, if any, the exposure is
having on employees' health. If you use an
outside medical facility, you should be certain
that the physicians there are aware of the
radiation present at your establishment.
Regular examinations should be performed on
radiation workers including urine (internal
exposure) and blood tests. Eye and skin exams
may also be indicated in some cases. Whole
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
body counting can be performed for detection of
many internal. radionuclides.
Since exposure to radiation doses can depend
greatly upon a person's knowledge of the
associated hazards and proper precautions,
employees should be trained in the biological
effects of radiation, safe handling of radioactive
materials, the proper use of the proper protective
equipment, and emergency procedures.
Bibliography
A Current Literature Report on the
Carcinogenic Properties of Ionizing and
Non-Ionizing Radiation. I. Optical Radiation. S.
Cunningham-Dunlop, B.H. Kleinstein, and F.
Urbach. DHEW (NIOSH) 78-122. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, OH 45226. December 1977.
A Current Literature Report on the
Carcinogenic Properties of Ionizing and
Non-Ionizing Radiation. II. Microwave and
Radiofrequency Radiation. M. J. Dwyer and D.
B. Leeper. DHEW (NIOSH) 78-134. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, OH 45226. March 1978.
A Current Literature Report on the
Carcinogenic Properties of Ionizing and
Nonionizing Radiation. III. Ionizing Radiation.
M.J. Dwyer and D.B. Leeper. DHEW (NIOSH)
78-142. National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH 45226. April 1978.
Nonionizing Radiation
Nonionizing radiation includes all
electromagnetic radiation that cannot, during
its absorption, transmit enough energy to break
up the atoms of living tissue. This radiation can
come from a number of different sources such as
sunlight,. different types of lamps, or extremely
hot objects. Most often, exposure to sources such
as sunlight are relatively harmless with proper
protection. - However, many sources of
nonionizing radiation, if not properly
controlled, can. cause injury to various parts of
the body -particularly to the skin, muscles,
internal organs, and eyes.
Nonionizing radiation includes ultraviolet
light, visible light (covered in the section on
lighting), infrared light, microwaves, radar,
radio, TV, and energy emissions. These are all
electromagnetic radiation resulting from
moving electric charges. The types of radiation
can be described according to three
distinguishing characteristics:
-Strength-intensity of source or amount
of energy transmitted.
-Frequency-number of cycles per second
(hertz) for the electromagnetic waves.
-Wavelength-the shortest distance
between consecutive similar points on the
same wave train.
Conventionally, ultraviolet, visible, and
infrared rays are described in terms of
wavelength (meters). Radiowaves, microwaves,
and electric power waves are described in terms
of frequency (hertz, cycles/second). The higher
the frequency of the radiation, the shorter the
wavelength and the higher the energy
transmitted. Because of the differences in form
of nonionizing radiation, each type must be
identified and quantified.
The following is a list of some possible sources
of and uses for each kind of nonionizing
radiation and the parts of the body potentially
affected.
-Ultraviolet, skin and eyes--
'sunlight
?arc welding
?germicidal lamps
?black light lamps
?incandescent lamps
?lasers
-Infrared, eyes and body temperatures
?industrial operations involving
temperatures of 10000 Kelvin (K) to
8000? K (e.g., hot metals, glass
blowing, paint and. enamel drying,
and welding).
-Microwaves, body tissues and eyes
'radio broadcasting
'television broadcasting
'radar
'microwave ovens
?alarm systems
'freeze drying
'wood drying
'concrete curing
- 'therapeutic diathermy
Lasers, eyes and skin
'cutting
'welding
'drilling
'surveying
Although ultrasound (sound above 20,000 hertz)
is simple mechanical vibration at frequencies
above human audibility (not electromagnetic
radiation), it is considered to be nonionizing
radiation and can be a health hazard if
employees come into direct contact with an
ultrasonic emitter. Common sources are certain
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
medical diagnostic and treatment instruments,
cleaning devices, and mixing devices.
The above list names some possible sources of
nonionizing radiation. Your establishment
might have sources other than those listed. If
you are uncertain, you should call in an expert
or consult with a hot-line.
The measurement of radiation levels is complex,
and the procedure varies according to particular
radiation sources in question. Because
overexposure to nonionizing radiation may not
be easily recognized, professionals experienced
in measurement techniques should evaluate
conditions where any nonionizing radiation-
may be present.
