CORONA PROGRAM HISTORY VOLUME III CORONA CAMERAS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP89B00980R000500090001-0
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: T
• Document Page Count: 62
• Document Creation Date: December 16, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 24, 2004
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: May 19, 1976
• Content Type: RP

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TITLE PAGE ....................................................
Page
i
PUBLICATION REVIEW ..............................................
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................
iii
DISTRIBUTION ...................................................
iv
SECTION I -
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ...............................
1-1
SECTION II -
SATELLITE CAMERA EVOLUTION ............................
2-1
SECTION III -
THE J-3 SYSTEM ......................................
3-1
SECTION IV -
THERMAL CONTROL ...................................
4-1
SECTION V -
FILMS, FILTERS, AND SAMPLES OF CORONA IMAGERY .............
5-1
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For
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Attention of
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CIA/Archives
CIA/OD&E
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1
ITEK
J. Wolfe
M. Morton
Q. Riepe
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During World War II, the Air Corps persuaded Dr. James Baker, an astronomer at the Harvard University
Observatory, to establish an optics laboratory at Harvard to expand this nation's optical systems design
capabilities. Up until this time, the US had been largely dependent on other countries for precision optics.
By 1946, the laboratory staff of approximately 36 people had achieved a number of spectacular results.
Their accomplishments included the test or production of the following cameras by the end of World War II:
the 6 inch, f/2.8, 120 degree wide angle; the 40 inch, f/5.0, low distortion telephoto; the 60 inch, f/5.0
telephoto; the 100 inch, f/10.0 anastigmat; and the 36 inch, f/8.0 apochromat.
At the end of the War, Harvard decided to terminate the laboratories' activities, and Dr. Baker returned
to teaching and his work at the Observatory. Dr. Duncan Macdonald, an assistant to Dr. Baker at Harvard,
agreed to head up the group. It was also decided to move this function to Boston University. Here, the
Physical Research Laboratory (BURPRL) was formed with the goal of studying all the parameters of the aerial
photographic process from atmospheric effects to the process of photographic information extraction by humans.
Faced with an Air Force decision in 1957 to cut back the effort at the Laboratory, a group headed by Richard
Leghorn and Dr. Macdonald were successful in securing sufficient financial backing to buy the laboratory
from Boston University. In October 1957, Itek Corporation was founded with Richard Leghorn as President.
In January 1958, Itek acquired more than 100 personnel and the facilities of the Boston University Physical
Research Laboratory.
During the mid-fifties, a milestone in Itek's history was achieved when the Laboratory, under the direction
of Duncan Macdonald and Walter Levison (then assistant director of the Laboratory), developed the 12 inch
HYAC I camera, a panoramic camera designed for high altitude, balloon-borne operation. The camera
demonstrated its capability with a startling photograph of Omaha, Nebraska, taken under cloudy conditions
from an altitude of nearly 20 miles. This picture of Offutt Air Force Base showed several B-52 aircraft parked
in a line and ready to be counted. Levison took a LOX blowup (2 x 20 feet) of this picture to General
Curtis LeMay, then Air Force Chief of Staff, and graphically convinced the General of Itek's camera design
and development capability. From this acceptance, Itek received its first major aerial reconnaissance camera
program for the HYAC I. The camera produced a negative 2.75 inches by 25 inches over a field of 120 degrees
by rotating the lens about its rear node at the center of a cylindrical platen. HYAC I incorporated an f/5.0
lens and consistently achieved high altitude photography at over 80 lines per millimeter. A picture of the
HYAC I camera and the lOX HYAC I enlarger is shown as Figure 1-1.
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At about this time, the CORONA Program request for proposal was issued, and Itek scaled up its basic
HYAC I design to 24 inches and proposed this camera in competition with Fairchild Camera Company.'Itek
won the competition, but because there was doubt as to Itek's ability to meet the manufacturing requirements
of the program, Fairchild was directed to manufacture the camera and Itek to provide the lenses. It should be
noted that up until this point in time, the Boston University group had primarily built only prototypes, with the
final cameras being manufactured in quantity by other companies. This was the beginning of the CORONA
Camera Program and the start of a decade of development that would see: (1) ground resolved distance
improved from 25 feet to better than 4.5 feet by the last configuration (J-3); (2) mission life extended from
one day to 19 days; and (3) significantly improved reliability. A summary of the evaluation of CORONA
camera systems is given in Table 1-1. The number of flights, camera type, and film load for each system
are presented in Table 1-2. The history of original film returned by CORONA camera systems is summarized
in Table 1-3.
Characteristics
C
C'
C"
M
J(J-1)
J-3
Camera
Manufacturer
Units
Fairchild
10
Fairchild
10
Itek
6
Itek
26
Itek
52
Itek
17
Launched
Lens
Manufacturer
Design
Type
Itek
Tessar,
24 inch,
f/5.0
Itek
Tessar,
24 inch,
f/5.0
Itek
Petzval,
24 inch,
f/3.5
Itek
Petzval,
24 inch,
f/3.5
Itek
Petzval,
24 inch,
f/3.5
Itek
Petzval
24 inch,
f/3.5
Camera
700 pan,
700 pan,
700 pan,
700 pan,
700 pan,
700 pan,
Type
Exposure
Control
vertical,
recipro-
cating
Fixed
vertical,
recipro-
cating
Fixed
vertical,
recipro-
cating
Fixed
300 stereo,
recipro-
cating
Fixed
300 stereo,
recipro-
cating
Fixed
300 stereo,
rotating
(4) Slits
selectable
Filter
Control
Fixed
Fixed
Fixed
Fixed
Fixed
(2) Filters
selectable
Primary Film
1213/
1221/
4404/
4404/
3404/
3404, 3414/
(film/base)
Recovery
acetate
1
polyester
1
polyester
1
polyester
1
polyester
2
polyester
2
Vehicles
Subsystem
None
None
0/1
1/1
2/2
2/1
(Stellar/Index)
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Time Period
1959-1960
1960-1961
1961-1962
1962-1963
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No of
System
Camera
Film
Flights
Designator
Type
Load
10
C
Mono Camera
40 lbs
10
Cl
Mono Camera
40 lbs
6
Coil
Mono Camera
40 lbs
26
M
Stereo Camera
80 lbs
52
J (J-1)
Stereo Camera/2 buckets
160 lbs
17
J-3
Stereo Camera/2 buckets
160 lbs
Year
Flights
Designator
Film
Recovered
Mission Flight
Numbers
1959
5
C
0%
9001-9005
1960
5
C
20%
9009 1st recovery
9006-9010
3
C'
33%
9011-9013
1961
7
Cl
29%
9015, 17, 19,
21, 26-28
5
C"'
66%
9022-25, 29
1962
1
Coll
0%
9030
17
M
69%
9031-41, 43-4
5, 47-50
1963
9
M
66%
9051-54, 56, 5
7, 60-62
2
J
50%
1001, 02
1964
13
J
73%
1003-15
1965
13
J
87.5%
1016-28
1966
9
J
87%
1029-37
1967
7
J
99%
1038-44
2
J-3
100%
1101, 02
1968
5
J
97%
1045-49
3
J-3
99%
1103-05
1969
3
J
94%
1050-52
3
J-3
83%
1106-08
1970
4
J-3
94%
1109-12
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1971
2
J-3
99%
1114-15
1116-17
1972
2
J-3
100%
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The Itek management and technical organization responsible for the design, development, and fabrication
of CORONA cameras and components are outlined by camera system in Figure 1-2.
