REPORT NO. 9 KH-4B SYSTEM CAPABILITY APPRAISAL OF GEOLOGIC VALUE FOR MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP89B00980R000300110001-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: T
• Document Page Count: 50
• Document Creation Date: December 15, 2016
• Document Release Date: May 19, 2004
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: March 1, 1971
• Content Type: REPORT

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Report No-9
KH-4B SYSTEM CAPABILITY
APPRAISAL OF GEOLOGIC VALUE FOR
MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION
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Total No. of Pages 50
Copy No.L3of 67Copies
Report No.9
K H -4 B SYSTEM CAPABILITY
APPRAISAL OF GEOLOGIC VALUE FOR
MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION
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1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Geologic Exploration Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Standard Photogeologic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Economic Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Methods of Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Compilation and Interpretation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Background Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Area A-NW Tsaidam Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 General Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Rocks Exposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Area B-NE Tsaidam Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 General Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Rocks Exposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Area C-Kafirnigan-Pyandzh Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 General Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Rocks Exposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Mineral Resources . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1 Effective Photogeologic Mapping Can Be Achieved Using the
KH-4B System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 The Value of Color Cannot Be Overstated . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 The KH-4B System Represents An Important Breakthrough
For National Resources Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1-1 Index Map Showing Three Study Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
4-1 Outcrop Map of The Tsaidam Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4-2 Photogeologic Evaluation Map of The NW Tsaidam Basin Area . . . . . . . . 4-3
4-3 3404 and SO-242 Records Showing Contact Between Two Major Tsaidam
Rock Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4-4 3404 Record Showing Classic Anticlinal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4-5 SO-242 Record Showing Classic Anticlinal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
4-6 Schematic Drawing-Cross Section of Anticlinal Structure, Yuchuantze Oil Field . . 4-10
4-7 SO-242 and 3404 Stereo Pair Showing Box Type Anticlinal Fold--
Basin Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
5-1 Photogeologic Evaluation Map of The NE Tsaidam Basin Area . . . . . . . . 5-4
5-2 3404 and SO-242 Records Showing Contact Zone and Tight Fold Structures
in Jurassic-Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
5-3 3404 and SO-242 Records Showing Possible Mineralized Zone Along
Fault or Dike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
5-4 3404 and SO-242 Records Showing Apparent Mineralization (Red
Stains) in Vicinity of Igneous Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
5-5 3404 and SO-242 Stereo Pair Showing Apparent Mineralization (Red
Stains) in Vicinity of Igneous Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
6-1 Photogeologic Evaluation Map of The Kafirnigan- Pyandzh Area . . . . . . . . 6-3
6-2 3404 and SO-242 Records Showing Typical Sedimentary Section,
Kafirnigan-Pyandzh Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
6-3 3404 and SO-242 Records Showing Sedimentary Section,
Kafirnigan-Pyandzh Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6-4 SO-242 and 3404 Stereo Pair Showing Faulted Anticlinal Structure . . . . . . 6-7
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As part of a continuing investigation of the value of satellite photography, 800 feet of SO-242
was flown on mission 1108-2. SO-242 is a relatively new "high resolution" color film especially
built for use in satellite and high flying aircraft systems. This film was flown at the end of mis-
sion 1108. Further, the two stereo cameras on the KH-4B System allowed us to acquire high
resolution black and white coverage concurrent with the color. Unfortunately, the resolution of
the color photography was not as good as hoped, due primarily to the poor color correction of the
KH-4B lenses. NPIC did an evaluation of this photography and concluded,* in part, that:
1. The primary constraint on using SO-242 in this system is the incompatibility between
the intelligence community requirements and the spatial resolution afforded by SO-242
at this scale.
2. The difference in ground resolution between the color and black and white material is
approximately 2:1 in favor of the black and white.
3. Except for its stereo contribution, the color material was of no apparent value to first
or second phase analysis.
4. Color photography as provided by this system is expected to contribute most to regional,
agricultural, and geological studies.
The first three conclusions relate, of course, primarily to the military oriented intelligence com-
munity. That is, order of battle, missile readiness, etc. The last conclusion was, in our view, of
significance to the nonmilitary intelligence community, such as the Offices of Basic and Geographic
Intelligence and Economic Research in the CIA. It was, therefore, with these offices in mind that
this study was undertaken. The purposes of this somewhat limited study were, therefore, to:
1. Evaluate the information content of color versus black and white for one type of natural
resources task
2. Evaluate the potential of the KH-4B System for resources exploration
3. Perform sufficient analysis to indicate the potential advantages of color photography for
geographic /economic intelligence purposes.
Review of the photography indicated that excellent cloud free coverage of the Tsaidam Basin in
China and of Southern Russia had been obtained, and that these areas possessed interesting geo-
logical features. It was, therefore, decided to concentrate on the value of this photography for
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Mission IlUbl, July
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I were instructed to review the photography, prepare
detailed geological maps and prepare an analysis on the mineral resources similar to that which
would be done for another commercial customer (such as an oil company). This they have done,
and this is the final report of that study.
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Fig. 1-1 - Index map showing three study areas
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Mineral deposits and fossil fuel resources occur at or beneath the earth's surface in
irregular deposits under varying geologic conditions. Frequently these accumulations occur
under conditions that can be relatively accurately predicted by an experienced exploration
geologist.
Geologic investigation differs from conventional photo intelligence in one important respect.
Instead of an expert searching for a specific feature, recognizing and pinpointing it, then describ-
ing it . . . the geologist must analyze the entire area and record all his findings on a map. Then,
and only then, is he able to fully analyze geologic conditions and make accurate interpretations.
Thus, the exploration geologist, in searching for "hidden" mineral deposits, must first
prepare a basic geologic map to guide him. The conventional geologic map contains substantive
geologic information of two basic classes: (1) rock type, and (2) structure. When interpreted
correctly, this map provides clues to the most likely areas for accumulation of mineral deposits.
Conventional geologic maps are prepared by ground parties traversing an area and taking
rock samples at numerous localities. The rock type (lithologic description, geologic age and
formation name, if possible) and structural conditions at each locale are plotted onto a base map.
These data are then extrapolated across the areas not traversed by the ground parties and the
map is thus completed.
2.1 STANDARD PHOTOGEOLOGIC TECHNIQUES
Photogeologic mapping has been used for the past 30 years to augment ground geologic
mapping. It is now an accepted and fundamental tool for mineral and petroleum exploration and
has been found to greatly reduce the time and expense of ground parties. Its main advantage is
the enlarged vertical perspective where all areas,, not just those that can be readily reached on
foot, are analyzed in all their geologic detail.
