A STUDY OF TECHNICAL SERVEILLANCE COUNTERMEASURES REQUIREMENTS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP86B00269R000300090001-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 84
• Document Creation Date: December 15, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 31, 2003
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: January 1, 1959
• Content Type: STUDY

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A STUDY OF TECHNICAL SURVEILLANCE
COUNTERMEASURES REQUIREMENTS
January 1959
This material contains information affecting the national
defense of the United States within the meaning of the
espionage laws, Title 18, U.S. C., Secs. 793 and 794,
the transmission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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flople$
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PREFACE
Pursuant to the National Security Council Action #1774,
approved by the President on 23 August 1957, The National
Security Council Special Committee on Technical Surveillance
Countermeasures was requested to intensify its efforts to develop
a coordinated research program to insure development of practi-
cable detection devices adequate to meet the growing threat of
hostile technical devices.
As a result of a unanimous decision on the part of represent-
atives of the Army, The State Department, The National Security
Agency (NSA), The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), The
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), The Department of Defense,
The Navy Department, The Marine Corps, and The Air Force, on
5 March 1958, the responsibility for conducting a preliminary study
of the problem was vested in a single agency (CIA).
On 11 June 1958 a contract was let by the CIA with
to chairman
a working group of consultants. The group, either as a result of
their own knowledge or through contacts (governmental, industrial,
etc.), were engaged to determine the extent, nature, and scope of
the threat to the nation as a result of our present inadequacies in
surveillance countermeasures equipment.
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This study was initiated with the principal objectives of
recognizing and recommending a research and development program
aimed at providing practical and effective countermeasures where
existing countermeasures equipment is inadequate.
To accomplish this end, the following investigations were
proposed by the study group:
a. offensive devices and techniques known to have been use4
or presently being used by the opposition would be categorized,
b. offensive devices and techniques used in our own interest
in the past or at present would be categorized,
c. offensive devices or techniques -which have not been used
or pursued by the opposition or ourselves but which are scientifically
realistic and, accordingly, represent a threat would be evaluated,
d. the extent to which our knowledge or available counter-
measures offset the threat of the opposit,ion would be determined.
Although emphasis was to be primarily on devices and tech-
niques associated with and
countermeasures, due attention was to be given to other related
security considerations such as landscapes, building structures,
personnel, etc.
Data in the report which follows was compiled over a period
of approximately six months, and it represents the efforts of the
group whose names and affiliations are set forth at the end of this
preface.
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At this time, they would like to express their sincere
appreciation to the contributors from the many government,
industrial, and educational operations who gave freely of their
time and knowledge to make this study as complete and effective
as you may be willing to concede as an interested and concerned
reader.
Date:
January 1959
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ABSTRACT
This study points out quite emphatically and appropriately
that as individuals we talk too much and too often about classified
subjects., particularly in improper places, and that we are care-
less in our handling of classified documents and information in
general.
True security is acknowledged to be attainable only with
complete isolation from people and information. Limited isolation,
or none whatsoever, makes our position vulnerable in proportion
to our laxity regarding good and tested security procedures, our
personal. complacency and, to a lesser extent, our inadequacies
in technical aids and supporting countermeasures equipment.
Equipment presently available to a surveillance or counter-
measures team, although it is already bulky, heavy, and inadequate,
can only be expected to increase in bulk if unassisted technical
protection is to be the immediate goal. This is particularly true
unless first and primary attention is given to indoctrinating
personnel in accepted security procedures, to selecting facilities
with security in mind, and to limiting the storage of, the access-
ibility to, and the transfer of information on a strict "need to know"
basis.
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If controls with "teeth" in them cannot be administered
by responsible personnel, then the current threats due to
inadequacies in technical aids probably cannot be significantly
minimized in the foreseeable future. Technical aids should be
looked upon as supporting and supplementary protection and not
as a primary defense.
With this approach to the philosophy of security, supporting
countermeasures can be developed, hopefully with the weight and
bulk specifications approaching the desires of security and sur-
veillance teams. For the present, however, these features will
have to be forfeited for protection against the' threat of our
primary inadequacies.
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SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS
As it was pointed out in the Preface of this report, this
study was initiated with the principal objectives of recognizing
the need for and recommending a research and development
program aimed at providing practical and effective counter-
measures where existing countermeasures equipment is in-
adequate. Due attention is given to the fact that certain physical
and scientific situations may exist to restrict the effectiveness
of specific positive surveillance techniques and that appropriate
precautionary and preliminary security measures May be taken
to reduce the magnitude of the threat. It may be rather generally
stated that when a high degree of security or secrecy is associ-
ated with a positive surveillance technique, the operational
problems associated with it increase probably well out of pro-
portion to the probability that the technique will be employed.
Typical pf the problems that are encountered are those relating
to the selection of appropriate sites for the installation. Specific
instances of such installations will be discussed in detail in order
to justify the low probability that has been placed on the develop-
ment of countermeasures equipment to negate their effectiveness.
The following summary of conclusions is accordingly
presented.
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An effective and coordinated development program should
be initiated and carried forth, realizing that expenditures for the
first few years, at least, will represent
The program must be systematic, complete, and
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an "all-out" effort intent on promptly, effectively, and practically
providing the best answers to our shortcomings. The anticipated
cost appears to be reasonable in view of the intelligence value
and the protection that will be derived from it. It should simultan-
eously be considered as beneficial to all interested parties and
representativei of the total dollars being spent by all of the
interested parties at the present time but in an uncoordinated
fashion.
Being fully aware of the improbability of providing 100%
effective detection capability throughout the entire acoustical and
electromagnetic spectrum for a reasonable length of time and in
a finite period of time and that true security comes only with
complete isolation, best effort and the necessary dollars should
be directed:
1) to indoctrinate personnel so that they appreciate the
seriousness of the problems associated with the need for good
security, so that they are aware of the positive surveillance
measures and the available countermeasures with their short-
comings, so that they are aware of their personal responsibilities
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with regard to security and the penalties associated with neglect-
ing to take adequate precautionary measures;
2) to establish adequate security controls to assist nd
provide checks on personnel, and their activities;
3) to select controlled and secure areas with due concern
for the problems that may be encountered both from a technical
and a non-technical standpoint;
4) to permit technically qualified personnel to be hired and
properly supported with an understanding administration as well as
with adequate technical equipment and to be available to get the
best out of the technical aids to be provided;
5) to provide, in lieu of or in addition to the "bag of tricks"
presently being used, tools and equipments adequate to meet the
threat of Soviet penetrations which may result from our overall
security program.
What then are the principal technical items that should re-
ceive priority attention in a proposed development program?