Engineering or administrative controls or both
can then be professionally designed to suit your
needs. Engineering controls will vary with
different types of radiation. Microwave control
can be accomplished by barriers, shielding, and
process enclosures. The materials used should
adequately stop or absorb microwaves.
Ultraviolet radiation is easily controlled by
shielding; ordinary window glass will filter out
much of the radiation. Lasers should be shielded
from visibility. Physical barriers using spectral
and diffuse reflection should be used to keep
employees from coming into contact with laser
beams. Electrical interlocks on process
enclosures or radiation source enclosures will
protect employees from overexposure.
Administrative controls include limiting time of
exposure in any way compatible with the work
process and posting proper warning signs for
those wearing medical devices.
When administrative and engineering controls
do not maintain safe exposure levels for
employees, some kind of personal protective
equipment should be used. Employees near
lasers, ultraviolet, or infrared sources should
wear protective eyeglasses at all times, if other
controls leave the slightest possibility of
exposure. Ultraviolet and microwave radiation
exposures can be controlled by the use of
protective clothing. The chapter on personal
protective equipment should be referred to for
details.
If you have a physician present at your
establishment, he or she should be aware of
employee exposure to nonionizing radiation
and should be monitoring employees to
determine what effect, if any, the exposure is
having on their health. If you use an outside
medical facility, you should be certain that the
physicians there are aware of nonionizing
radiation at your establishment. Eye and skin
examinations are recommended for exposed
employees.
Employee education is important in helping
them to control their exposure to nonionizing
radiation. An ongoing education program
should be designed to:
-keep employees aware of hazards of
nonionizing radiation,
-help employees recognize physical
impairments or effects of exposure to
nonionizing radiation,
-instruct employees on the proper use of
personal protective equipment,
-make employees aware of the safety
features of each device and operation.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
NOISE
A noise hazard is defined as any unwanted
sound and covers the range of sound that is
implicated in harmful effects. Noise can be
classified as wide band, narrow band, and
impulse noise. An example of wide band noise
can be found in the weaving room of a textile
mill and in jet aircraft operations. Narrow band
noise examples are that from circular saws,
planers, or power cutting tools and rotating
turbine generators. The firing of a gun is an
example of a nonrepetitive impulse noise. The
effects of noise on humans are not well defined,
but it is known that noise can cause:
-temporary and permanent hearing loss,
-stress and stress related illnesses
(psychological and physiological),
-decreased job performance from
interference with communication
and disruption of concentration,
-increased blood pressure.
Hearing loss, which is recognized as the most
serious side effect of noise, has been measured
more accurately than have the other effects, for
which the data are not as conclusive.
The objectives of a hearing conservation
program can be accomplished if it includes the
following functions:
-identifies noisy areas and controls
employee exposures in those areas, and
-gives audiometric examinations to
employees to detect individuals who are
experiencing hearing loss so that
preventive measures can be taken.
Performing these functions is not a simple
matter and demands specially trained
individuals. It is important that you and your
employees recognize that there may be noise
hazards at your establishment and that you
acquire the services of professionals or have
employees trained in -these disciplines. .
In - order to evaluate your potential noise
problems you must first identify noise sources
(e.g., machinery, systems, and any related
equipment) and then determine employees'
exposures to the noise. If there are any areas of
your establishment where noisy equipment is
located that have not been evaluated for noise
levels and employee exposure, a survey should
be conducted by consultants or employees
specially trained in noise measurement.
Once a noise problem has been identified
through proper measurement procedures,
engineering or administrative controls or both
can be instituted to reduce exposure.
Engineering controls are used to lower noise
levels at their source or at the hearing point of
all potentially exposed employees or both. Some
examples of engineering controls include:
-acoustical enclosures of noisy equipment,
-acoustical absorption material on
ceilings and walls to minimize sound
wave reflection,
-machine maintenance to reduce noise
levels,
-acoustical barriers to interrupt
transmission of noise from one area to
another.
It is important to remember that engineering
controls cannot be used without an accurate
analysis of the noise and its source or sources.
Therefore, a trained noise control specialist
should analyze the problem and design controls
based on the analysis. Without this, you can
waste vast amounts of money and effort.
Administrative controls differ from engineering
controls in that they are not aimed toward
controlling noise levels, but toward controlling
employee exposures by limiting their time in
noisy areas (e.g., rotating workshifts,
scheduling rest periods, etc.). Undoubtedly the
most effective and desirable control is to specify
that any new equipment purchased and
installed meet low noise level requirements.