Photogeologic mapping utilizing space photography enlarges this perspective even more.
Using the KH-4B System, this is achieved without undully sacrificing ground resolution necessary
for reliable photogeologic mapping.
According to Gilluly, Waters, and Woodford*:
"A geologic map is a valuable economic tool, useful in locating supplies of
oil, water, coal, iron ore, and other substances buried beneath a cover of soil
and rocks. Though such valuable prizes are completely hidden beneath the
* Gilluly, J., Waters, A., and Woodford, A., "Principles of Geology," Freeman, San
Francisco, California, 1968, pp 2 and 88.
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surface, a geologic map often reveals where tunneling or drilling will be ,
successful. The accuracy of such predictions has been proved again and
again by discoveries of valuable ores, coal, and petroleum. Geologic maps
are indeed the indispensable foundation of all geology-basic to our under-
standing of all subsurface processes, . . ." "On the international scene,
the power and wealth of a nation is largely determined by its endowment
of useful minerals, its skill in finding and utilizing them, or in obtaining
needed supplies from other lands. In this age of political unrest and re-
adjustment among nations, the vast accumulation of petroleum in such
little-industrialized nations as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Kuwait is
a potent force in world politics. We shall be wiser in world affairs if
we know where and why petroleum occurs, how it is discovered, and
how its quantity underground may be estimated."
Photogeologic mapping involves two basic functions: (1) differentiation of rock type, and
(2) structural mapping.
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2.1.1 Differentiation of Rock Type (lithologic/stratigraphic mapping)
This involves differentiating the various rock units exposed at the surface. In a virtually
unmapped area of the world, this will involve distinguishing only between the basic rock types,
as follows: (1) igneous (intrusive-granite, extrusive-basalt, etc.); (2) sedimentary (sandstone,
shale, limestone, etc.); and (3) metamorphic (schist, gneiss, slate, marble, etc.). Distinguishing
between these gross rock units is generally not too difficult for an experienced photogeologist.
This is because each basic type usually exhibits an identifying "signature" such as color, texture,
land form pattern, etc.
A more useful map will be prepared however, when some ground truth is available (see
Section 3.2). Information such as lithologic descriptions of various land specimens from the
various formations will be most useful, as will any information regarding the geologic age of
individual units.
2.1.2 Structural Mapping
This involves mapping the structural relationships of the various rock units. Structural
features, such as folds (anticlines, synclines, monoclines), faults (normal, reverse, thrust, etc.),
fractures, joints, etc., are often better observed from the vertical stereoscopic perspective than
from the ground. Comprehensive mapping of the structural features permits a proper under-
standing of the chronology of events affecting the subject area.
2.2 ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
Interpretation of the geologic map is the next important step. What does all this information
mean economically? The exploration geologist looks for certain clues to guide him to hidden
mineral or petroleum deposits. For instance, the petroleum exploration geologist knows that oil
is found in sedimentary basin areas. He restricts his study to these areas and does not search
the mountainous hard-rock (igneous and metamorphic) regions. He knows that for the sedimentary
basin area to hold economic petroleum deposits, it must contain: (1) source beds (generally
marine shales), (2) reservoir beds (usually porous sandstones or limestones), and (3) traps (many
types-the most common are anticlinal folds or faulted anticlines). After he has ascertained that
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conditions (1) and (2) above are met for an area, he focuses his attention toward looking for traps.
Surface geological maps are extremely useful for this purpose because many deep-seated struc-
tures are reflected in the structural conditions revealed at the surface.
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For mineral (other than petroleum) exploration, however, he searches not only the sedi-
mentary basin areas, but more particularly the mountainous "hard-rock" regions, depending on
the types of minerals desired. He knows, for instance, that certain metallic deposits are often
found in the vicinity of igneous intrusive activity, strong metamorphism, and faulting. Therefore,
he searches for significant granitic intrusions within metamorphic rock regions and major fault
zones. He does not always, however, restrict his search to the hard-rock regions because many
nonmetallic mineral deposits (potash, gypsum, etc.) occur in sedimentary environments.
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Mapping of the three areas under consideration was achieved in the following sequence:
(1) Area A-NW Tsaidam Basin, (2) Area C-Kafirnigan-Pyandzh Area, and (3) Area B-NE
Tsaidam Basin. This was a matter of convenience rather than design, since that is the order
in which the necessary reference and mapping materials became available.
The compilation and interpretation procedures varied slightly from area to area, because
of differences in the available base map control, geologic references, and nature of the KH-4B
materials. As a result of following these varied procedures, which are discussed in more detail
below, it was possible to develop a preferred (optimum) set of procedures for future mapping
projects.
For each area mapped, it was necessary to use photography from both the: (1) convergent
panoramic (PAN) camera, and (2) the DISIC framing camera. The PAN photography was used
for making the geologic interpretations. The DISIC photography was used for construction of
the base maps and compilation of the geologic annotations.
For the purposes of these studies, the optimum mapping scale was determined to be
1:250,000. Each area embraces slightly less than 12,000 miles and includes 2 degrees of longi-
tude and 1 1/ degrees of latitude. This is slightly larger than the conventional "2? x 1?" format
of most 1:250,000 scale maps.
Area A is bounded by Latitudes 38000'N and 39'30'N and Longitudes 90'001E and 920001E.
A preliminary (pencil compiled) planimetric map of the subject area was constructed on 0.003-
inch Herculene film to serve as a base for the photogeologic mapping. This was prepared, due
to the lack of available up-to-date 1:250,000 scale topographic maps, in a make-shift manner as
follows. A geographic coordinate network of 15-minute intervals was laid out using the Universal
Transverse Mercator Projection. A 1:1,000,000 scale topographic map (ONC Chart) was photo-
graphically enlarged to the mapping scale of 1:250,000. By overlaying the control grid film onto
this enlargement, a preliminary planimetric base map was generated by lightly tracing the major
drainage network, roads, railroads, town, and additional cultural data. This provided the gross
"horizontal control" for subsequent plotting of geologic detail from the space photography.