The facilities employed by Boston University and Itek Corporation in the period leading up to and during
the CORONA era expanded to meet changing requirements. The following comments relate to these facilities.
A composite photograph of the facilities identified by these numbers is presented in Figure 1-3.
1. Original Boston University Physical Research Laboratory (BUPRL), 320 Bay State Road
During 1946 to 1950, it included complete optical and machine shops combined with system
design and test capabilities. From this plant came numerous aerial camera prototypes which eventually led
to the CORONA cameras.
Here the capabilities were expanded, the staff enlarged, and BUPRL entered the aerial
reconnaissance field on a nationally recognized level. The Institute of Aerial Photography was held here
jointly by Boston University and the BU Research Laboratories.
The Vectron Company was acquired by Itek in 1958; this acquisition significantly improved Itek's
manufacturing and allied capabilities. This became Itek's Environmental Test Laboratory (ETL) which was
responsible for the component and system environmental testing of the Fairchild and Itek satellite camera systems.
4. The Waltham Watch Plant
This Plant was leased in part to house the management, engineering, and technical staff utilized
on the CORONA Program. The staff consisted of both former BUPRL employees and new personnel.
5. The Newton Plant
This former dairy proved to be a natural facility for the assembly of the CORONA, M, 1-1, and
the Stellar/Index cameras. Having been a dairy, all walls and floors were tiled, effectively creating a semi-
clean room atmosphere.
6. Burlington 9 Facility
This Facility housed the staff for the J-3 design, fabrication, and assembly which was later
tested at Itek's ETL area.
7. Lexington 1
This was Itek's largest building. It housed the Optical Systems Division management, corporate
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r1"J Itek
y President
Scientific
Advisor
Operations
Director
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ITEK MANAGEMENT AND TECHNICAL ORGANIZATION FROM 1958 TO 1972
R. Leghorn
D. Macdonald
R. Philbrick (V.P.)
Project B. Marcus
Manager B. Pollock (Fairchild)
J. Carter (Gen. Mgr.)
C. Aschenbrenner
J. Wolfe, T. Hoban T. Hoban, F. Madden, G. Nelson F. Madden, D. Kelliher
J. Manent (Stellar/Index) M. Burnett
Engineering and J. Herther F. Madden H. Alpaugh, A. Leverone, G. Ross, D. Ruggere, E. Tice, R. Wardell
Operations T. Hoban R. Shannon
Staff F. Smith R. Sheppard EKrr Test Program: H. Alpaugh, R. Kohler, E. Myskowski, G. Pittman,
J. Wolfe J. Wilkinson
Technical R. Babcock, C. Eaton, C. Hanks, S. Herman, R. Melberger, K. Olsen, R. Ondrejka, W. Poe, W. Reusch, H. Sprague, J. Watson
Contributors
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research and development, optical engineering, test and fabrication, environmental testing, research and
administrative computers, and other allied elements.
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The following is a chronological summary of the parameters and flight history of each CORONA camera
configuration:
THE C AND C PRIME (C') CAMERAS
The first ten C cameras and ten C' cameras were manufactured by Fairchild with only minor differences
between the two versions. The camera was a 70 degree scan, vertical-looking, reciprocating, panoramic
camera that exposed film by scanning at right angles to the line-of-flight. Both the C and C' incorporated a
24 inch, f/5.0 high acuity Tessar lens manufactured by Itek. Figure 2-1 provides a composite of photos of
the C camera and its elements.
During 1959, five C systems were launched and of the three that achieved orbit, all failed; one on the
first revolution, one on the second, with the third camera not operating at all. In 1960, eight missions were
attempted; five cameras were orbited, and three capsules were retrieved. DISCOVERER XI marked the first
apparently successful (according to telemetry) camera operation. Unfortunately, the recovery failed and the
payload was lost. On DISCOVERER XIII, a diagnostic mission without cameras aboard, the capsule was
successfully recovered. This was immediately followed by DISCOVERER XIV.
The historic first, DISCOVERER XIV, was launched on 18 August 1960. The camera operated satisfactorily
and the capsule was recovered. It is worth noting that the film recovered from this single, 7 revolution
mission yielded more photographic aerial coverage of the Soviet Union than all of the U-2 flights to that
point. A major deficiency in the recovered film was the presence of plus and minus-density bars (pressure
streaks) running diagonally across the format, an anomaly not detected during the preflight test simulations.
The photography yielded ground resolution of approximately 25 feet. Telemetry indicated that camera operation
was again good on DISCOVERER XV, but the re-entry vehicle (RV) sank before it could be retrieved.
DISCOVERER XVI carried the first C' camera, but the AGENA failed to achieve orbit. DISCOVERER XVIII
was the first successful operation of the C' camera and 7,012 feet of film were retrieved. Image quality was
judged to be as good as the best from DISCOVERER XIV. Therefore, although five cameras were orbited in
1960, only two returned film loads, two failed, while the other apparently operated well, but the capsule was
lost.
During 1961, the last four of the Fairchild C' systems were flown. Of the four C' cameras launched,
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two achieved orbit, one camera failed on revolution 22, and the fourth returned a full roll of film. In summary,
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from June 1959 to December 1961, a total of 20 C or C' camera missions were launched with five of them
yielding usable photography. The failures resulted from a variety of system problems, only some of which
were camera related.
THE C TRIPLE PRIME (C"') CAMERA
The operational history of the early C camera flights and the experience gained during the environmental
testing prompted Itek to undertake a number of basic design changes to the camera. Improved photographic
performance and operational reliability were the goals of this effort. This design change work began in the
fall of 1959. The formal unsolicited proposal for the C"' camera was submitted in late 1959, and shortly
thereafter a contract awarded to Itek.
The basic operational problems and design changes addressed by the C"' camera were: (1) the main
structure, (2) camera controls, (3) the method of metering film and achieving and maintaining camera focus,
(4) the lens/scan arm design and operation, and (5) the lens itself.
The camera structure proposed for the C"' consisted of a single honeycomb main plate so that all
components had a common reference surface. The Fairchild C and C' cameras used three plates, similar to a
watch. With this Fairchild "sandwich" design, a number of shafts and rods supporting components and
attached to gears passed through all three plates. However, with thermal differentials as high as 150?F
between the two outside skins of the vehicle and as high as 50?F across the camera, the shafts were
susceptible to misalignment. The Itek single main plate concept eliminated this possibility. It should be
noted that construction of a honeycomb plate of this size (4 feet in diameter) back in 1959 was considered
experimenting in a relatively advanced stage of fabrication techniques.