The following are arranged in their anticipated order of importance:
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It should not be implied that the recommendations, as pre-
sented in this summary, cover all of the equipments which are
appropriate to a complete countermeasures program. They are
presented because they reflect the nature of our most significant
shortcomings from an equipment standpoint. The report which
follows hopefully substantiates these recommendations and places
acquired facts, and conclusions drawn therefrom, in their proper
perspective.
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INTRODUCTION
There are many ways in which a report or a program of this
type may be approached. Alternate programs may yield adequate
answers to the problems that exist. The approach adopted, how-
ever, is designed with the intent of providing a thorough under-
standing of all of the existing and potential countermeasures- The
report is developed in three phases: ''A Pattern for Analysis",
"Considerations of Positive Surveillance Measures and. Surveillance
Countermeasures", and "A Proposed Development Program"_
Following the two initial phases to determine the adequacy of our
countermeasure capabilities, detailed conclusions and recommenda-
tions are presented pursuant to fulfilling the objectives of the study
which were tabulated in the Preface.
The last two sections of the text to follow may be read and
comprehended without first reviewing or reading the first section,
"Patterns for Analysis, "but it is believed that continuity and un.der-?
_..
standing can best be acquired by appraising the scope of this study in
the order in which it is presented.
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PATTERNS FOR ANALYSIS
1 1, 0 The Systems Concept
The attempt herein is to provide a pattern of analysis by
developing a systematic arrangement of the general concepts which
will lead to an enlightened understanding of the problems involved.
The systems concept is fundamental to the discussion. Although
the material may be redundant in some aspects and superfluous to
others, it is believed to be the necessary first step in establishing
a system of agreed upon conventions which will allow generalized
discussions in subsequent phases.
1. 1. 1 Systems and Society
It is generally agreed that all technical or scientific activity
may be assigned to any one or a combination of the three subjects
denoted as:
(1) energy,
(2) materials,
(3) information.
Progress in technical activities has produced an involved pattern of
organized systems of men, machines, and environment designed to
handle and process energy, materials, and information.
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These organized technical systems of energy, materials, and
information operate within a framework of human values defined by
ethical, moral, religious, and cultural considerations together with
their legal and economic consequences. Modern civilized society
results from the very complicated and dynamic array of forCes pro-
duced when these technical systems are forced into the framework
of human values.
This dynamic array of forces is dislocated and brought to
serious imbalance by the creation of new technological systems or
through changes in the patterns of human values. There is probably
no way to avoid completely this dislocation of forces and its resulting
impact upon human values. The conflict between the Soviets and
Soviet dominated countries and ourselves and our allies, between
different economic and political systems, makes technological advance
a necessity.
This places a twin burden of responsibility upon the shoulders
of engineers and scientists. They must creatively exploit their
knowledge of energy, materials, and information to improve existing,
and design new, organized systems of men, machines, and environ-
ment while protecting and enhancing their human values.
This brief introduction is an attempt to show that the general
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problems associated with this study have basic interests in two
fundamental areas:
1) technical systems
2) human values.
While considerations of technical systems provide the central theme
of the study, it is recognized that any system of human values always
imposes design constraints upon the technical aspects of the problem.
Hence, in the design of positive surveillance systems and particularly
in our attempts to provide adequate countermeasures against Soviet
measures, differences between our human values and those of the
Soviets must be evaluated and realistically considered.
1. 1. 2 Surveillance Interests
The surveillance interest in the systems concept is derived
from both technical systems and the systems of human values which
impose constraints upon the properties of the technical system.
The technical entity being considered at any given moment may
be a microphone installation; a telephone installation, or a wireless
installation, to name only a few. Whatever examples are chosen, it is
always true that they are a fragmentary part of some larger entity, or
technical system.
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1. 1. 3 Basic, Functions Present in Systems
While we recognize the existence of many systems of values,
our concern, hereui is primarily with technological systems and their
de.scription.
A system in the sense which will bear significance in this
study is defined as any complete instrumentality which performs a
specified task. The degree of .complexity is not essential to the
definition. Very simple systems, such as a contact microphone, an.
amplifier, and a listener with headphones, or very complicated systems,
such as miniature transmitters remotely actuated by a. listener at a
receiving post using an actuating transmitter, selective receiver, and
recording equipment, are both characterized by certain fundamental
function.s. The existence of these interconnected functions distinguishes
a system from a mere collection of devices and things. These
functions are identified and defined in this paragraph.
Technological systems handle or process energy, materials,
or information, either singly or in all possible combinations. All
systems possess a common series of necessary and intrinsic
functions. There are six basic functions which may be identified as
follows:
(l) transfer functions
(2) operational functions
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conversion functions
source functions
5; acceptor-- functions
Interconnection functions.
For ease of representation on paper, systems are conventionally
represented. in block diagram form where each block represents a
basic function of the system. Thus, the functions listed lead to the
specification of the basic building blocks of all systems. These are
defined and described in the few paragraphs that follow.
Transfer Element
A. transfer element represents the functional relationship
between a single input quantity, X1 , at one point in space or time
and a single output quantity, X2 , at a different point in space or
time. The input is the independent variable and the ratio of output
to input is defined as the transfer function Y12 . That is
12
X2
transfer function
xi
The transfer function defines the alteration of_ the input as it is trans-
ferifed in space or time by the transfer medium denoted by (T). The
input and output quantities must be of the same kind so that (Y12)
is dimensionless. These transfer elements serve to transfer energy,
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materials, or information from one point in space or time to
, _
another point. Typical examples include transmission lines, con-
veyor belts, and "memory" or storage elements in computers.
x
Figure (1.1) - The Transfer Element
The symbols in the corner triangles of the block diagram shown may
denote the following being transferred:
information
energy
materials .
(T) represents a transfer function relating the quantities X1 and X?
Operational Element
An operational element represents the functional relationship
between. single or multiple input quantities, X1 X2 , X3 . .
,
and single or multiple output .quantities, Xa, Xh , Xc . . .
The input quantities are the independent variables and the output: is
a function of some combination of input quantities. That is
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Xa
Xb
fb (X1 X, X3
(X1 , X2 , X3 .
Xna fm (Xi , X2
or if presented in block form
xn
xn)
Figure (1.2) The Operational Element
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Conversion Element
.A conversion element represents the functional relationship
between. an input in one energy or material category and an output
in another energy or material category. There are four such
functional relationships:
(1) energy (form 1) converted to energy (form 2)
(2)
(3)
material (form 1) converted to material (form 2)
energy converted to material
(4) material converted to energy.
Because information is always carried by either energy or material,
there are no converters of information. When such a condition
apparently exists, it will always be the result of an energy or
material conversion- Examples of conversion elements include
Xz
Figure (1. 3) - The Conversion Element
Source Element
This element denotes the source or point of origin of
energy, material, or information in any system.
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Acceptor Element
This element is the recipient or acceptor, and occasionally
the consumer, of information, energy, or material.