Because of the DISIC failure on mission 1108-2 before the SO-242 film was exposed in the
panoramic camera, this imagery was not available. The void was filled, however, by bringing
together comparable DISIC coverage from previous missions. This DISIC photography (missions
1102 and 1106) was enlarged (approximately 8 x) into working prints at the 1:250,000 scale. The
adjacent DISIC frames were similarly enlarged and cut into strips roughly equivalent to the width
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of two panoramic frames. This provided a crude but effective way to obtain stereoscopy. In this
stereoscopic mode, detailed drainage patterns and other topographic and cultural data were plotted
in colored pencil onto the enlarged DISIC print. Once completed, these drainage patterns and
related cultural information were transferred to the planimetric base film overlay which was held
in correct position by the gross drainage patterns plotted in the base film. This completed the
planimetric base map preparation phase of the project.
Photogeologic interpretation of the panoramic photography was accomplished utilizing a
Richards GFL-940 MCE Light Table mounted with a Bausch & Lomb zoom 70 Microscope modified
with a Richards Stereodapter. In this way, the black and white and color records were transported
in parallel across the light table and the imagery studied in stereoscopic perspective, one eye
viewing the color record, the other the black and white. In this process, it soon became evident
that color and stereo are essential requirements to extract the maximum amount of geologic infor-
mation. Loss of one or the other results in a significant reduction in information content.
Plotting and transferring the geologic interpretations to the base map was a somewhat dif-
ficult and cumbersome process. The geologic information observed on the 3404 and SO-242
records had to be visually plotted onto the DISIC print. The adjacent DISIC strips were used
to obtain the correlatable image in stereo. To say the least, this was not the most effective way
to interpret and plot the observed geologic information.
3.1.2 Procedures Used for Area B
Area B is bounded by Latitudes 37?30' N and 39?N and Longitudes 94?E and 96?E. Prepara-
tion of the planimetric base map was achieved utilizing essentially the same procedures as for
Area A.
The geologic interpretation and compilation procedures for Area B, however, were con-
siderably improved over those for Areas A and C. The Area B study was begun last, and by this
time it was possible to obtain transformed (rectified) and enlarged (2x) records of the PAN
photography. This was accomplished by the Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC)
using the Itek Gamma I Rectifier. These materials were placed in parallel on a standard light
table and interpretations were made using an Old Delft scanning mirror stereoscope. Geologic
annotations were made directly to acetate overlays, which were later transferred to the prelimi-
nary planimetric film by use of a scale-changing Kail Reflecting Projector. These procedures
precluded the laborious, inefficient and often inaccurate process of transferring mental images
to the DISIC print. Moreover, they allowed for discernment and annotation of considerably more
geologic detail than on the earlier studies. It is an understatement to say the the use of the en-
larged and transformed PAN imagery is the more desired procedure.
3.1.3 Procedures Used for Area C
Area C is bounded by Latitudes 37'00'N and 38?30' N and Longitudes 68?00' E and 70?00' E.
The mapping and compilation procedures utilized were essentially the same as for Area A with
one noteable exception: horizontal control was good. It was not necessary to blow up a small
scale 1:1,000,000 map for this project. Classified 1:250,000 scale AMS topographic map sheets
were obtained for this area through the assistance of CIA personnel. In this instance, the topo-
graphic maps were overlayed by the geographic control grid and the gross planimetric control
was lifted off directly. The DISIC photography was enlarged to scale and the detail matched
perfectly, confirming that the AMS topographic sheets were of very recent vintage and most
accurate.
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3.2 BACKGROUND RESEARCH
An effective photogeologic evaluation is always significantly enhanced when some basic
geologic "ground truth" is available. The type of information most helpful is rock-type (lithologic)
descriptions of the various rock units present and their geologic age determinations. From this
basic data, a more detailed geologic map can be prepared.
In many areas (as is the case in most of the continental United States) published geologic
maps provide an excellent foundation upon which to build a detailed and comprehensive photo-
geologic study. This fundamental data can be extrapolated to an extensive degree using the space
photographs. Thus, the ground-derived information taken from several localities can be used to
trace the geologic phenomena across the entire area in question including many locales never
visited on foot by man.
In many regions, geologic maps are either nonexistent or are nothing more than small scale
compilations of wide spread observations and are sometimes of questionable accuracy. In areas
such as these, the effectiveness of the evaluation will be greatly dependent on the interpreter's
degree of experience in photogeologic mapping.
A moderately extensive geologic research effort was undertaken for the three study areas
under consideration. Since these areas lie within Iron Curtain countries, the search could not be
conducted by the geologists working on the project using standard scientific research procedures
without unduly risking a breach of security. Therefore, the research effort was conducted with
the assistance of the Office of Basic Geographic Intelligence of the CIA.
A limited amount of useful reference material was found to be available for the subject
areas. It is possible that additional published and unpublished reference materials exist; how-
ever, the necessity to adhere to strict security procedures, as well as lack of time, precluded
a thorough and comprehensive research effort.
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The primary reference found for Areas A and B, the Tsaidam Basin, was "The Geology of
China" by Ch'ang Ta.* This publication contained the following: (1) very small scale sketch map
of the geologic outcrop pattern (see Fig. 4-1), (2) generalized descriptions of the rock types, and
(3) a brief discussion on the regional structure in the Tsaidam Basin Region. Although the infor-
mation contained herein is meager, it provided the foundation upon which the information revealed
by the space photography was applied.
Fig. 4-2 is a photographic reduction of the complete photogeologic map of Area A.
According to Ch'ang, the Tsaidam Basin belongs to the vast "NW Hercynian Zone of Fold"
of northern China. The basin is shaped like a rhomb with a broad west end and a narrow eastern
end. It is surrounded by moutain ranges. Ch'ang says:
"The Tsaidam Basin has very rich underground treasures. It also has
fertile soil and suitable agriculture and pastery climate. The area is popu-
lated mostly by our national minorities. Today, the Socialist sunlight has
already shown on the good earth of the Tsaidam. We have the responsibility
as well as the confidence to have this piece of our land built into a greater
center of the future."
Five basic rock units are recognized by Ch'ang in the Tsaidam Basin region. Ch'ang's
descriptions are summarized in the following paragraphs. The letter symbols in parentheses
refer to the symbols used on the photogeologic map (Fig. 4-2).
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4.2.1 Pre-Sinian Metamorphic System (PC or PCg)
The photogeologic interpretation indicates that this might include Precambrian metamorphic
and/or granitic rocks. The metamorphic sequence occurs in the northwest part of the mapped
area, along the northern edge of the Altin-Tagh Mountains. Several large intrusive areas in the
northwest and the western part of the project are designated as Precambrian (?) granite. It is
probable, however, that these intrusive areas are much younger than Precambrian in age.