To improve the camera control network reliability, Itek proposed that the C and C' electrical timing
network actuated through switches (thus creating effectively an open loop) be replaced with a system in
which all sequential camera operations were mechanically linked together with hardware. Further, to reduce
the noise (primarily vibration) introduced to the camera system, Itek proposed to replace the camera gear
system with rubber coated stainless steel timing and drive belts. The Geneva drive mechanism is a highly
reliable mechanical sequencing system used for film transport throughout the camera system.
In the earlier camera design, film was metered across a curved metal platen, and spring-loaded pressure
rollers mounted on the scan head pressed the film against the platen during exposure to achieve correct focus.
r This system was susceptible to pressure marking of the film and out-of-focus operation. First, the current
state-of-the-art in casting was not sufficiently advanced to consistently provide platens of sufficient
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smoothness across the total scan area. Further, high temperature differentials across the camera could
introduce distortions to the curvature of the platen. These same temperature extremes could also cause a
fluctuation in the tension of the springs that force the focal plane rollers against the film, again affecting
focus and possibly inducing pressure marking.
In the C"' design, Itek eliminated the platen and metered film onto rails with a radius slightly less than
the lens focal length. Rollers rigidly attached to a scan head which carried the rear lens element lifted the
film off the rails to position it in the exact focal plane. With this design, the machining and temperature effect
tolerances of the rails were far less stringent. With the total lens and scan head structure athermalized,
focus was maintained, thus permitting some thermal excursions throughout the life of a given mission.
The early C"' camera scan heads incorporated two rollers for positioning the film at the focal plane of the
lens. It soon became apparent, however, that the zero-g and vacuum environment of the spacecraft was
causing the edges of the wrapped film on the supply spool to outgas. This outgassing would then cause a
curl differential across the film when it was metered off the supply spool. In the later C"' cameras, Itek
introduced a four roller scan head which added a leading and trailing roller so that the film was dynamically
dampened and flattened just prior to exposure. This modification virtually eliminated curl which had produced
discernible focus change across the film web.
During vibration testing of the C and C' cameras, problems were encountered in controlling the large
diameter (20 inches) film spools required for the CORONA missions. When simulating the vibration input of
launch, the film tended to despool, and the spool flanges flexed so that the film wraps could slide against
each other. This sliding action generated heat in local areas that caused adjoining wraps of film to weld.
When the film was metered off the supply spool, these welded spots often tore holes in the film. Figure 2-2
shows examples of film welding, fracturing, and rippling resulting from flight simulation testing. The problem
was resolved by introducing a backup tension on the supply spool hub to take up the film slack and mechanical
snubbers that limit the excursion of the spool flanges. With this design, the film wrap remained firm despite
the launch induced vibration.
In the Fairchild design, the lens and scan arm formed a single unit which reciprocated after each
photographic scan. The torque generated by this back and forth motion of a relatively large mass resulted
in vacillating motions to the AGENA, and elaborate electrical and mechanical counterbalancing features were
required to compensate for these effects. Itek proposed uncoupling the lens and the scan arm so that the
heavier lens rotated constantly and the lighter scan arm oscillated. Only when the scan arm was ready to
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start exposure were the lens and scan arm recoupled. At the end of scan, the lens would continue to rotate,
film was metered, the scan arm returned to the start-scan position, and again the lens and scan arm were
recoupled for the next exposure. This design eliminated most of the compensating mechanisms required by
the earlier design, and again reliability was improved by simplifying the camera. Velocity over height input
to the camera was accomplished by a motorized potentiometer which had 10 start and stop levels that were
selectable by real time command. Image motion compensation (IMC) was accomplished mechanically by
causing the lens system to move opposite to the direction of flight during scan and then return for the next
cycle.
The basic goal of any camera design is to permit, as far as is possible, the lens to perform up to the
limit of its capability. The simplicity of the C"' camera made it possible to introduce a faster lens system
(24 inch, f/3.5, Petzval) in place of the f/5.0 Tessar. The improved camera design of the C"', combining
simplicity and reliability together with the higher quality, faster Petzval lens, could now produce photography
with twice the ground resolution as that acquired from the C and C' cameras. A Wratten 12 filter was used,
and slit width exposure times were provided. Unperforated thin base (3.5 mils) mylar 70mm film (Film Types
SO-221 and 8402) was used; and a full supply weighed 40 pounds. Figure 2-3 presents two views of the
C"' camera in a test stand.
The physical characteristics of the Petzval lens remained virtually unchanged throughout the life of the
CORONA Program. However, performance of the lenses was continually upgraded. This continuing improvement
in lens performance was accomplished by taking advantage of improved optical glass, Itek computer technology,
advanced lens and lens cell fabrication and test techniques, and an overall constriction of lens tolerances.
From the introduction of the Petzval lens in the C'to the conclusion of the program, lens performance
improved by better than 40 percent.
Two horizon cameras with a 90mm focal length and shutter speed of 1/200 second were used for attitude
determination. The C"' system was designed to operate at an altitude of 100 - 110 nautical miles for a
duration of four days and was expected to produce resolutions in the area of ten feet ground resolved
distance (GRD).
The first C"' mission, DISCOVERER XXIX, was launched on 30 August 1961. The full 6,798 foot film
load was exposed and successfully retrieved. Image quality was significantly improved over any previous
flight, as this mission achieved 12 foot ground resolution versus the 25 feet from earlier missions. What is
v even more significant is that this quality was achieved despite a film focus problem. The new Petzval f/3.5
lens was computed to require a 0.016 inch adjustment from the air focus in order to be correct in the vacuum
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THE C TRIPLE PRIME (C"') CAMERA IN TEST STAND
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of space. This setting proved to be too high with the result that the first C"' photography was slightly
out-of-focus. New glass and vacuum index figures were prepared by the National Bureau of Standards. These
figures, together with significantly refined thermal lens shift data, allowed for a lower (0.015 inch) preflight
focus setting. With this modification, the cameras were eventually achieving photographic quality nearly
identical to that achieved in preflight testing.
A total of six C"' units were delivered to Itek. Following the first successful flight in August 1961, a
second successful mission was launched on 12 September 1961; the recovered photography was again
excellent, and the out-of-focus problem of the previous mission had been eliminated. Power problems
plagued the next two missions. DISCOVERER XXXI failed before recovery although camera operation was good.
Suspected AGENA power problems prompted early recovery of DISCOVERER XXXII with only 2,107 feet of film
retrieved, again with excellent quality. DISCOVERER XXXVI, carrying the fifth C"' camera, provided the best
results to date. Not only was the image quality outstanding, but this mission also included the successful
testing of 2,000 feet of SO-132 film, marking the introduction of this new high definition aerial film to the
program. In the final C"' mission, launched 13 January 1962, the AGENA failed and no orbit was achieved.