Interconnecting Path Elements
the block diagram of a system, referred to previously
and discussed in more detail in the next section, direct, or primary,
connections between the five basic building blocks are denoted by
solid lines with arrows pointing in the direction of energy, material,
or information flow.
Indirect, or secondary, connections between the five basic
building blocks are denoted by dotted lines with arrow heads showing
the direction of flow.
Several examples of simple systems are presented in the
next section. Each system is described in terms of the functional
elements defined in this section. These serve to illustrate the use
of these functional elements and their composition into a system
block diagram. Such block diagrams will be invaluable later when
we approach specific surveillance systems and the countermeasures
associated with them.
1. 1. 4 Functional Block Diagram Description of Systems
The functional elements defined in section (1. 1. 3) can be
used to describe any physical system of any degree of complexity
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and to any degree of detail desired. This is illustrated for a few
very simple systems in this section.
One of the simplest of all systems consists of a source and
receptor connected by a transfer element. This might represent
a magnetic recording head, a magnetic tape, and a play-back head.
The source, the recording head, deposits energy onto magnetic
tape which, in turn, acts as the transfer element and ultimately the
energy is removed from the tape at a different point in space and/or
time by the pick-up head, This provides an adequate description of
the transfer system.
Figure (L4)
w
Source
See the simple block diagram provided in
Transfer
Receptor
Figure (1. 4) - Simplest System Block Diagram
However, energy is required to drive the magnetic tape and acti-
vate the heads, etc. and some kind of simple control, or information,
system is required at the heads and tape to direct the recording and
play-back sequences. Thus, a complete system description would
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require a block diagram representation of energy and information
functions. Because these .are secondary to the primary problem
of recording energy, they are.connected into-the system by dotted
lines, whereas the basic functions are interconnected by solid
lines. When the system is re--drawn to include the secondary
energy systems, but neglecting the control or information aspect,
it appears as shown in Figure (1. 5).
recording head
energy source
mechanical
electric motor
1R
playback head
Figure (1. 5) - More detailed system block diagram
A record player is another comparatively simple system,
but one incorporating some slightly different system concepts. In
its purest form, this is an information system. Information has been
stored in the grooves of the record. Thus, the record is a transfer
element because it transfers information from one point in time or
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space to another. It is important to note that information is stored
here in material form. It is a characteristic of all information
systems that information has no independent existence; it is always
present in conjunction with either energy or material. Thus, we
very commonly speak of information as being carried by energy or
material.
While the record is a transfer element in the general sense
of being a connection between the recording artist or speaker, being
surveilled, and some listener, it serves as the information source
in the very restricted system of the record player. The information
on the record is extracted by placing it on a rotating, motor driven
turntable in contact with a stylus. This converts the irregularities
in the grooves into mechanical vibrations. This is converted to
electrical energy by a crystal. After the multiplication of electrical
energy through the operation element, or electronic amplifier, the
information is converted into an acoustical form in the loudspeaker
and this is transferred by the air to the listener. The system then
appears as shown in Figure (1.6). Note that an electrical energy
source has been added to supply the electronic amplifier with power.
Also note that this system involves material, energy, and informa-
tion. The three are nearly always present in every system that will
concern us in this study.
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informatio,
source in
material form
(record)
C
energy
converter
(motor)
mechanical
rotation
me chani c al.
transducer
(stylus)
mechanical
information
receptor
(ear-listener)
electro-
mechanical
transducer
(crystal)
energy
source
(electrical)
electrical.
I electrical
electronic
amplifier
electrical
transfer in
space
(air)
electrical.
electro-
acoustic
transducer
(loudspeaker)
acoustical electrical
Figure (1. 6)
System Block Diagram of the Functions in a Record Player
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The ordinary typewriter, which may be of considerable
intelligence value, provides some excellent examples of the
operational element in system block diagrams. A typewriter is a
very complicated system and we will describe only a few of its
essential features. The 44 keys on a standard keyboard, together
with the space bar, back space, shift or cap keys, margin release,
tab key, and line space lever are all information and energy inputs
to the machine. The paper rolled on the platen is the receptor,
while the typist is the source. A simple system description of a
typewriter appears as shown in Figure (1. 7). The description in
Figure (1. 7) omits many important details required in a complete
description, however. There are many other sources of in-
structions to operational elements together with the mechanical
energy system required to operate the device.
These illustrations have been chosen because of their
commonplace character. Each, in its own right, possesses the
properties of a small system. However, each can be, and generally
is, a fragmentary part of some larger system.
The point of the discussion in this section is simply that the
same technique of description is used for all systems, without
regard to system size, complexity, or desired detail of description.
While it may seem that the case is overstated, the use of functional
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C'-anges key
s+ift mo-)tior to
ey (c:ar t age shifts
capa.i or
1 cpwe r case
4.4 key
lpha
1711.1Trirs.'.'? r
key-
board
bar
backspace.
0
Get outpAt
wher there is
cap or lower
as e
Source of
me chanical
energy (spring
print
horizontal
I energy
Transfer in
space & time
(paper on the
platen)
C
Converts I
key motion to
signal for
control
7 linear hori .
sigrial
rotation r
0
1 output from
a single input
single space
double space
triple space
siiace
release
signal
only
Converts
horizontal to
rotary
motion
I horizontal
I motion
zontal motion
s
Mechanical
enerf(,
(spring)
0
Get output
there is
3 in gj.e input
0
Provides
output with
one input
0
Provides
output with
one input
1P"ig,u (1.7) - Partial System Description of a Typewriter
1.6
line space
lever
margin set
.44
margin
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block diagrams is the first step toward a systematic under-
standing of system operations and system designs such as we will
be analyzing subsequently.
1. Z. 0 Information Systems
From the very brief discussion in section (1. 1.4) it is
clear that nearly any system, except a very rudimentary and
primitive one, invariably involved energy, information, and
materials, although only one of the three may be of primary con--
cern. This is particularly true of information systems because
information has no independent existence.
When information i.s transferred from one point to another
in space, the transfer is most often. associated with electrical
energy. On occasions, it may be transferred opticall-y, acousti-
cally, materially, etc.
Here we describe the fundamental concepts involved in the
theory of information. The discussion commences with the
definition of generalized in.formation systems, proceeds to an
analysis of human information systems, and concludes with a
description of machine systems.
1. 2. 1 Fundamentals of Information Systems
This section is a comparatively detailed analysis of the
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fundamental aspects associated with information systems.
Art examination, of the subject matter associated with in-
formation systems suggests that there are five "fundamental
principles" which are distinct and identifiable. The study of
information systems proceeds from five "levels" of principles
as follows (see Figure 2. 1):
(1) physical principles
(2) circuit theory principles
(3) modulation and coding principles
(4) machine sub-system principles
(5) system engineering principles.