When engineering or administrative controls or
both do not adequately reduce the noise level
and the degree of employee exposure, personal
ear protectors can be used. These should be
viewed only as an interim measure, however,
and not as the final solution to noise problems.
The actual amount of noise reduction that will
.result from using the different types of personal
ear protectors varies according to the noise
characteristics and the design and fit of the ear
protector. The following are examples of the
.-types of noise attenuators that can be used:
-Earplugs-which are inserted into the
ear canal and remain in place without
additional support.
-Semi-insert plugs-which close the
entrance to the ear canal without actually
entering it and are held in place by a
headband. These are usually part of a
communications system and have a
small receiver in them.
-Earmuffs-which cover the entire outer
ear and are generally held in place by a
headband.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Measurement of environmental noise has little
relevance unless it is evaluated in terms of its
effect upon the hearing of individual employees.
This can be properly accomplished only
through the use of audiometric examinations.
Your program of audiometric testing should
begin before each employee's first assignment
to a noisy work area. Only in this way can the
extent of hearing loss from occupational noise
be determined. A history of the employee's past
exposure to noise should be taken at the time of
the initial audiometric examination.
Here are some recommended guidelines to
follow in conducting a proper audiometric
program:
-Staff. Audiometric examinations can be
performed by a nurse, technician, or
employee specifically trained in
audiometry. Evaluation of any abnormal
results should be made by a physician or
audiologist familiar with your
audiometric program. In the event that
your establishment does not have
in-plant medical staff, you should
consider using an outside clinic.
-Frequency of testing. Preferably, an
annual audiometric examination should
be given to all employees exposed to noisy
areas whether of not they have been
wearing personal noise attenuators.
Since many noisy situations are controllable,
employees should be informed of the effects of
noise on. their health and the -importance -of
effective controls- and protection.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
VIBRATION
Vibration can result from a wide variety of
processes and situations. Almost everyone feels
vibrations during each day whether it occurs
while riding a train, driving a car, or using a
hand drill. The effects of exposure to vibrations
are highly variable and in some cases,
depending upon the characteristics of the
vibration (intensity and frequency), can be very
significant. Some of the more common health
conditions resulting from vibration exposure
are motion sickness, stomach and digestive
problems, loss of visual ability, bone and joint
injuries, and blood circulation problems. Some
of these symptoms may be aggravated by a cold
environment. Psychological problems such as
uneasiness, fatigue, and irritability can affect
both on-the-job performances and family life.
Vibration is also a common source of noise;
therefore, controlling vibration may often
- reduce excessive noise levels.
Vibration on an individual can be classified in
two ways:
-"whole-body" vibration in which the
entire body is subjected to mechanical
vibration (e.g., truck drivers), and
-"segmental" vibration in which only a
part of the body is- affected (e.g.,
jackhammer operator's hands).
Determining whether vibration problems exist
in your establishment is not a simple problem.
The following table is a list of some typical
vibration problems. See also " Occupational
Diseases." If there are any similar operations
in your establishment, a detailed investigation
should be initiated to detect and correct
problems.
-Vibration measurements should be taken where
..exposure may.. be._ excessive. Because of the
complicated natureof this type of measurement,
Occupational Diseases: A Guide to Their Recognition. M.:
M. Key., A. F. Henschel, J. Butler, R. N.:-Ligo; -L R.
:.. Tabenhaw, and Ltde::Editora:E DHEW((M OS' a) 77-181.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, 0 H. 45226. 1977.
only a professional with experience and
expertise in vibration measurement should be
employed to conduct the survey.
Complaints about vibration may be the best
indication of problems. Measurements should
be taken as a followup on complaints to
determine the severity of the problem and the
kinds of controls that might be used.
Although many different control measures are
available, they should only be prescribed by
professionals with expertise in this area. Some
controls often used are:
-Reducing the mechanical disturbance
causing the vibration.
-Isolating the source of vibration from
radiating surfaces with which employees
might come in contact.
-Reducing vibration by:
.making mechanical structures
connected to vibrating bodies less
rigid, such as using flexible piping or
conduit where possible,
?using properly installed vibration
isolators on machinery mountings;
?stiffening, bracing, or increasing the
mass of the vibrating body;
.damping the vibration by the use of
felts or mastics.
Administrative controls that limit exposure by
job rotation or reduced time/shift may also
prove helpful.