* Ch'ang Ta, "The Geology of China," Joint Publication Research Service, JPRS no. 19,209,
16 May 1963.
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Fig. 4-1 - Outcrop map of the Tsaidam Basin (after Ch'ang Ta)
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Sr.ihe of DedOinp, loll. Iron o. sc Di sto y
P.ssi Dle --p ..0.
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ey Ded
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Fig. 4-2
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PFIOTOGEOLOGIC EVALUATION MAP
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N.W. TSAIDAM BASIN AREA
SINKIANG UIGHUR and TSINGHAI PROVINCES,
CHINA
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A notable exception to this is the outlining structures of the Altin-Tagh Mountains. This
range is anomalously aligned toward the northeast and is bounded by major faults. This is prob-
ably a relatively young fault system since the strike of the interior folds within the range and
schistocity of the older metamorphic rocks are generally aligned toward the older, west-northwest
direction.
F N10FT
Most major faults and fault systems are aligned toward the west-northwest, generally
parallel with the Kunlun Shan and Ch'.i-lien Shan Mountains.
The geologic history and chronology of geologic events is postulated by Ch'ang. It is beyond
the scope of this report to presume to question his findings, at least not until the adjacent areas
are studied in more detail.
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4.4 ILLUSTRATIONS
The following examples depict some of the more important geologic features revealed by the
photogeologic evaluation in the NW Tsaidam Basin Area. They illustrate the value of the KH-4B
imagery as well as the effectiveness of the techniques used. Their location is depicted on Fig. 4-2.
Fig. 4-3 is a dual illustration (3404 and SO-242 records) including an interpretation overlay
showing the "contact" (interface) between two major Tsaidam rock units, i.e., the lower Paleozoic
metamorphics (more resistant, darker colored) and the younger Jurassic-Cretaceous continental
sediments (red and reddish-brown banding). Note how the contact is virtually indistinguishable on
the black and white photograph, yet easily depicted on the color film. The dark-toned areas might
be indicative of basic intrusive igneous rocks. Mineralization might occur along these interfaces,
and along the traces of the numerous faults and fractures within the area. The fault zone on the
right represents the eastern-most end of the northeastward-trending "major fault zone" rimming
the Altin-Tagh Mountains.
Fig. 4-4 is a 3404 record showing a classic anticlinal structure within a central part of the
basin proper ... the "oil patch." Fig. 4-5 is the SO-242 companion photo of the same area. This
well developed structural feature is mapped in thin-bedded Tertiary Kansu strata. The individual
beds within this unit are essentially the same color, and hence the SO-242 color photography does
not materially enhance the interpretation. This classic anticlinal fold is the type of "trap" that oil
geologists continually seek. The circular, arcuate patterns that appear like rings around a tub are,
in reality, individual rock layers that have been arched into an anticlinal upwarp and beveled off
by erosion. The black dots in the crestal part of the fold are oil wells of the Yuchuantze Oil Field.
These, found as a pleasant surprise during the interpretation, indicate that: (1) this is a petrol-
iferous providence (petroleum source rocks and reservoir beds are present in the basin), and (2)
that the photo resolution is more than adequate for geologic mapping purposes.
Fig. 4-6 is a schematic cross-sectional drawing of the anticlinal structure at the Yuchuantze
Oil Field. No specific oil production data is available for this field, but no doubt the oil comes
from porous sandstone reservoir beds within the Kansu sequence.
In the typical oil producing region, oil is believed to be formed in the basin deeps from
marine shales and is squeezed by pressure into more porous rocks such as sandstone or limestone
beds. Water is also often present and, being heavier than oil, pushes the oil up the dip of the
porous reservoir bed. If the layer above the reservoir bed is impermeable (the cap rock), the oil
continues to move within the reservoir bed up dip until it is trapped in the crest of an anticlinal
upwarp, or similar trap.
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Fig. 4-7 is a stereo pair (3404 and SO-242 records) including an interpretation overlay
showing a large uplifted anticlinal fold of the box type mapped in the Jurassic-Cretaceous beds
along the outer margin of the Tsaidam Basin. The reddish-brown color of the strata is typical of
this continental sequence and provides clues regarding the lithologic character of the various
strata. Note that these color signatures are lacking in the 3404 record. The stereo pair here
gives good evidence of the need for three-dimensional depth perception for accurate photogeologic
structural mapping. Note the deep river canyon cut by erosion across the crest of the fold.
4.5 MINERAL RESOURCES
According to Ch'ang, the Tsaidam region offers considerable mineral resources potential.
The Tsaidam Basin proper contains thick Mesozoic-Cenozoic oil bearing deposits. Numerous oil
seepages have been reported. Other potential mineral resources indicated by Ch'ang are: various
metallic mineral deposits, as indicated by the presence of various acidic to basic igneous rock
bodies in the mountainous regions adjacent to the basin; coal in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata;
and salt, soda, and gypsum in the basin interior.
The following general statements are made with respect to the possible mineral and
petroleum potential of the subject area in light of the photogeologic study.
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4.5.1 Petroleum
Several producing oil fields are known in the Tsaidam Basin, including the Yuchuantze Oil
Field discussed above. No production information was available for the Yuchuantze field.
the Leng-Hu Oil Field, located at about Latitude 38?50' N andLongitude 93?00' E (mid-
way between Study Areas A and B) was discovered in 1958. It produces from a "swell" of about
three east-west trending elongated anticlines from numerous, very thin (1 to 3 meters) sandstone
layers of Tertiary Oligocene age (Kansu) at depths of about 1,000 meters. Each anticline is about
5 kilometers long and is complicated by numerous faults. The quality of the oil is good. Numerous
wells have been drilled but few produce commercially. This is due to a high water/oil production
ratio. In 1959/1960, the total output of the Tsaidam Basin was 700 tons (approximately 5,200
barrels) of crude oil per day.
The petroleum potential of Area A is restricted to the sedimentary basin in the southeast
part of the map sheet, i.e., that part of the area covered by Tertiary Kansu and Jurassic-
Cretaceous rocks. The Yuchuantze Oil Field produces from but one of about nine closed anticlinal
folds mapped in the Tertiary rocks within Area A. All of these similar folds can be expected to
be prolific in relation to the present production. One of these folds, positioned at approximately
Latitude 38?20'N and Longitude 91?30' E, is much better developed than the producing structure.