This makes the presentation of information systems
multi-level, in. character as .shown in Figure (2.-2). New ideas
and principles are introduced at all levels so that a presentation
is not wholly sequential. Rather, the system has a core which is
fed and drained by ancillary sub-systems.
1. 2. 2 Types of Information Systems
In a very broad sense, there are only two fundamentally
different types of information systems:
(1) Information transfer, or communication systems,
transfer information in space, or time, or both. Such
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physical I
machine
sub- system
modulation
and coding
system engineering
circuit theory
economic-
rinci les
queueing theory
game theor
decision theor .
Figure (2. 1)
MIN01=11=1MIMS
information theor
rtoise
SYSTEMS
ENGINEERING
OPERATIONS
ANALYSIS
human values
reliability
information theory
ELECTRONIC physiology
SYSTEMS feedback theory
MACHINE
SUB-SYSTEMS
14 transmission theory
114 CODING
MODULATION
MACHINE LOGIC jigs
circuit theory
ELECTRONIC
CIRCUITS
feedback theory
circuit theory
ANC
ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
PHYSICS
CHEMISTRY
feedback theory
411
Figure (2. 2)
Information systems showing initial, dependence upon
physical fundamentals followed by the introduction of
engineering fundamentals at successive levels
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systems are characterized by single or multiple in-
formation channels which are independent of one
another.
(2) Information operation, or processing, systems perform
operational functions upon information. Such systems
are characterized by multiple information channel.s
which are interdependent.
All modern information systems, when considered in their entirety,
usually involve both communication and processing.
The communication system is concerned with the transfer
of information in space or time. There are only two classes of such
systems, and only two sub-types of each class, as follows:
(1) Communication from man-to-man.
(a) from one point in space to another
(b) from one point in time to another
(2) Communication from machine-to-machine
(a) from one point in space to another
(b) from one point in time to another
Because information always exists in association with material or
energy, it is a natural consequence of physical laws that information
transfer from one point in space to another is always accompanied
by a corresponding transfer in time.
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Four other problem areas, apparently related to the fore-
going, are often considered to be communication. These are identi-
fied as communication from
(1)
man-to-machine in space or time
(2) machine-to-man in space or time
(3) one man-to-another man of different logic process
(4) one machine-to-another machine of different logic process
In these four cases, the basic logic processes must: be altered. Each
is characteristically an operational or processing function, rather
than communication or transfer. This is. one class of information.
processing systems.
in all information processing systems operations are per-
formed upon information to
(1) develop new information, or to
(2) develop new interpretations of existing information.
For exarnple, the numbers three and two represent information that
can be communicated in space or time. Howev
the operations
required to express them in binary form or to get their sum, differ-
ence, quotient, or product constitute various aspects of information
proce s sing.
To sum up, information processing systems are character-.
ized by three different functions:
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(1) mathematical operations
(2) alterations in logic process
(3) decision-making
The purpose of these three operations is to produce new or addi-
tional information or new interpretations of existing information.
L 2. 3., Basic Properties of an Information System
Figure (2. 3) is a schematic representation of the essential
parts of an information system. The five basic parts are listed in
the table that follows:
Information' System
Name
General System
Function
1
Information source
Source element
2
Coder
Operational element
3
Transmission or pro-
Transfer or operational
ceasing component
element
4
Decoder
Operational element
5
Information receiver
Acceptor element
It should also be understood that a conversion element is always
associated with an information system because information has no
existence independent of energy or material.
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Noise
and
Distortion
S I
I
Information I
I
source I
I
I
I I
I I
I
i
I
superfluous I 1 I
information I I I I
1 I
red.undancv i I
message ----
0
Coder
other coders
Conventions
Information
receiver
T ran smis sion
or
processing
signal signal
Area of
previous
agreement
other decoders
Conventions
Figure (2. 3)
Classical (slightly modified) symbolic model. of the
essential ingredients of a one-way information system
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When we consider information sources in detail, we find,
in the limiting case, that there are only two fundamentally different
types:
(1) the brain of a man
(2) changes in physical environment near some perceptor
of information.'
While we ordinarily take it for granted that certain types of informa-
tion originate in the brain of man, the process by which this is
accomplished is quite mysterious.
The second class of information sources refers to information
developed through instrumentation of physical processes. Some
perceptor of environmental change (or information) such as a micro-
phone, radio antenna, thermometer, etc. is placed in an environment
to keep some one of its properties under surveillance.
As in the case of information sources, we find that there are
only two general classes of information receivers:
(1) the brain of a man, or
(2) a physical device which can respond to the information.
The information generated by the source constitutes the
message to be transmitted or processed. However, the message
is seldom in a form suitable for direct transmission to the receiver
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nor is it usually in a form that lends itself to processing. It is
usuany necessary to code the message into a "signal" which has
? properties more suitable for transmission or processing. Coding
is a general term used here to denote conversion of a message into
a signal, or alteration of the form of the signal, according to some
pre-determined plan. In ideal coding, the information contained in
the message is preserved in the signal, only the form is altered. A
consideration of this concept will be presented in more detail later.
As an example of the?coding requirement, because direct
telepathic communication between two brains is not reliably probable,
the images in the brain of one man are not directly usable for trans-
mission to the brain of another man. Instead, men commonly code
their mental images into spoken words. The acoustical form of the
sig al can. be transmitted through the air to the ear of the listener to
be interpreted.
Of course, the coded information, or signal, has no meaning
to the receiver until, it is decoded according to some scheme pre-
viously agreed upon by the source and receiver.
The transmission and processing of information are always
complicated by factors originating either within the system or from
other factors external to it. For example, informational errors and
ambiguities are introduced into the system through the presence of
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noise and distortion. Similar difficulties are:caused by interference
originating in the presence of similarly coded signals in the trans-
mission system when it is used for more than one information channel.
Redundancy is often used by the information source to promote
better understanding of the message. In this process the same
information is transmitted more than once with the same or different
coding.
at the receiver. Here again, this factor may be used in the counter-
measures effort, hence "jamming" or "spoofing" the system.
A system of accepted convention, although not a physical part
of the system, is essential if the message is to be evaluated by the
receiver. in other words, if the source speaks German and the re-
ceiver understands only English, communication is not achieved.
Some prior agreement must exist between the source and receiver.
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1. 2. 4 Human Information Systems
Human beings constitute the most highly developed and com-
plicated information systems presently in existence. This section
is included at this time, although at first it may seem to contain
irrelevant subject matter. Many of the aspects present in a human
system bear considerable direct significance in surveillance problems
but, more appropriately than that, its description permits the intro-
duction of concepts to be used with effectiveness in the principal
areas of interest.
Although many?of the processes involved in human informa-
tion systems are matters of pure conjecture, every element involved
in every information system may be illustrated through reference to
some part of the human system. As a very elementary beginning,
we will consider some of the very gross aspects involved in oral
communication from man-to-man using the system model described
in Figure (2. 3). A more sophisticated elaboration of certain human
processes will be presented later, particularly with reference to
closed loop systems.