ARGON was a framing camera designed to satisfy the earth mapping requirements of the Army Map Service
(AM S). This camera was built by Fairchild Camera and Instruments Company. The ARGON camera had a focal
length of 3" and was designed to operate at an altitude of 165 nm. The film width was 5 inches. Although
the image resolution was low the per frame area coverage was high. This system provided significant mapping
and geodetic data on the Soviet Bloc in support of US military requirements. Of the ten systems launched
between 17 February 1961 and 29 October 1963, only four were recovered. Three failed to achieve orbit, two
failed to separate, and one separated but was not recovered. A contract was let for a follow-on program
consisting of four additional systems. Two were launched (June and August 1964) and successfully recovered.
The remaining two systems were never launched and were stored by the Government. Figure 2-4 shows
different views of the components of the ARGON system.
THE MURAL CAMERA
During 1961, Itek developed the MURAL (M) camera system which provided stereoscopic photography.
It is an axiom of aerial reconnaissance that the information content of photography is improved by a factor of
two and one-half times with stereo coverage. Thus, the introduction of the M system marked a major step
forward in the CORONA Program.
The M system consisted of two C"' cameras on a common mount, one looking 15 degrees aft from
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vertical and the other 15 degrees forward. Each camera was fed from an individual supply spool (40 pounds
of film) mounted on the back of the camera's main plate. The film was panoramically exposed through 70
degrees of lens cell assembly rotation. After exposure, the film from each camera was fed into individual
takeup spools in a common cassette. When the forward-looking camera photographed a scene, this same
scene would be photographed six frames later by the aft-looking camera, thus providing a 30 degree
convergent angle for stereo photography. Simultaneous operation of both cameras was required for stereo
photography. The M system configuration further improved CORONA reliability by mounting the two cameras
back to back. Because the cameras operated (scanned) in opposite directions, they tended to offset any
operating imbalances and thereby improved overall system dynamic balance. The M system was capable of
a six to seven day mission compared to the three to four day missions of the C"' and the earlier one day
missions. The system was designed for nominal altitudes of 110 nautical miles. Dynamic resolution was
80 - 110 lines per millimeter. Figures 2-5 thru 2-7 present different portrayals of the M system.
The first M system, Mission 9031, was launched on 27 February 1962, and the stereo photography was
excellent. It should be noted that there were no more missions designated as DISCOVERER flights. In addition
to acquiring the first stereo photography, this mission also provided the first binary data block on the film.
The M system continued the high degree of performance reliability achieved by the C"' . Between 27 February
1962 and 21 December 1963, 26 M systems were launched, 24 achieved orbit, and 20 were recovered. There
were no camera failures. The overall quality rating of this photography was excellent.
During the M system portion of the program, a serious problem developed because of electrical
awl
discharging on the exposed film. This marking, commonly known as corona discharge, was first noted on the
flight film of Mission 9040 launched on 27 July 1962. The problem persisted, and Itek consulted
- Dr. Edward Purcell, then a Nobel Laureate member of the Itek Science Advisory Board. Dr. Purcell identified
the problem as the film, traveling at high speeds over the rubber rollers in a vacuum, creating in effect a Van
- DeGraff generator. The film picked up the charge going over the rollers, and the charge was then released
over the film. Although Dr. Purcell successfully identified the problem, unfortunately, he was unable to
offer any solutions on how to resolve it.
Finally, after experimenting with numerous varieties of rubber compound, a source of suitable rubber was
found through the joint efforts of technicians from Itek and the rubber roller manufacturer. Through an extensive
testing program, those rollers which avoided the corona discharge under simulated flight conditions were
identified. While the precise scientific reason for this selective process was not understood, the results
were successful. Shorly after the new rollers were introduced to the system, a pressure makeup unit (PMU)
was designed and incorporated to control the spacecraft environment by introducing dry nitrogen with each
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M #;ystem with Index Camera
and Film Takeup Spools in Test Stand
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Franklin Lindsay, Laurance Rockefeller, and John Wolfe
observe camera at Itek's Environmental Test Facility
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camera-operate command. The PMU maintained a predetermined pressure environment where corona discharge
would not occur. However, the PMU unit was always considered as a backup system as it was a prime
requirement that the camera system should be capable of providing corona-free photography without a PMU.
During the M system lifetime, two frame cameras were introduced to the system; first an Index and later
a Stellar-Index (SI). The Index camera was first flown on Mission 9031 (27 February 1962), and the first SI
camera on Mission 9045 (30 September 1962). Although the index camera was beset by early problems, the
SI camera ultimately evolved into a valuable tool for photo interpreters. The Stellar camera was mounted on a
common, rigid, L-shaped frame with the Index camera, and provided photography which enabled a more precise
determination of the vehicle's orbital altitude. The Stellar-Index camera photography, when combined with
known orbital data, made it possible to match the panoramic photography with the terrain.
A calibration of the knee (90 degree) angle between the Index and Stellar units, as well as the distortions
of these two lenses, was established on a precision goniometer. This calibration in conjunction with the
mid-exposure time of the three shutters (Main Panoramic cameras, Index camera, and Stellar camera)
established the position in space for each photographic acquisition. Many relatively small scale maps were
made from this combined photography. At a later date, the CORONA panoramic cameras were geometrically
calibrated, which further refined the mapping potential.
THE LANYARD CAMERA
The LANYARD (L) was a panoramic spotting camera with an oscillating lens cell which viewed a large
mirror aimed at a 45 degree angle toward the earth. Movement of the mirror enabled the system to produce
stereo or mono photography. The five inch film was fed from a supply spool (capacity 8,000 feet/80 pounds
of film) to the platen for exposure and then to a takeup cassette in the recovery system. Servo drive rollers
controlled the film movement. Because of the limited scan angle of the lens, a roll joint (Z) was incorporated
in the structure to increase the scan capability. The effective focal length of the optical system was 66
inches. This camera system was manufactured by Itek. Figure 2-8 presents different views of the L system.
The LANYARD camera system had been intended for interim use only until
II
Time was recorded on the film by means of a data head driven by the digital recording clock generator.
Other bits in the data head recorded attitude, roll steering, and rate data.
Commands consisted of recovery commands, and stored and real time commands to operate a decoder in
the L system. The decoder selected operate programs and controlled the Z-roll joint. Telemetry consisted of
continuous and commutated channels transmitting diagnostic and operational data. The system was designed
for a 112 nautical mile altitude with a mission duration of four days. It was predicted that this system was
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capable of returning ground resolution of five to six feet from a swath width of about 40 miles. It was felt
that this system would provide the Intelligence Community with better quality area search/mapping imagery
from which technical intelligence could also be derived.
There were three launches of this system. The first system failed to achieve orbit while the other two
were recovered. Flight 3 (L-3) contained exposed film, and although a lens thermal problem was discovered,
NRO a best resolution of 5.5 feet GRD was acquired. However,
25XT' I he L system was terminated.