Different individuals have different tolerance
levels for vibration. If you have a physician
present at your establishment, he or she should
be aware of employee exposure to vibration and
should. be conducting the appropriate medical
tests and examinations to determine what
effect, if any, the exposure is having on their
health. If you use an outside medical facility,
you should be certain that the physicians there
are=awareof true vibration exposure. Medical
screening should be carried out, especially for
arthritics or for those with primary Raynaud's
disease.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE
CHANGES
Conditions hazardous to employees can result
either from abnormally high (hyperbaric)
atmospheric pressure, such as that encountered
by underwater divers or tunnel and caisson
workers, or from abnormally low (hypobaric)
atmospheric pressure, such as that encountered
by aviators flying at high altitudes. The
hazards associated with high pressure exposure
are the "bends," tooth pain and damage, and
aseptic bone necrosis. Hazards associated with
exposure to low atmospheric pressure are
emphysema, hypoxia (inadequate oxygen
content of inhaled air), and oxygen poisoning.
These physical disorders can be prevented by
maintaining a program of proper work
procedures.
Most health hazards from abnormal
atmospheric pressure do not generally arise
primarily from the exposure itself (except for
high altitude workers), but from quick changes
in pressure, i.e., compression and
decompression. The main factors determining
these hazards are the pressure, time of exposure
to the pressure, and the rate of change in
pressure. It is these factors that must be
controlled to prevent injuries. The higher the
pressure, the shorter the period of safe exposure.
To minimize occurrence of injuries resulting
from abnormal pressures, compression and
decompression should be very strictly
controlled so that the concentrations of gases in
the bloodstream (i.e., oxygen and nitrogen)
change very gradually. If procedures are not
strictly followed, the effects on workers can
range from minor pain and discomfort to
extreme pain, permanent injury to body organs,
or possible death if not properly treated in time.
Exposure to extremes of atmospheric pressures
should be controlled through a program set up
and supervised by professionals with extensive
experience in compression and decompression
procedures.
For caisson workers, decompression control is
usually achieved by use of decompression
chambers or "manlocks." Also, helium can be
added, giving a high partial pressure in the air
breathed, thus displacing the nitrogen and
reducing the chances of the "bends" during
decompression.
In aviation work, controls in the form of
pressurized cabins or oxygen masks are used to
lessen decompression hazards. These are
generally used for high altitudes since in
altitudes below 9,500 feet little, if any, control
should be necessary for normal individuals. For
others working at high altitudes for long
periods, some special procedures may be
required.
An effective medical screening and monitoring
program is extremely important in protecting
employees from health hazards associated with
abnormal atmospheric pressure. If you have a
physician present at your establishment, he or
she should be aware of employee exposure to
abnormal pressure. If you use an outside
medical facility, you should be certain the staff
is aware of employee exposure to abnormal
pressures so that they can conduct the
appropriate medical screening and monitoring.
Certain physical conditions can make
employees more susceptible to injuries from
compression and decompression. Overweight
people are more susceptible to pressure hazards
and need longer decompression times. Records
of physical exams, including X-rays, can be
used to detect the condition known as aseptic
bone necrosis that may occur after many years
of exposure to incomplete decompression.
Workers with fever or illness, especially colds,
should not go through compression or
decompression.
An educational program should be used to
continually advise employees of safe work
practices and assist them in recognizing
symptoms of improper decompression.
Employees should be aware of the consequences
of shortening decompression time, and should
know emergency procedures for treatment of the
bends. Awareness of more subtle symptoms of
improper decompression, such as skin itching
and rash, will help avoid more serious
conditions.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
PS YCHOL 0 GICAL HAZARDS
Each person has psychological characteristics
that result from previous experiences, such as
battle, age, sex, genetic inheritance, and state of
physical health. Often workplace conditions
can aggravate mental health-a boss who is
overbearing, a job that is boring, a feeling of
underutilization, lack of opportunity to
advance, excessive job demands, fatigue from a
secondary job, being responsible for another
worker, or lack of social support from co-
workers.
Failure of management to provide
rehabilitation services after injury or illness
often manifests itself when the worker does
return. This is true also of lay-off or termination
or transfer of the worker.
Effects of psychological hazards vary as widely
as there are human beings. American Indians,
for example, can apparently tolerate working
high steel with little or no psychological
reaction whereas others cannot tolerate heights
over one story. Type A personalities may show
greater strain than type B. A defensive person
may differ from a nondefensive one. Education and
socioeconomic status can alter psychological
effects.
Perhaps the most studied psychological hazard
is shift work (see Bibliography). Briefly, shift
work systems can alter worker health by
changing sleep patterns, creating circadian
children, workplace stress can complicate this
responsibility.