Through the various sensory organs of the body, ? vast quantities
of data and abstract notions are continually being transmitted to the
brain. By some process, either electrical or electrochemical, the
information is stored in the memory banks of the brain. Parts of
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this stored information, in random arrangements, constantly
parade themselves before the conscious mind in a continuing
jumble of assorted mental images. Under the power of directed
thinking, a pattern of thoughts is established which penetrates and
occasionally replaces the random jumble of images. This pattern
of thoughts or images constitutes a message which represents some
measurable amount of information.
By a totally unknown process, this pattern of mental images
is converted into word symbols according to conventions agreed upon
with the second person in the conversation. This constitutes the
first coding operation because the message, or abstract idea, has
been converted into symbolic form different from the form of the
original idea. This is illustrated in Figure (2. 4).
The brain converts these word symbols into electrical nerve
impulses, or signals, in a second codiag operation. This is an
extremely complicated, multi-channel operational process. The
nerve impulses, or signals, are transferred in space, and with some
associated transfer in time, to the throat, facial, and abdominal
muscles causing variations in the energy of the air blown across the
vocal chords. This produces the acoustical signals of speech by a
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ail
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electro-
mechanical
acoustical trans-
ducer vocal
chords
0
Third coding
Conversion to
speech signals
1
Spatial transfer
of nerv signals
spatial transfer
of acoustical
signals in air
single
channel
signal
1 t
0
Second coding
Conversion to
nerve signals
tsignal
0
First coding
Conversion to
word symbols
message
Information
source
Idea in brain of
man no. 2
Noise
Distortion
Interference
vismorrOP.
acoustico-
electrical
transducer --
ear
V
First decoding
Conversion to
nerve signals
V
V
multi- channel
signals
redundancy and
superfluous
information
System of
agreed
Conventions
Spatial transfer
of nerve signals
to brain
0
Second decoding
Conversion to
word symbols
signal
0
Third decoding
Conversion to
abstract idea
me s sage
Information
receiver
Brain of man
no. 2
Figure (2. 4)
Detailed Breakdown of a Human Communication System
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third coding* process which is accompanied by energy conversions
from electrical to acoustical form; speech is a coded form of the
original message. These various processes are illustrated in
Figure (2. 4).
As shown in Flgure (2. 4), the speech sounds are transferred
in space (and time) through the air to the ear of the second man.
The vibrations of the ear mechanism produces electrical impulses
in the first decoding process. This is a highly involved operational
process. The input to the ear is a single channel of information which
contains both frequency and amplitude information as a function of
time. The output of the ear has a multiplicity of channels: each
output channel appears to contain amplitude information only, over
some restricted range of frequencies. This multi-channel collection
of electrical nerve signals is transmitted through the auditory nervous
system to the brain where it is interpreted, in the second decoding, as
word symbols. If the words used by the first man are properly chosen
in accordance with the agreed upon conventions, the word symbols
evoke, with varying degrees of exactitude, mental images in the brain
Although the term "coding" is used in this third case, it may
be preferable to call it "modulation", wherein high speed variations
of the air molecules are caused to vary in proportion to the speech
signal.
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of the second man corresponding to the images in the brain of the
first man. This evocation of mental images constitutes the final
decoding operation.
The complete communication system is shown in very
lied block diagram form in Figure (Z. 4).
The information received by the second man is stored in the
memory section of the brain-- stored in association with a qualitative
scale of human values derived from his relation to his social and
cultural. environment. The higher logic centers of brain, compare
this new information with respect to the stored value evaluating the
worth, relevancy, adequateness, and utility of the information.
It is clear from this discussion that the block marked as the
coder may involve several distinctly different coding operations.
Thus, when we look at any system in detail, we find multiplicity of
coding, decoding, and transmission.
There are many other interesting aspects to this problem of
communication from one man to another. Some of the more obvious
factors are the following:
(1) Communication may be complicated by imperfections in.
the system of agreed conventions, differences in vocabulary
or value system.
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(2) Through poor word selection or superfluous expressions,
the idea evoked in the brain of the second man may be
quite different from the original thought.
(3) Inaccuracies in message transmission may result from
distortion produced by slurred speech or imperfect hearing.
(4) The. presence of background noise or other conversations
may inhibit the transfer of the message.
A course presentation of the detail in Figure (2. 4) is shown in
Figure (2. 5).
The second type of information handling involves the processing
function as its primary characteristic rather than communication as
in the previous example. In this case, we take certain items of
information and perform mathematical or decision making operations
to produce new information, or new interpretations of old information.
1. 2. 5 Feedback in Human Information Systems
In the preceding section, very elementary considerations of
human information systems were used to underscore the importance of
(1) coding and associated operational functions
(2) energy conversions
(3) information transfer processes and media.
This importance is further emphasized in Figure (2. 6). This figure
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Information
source
Brain of man 2
Iredundancy and
auperfluous
tinformation
0
Coder
Converts idea in
brain into speech
Conventions
Noise
Distortion
Interfe rence
R
Information
receiver
Brain of man 2
Transfer
0
Decoder
Speech trans-
mission through
air
Changes speech
into abstract
idea
110
low
Areas of
Prior
Agreement
Figure (2, 5)
-4111.0.
Conventions
Coarse representation of a human communication system derived through
simplification of the detailed description shown in Figure (2, 4).
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e quili.b r iu.m
signal.
middle ear
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transducer
XYZ position
to electricity
temp. signal
;7117'
transducer
temperature
to electricity
0
Coder
Imenmalalw
laranumpo
inowimmo011r
T
Space
Transfer
1?1111M1111011M1111011111011111101?111,
0 ?-enemorelow
Coder
Naurosilpo
Space
Transfer
touch signal
transducer
nummilp
skin
touch to
electricity
Coder
trimmelps
Normodipm
I
0
taste signal
nose-tongi1re
odor signal
nose
auditory
signal
ear
11.
visual signal
transducer
taste to
electricity
transducer
odor to
electricity
Coder
Space
Transfer
wommoips.
veumnipo
kummellito
transducer
sound to
electricity
eye
transducer
light to
electricity
multi- channels
prior experiences
value scales
T
Space
Transfer
TI
Space trans="--,
fer olfactory
nerves
0
Coder
Space trans-
fer auditory
nerve s
0
?&:=0,00
Coder
Space trans-
...
fer optic
nerves
NM/
to
0
Sensory
Comparator
Strength, time
sense
from signal identification center
-4
signal from decision (logic)
center
To signal identification and
logic centers of the brain Figure (2. 6)
Information perception in the
34 human communication system
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R:hows th.e basic connection between the brain and all of the informa-
tion perceptors available to the normal human. All of the seven
sensory elements are composed. of an energy converter and a
coder. Each is connected to the brain by the nervous system which
serves to transfer the informationperceived. All of these signals
enler the first principal element: of the brain, an element we will
call the sensory comparator.