This fold is about 35-kilometers long and 10-kilometers wide, many times larger than the produc-
ing Leng-Hu Field east of this area.
It is possible that some of the box-type anticlinal folds mapped in the Jurassic-Cretaceous
beds along the margin of the basin might also prove productive, although the sedimentary section
will be thin.
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 4.2.2 Lower Paleozoic System (Nan-Shan metamorphic rock series-LPm)
This is the "ancient metamorphic rock series" consisting mainly of slates, phyllites, schist,
and various types of gneiss. It forms the main rock unit of the northern Altin-Tagh Mountains
and occurs in the Kunlun Shan and Ch'i-lien Shan areas. In the latter area, this is called the
Nan-Shan system.
4.2.3 Marine Devonian Through Permian Systems (D-P)
This sequence includes more than 2,150 meters of calcareous shale, shale, sandstone,
argillaceous limestone, black schist, and light and dark gray limestone. Similar to the South
China marine sequence, it occurs along the northern edge of the Kunlun Shan Mountains forming
the southern flank of the basin. Within the project area, this sequence is also interpreted to be
present in the foothills of the southern Altin-Tagh Mountains in the west central part of the project.
A large inferred granite intrusion is mapped here, designated as "PCg" on the map. It is, how-
ever, more likely to be post-Permian in age.
4.2.4 Jurassic-Cretaceous System (JK)
This is a continental facies lake basin sequence. It consists of a lower interval, from 900
to 2,600 meters thick of grayish-green conglomerate, sandstone, black shale, and some coal beds.
The Cretaceous system consists of as much as 1,800 meters of conglomerate, green sandstone,
and purple shale. The Jurassic -Cretaceous beds crop out in the southern foothills of the Altin-
Tagh Mountains and form the outer sedimentary rim of the Tsaidam Basin.
4.2.5 Tertiary Kansu System (Tk)
This is a continental facies sequence that represents the most widely distributed and thick-
est rock unit within the Tsaidam Basin proper. It consists of from 3,000 to 6,000 meters of
relatively thin-bedded conglomerate, sandstone, shale, and gypsum strata. This sequence varies
greatly in thickness in different parts of the basin, being thickest in the southeast part.
Above the Kansu System are the Quaternary fluvio-lake accumulations. Quaternary deposits
mapped include: lake beds (Ql), sand dunes (Qsd), terrace deposits (Qt), and undifferentiated
materials (Q), including alluvium, colluvium, fans, bolson, and aeolian deposits.
In addition to the five basic rock units described above, Ch'ang reports the presence of
various igneous bodies, including Caledonian and Hercynian age granites. On the photogeologic
map, all apparent intrusive igneous rocks are labeled "PCg." Most of these are probably younger
than Precambrian age. Along the northern edge of the Altin-Tagh Mountains a series of dark-
toned, resistant beds appear in the stream cuts. These appear to be relatively young (Tertiary ?)
volcanic rocks.
4.3 STRUCTURE
A majority of the structural features in the vicinity of the project are aligned toward the
west-northwest. The Tertiary beds are considerably deformed into elongated, faulted anticlines
and synclines. The Jurassic -Cretaceous rocks exhibit long-axial box and comb folds. The older
rock sequences adjacent to the basin exhibit relatively complex folding and faulting with the
dominant trends oriented toward the west-northwest.
Ch'ang reports that rift faults are the Tsaidam's most characteristic feature. These are
reportedly of the high-angle reverse type, where the older rocks are thrust upon the younger.
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Fig. 4-3 - 3404 and SO-242 records showing contact between two major Tsaidam
rock units (lower Paleozoic metamorphics and Jurassic-Cretaceous sedimentaries
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Fig. 4-4 - 3404 record showing classic anticlinal structure
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Fig. 4-5 - SO-242 record showing classic anticlinal structure
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Fig. 4-6 - Schematic drawing-cross section of anticlinal structure,
Yuchuantze oil field
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Fig. 4-7 - SO-242 and 3404 stereo pair showing box type anticlinal
fold-basin margin
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4.5.2 Metallic Minerals I I
Gold and silver deposits of unknown economic value have been reported* to the west and east
of the project. Ch'ang recognizes metallic mineral potential in the vicinity of various igneous rock
bodies within the metamorphic rock sequence. From this study, the most favorable areas appear
to be along the major fault zones, particularly the northeastward-trending major fault zone cross-
ing the central part of the project, and along the outer edges of the granitic or "PC" zones. The
dark-toned areas within the Lower Paleozoic sequence might also prove to be favorable areas
for metallic mineral concentrations.
4.5.3 Nonmetallic Minerals
Commercial coal bearing beds are reported to occur along the outer edges of the basin
within the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequence. Salt, potash, and gypsum in commercial quantities are
likely to be found in the vicinity of the modern interior lake basins.
4.5.4 Other
No doubt other mineral possibilities exist in the subject area. The full potential can be
thoroughly evaluated by more detailed photogeologic analysis in conjunction with additional ground
truth.
*United Nations, "Mineral Distribution Map of Asia and the Far East," 1:5,000,000, 1963.
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Major fault zones appear to outl
ine the margins of most of the dominant mountain ranges
within the area. These are probably of the high-angle reverse type, with the older rocks thrust
upon the younger. The contact relationship between the Lower Paleozoic metamorphic rocks and
the Jurassic-Cretaceous basin sediments is probably of this type.
A number of igneous intrusive bodies are mapped within the mountain ranges. These are
postulated on the basis of their land form, texture, and color characteristics and appear to inter-
rupt the characteristic metamorphic terrain. These probably include basic igneous rocks as well
as granite; their relative ages cannot be determined on the basis of the evidence revealed by the
photogeologic study.
The northwestern corner of the project area is a topographically low region covered by
various Quaternary deposits. Although no Tertiary or Mesozoic rocks were observed here, it is
possible that they are present beneath the superficial deposits and that this area represents an
isolated, structural re-entrant of the Tsaidam Basin proper.
The following examples depict some of the more interesting geologic features revealed by
the photogeologic evaluation in the subject area. Their location is depicted in Fig. 5-1.