THE J-1 CAMERA
aw
4W
A continuing goal throughout the CORONA Program was increased film capacity. The fewer the launches
required to obtain a given amount of photographic coverage, the less the cost and the lower the risk of
problems involved in launch and achieving orbit. The primary constraint of film capacity was boost capacity
of the launch vehicle. Throughout the entire history of this program, launch capacity was the primary
constraint on camera design. In 1963, three solid propellant rockets were added to the first-stage THOR to
increase substantially its boost capacity. The Thrust Augmented THOR (TAT) was first launched successfully
in March 1963 and made possible the introduction of the next generation CORONA camera system.
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The J-1 camera system was essentially the same as the MURAL system with the addition of a second film
recovery capsule (bucket). With the two bucket system, the first could be recovered after half the film load
had been exposed. The second bucket could then be filled for recovery later. The system was designed so
that the camera could be deactivated (Zombie mode) after the first bucket was ejected. Mission 1015, launched
19 December 1964, was deactivated for a three day period before restarting the cameras. To accommodate the
two bucket system, considerable redesign was required for the command and control system and the film takeup.
The significance of this redesign is underscored by the realization that early CORONA film loads were 20
pounds; C"', 40 pounds; MURAL, 80 pounds; and now the J-1 with 160 pounds. As a result of this system,
the early capability of acquiring 4,500,000 square mile coverage had now expanded into a capability of
achieving 18,000,000 square mile stereo coverage. The J-1 system also significantly improved the duration
of staying on-station. Mission 1051, launched on 2 May 1969, flew 256 orbital revolutions (16 days). Figure
2-9 presents an artist's portrayal of the f-1 system.
the 50 that achieved orbit, only one failure could be attributed to the camera.
A total of 52 J-1 systems were launched between 25 September 1963 and 22 September 1969. During this
six years, 94 film buckets were retrieved. The J-1 routinely yielded ten foot ground resolved distance and,
at its best, achieved better than seven feet. The reliability of the J-1 cameras was phenomenal for out of
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THE J-3 CAMERA
In early 1965, a camera design was proposed which would once again provide a significant improvement
in ground resolution and camera flexibility. It had long been recognized that constantly rotating the complete
lens and scan arm assembly rather than coupling and uncoupling a rotating lens and an oscillating scan arm
would improve camera performance. Itek proposed such a constant rotator, designated J-3. It was determined
that such a design could be accommodated by increasing the diameter of the payload equipment barrels to
the diameter of the AGENA. Photographic flexibility was considerably increased by introducing a multiple
exposure/filter capability (four slit widths and two filters per camera). With this capability, the cameras
could accommodate a variety of film types and operate more effectively under varying exposure conditions.
Refinement of the camera cycle rate command controls allowed J-3 to operate in orbits as low as 80 nautical
miles, thereby considerably improving photographic scale (J-1 operated at a minimum altitude of 100 nautical
miles). With this system and the further improved Petzval lens design, the J-3 was able to achieve ground
resolved distances of better than 4.5 feet. An artist's conception of the J-3 system is shown in Figure 2-10.
Figure 2-11 presents a photograph of the T-3 camera. During the period from 15 September 1967 to 25 May 1972,
17 T-3 cameras were launched, 16 orbited, and all 32 buckets were recovered. The J-3 camera system is
detailed in Section III of this volume.
The j-3 cameras incorporated a newly developed panoramic geometry calibration technique, elements of
which had been introduced in the last J-1 flights. Due to the fact that a panoramic frame is not simultaneously
exposed, new calibration techniques were developed based on proven photogrammetric calibration concepts.
Specifically, the Petzval lens was calibrated by the standard method in a direction parallel to its axis of
rotation (short dimension of the format) . This calibration involves the precise location of the principal point
of autocollimation of a fully assembled lens in relation to two fiducial marks at the edges of the lens field.
When the lens rotated in the fully assembled camera, these fiducial marks generated two thin dark lines along
the edge of the format.
In the long dimension of the format, the fiducial marks consisted of small round dark spots. These were
generated by two light sources on the lens which illuminated the edges of the film through tiny holes in the
rails supporting the film. The holes were equally spaced and were calibrated in terms of scan angle by an
optical shaft angle encoder mounted on the lens shaft.
A technique referred to as the "Dr. A" test, was developed to accurately measure film position relative
to the scan rollers byl I In this test, an opaque plate is mounted just below the scan
rollers with clear lines (slits) on the plate running parallel to the direction of scan. Two lamps positioned at
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a known distance from each other and from the plate are imaged on the film by each slit at a greatly reduced
size. When the scan rollers move along the film, the lamp filament images parallel lines for each slit along
the length of scan. The separation between the parallel lines is then measured and compared to a controlled
exposure on a glass plate. Any plus or minus deviation measured on the film represents film lift or depression
during the time of exposure. The measurements derived from these tests were graphically contoured and then
analyzed to determine film flatness. This test gave the Government a valid means of determining whether the
design goal specifications of +0.0005 inch film flatness over 90 percent of a frame were met.
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THE J-3 SYSTEM
The fundamental purpose of the J-3 system was to provide extensive stereoscopic photographic coverage
of the ground with sufficient detail to allow a photo interpreter to recognize, evaluate, and monitor selected
targets. Consequently, the J-3 system contained certain features which were designed specifically toward
this goal. First, a high acuity, diffraction limited lens was used in this camera system to take advantage
of the high resolution available over a narrow field angle. Secondly, auxiliary horizon recording cameras
were mounted in a fixed relationship to the panoramic camera to provide an expeditious means for determining
vehicle roll and pitch. A time reference system was implemented which provided a ready reference on the film
format to the time of any photographic acquisition, as well as the time relationship of horizon optics exposure
to panoramic optics exposure.
The secondary purpose of the J-3 system was to provide photogrammetric control data with the required
geometric accuracy to assist the cartographer in constructing accurate terrain maps from the photography
obtained by the system. Of equal importance was the ability to assign accurate geodetic coordinates to these
maps. The J-3 system had the capability of supplying the required geodetic control, assuming the availability
of accurate orbital and attitude information. For cartographic purposes it is essential to establish the
geometrical relationship between points on the film format and corresponding ground points. In order to
accomplish this, it is necessary to calibrate the internal geometry of the camera. Generally, this involves
the use of special equipment in preflight testing of the system and special data reduction techniques. The
calibration information obtained from the tests is supplied to the cartographic community. Additional data is
recorded on the film during mission operation. This data permits the correlation of the photography with
the previously obtained calibration information. Thus, for every point on the film, the cartographer can
determine two angles, a (cross-track or scanning angle), and j6 (along-track angle), with a root mean square
(RMS) accuracy of 4 arc-seconds in each direction.
A summary of the basic physical features and operational parameters is provided in Table 3-1. The
complete J-3 system payload consisted of the following:
A. Two identical, 24 inch focal length, f/3.5 panoramic cameras, each having two integrated
55 millimeter focal length, f/6.3 horizon optics.
B. One auxiliary structure that supported both panoramic cameras and the electronics packages
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C. One supply cassette.