Figure (2. 7) shows a very simplified system model of the
brain, serving to illustrate the principal functions performed. The
information perceptors deliver nerve signals concerning some
physical situation to the sensory comparator, the first operational
element of the brain. The sensory comparator has three functions:
(1) it stores the perceived information temporarily in a
short time memory bank,
(2) it sends the information to the second identifying
comparator,
(3) it sentis instructions to the memory scanner to look
through the main memory banks for similar information.
The memory scanner examines the main memory banks for
data previously stored concerning similar information, data relating
to both value scales and actual situations.
The output of the memory scanner is fed. to the higher order
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isin
al s
C-0- T
Information perception s ystem -
shown in preceding figure
1
total sensory information
in coded form
new elements of
experience
sensed
info
^
Sensory
Comparator
coded information of
muscular action
total sensed
information
t3ensed info
values
new elements o
experience
T
1
scan
0 I
Identifying
Comparator
(sign.al identi-
fication center)
xtracted
Main memor -lues
bank eXtracted
data
Value scales i
scan
Main memory
bank
prior experience
0
Memory
scanner
scan
erase
St ored
experience
and. values
0
Higher logic
centers
decision-making
or.: Short time
extract memory
scanning
instructions
decis-
ion
0
toder for
Muscular
control signals
signals for action
Figure (2. 7)
Closed loop, or feedback, characteristics of the
human brain shown in highly simplified form.
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center which, in turn, reacts back upon the scanner tending to direct
its search of the memory banks in a controlled pattern rather than ln
a random manner. The output of the memory scanner also goes to
the identifying comparator. Here the information extracted from
memory is compared against the new sense impression and identified,
if possible. The new information, which is that part of the incoming
information without a counterpart in that extracted from memory, is
then delivered to the main memory bank for storage.
In the meantime, the higher order logic centers have come
to a decision based upon the memory scanning and the new elements
of the situation, and have sent signals throughout the body directing
various muscles to perform certain tasks. The same information
is sent to the sensory comparator so that it will constantly compare
the changes in the incoming information with the plans originated by
the logic centers.
There are many other related aspects, of course; this is a
very crude picture.
However, the principal point is clear: the system has a multi-
plicity of closed loop signal paths. In short, it is a multi-loop feedback
system. While, at this stage in our analysis, this has been established
only in connection with human information systems, it is a fundaments
property of all systems. Particularly will this be true of positive
surveillance systems and their countermeasure systems.
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1. 2. 6 Feedback in Two-Way Information Systems
Previously we discussed simple communication from one
ma.n to another. This is a one-way, or unidirectional, information
system. This type of system has been explored with greater success
than the more complicated problems posed by two-way, or bi-
directional, information systems. A schematic representation of
a simplified bi-directional system is shown in Figure (2.8). This
is the most common type of system.
In the bi-directional system, there is an interchange of
messages between two individuals. As a result it is possible to change
the "conventions" during transmission. This two-way flow of informa-
tion serves two purposes:
(1) it acts to correct transmission errors and
(2) to remove misunderstandings from the "conventions".
From the very structure of the system, it is clear that this
process has strong "feedback coupling" which affects all of its
essential properties, rendering it quite different from the unidirectional
system.
The concept of counter-countermeasures probably falls most
appropriately into this type of information system. Much more will
be said about this subject later.
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Information
receiver
man 2
rDecoder
.M1m=mn?minumplio..
\
\
in space \
\
'I'ransrnis sion
T
/i
Conventions
Coder
Information
source
man 1
Noise
Distortion
Interference
Information
source
man 2
Conventions
0
Coder
Transmis sion
in space'
Decoder
Figure (2.8)
Intrinsic feedback in two-way communication
39
Information
receive r
man 1
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1. 2.7 Enter Electrical Machine Aids
The human informaticn system is exceedingly complicated.
The complexity is internal to the humans, arising in the many
mysterious coding. logic, and memory functions.
The information rec iirements of human society are beyond
the capabilities of the humar. system. Inevitably machine aids are
required to achieve mass communication, control of other machines,
communication over large distances and long time intervals, for
rapid calculations and under adverse and diverse conditions such
as encountered in surveillance and its countermeasures.
When machines are used for the purposes enumerated, they
become sub-systems, or fragmentary parts of some larger system.
Each sub-system possesses the five essential function elements as
shown in Figure (2. 3)< Figures (2.9) and (2. 10) show several arrange-
ments of sub-systems in a larger system.
When a machine aid or sub-system is introduced into a larger
system, it is very often electrical in character. Other types of sub-
systems will be discussed specifically if they arise in the general
surveillance discussions. There are several reasons for the import-
ance of electrical sub systems:
(1) compared to signals in other media, it is nearly always
true that electrical signals have a higher degree of trans-
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Sub-System
1
Sub
1
Sub-System
2
straight tandem connection
Sub-System
3
Sub-System
/ 2 \.
Sub-System
3,
Sub-System
4
parallel tandem connection
Sub-System
5
Figure (2.9)
System sub-division into separate sub-systems, each
possessing the five essential elements shown in Figure (2.3).
Sub-System
man 1
Sub-System
machine
Sub-System 3
man 2
Figure (2.10)
Machine aided human communication
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portability in space.
(2) electrical energy systems are more readily coupled to
other media than are other energy systems (light and
acoustical systems are possible exceptions).
(3) electrical signals are more readily coded and modulated.
(4) because of the comparative ease of coding, there are
more coding possibilities available for practical use.
Thus, except for very rudimentary systems, it is quite general
practice to convert information into electrical signals to capitalize
upon the desirable properties of electrical energy for the processing
and transmission of information.
1. 2.8 Coding and Modulation
Electronics and electronic circuits are important subjects
precisely because they have the ability to perform operations, such
as coding, which make machine aids possible and useful. This dis-
cussion can be simplified through common agreement on the definitions
of coding and modulation:
(1) Coding -- the process of converting the form of information
from one logic system or "language" into another.
(2) Modulation -- the process whereby some property of a
carrier wave of a higher frequency than any component in
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1.11111111P5P01111.011111111.111111!
tri
Ini
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the information signal is varied in accordance with the
time variation of the signal.
Electrical signals may be modulated by either of one or two
distinctly different processes:
(1) carrier modulation -- a continuous process
(2) pulse modulation ? a discontinuous process.
In carrier modulation, some property of a high frequency wave is
varied in accordance with the time variation of the modulating signal;
the modulating signal is continuously operative upon the carrier. In
pulse modulation, some property of a high frequency pulse train is
varied in accordance with the time variation of the modulating sig-
nals; the modulating signal. is operative only during discontinuous
intervals. This implies the necessity for an additional coding step
known as sampling.