Fig. 5-2 is a dual illustration (3404 and SO-242 records) including an interpretation overlay
showing the contact zone between the Lower Paleozoic metamorphic rocks (dark-toned, mottled,
and highly fractured) and the younger Jurassic-Cretaceous sedimentary strata (red, gray, and
reddish-brown banding). Note how the distinct color banding highlights the tight folds in the
younger beds. Within the older rock sequence, mineralization might occur along the interfaces
between the light and dark banding and along the major fault traces.
Fig. 5-3 is a dual illustration (3404 and SO-242 records) and an interpretation overlay
showing a possible mineralized zone along a prominent fault or dike. Note the white bleached-out
alignment within the dark-toned Lower Paleozoic metamorphic host rock. An area of igneous
intrusion is postulated on the upper right. Mineralization might also exist along the interface be-
tween the postulated igneous intrusive rock and the metamorphic host rock, as well as along the
more prominent fault and fractures. Zones of intersection between the major fracture zones might
be the most favorable areas for mineralization.
Fig. 5-4 is a dual illustration (3404 and SO-242 records) and an interpretation overlay of an
apparent mineralized area in the vicinity of an igneous intrusion and fault zone. Note the high-
standing, dark-toned area in the lower part of the photograph, interpreted to be an area of basic
intrusive igneous rocks. This area, occurring within the Lower Paleozoic metamorphic host rock,
is encircled by arcuate, annular streams. This is indicative of the uplift and resistant nature of
the igneous intrusion. Along the northern edge of the igneous body is a prominent fault zone,
oriented in a northwest-southeast direction. Within this zone are numerous areas exhibiting a
brick-red staining, distinctly visible on the color film but indistinguishable on the black-and-white
record. The red staining suggests a high concentration of iron oxide, possibly accompanying a
concentration of other heavy metallic minerals. Note the faint red staining within the alluvium of
the main river flood plain. The smaller streams obviously carry the heavy minerals to the main
river, dropping their load on the near bank as they reach the lower level. Note the snake-like
outcrop in the upper right corner of the photograph. This is interpreted to be a linear zone of
folded sedimentary rocks, possible of Devonian-Permian age (designated D-P).
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N.E. TSAIDAM BASIN AREA
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Fig. 5-5 is a stereo pair (3404 and SO-242 records) including an interpretation overlay
showing an apparent mineralized area in the vicinity of an igneous intrusion and fault zone. This
example is located immediately northwest of Fig. 5-4. It lies along the same fault trend as in
Fig. 5-4 and exhibits similar igneous activity and mineralization. This might be only part of a
regional northwest-trending mineralized zone along the northeastern edge of the Humboltd Shan,
in the northeast corner of the map sheet. The stereo pair depicts the strong relief in the moun-
tains bordering the Tsaidam Basin. It also points out the usefulness of stereoscopy for accurate
photogeologic mapping.
The following general statements are made with respect to the possible petroleum and
mineral potential of Area B in light of the evidence revealed by the photogeologic study.
5.5.1 Petroleum
The southwest one-third of the subject area has good petroleum potential. Only that part
of the area covered by Tertiary Kansu rocks is considered prospective however. The Jurassic-
Cretaceous sequence appears to be too strongly deformed to be prospective. Several broad anti-
clinal folds mapped within the Tertiary Kansu rocks are considered most favorable as traps for
the accumulation of hydrocarbons. Those nearer the southwest edge of the mapped area are
broader and appear to be less fault controlled than those situated near the basin margin.
The broad topographically low area in the northwest corner of the map sheet should not be
totally discounted for possible petroleum accumulations. This might be an isolated arm of the
Tsaidam Basin and might contain fairly thick sequences of Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks beneath
the unconsolidated Quaternary materials.
The mountainous region of Area B offers excellent potential for metallic mineral concen-
trations. Most of the mountain ranges are composed of Lower Paleozoic metamorphic rocks and
have undergone repeated and complex deformation. Considerable igneous intrusive activity is
apparent in many areas. The margins of most of the ranges are outlined by major fault zones.
The most prospective areas are along the major fault zones and at their points of intersection with
secondary fault or fracture belts. The contact, or interfaces, between the postulated intrusive
igneous rocks and the Lower Paleozoic metamorphic sequence are likewise most prospective.
Of particular interest are: (1) the northwest-trending mineralized fault zone in the northeast
corner of the area, as depicted by Figs. 5-4 and 5-5; (2) the possible mineralized zone shown in
Fig. 5-3; and (3) the numerous areas of apparent alteration indicated on the photogeologic maps.
5.5.3 Nonmetallic Minerals
Commercial coal beds might exist in a few places within the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequence
rimming the basin proper. Salt, potash and gypsum might be found in commercial quantities in
the vicinity of the modern interior lake basins.
No doubt other mineral possibilities exist in the area. This study could be improved immea-
surably with any additional ground truth available, such as, any other previous mining activities,
information on the composition of some of the rock suites within the Lower Paleozoic metamorphic
sequence, etc.
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Fig. 5-2 - 3404 and SO-242 records showing contact zone and tight fold
structures in Jurassic-Cretaceous
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Fig. 5-3 - 3404 and SO-242 records showing possible mineralized zone along
fault or dike
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Fig. 5-4 - 3404 and SO-242 records showing apparent mineralization (red
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Fig. 5-5 - 3404 and SO-242 stereo pair showing apparent mineralization (red
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6. AREA C-KAFIRNIGAN-PYANDZH AREA
6.1 GENERAL GEOLOGY
The Kafirnigan-Pyandzh Area falls principally within the Tadzhik Region of the USSR but
includes on the south a small part of Afghanistan. The project name relates to the Kafirnigan
River, which crosses the western part of the area, and on the south the Pyandzh River, separating
Afghanistan from the USSR.
The background research effort was most fruitful-for this study. Personnel from OBGI in
Washington, D. C. located and provided an excellent geologic reference for the project, i.e.,
Terrain Atlas, Kafirnigan Area, USSR (C), 1969, sponsored by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency, ARPA Order No. 485. The Atlas was produced to provide earth-science data for evalu-
ating the geologic environment in terms of its potential for secret underground nuclear testing.
The report is based largely on previously published earth-science data, and its great value was
the synthesis and interpretation of the basic information. Although this reference only covers
the northwest part of the area, the ground truth it provided proved an excellent guide to the mapping
of the area as a whole.