There is probably no better way to control
psychological problems than by administrative
controls. Personal protective equipment and
engineering controls, except to redesign
production processes, can do little to alleviate
psychological stress. Administrative controls
and especially early detection of stress, strain,
and health effects provide a way to prevent
-untoward events from becoming more serious.
Since much of psychological stress is
cumulative, often over many years of poor
psychological environment, attention to early
warnings are sometimes dramatically effective:
periodically administering "satisfaction"
questionnaires; scheduling gripe sessions with
neutral third parties; obtaining consultation to
humanize the workplace; changing. the
environment to fit the person; changing the
person to fit the environment.
Scientists throughout the world are continuing
studies to find ways of reducing poor worker
health resulting from psychological hazards.
The very nature of the variety of human
responses precludes simple answers. As this
field of knowledge is fundamental to all working
environments, employers and employees might
wish to seek additional information.
variables affecting. temperature, pulse, blood Behavioral Toxicology: Early Detection of
pressure, urine flow, and, secondarily- even Occupational Hazards. C. Xintaras, B. L.
certain blood chemistries. Shift work -alsoalters. -'..Johnson and I. de Groot.. DHEW (NIOSH)
patterns of social interaction -and tends to cause'.-',-. 74-126. National Institute for Occupational
decreased. feelings of cohesiveness in the work Safety and Health, [Cincinnati, OH 45226].
force. Marriage relationships may be upset by 1974.
h'f
t
s i
work depending upon the spouse's
attitude. On the positive side, however, there is
greater opportunity for increased earnings, a
chance to further formal education, and
increased participation in certain community
activities.
Bibliography
Health Consequences of Shift Work. D. L. Tasto,
M. J. Colligan, E. W. Skjei, and S. J. Polly.
DHEW (NIOSH) 78-154. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati,
OH 45226. 1978.
Job Demands and Worker Health. R D. Caplan,
Women may face additional problems from S. Cobb, J. R P. French, Jr., R V. Harrison, and
psychological hazards such as altered menses, S. R Pinneau, Jr. DHEW (NIOSH) 75-160.
leg cramps, and unsatisfactory domestic National Institute for Occupational Safety and
relations. If the woman worker is raising Health, [Cincinnati, OH 45226]. 1975.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
Physiological and Psychological Aspects of
Night and Shift Work. Wojtczak-Jaroszowa,
Jadwiga. DHEW (NIOSH) 78-113. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, OH 45226. 1974.
Problems in Occupational Safety and Health:
A Critical Review of Select Worker Physical and
Psychological Factors. Vol. 1. R. B. Sleight, and
K. G. Cook. DHEW (NIOSH) 75-124. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, OH 45226. 1974.
Shift Work and Health: A Symposium. DHEW
(NIOSH) 76-203. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, [Cincinnati,
OH 45226]. 1976.
Termination: The Consequences of Job Loss. S.
Cobb and S. V. Kasl. DHEW (NIOSH) 77-224.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Cincinnati, OH 45226. 1977.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
 Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7
EUROPEAN INDUSTRIES IN WHICH
CLINICAL EVIDENCE OF
OVEREXPOSURE OF WORKERS TO
VIBRATION HAS BEEN REPORTED'
Industry Type of Common
vibration vibration sources
Agriculture Whole body
Boiler making Segmental
Construction Whole body
Diamond Segmental
cutting
Forestry Whole body
Segmental
Foundries Segmental
Furniture Segmental
manufacture
Iron and steel Segmental
Lumber Segmental
Machine tools Segmental
Mining Whole body
Segmental
Riveting Segmental
Rubber Segmental
Sheet metal Segmental
Shipyards Segmental
Stone Segmental
dressing
Textile Segmental
Transportation- Whole body
(operators and
passengers)
Tractor operation
Pneumatic tools
Heavy equipment
vehicle, Pneumatic
drills, jackham?
mere, etc.
Vibrating hand
tools
Tractor operation
chain saws
Vibrating cleavers
Pneumatic chisels
Vibrating hand
tools
Chain saws
Vibrating hand
Vehicle operators
rock drills
Hand tools
Pneumatic
stripping tools
Stamping
equipment
Pneumatic hand
tools
Pneumatic hand
tools
-Sewing machines,
looms
Vehicle operation
The Industrial Environmental-Its Evaluation and
Control. DHEW (NIOSH) 74117. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH.
45226. 1973.
Approved For Release 2008/08/28: CIA-RDP86-00735R000100010033-7