A carrier wave (see Figure (2. 11) represented by ic
Ic sin ( wct 4?, ) has only two properties subject to variation by the
modulating signal., the amplitude and angle. Therefore, two forms
of carrier modulation can be identified as follows:
(1) amplitude modulation -- the variation of the carrier wave
amplitude (Ic) is made proportional to the time variation
of the signal.. Herein the resulting signal contains
"redun.dancy". The information can be transmitted as
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Io
frequency = T fc
L.Jc. 2?TT
----T :: period ---------
Figure (2. 11)
Essential elements of a carrier current
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well by selecting part of the result which is then known
as "single side--band modulation".
(2) angle modulation -- the variation of the carrier angle
is made proportional to the time variation of the
modulating signal.
At any instant of time, the angle of the carriers in dependent. upon
the frequency. Thus we distinguish two types of angle modulation
(1) phase modulation. -- the angle (4) ) is made to vary in
direct correspondence with the time variation of the
modulating signal..
(2) frequency modulation -- the frequency (fc ) of the carrier
is made to vary in direct correspondence with the time
variation of the modulating signal.
The three types of carrier modulation are frequency, phase,
and amplitude modulation or FM, PM, and AM.
A high frequency pulse train is shown in Figure (2. 12). Such
a wave train is described by the pulse frequency, position, width,
and amplitude. Therefore, we recognize four pulse modulation possi-
___
(1) pulse amplitude modulation
(2) pulse width modulation
(3) pulse position modulation
(4) pulse frequency modulation
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PAM
PWM
PPM
PFM
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width -.p
arnplitude
.-. position
period
1
Figure (2.12)
1
1
?11.4 frequency
Essential characteristics of a pulse train
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In each case, the particular property of the pulse train is made to
vary in direct correspondence with the time variations of the modu-
lating signal, in this class of modulation, the modulating signal is
operative only during some specified period corresponding to the
pulse duration. Hence, this is a discontinuous modulation process
in contrast to the continuous characteristic of carrier modulation.
This now gives us seven modulation possibilities to be con-
cerned about, i.e. three types of carrier modulation and four types
of pulse modulation. In many cases, depending upon the type of
information system and transmission system, it is found that a
single modulated signal does not make maximum use of the trans-
mission channel capacity available: When this occurs, it is custom-
ary to multiplex the signals. There are two distinct types of multi-
plexing
(1) frequency division multiplexing -- each signal is
associated with a separate carrier frequency and all
are transmitted. at the same time - multiplexing in
frequency domain.
(2) pulse time division multiplexing -- samples of each
signal. are transmitted in time sequence at a high
sampling frequency in the same frequency band.
It is possible, obviou.sly, to use both frequency division and time
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divi?,ion multiplexing in one channel, with Seven modulation possi-
bilities thrown in for good measure.
The problem does not end here. There are many applications
where privacy con.sid.era,to s are important, or where special
attention must be given to reduction of signal. deterioration by noise.
When these conditions are present, the signals are coded before
modulation and multiplexing.
(1) continuous coding -- speech scramblers and similar
techniques
(?,) discontinuous coding -- pulse code modulation PCM
for example, of the incoming signal has components up
to a frequency (f0 ), it is first sampled at a rate greater
than ( 2 fb ). This yields a lot of pulses continuously
modulated in amplitude. The amplitudes of the pulses
are quantized, and assigned to one of a finite set of such
- levels. The quantized signal triggers a pulse generator
- which generates a binary coded signal. The specific
binary number generated depends upon where the
sampled signal falls among the various quantized levels.
Each of these processes is clearly coding, rather than modu-
lation, because wholly new signal forms are generated; there is no
process here wherein one property of a wave is varied analogously in
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accordance with the time viariation of the signal. On thecontrary,
the coded signal is an entirely new signal form.
I. 2. 9 Machine Sub--Systems and Their Analysis
To analyze a specific sub-system, one should. perform the
following functions:
(I) resolve the general equipment requirements into de-
tailed specifications of equipment functions,
(2) select the coding, modulation, and multiplexing arrange-
ments to be used and specify their detailed technical
properties,
(3) select and define the transmission media and processes,
(4) select and define the properties required. of information
perceptors and receptors,
(5) establish criteria for equipment reliability,
(6) establish limits allowed for equipment error.
These functions also require a knowledge of the principles derived
from information theory, electronic component and circuit design.
I. 2. 10 Electronics and Electronic Circuits
From the tenor of previous sections, it is apparent that the
word "electronics" has become virtually synonymous with "informa-
tion systems". This is so because the machine aids to communication.
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and processing are nearly always electronic in. character. In most
cases., the requirements imposed by the modulation and coding
processes are such that only electronic circuits possess the requisite
properties. For the sake of the record, the essential topics in
electronics an.d electronic circuits are summarized here.
Electronic devices, as used here, include vacuum and gas
tubes, varistors, thermistors, transistors, cryotrons, magnetic
and dielectric amplifiers, etc. Such devices characteristically
possess either one ox both of the following p roperties:
(1) they are amplifiers or
(2) they can be used as very high speed, synchronous,
switches. An amplifier is a circuit whose output is an enlarged re-
,.
production of the input, and the power developed in the output is drawn
from a source other than the input. An analysis of electronic devices
requires an analysis of these two properties from the two following
aspects:
(1) a study of .the physical devices which provide the two
basic properties listed and
(2) a study of the physical phenomena incorporated in these
devices. This includes dynamics of charged particles,
conduction in gas, solid state, atomic, and nuclear physics.
When electronic devices are combined with other electrical
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dal
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elements in different circuit configurations, and operated as
amplifiers or switches, the resulting electronic circuits are capa-
ble of performing an incredible number of operations. Although
the variety of such circuits is nearly endless, they fit into five
basic categories, as follows:
(1) amplifiers
(2) oscillators
(3) diode switching circuits
(4) modulators
(5) digital and logic circuits.
These various categories of electronic circuits form the basic
building of the machine aids to information processing.
1. 3. 0 Energy and Power Systems
Although existing equipment systems use many, if not all,
of the physically different energy forms, particular attention herein
has been concentrated in electrical energy systems. This means that
energy may originate in any form but we may assume in these pre-
liminary discussions that it is converted into electrical energy for
transmission and distribution.
1. 3. 1 Basic Properties of Power Systems
The words "power systems" include all systems whose primary
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functions involve the transfer of electrical energy in space or
time. In fact, most technical systems, regardless of size or com-
plexity, require an associated power system.