D. One supply support structure.
E. One intermediate roller assembly.
The following ancillary equipment was used to support the system in the field:
A. Test and checkout console.
B. Camera module transit case.
C. Single camera transit case.
D. Camera module dolly.
E. Single camera dolly.
F. Spool assembly dolly.
The panoramic cameras were positioned on the auxiliary structure in a V-configuration to provide a 30
degree stereo angle. The auxiliary structure was three-point mounted to the vehicle so that the even serial
numbered camera was located forward and viewed toward the rear (aft-looking), and the odd serial numbered
camera was located aft and viewed forward (forward-looking) . The auxiliary structure also provided the
mounting surface for the system's electronic packages. The supply cassette, which contained the total film
supply for both cameras, was located aft of the camera module. The supply cassette was fastened to its
support structure which also was three-point mounted to the vehicle. Takeup A, located in recovery
vehicle one (RV-1), and takeup B, located in RV-2, each took up half of the film of both cameras. The
intermediate roller assembly was attached to the vehicle between takeup B and the camera module.
The system was basically designed to use 3.0 mil, 70 millimeter, EK 3414 Film. Either camera would
also operate with a split load of any two of the following types of film: 3414, SO-121, SO-180, SO-230,
SO-380. The supply cassette contained two 28 ' -? inch diameter spools, each capable of storing 16,000 feet
of film. Each of the two takeup A spools was capable of storing 8,000 feet, and each takeup B spool was
capable of storing 7,750 feet of film. Therefore, the system's total film capacity was 31,500 feet.
The power requirements of the J-3 system were 24 vdc, unregulated, and 115 vac at 400 cps. Unregulated
24 vdc power was utilized for general service in the camera, supply control, and takeup control. The 115 25X1
vac, 400 cps power was utilized in the camera to develop regulated direct current power; plus and minus low
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SUMMARY OF J-3 PHYSICAL FEATURES AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
Physical Features
Configuration
Lens
Film capacity
Film size (format)
Usable format
Power
Weight (empty)
Weight (with film)
Cycle period
Exposure time
Overlap
Filter
Operational Parameters
V/h range
Altitude
Cross-track coverage per frame
Along-track coverage per frame
Total along-track coverage
Total operating time
30 degree convergent stereo panoramic cameras
24 inch focal length, f/3.5 Petzval design
15,750 feet of 70 millimeter, 3.0 mil, polyester
base film per camera
31.632 x 2.754 inches
29.323 x 2.147 inches
1620 watt-hours (24 vdc, unregulated, at 2.5
radians per second)
270 watt-hours (115 vac, 400 cps, at 2.5
radians per second)
Approximately 437 pounds
Approximately 597 pounds
1.5 to 4.2 seconds per cycle
Variable
Fixed at. 7.6 percent
Variable (2 position)
.0525 to .021 radians per second
80 to 200 nautical miles
116 to 290 nautical miles
7.73 to 19.33 nautical miles
41,167 nautical miles at 80 nautical mile altitude
169 minutes at 80 nautical mile altitude
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voltages were developed for the camera drive servo and exposure control circuits; and high voltage direct
current power was developed for the frequency marker lamp requirements.
The power supply returns were carefully segregated within the system to provide isolation between the
115 vac, 400 cps return and the 24 vdc unregulated return. Also, isolation was provided between power
returns and all shielding and bonding requirements. In addition, regulated dc power returns were joined to
the unregulated do return at only one point (drive servo). This was required to maintain proper referencing of
the V/h programmer signal to the tachometer feedback signal.
The no-load and average-load requirements of the J-3 system were:
A. Unregulated direct current
No-load +22 to +29.5 volts
Average-load +21 to +28.5 volts
B. Alternating current
No-load 113.7 to 117.3 volts rms
Average-load 111.7 to 115.3 volts rms
The total system power consumption was nominally 1, 890 watt-hours (based on 40 frames per pass at a 2.5
second per cycle rate and 150 starts and stops per mission) .
The j-3 system contained several component temperature and operation monitors which provided telemetric
data during operation. In addition to the telemetry, monitor points which could be checked during ground
testing were provided.
The camera module consisted of a triangular, riveted, sheet metal, auxiliary structure on which were
mounted two panoramic cameras and the system electronics boxes. The main electronics box contained the
control package, the interface package, the data signal conditioner, and the ac-to-dc power supply. The
auxiliary electronics box contained the main servo and the panoramic geometry electronics circuit.
The panoramic cameras were independent and similar but were not interchangeable. Each camera
consisted of its own machined frame upon which most of the camera components were mounted. Because some
camera components were attached to the auxiliary structure, the structure was considered as an integral part
of the panoramic camera. The primary components of the panoramic camera were drive system, lens, scan
head assembly, drum, film transport mechanisms, film metering capstan (FMC) mechanism, panoramic
geometry system, and the horizon optics. The actions of these components were related and timed through a
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system of belts, pulleys, and special function gear packages, all of which were driven from a single camera
drive motor.
The 24 inch focal length lens was a Petzval design consisting of five elements mounted within a cast
magnesium cell. A sixth element, the field flattener, and the scan head assembly were mounted on the end of
a titanium tail cone which is secured to the lens cell at the nodal point.
The scan head assembly, which contained the slit width and filter change devices and the focal plane
rollers, was mounted on the end of the lens cone. This device consisted of a bi-directional, four position slit
width changer and a two position filter changer. A slit width failsafe mode or nominal slit width position was
also provided. The slit blades were driven through a clutch and a dual potentiometer by a servo motor, The
filter was driven by a stepper motor and a dual potentiometer. During exposure, the focal plane rollers
lifted the film from the guide rails into the exact focal plane.
In order to prevent light from entering the vehicle compartment through the vehicle/camera interface, a
drum housing the lens rotated within a network of non-rotating light shields that nodded with the drum. The
drum itself was light-tight except for the clear aperture end and a smaller opening for the scan head access
cover. Two specially formed pieces of sheet metal, which were attached to the drum around its periphery,
rotated inside a labyrinth preventing light from entering alongside the drum. The inside diameter of the light
shields were slightly larger than the diameter of the drum. The shields encompassed the drum over a sufficient
portion of the circumference to prevent light from passing around the drum itself. The drum assembly also
served as a thermal shield for the lens when the camera was inoperative.
A series of rollers, located around the circumference of. the drum and placed parallel to the lens rotation
axis, revolved with the drum just beneath the film guide rails to prevent film from being pulled through the
rails. These rollers did not contact the film during normal operation.
The camera film transport system comprised an input metering roller which was geared through a 99/101
percent clutch to provide continuous input metering at a nominal rate. Film guide rails guided the film over
the 70 degree format, and film clamps located at either side of the format were actuated during exposure. A
frame metering roller pulled one frame of exposed film out of the format area during the non-exposure portion
of the cycle. A shuttle mechanism stored extra loops of film arising from continuous film input/output and
intermittent frame metering. The shuttle also was used to control the 99/101 percent clutch.