According to the ARPA Report, the subject area lies within the Tadzhik Depression in the
eastern part of the vast Scytho-Turanian Platform. It contains a very thick sequence of Mesozoic
and Tertiary sedimentary rocks, marine below and continental at the top. The formations were
subject to Alpine folding which in- this area culminated in late Tertiary time. Linear elongated
folds, associated with high-angle reverse faulting were produced, resulting in a rugged linear
terrain. The ridges are closely spaced in the north and tend to diverge farther south. This
phenomenon, resembling the spreading fingers of a hand, is called the Tadzhik Virgation.
6.2 ROCKS EXPOSED
Geologically this area is quite different from the Tsaidam Basin. The rocks exposed are
entirely of the sedimentary type and no igneous or metamorphic (hard rock) areas are exposed.
The sedimentary sequence includes rocks of Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Teritary ages overlain in
places by various Quaternary deposits. The sequence is characterized by seven individual forma-
tions (or units), each of which has its own identifying lithologic characteristics. The stratigraphic
sequence, from oldest to youngest, is as follows.
6.2.1 Upper Jurassic Undifferentiated-(Ju)
This is the oldest sequence in the project. It includes gypsum with thin beds of gypsiferous
claystone, and local rock-salt beds (20 to 30 meters exposed). Most exposures are associated
with major reverse faults and often occur below an irregular boundary marked by dome-like
swellings separated by saddles reflecting in the overlying younger strata.
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6.2.2 Lower Cretaceous Undifferentiated- K
This is relatively a thick complex of interbedded red claystone and red and gray sandstone,
laterally very variable in lithology and in thickness of individual lithologic units. The total thick-
ness remains rather constant however, from 500 to 700 meters. This sequence is commonly
exposed below the Upper Cretaceous in the eroded, eastern flanks of the mountain-forming
anticlines.
6.2.3 Upper Cretaceous Undifferentiated- (K2)
This sequence includes largely grayish-claystone commonly interbedded with sandstone or
limestone with occasional interbeds of gypsum, capped in places by a thin sequence of interbedded
limestone and gypsum. The thickness varies from 400 to 1,300 meters. These beds are generally
exposed in the relatively steep east-facing slopes of the mountain ranges, below the Bukhara
limestone cap rock.
6.2.4 Bukhara Limestone (Paleocene)-(Tbl)
This is a hard dense gray limestone with dolomite and gypsum interbeds. This dark-toned,
resistant formation is the main ridge-former, capping the crests of nearly all of the anticlinal
mountain ranges within the region.
6.2.5 Eocene-Lower and Middle Oligocene Undifferentiated-(Tc)
This sequence is composed primarily of vari-colored marine claystone with occasional
beds of limestone, marl, and sandstone. It ranges in thickness from 365 to 500 meters. It is
typically light-toned and moderately resistant, often forming. V-shaped hogbacks along the western
flanks of the Bukhara anticlinal ridges.
6.2.6 Bol'dzhuan Formation (Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene)-(Tbs)
This is a continental facies sequence composed of maroon, wine-red, or brick-red sand-
stone and siltstone, often including claystone. Its thickness varies greatly from 220 to 1,000
meters. It usually crops out in bands of varying widths, indicating considerable variation in
thickness, on the western mountain slopes above the more resistant marine rocks of the Tc unit.
6.2.7 Garauty Formation (Miocene)-(Tg)
This is a continental sandstone and siltstone sequence, generally light brown to tan in color.
It varies in thickness from 435 to 1,800 meters and rests on the eroded upper surface of the
Bol'dzhuan formation, generally along the gentle western dip-slopes of the mountain ranges.
Most of these rock units are considerably mantled by various Quaternary deposits, the
most widespread of which is the Dushanbe and Ilyak Series, a thick loess deposit.
Although the ARPA Report, from which the above descriptions are summarized, only
covers the northwest part of the area under consideration, the ground truth it provided proved
an excellent guide to the mapping of the entire area. From the lithological descriptions above,
it was possible to identify the various formations outside the area of the ARPA Report and map
the entire area, probably more accurately than it had ever been done before. Fig. 6-1 is a
photographic reduction of the photogeologic map.
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PHOTOGEOLOGIC EVALUATION
of the
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UZBEKSKAYA and TADZHIKSKAYA PROVINCES, USSR.
and
KUNDUZ PROVINCE, AFGHANISTAN
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The regional structure of the subject area is relatively simple. In detail it is complicated
and only partly understood. The linear, subparallel elongated folds of the region are generally
outlined on the east by long, probably high-angle, reverse faults, down-thrown on the east. These
faults cut all formations of Tertiary age or older and commonly form rugged fault scarps. A
number of normal faults of considerable length were mapped along the west edge of some of the
major structures. These linear faulted anticlines are closely spaced in the north but tend to
diverge and become more open farther south. In the northern part of the subject area, several
east-west trending strike-slip faults were found. These appear to be left-lateral structural
features associated with the northern zone of major structural change.
The following examples depict some of the more important stratigraphic and structural
features revealed by the photogeologic evaluation within the subject area. These, more than any
others, vividly portray the value of color for photogeologic mapping with the KH-4B System.
Their locations are depicted on Fig. 6-1
Fig. 6-2 is a dual illustration and interpretation overlay depicting graphically the value of
color for distinguishing between the various rock formations within a given area. The black and
white photograph on the left is useful up to a point. The bold mountain-forming Bukhara limestone
is easily identified by its topographic prominence, as it forms the "backbone" of most of the
linear mountain ranges in the region. Likewise, the Eocene claystone unit, labeled "Tc," is
identifiable by its V-shaped hogback ridges. Above these marine units the stratigraphic sequence
changes to a continental facies. The change in color reflects this characteristic. Note the deep
maroon-red color of the Bol'dzhuan formation and how easily it can be distinguished from the
overlying Garauty formation on the SO-242 color imagery. This contact (interface) is virtually
indistinguishable on the 3404 record on the left. The deep red signature of the Bol'dzhuan forma-
tion proved to be the most reliable mapping marker within the project.
Fig. 6-3 is a dual illustration and an interpretation overlay showing essentially the same
part of the stratigraphic section as in Fig. 6-2. Observe the continuity of formational color and
topographic characteristics. Note how the prominent backbone of the mountain ridge is formed
on the characteristic Bukhara limestone. The west flank is the dip-slope and the east flank is
the rugged and highly-faulted obsequent slope. The Lower Cretaceous rocks beneath the Bukhara
are relatively easily eroded and do not display recognizable identifying characteristics.