At first thought an adequate description of a power system
would seem to involve only a power source connected to a receptor
through a transfer medium. However, when the problem is examined
more carefully, the system description indicated in Figure (3. 1)
resu7.ts. This shows that all power systems are composed of five
major functional elements
:-
(1) energy reservoirs
(2) energy converters
(a) to co.nvert the form of the energy coming from
the reservoir to electrical energy
(b) to convert the electrical energy emerging from
the transfer medium to the energy form desired.
by the receptor.
(3) energy transfer system to transfer energy in space or time
(4) sources of environmental disturbances
(5) an information, control, or protective system.
The necessary inclusion of an associated information channel
with every power system always produces a closed loop system.
This closed loop characteristic results from an important
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sun
110.-
System
Environmental.
Disturbances
Reservoir
Energy
Converter
control
Transmission
space - time
1--
1
i signal
I
I
I control,
I
1 I
g??????=111110.
Energy
Converter
'signal 'signal
Information System
Figure (3. 1)
General power system
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signal
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property of power systems that is uniquely different from the basic
characteristic of the general information system. The difference
tisis In information systems the amount of information entering
the transfer medium is controlled by the source; in the power system
the amount of power entering the transfer Medium is controlled
primarily by the receptor. Because the receptor controls the power
flow from the source, the system is intrinsically closed loop in.
character.
1. 3. ?, Energy Reservoirs - Primary and Secondary
For all practical purposes, the sun may be considered as the
primary reservoir of all energy available On the earth. Likewise,
for general layman purposes, by a series of natural energy conversion
processes, the energy from the sun has been altered and placed in
secondary reservoirs of the following types:i
(1)- fossil fuels,
() nuclear fuels,
(3) chemical reactions,
(4) - wind and water power, and
(5) lunar-ocean tides.
Each of these stores energy in one form or another, either as:
(1) light
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1111111111111PWRIWIIIIIMINflf
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(2)
heat,
(3) kinetic energy,
(4) mechanical energy, and
(5) electricity in a few rare cases.
The inter-relationship between the various reservoirs are
indicated by the schematic diagram in Figure (3.2).
To provade a more complete and scientific approach to the
energy problem, let us turn back to fundamentals and ask more
specifically, "What are the sources of energy available in the uni-
verse?" Without treading on controversial ground, we are safe to
say that there are three natural sources of energy. These are con-
tained
(1)
(2)
in the nuclei of atoms,
in the extra-nuclear structure of atoms and molecules,
(3) in the incoherent motion of the molecules of matter in bulk.
These three forms are known as nuclear energy, chemical
energy and heat energy. In the case of both nuclear energy and chemi-
cal energy, liberation is brought about when "fission" or "fusion"
occurs, in each case with the evolution of more stable "substances".
Although there are only three sources of energy in the uni-
verse, we are accustomed in our scientific investigations to define the
forms of energy in a manner more suitable for our current investigation.
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Primary
Re se rvoir s
Sun.
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NaturalSecondary Energy
Converters Reservoirs Available
Organic growth
and decomposition
Origins of
the earth
Atmospheric
weather
phenomena
Gravitational
attraction
Fossil
light
fuels heat
Nuclear kinetic
fuels energy
Chemicals
and
chemical
reactions
mi411111i
Wind,
water
Figure (3.2)
Lunar ocean
tjdes
Energy reservoirs
56
electricity,
heat
mechanical
heat,
light
mechanical
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First, we have nuclear energy, which can give rise to high
speed particles and electromagnetic radiation of very short wave-
length.
Secondly, there is atomic energy, comprising the energy
associated with the electronic structure of atoms and appearing in
chemical reactions. This energy is only available in exchange pro-
cesses. Arbitrarily, electromagnetic energy and the particles which
may be emitted from the atoms and molecules are not included.
Thirdly, there is microkinetic energy, comprising the energy
associated with moving charged particles by virtue of their velocity
and mass. We find this energy in particle accelerators, in x-ray
tubes and in certain thermionic tubes. Nuclear and atomic energy
are often converted into microkinetic energy in the form of fast moving
electrons or positive ions.
Fourthly, there is static electromagnetic energy by which we
understand the energy associated with electrical circuits. This form
comprises two sub-divisions:
1 2
(1) electrostatic represented by ? C V and
2
(2) magneto-static represented by ?1 L I2
2
where V = voltage, I 7: current, and C and L represent capacitative
and inductive parameters.
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Fifthly, there is radiant electromagnetic energy, which is
associated with variable electric and magnetic fields in free space
and comprise radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, and X and on
waves. When such energy interacts with matter, we lose sight of
the electric and magnetic fields and become conscious of the photon
of energy ( h 17).
Sixthly, there, is coherent molecular energy or elastic energy,
associated with the elastic forces of matter in bulk. The source of
this energy is chemical.
Seventhly, there is non-coherent molecular energy, which is
merely another name for heat energy associated with matter in bulk.
Finally, there is the energy associated with microscopic mass
by virtue of its speed or position. It is commonly referred to by the
names kinetic and potential energy.
Transducers are devices which change one of the forms of
energy just mentioned to another. It is, therefore, possible to con-
struct a chart (see Figure 3. 3) having the va..ious forms of energy at
the heads of eight columns and the same forms of energy at the heads
of eight rows, and every physical or chemical effect shown in an
appropriate square in the chart. To take several simple examples,
the Peltier effect transforms heat to electrical energy; a loudspeaker
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CONVERSION FROM
TYPES OF
ENERGY
NUCLEAR
ATOMIC
ELASTIC
HEAT
STATIC
ELECTRO?
MAGNETIC
RADIANT
ELECTRO ?
MAGNETIC
MICROKINETIC
MACROSCOPIC
KINEnc
NUCLEAR
..): ,r,
4. ???c,IA: e
,,,. ..
:::: ??
t:d5t..
. 1,1,(
, .:)..).0
.?
?
.
, ,.
?;,,,,
,
- ,\';'4z/P, '''e,
,,(, :?:.4.'w.: <
'' %?./-:'
CRYSTAL
FORMATION
...
., .?
? x .;-? .:it
x'::i:'
?,? N %
xx.:,?.;.:r?s;k..? *,&....1
CRYSTAL
FORMATION
PIEZOELECTRICITY
FERROELECTRICITY
MAGNETOSTRICTION
(LOUD ?SPEAKERS)
MODIFICATIONS
TO
MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE
MODIFICATIONS
TO
CRYSTAL
STRUCTURE
GENERATIONS
OF
ELASTIC
OSCILLATIONS
STATIC
ELECTRO?
MAGNETIC
RADIANT
ELECTRO?
MAGNETIC
,'; .:,..
I. ' ? . .cc.
"k?',:i:kA:.
..
..?.
?....1&&a....2, .?
A.? qt
4..*
sz ,
1?.?
GAMMA
RADIATION
EXOTHERMIC
REACTION
(EXCESS)
VOLTA EFFECT
ATTENUATION
AND
SUPERSONIC
HEATING
.
A..
:4.' ,
?