? t Each camera contained its own FMC mechanism. The FMC mechanism was comprised of a cam, which
was driven by the camera drive motor, and a four bar linkage, which was driven by the cam. The linkage was
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fixed at one point such that the action of the cam against the linkage caused the cameras to rock about an
axis parallel to the vehicle pitch axis.
The panoramic geometry subsystem contained several equipment elements. This subsystem was used to
gather data on each panoramic frame to enable a calibration of the panoramic camera. The elements of the
panoramic geometry subsystem included the following:
A. Holes in the film guide rails which were angularly spaced about one degree apart, and two
incandescent lamps which were mounted on the scan head of the lens and were exposed through the rail holes.
B. A subsystem consisting of an accurate optical encoder, electronic circuits, xenon flashtube, two
sections of optical fiber bundles, a rotating optical coupling, and a lens, all of which combined to expose
dots on the film to represent the nod angle of the camera.
0. An accurate pulse generator which triggered a neon tube and exposed timing marks on the film to
permit the determination of the time difference between the exposure of two different points of the format.
Each panoramic camera contained two horizon camera assemblies that allowed the photo interpreter to
quickly determine the pitch and roll attitude of the panoramic camera during exposure. The horizon camera
consisted of a 55 millimeter, f/6.3 lens, a between-the-lens leaf shutter, a shutter trip solenoid, a filter
change mechanism, and an assembly housing. The horizon camera assemblies were mounted on each end of
the film transport bridge. This facilitated the sharing of a common film supply and path with the panoramic
camera. The optical axes of the horizon lenses were nominally, but not precisely, coplaner with the optical
axis 'of the panoramic camera.
The horizon camera used an integral filter equivalent to a Wratten 25. The lens provided a format of
2.1 by 0.9 inches. The corresponding half angles are 26 and 12 degrees, respectively. The horizon camera
housing provided a support structure for the lens, shutter mechanism, lens cone, lens hood, and filter change
mechanism. The filter change mechanism, mounted in front of the lens, consisted of a sliding filter on a
track, a drive motor, and connecting linkage. An attenuating filter could be slid in front of the lens when
emulsions faster than the basic Film type 3404 were used.
The supply cassette, which remained integral with its support structure after final assembly, contained
Mr the supply spools for both panoramic cameras; a radius sensor arms which controlled the output of each torque
motor; and a set of tension rollers, a torque motor, and brakes for each spool.
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The triangular-shaped support structure was a riveted, magnesium skin construction with machined fittings.
It had a support ring centrally located to which the rear cover of the supply cassette was mounted. The supply
cassette was composed of three individual machined magnesium castings (two end covers and a center
section) which were lightened by chemical milling. The cassette assembly was light-tight except in the area
of the tension rollers located on each side of the center section where the film exited from the cassette. The
areas could be sealed to prevent light leaks during testing. The supply spools consisted of a 6 inch
outside diameter machined magnesium hub and two 28 1/4 inch diameter by 3/8 inch thick aluminum honeycomb
and magnesium skin flanges. Tension was provided by torque motor output to a gear attached to the hub of
each supply spool. A brake on each torque motor prevented rotation of the spools when the power was off.
The takeup cassettes consisted of a structure, spools, spindle, sensor arm, component boards, and
cable. An additional assembly, the roller carriage, was used in takeup B. The structure consisted of two
magnesium honeycomb side plates which were aligned, bonded, and secured in two shear plates. Mounted on
this structure were the cable, component board, resistor plates, transistors, heaters, and thermostat (takeup
A only). The spools were of lightweight magnesium construction. The B takeup spool had a larger core
diameter which resulted from having three hub rollers and a set of wrap around plates installed. The spindle
assemblies consisted of a three-piece magnesium housing into which were assembled two torque motors, drive
gearing, and two anti-backup systems for the A takeup or two brakes for the B takeup. The anti-backup unit
consisted of a ratchet wheel coupled to the motor shaft through a one way clutch, a pawl, suitable linkage,
and a release solenoid. The brake used in the B spindles was keyed to the motor shaft and was released
electrically. The sensor arm assembly consisted of a magnesium frame into which were assembled two
potentiometers, gearing, and a spring loaded sensor arm and puck assembly. The roller carriage assembly,
contained only on B takeups, consisted of two magnesium side plates, input and output rollers, deflection
roller, roller shafts, and film guard.
Tables 3-2 and 3-3 and Figures 3-1 thru 3-5 present additional details, graphs, and data on the J-3
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Volume III
Mission
Inclination
(degrees)
Life
(days)
1101
80.1
14
1102
81.6
14
1103
83.0
14
1104
82.1
15
1105
82.1
17
1106
81.5
9
1107
74.9
19
1108
81.5
17
1109
88.0
19
1110
83.0
19
1111
60.0
18
1112
83.0
19
1113
0
1114
81.5
16
1115
74.9
19
1116
81.5
19
1117
96.4
6
Mean Perigee
Altitude (nm)
Mean Frame
Altitude (nm)
85
84.6
85
86.7
85
88.1
83
87.3
84
85.1
81
83.5
98
99.5
95
94.2
97.3
96.2
100.4
100.0
86.5
97.0
86.0
85.4
91.5
87.0
93.3
88.0
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CORONA HISTORY
Volume III
CORONA J-3 PERFORMANCE PREDICTIONS FROM ERROR BUDGET
(Two Sigma Low)
tion Lens
r
Thi
d G
I- Second Generation Lens -I
ene
a
r
F__
Along-Track
Cross-Track Along-Track
Cross-Track
00
300
00
300
00
300
00
300
Resolution (cycles/mm)
130
132
126
72
155
158
151
76
Blur (microns)
3.28
3.01
2.64
11.0
3.28
3.01
2.64
11.0
GRD (feet)
6.4
7.3
6.6
13.5
5.6
6.3
5.6
12.8
NOTE: These performance predictions were calculated using the following conditions:
Altitude: 82 nm
Film type: 1414, 3414
Exposure: 2.44 msec
Contrast: 2:1
Field angle: 00
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CORONA HISTORY
Volume III
Satellite
Vehicle
Payload
Vehicle
AGENA Station
95.5
Propellant
Tank Area
AGE NA Station
247.0
AGENA Station - Booster Station
492.210 934.100
Launch
Vehicle
89 Feet
Booster Station
1,018.100
Booster Station
1,722.0
3-10
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Engine and Accessories
Section
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MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE J-3 SUBSYSTEM
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Volume III
DISIC Ground Coverage
Dual Improved Stellar-Index Camera \ \ ~/
\ /
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Volume III
J-3 COVERAGE AS A FUNCTION OF ALTITUDE
^
2
1,600
C
0
I
150
10
to
ro
ro
y
400
1
rn
ro
w
,
5
S
5
a
Zj
140
ro
9
200
1
ro
,
0
ro
w
Approximate total coverage
at 100nm
Frame: 1,400 nm2
Mission: 8,288,000 nm2
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Volume III
SECTION IV
THERMAL CONTROL
The art of thermal control in space was in the same state as most other space age disciplines; and that is
important parameters. Technological advances were needed in systems thermal analysis techniques which in
turn required the utilization of large scale digital computers.