Fig. 6-4 is a stereo-pair and an interpretation overlay depicting an elongated, faulted
anticline along the west edge of the study area. The bold Bukhara limestone forms the backbone
of the anticlinal mountain range. The V-shaped hogbacks etched by erosion on the "Tc" unit
encircle the prominent uplift. The reddish-hued Bol'dzhuan formation is apparent on the west
flank, even though it is heavily mantled by Quaternary loess deposits.
This structure typifies the characteristic structural forms found within the area. The linear
faulted anticlinal ranges broaden toward the south and become more prospective for the entrapment
of hydrocarbons. To the north they become tighter and more highly faulted, thus diminishing their
petroleum potential.
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Fig. 6-2 - 3404 and SO-242 records showing typical sedimentary section,
Kafirnigan-Pyandzh area
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9
As a result of the photogeologic mapping together with the information contained in the ARPA
Report, the following general statements can be made with respect to the mineral and petroleum
potential of the area.
6.5.1 Petroleum and Natural Gas
Oil and gas are being produced from anticlinal structures east and west of the study area.
No production data has been obtained for these fields. The numerous elongated anticlinal folds of
the region are excellent prospects where closure exists and where faulting is not too severe.
Therefore, the southern part of the area is most prospective since the folds broaden in that
direction.
6.5.2 Metallic Minerals
The potential for metallic minerals within the region is not known. No igneous or metamor-
phic rocks have been reported in the area. The greatest potential for metallic mineral concen-
trations would likely be along the northern margin of the area where the structural deformation is
known to be strongest.
6.5.3 Nonmetallic Minerals
Some local bituminous coal deposits are mined north of the area, but the coal potential for
most of the region is slight. Sand, gravel, and loess deposits are plentiful from the various
Quaternary materials widely distributed across the area. Brick clay is likely abundant from
the upper Cenozoic and Quaternary deposits. Lime, marl, dolomite, and building stone is plentiful
from the Bukhara and "Tc" formations. Gypsum and rock salt are available from the Jurassic
and Cretaceous outcrops as well as the Bukhara limestone.
6.5.4 Other
Although doubtless other mineral possibilities exist for the area, they cannot be realistically
appraised without additional ground truth.
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Fig. 6-3 - 3404 and SO-242 records showing sedimentary section,
Kafirnigan-Pyandzh area
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Fig. 6-4 - SO-242 and 3404 stereo pair showing faulted anticlinal structure
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The following conclusions have been reached from the foregoing study.
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7.1 EFFECTIVE PHOTOGEOLOGIC MAPPING CAN BE ACHIEVED
USING THE KH-4B SYSTEM
The results of the three photogeologic mapping projects indicate that the KH-4B System,
originally developed for military intelligence purposes, is uniquely well suited to photogeologic
mapping. The completed photogeologic maps are immediately useable for assessing the mineral
and petroleum potential of the subject areas. They could be presently used, if feasible, to make
new mineral discoveries. The quality of the maps, however, could be improved by employing
the best aspects of interpretation and compliation learned from these initial studies.
Comparing these studies with conventional photogeologic mapping projects provides some
interesting insights into the efficiency of using the KH-4B materials. In total area, these three
studies embrace approximately 36,000 square miles. A standard photogeologic study using
conventional aerial photography at the basic approximate scale of 1:40,000 would require an
experienced photogeologist to expend approximately 3 man-years and would require him to
analyze about 3,600 aerial photographs. This is compared with him using approximately 72
PAN images and expending about 3 months to achieve essentially comparable results using the
KH-4B System. This is to say that a photogeologic study using the KH-4B material would require
from 10 to 15 percent expenditure of time and money as compared to using conventional aerial
photography.
For regional photogeologic mapping, the main advantages of the KH-4B System are:
(1) overall synoptic view, (2) polar orbit (no inaccessible areas), (3) stereoscopic perspective,
(4) vertical (rectified), (5) resolution, and (6) color. The first four of these, while important,
are not necessarily indigenous to this system but are typical of other space photography systems.
The unique qualities of the KH-4B System, resolution and color, are most important, as discussed
below.
For photogeologic mapping, the use of color photography has distinct advantages over
black and white. Color provides: (1) easier differentiation between rock types; (2) more ac-
curate tracing of individual sedimentary beds; (3) more definitive clues as to the exact nature
of lithology (rock type), and hence is far more valuable in areas of limited ground truth; (4) better
identification of specific formation signatures, and (5) oxidation halos and discoloration zones
indicative of possible mineralization.
It is recognized that the use of the SO-242 color film has resulted in reduced resolution
from the 3404 operational standard. For photogeologic analysis, however, this loss of resolution
is insignificant when compared to the interpretive value gained by color. Resolution of 20 to 30
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feet is entirely adequate for most regional photogeologic mapping projects, and the SO-242 color
film easily meets that standard. By using both the 3404 and SO-242 film in a stereoscopic mode,
as was done for this study, the advantages of both are obtained with very little sacrifice of the
useful qualities of each type.
7.3 THE KH-4B SYSTEM REPRESENTS AN IMPORTANT BREAKTHROUGH
FOR NATIONAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION
The economic and political impact of this cannot be overstated. While the world-wide
demand increases dramatically for minerals and fossil fuels (those resources in fixed supply),
our ability to locate and harvest these hidden deposits lags far behind.
Experts agree that exploration from space offers a potential breakthrough in large scale
exploration techniques. Virtually every major exploration advance inthe last 20 years has been
on-the-ground detectors of one sort or another. These are detailing geophysical tools, whose
use is very expensive in relation to area analyzed, and must be used selectively. A prerequisite
to their proper and efficient use is a conduct of effective preliminary reconnaissance studies to
localize areas of most promise.
Exploration from space provides an enlarged prospective, a previously unattainable synoptic
view of the earth. Though the geologists' discipline is a study of the earth, until now he has never
seen it. With his vision broadened from this space perspective, he is enabled to search for oil
provinces instead of oil fields and mineral districts instead of mineral deposits.
The barrier of inaccessibility has been broken. No area is inaccessible or too remote for
the polar-orbiting satellite. Now the entire earth is the geologist's true laboratory. The dramatic
oil discovery at Prudhoe Bay, north of the Arctic Circle in Alaska, and the subsequent $900 million
investment in adjacent land by oil companies indicate that no areas are too remote for raw mate-
rials exploration.
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