Thermal control design is concerned with the prelaunch, boost, orbit, and recovery phases of the space-
craft lifetime. Of these, experience had been gained on all but the on-orbit phase by the time of the first
CORONA design.
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The prelaunch phase required protection for the exterior skins from the salt water atmosphere at the launch
base as well as providing temperature control for the camera and supporting subsystems during pad checkout
and countdown. It was decided that the best protective device for this purpose would be a shroud. Several
types were tried before the final selection of a tubular type nylon shroud. In at least one instance, however,
the shroud did not provide adequate protection from a rain storm, and the magnesium skins began to corrode
from the exposure. A hurried sanding job, a make shift paint pattern, and an early launch date saved one J-3
from near destruction. Subsequently, a plastic frangible glove type environment sheath was developed for
this prelaunch phase. This type of sheath worked very well.
Boost and re-entry phase experience, which had been gained on the Lockheed X-17 rocket and other
programs, provided the basic knowledge that thermal control could be maintained during these flight phases.
There were problems in the areas where the fairing met the cylindrical structure. There was also extreme
concern over the re-entry heating until after several capsules and a heat shield were recovered. However,
the area in which thermal problems persisted longest was that of thermal control of the camera system on-orbit.
published in 1959 b Computation of the Thermal Irradiation of Conical Satellites in Circular
Orbits, presented the solar, albedo, and earthshine heat rates that served as the standard to thermal
The thermal control design task was to balance the temperature of an orbiting space vehicle between the
solar temperature of 10, 000? F and the outer space temperature of -460? F while the vehicle is passing into and
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NR& The first camera thermal design considerations implemented on the original CORONA unit were based on
out of the earth's shadow. This balancing is accomplished by defining/selecting exterior surface finishes
for the space vehicle which have differing properties of solar absorptance and infrared emittance. The surface
solar absorptance modified the amount of solar energy striking the space vehicle. The infrared emittance
attenuates the amount of energy which is radiated from the space vehicle at its own surface temperature. For
example, black painted surfaces have both high absorptance and emittance, white painted surfaces have low
absorptance and high emittance, and bare metallic surfaces such as gold or aluminum have a moderate
absorptance but very low emittance. These properties were utilized in combination to provide the desired
temperature levels. The first pattern developed for this purpose was uniform around the vehicle skins. This
pattern was a combination of gold plated barrels overlaid with white and black stripes. These stripes were
varied in width and position according to the temperatures experienced on the previous flight and the orbital
parameters of the anticipated flight as they might affect the predicted temperatures. The Program Office
could not totally understand the scientific bases for these pattern adjustments, and as a result attached the
cognomen of "Chicken Bone Specialists" to the thermal engineers.
I In recognition of the effects of differential
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thermal expansion, the basic structure was designed utilizing the low thermal expansion characteristics of
titanium. However, the effects of temperature on the optical performance of the HYAC IIA lens were not
factored into this design.
The C"' was designed with a magnesium lens cell, drum, and stovepipe, but the thermal problems
associated with this design became obvious after the first few operations. Analysis of the differential thermal
expansion of the structure resulted in changing the drum to titanium and the stovepipe to invar. Thermal/
factored into the new drum and stovepipe designs. On the basis of the lens cell tests, an optical design
effort was undertaken b o consider the effects of temperature-induced changes in optical
element radii and spacing. Several problems were encountered in the work, i.e., there were some difficulties
in algebraic signs where, in design, focus shift went in one direction while, in practice, it went in the other
direction.
From the system standpoint, thermal control design information for the early CORONA vehicles was
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generated from the analysis of Vidya engineers and coordinated with and implemented by f 25X1
Lockheed's Advanced Projects Office. Unfortunately, this system had its problems in this area as evidenced
by the significant variance of a plot of vehicle temperatures versus flight number. At this time in 1964,
l f the Lockheed Orbit Thermodynamics Department entered the program.
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Volume III
~ho also participated in the conceptual
design studies of the J-3 system at Lockheed and introduced the use of non-uniform external surface finish
patterns as a better means of stabilizing on-orbit temperatures.
better thermal control. This task was later assigned tol
They undertook the task of setting up a large thermal mathematical model of the system in order to provide
suggestions for an "Athermalized" Petzval lens cell to a practical design for use in the J-3 series. These
suggestions came from many sources including
at Vidya. To athermalize the lens, changes in index of refraction and
radius of curvature of the various elements with temperature were carefully balanced against the thermal
expansion characteristics of the elements, cell, and tail cone. In this manner, a constant relationship
between image position and focal plane rollers could be maintained for uniform temperatures (+400 F to +90? F)
The Petzval Lens Cell Thermal/Optical Test Program was subsequently conducted at Itek's Palo Alto
Facility. These tests utilized the unique capabilities of Itek's Thermal/Optical Research Facility to subject
the lens cell to a series of temperature conditions while simultaneously allowing optical data to be gathered.
The results of this test series substantiated the "Athermalized" lens cell design for uniform temperature level
changes and also pointed out that substantial radial temperature gradients existed in the glass elements
during the soaks. Further testing, utilizing flight data feedback on the periodic lens cell temperature
variations, indicated a substantial (+ .002 inch) change in focal plane position over the same period. The
recommended solution was to wrap the lens cell and tail cone with five layers of aluminized mylar super-
insulation. Testing of this configuration showed the focal plane movement to be reduced to less than
+.00025 inch. This insulation was applied to the lens cells effective with Mission 1106.
Improved temperature sensors were implemented on Mission 1107 which allowed the lens cell temperature
variation to be more closely monitored. Subsequent flight data did not indicate any noticeable lens cell
periodic temperature variations. This modification was a big factor in the improvement of the photographic
performance of the CORONA cameras.
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Aerial films designed for reconnaissance and space application require characteristics which differ from
conventional films. Aerial films must withstand the influence of environment, the requirements of system
designs, and the handling from film manufacture through the duplication stage. Advances in emulsion making
technology have made possible aerial films having a broad range of sensitivity, speed, and definition. Aerial
color films are subjected to the same environment and design requirements as are black and white films.
However, aerial color films have more critical exposure and color balance requirements. These special
photographic characteristics are combined with a dimensionally stable estar base to provide added dimensional
stability. In the CORONA system, a number of black and white film types were used. These included SO-1221,
the original acetate base film; SO-1188; SO-221, the first estar base film; 4400; SO-132; 4404; and finally
3404. Two color films were used in the T-3 panoramic cameras, SO-121 and SO-180. For the Stellar-Index
cameras, the film types were SO-102, 3400, and 3401. High definition aerial 3404 film has high contrast,
maximum definition, extremely fine grain, and extended red sensitivity. The 3404 emulsion is coated on a
2.5 mil estar base for use on cameras specifically designed for extremely high altitude, stable platform
photography. Several different processing conditions were used for 3404. A three-level interrupted process
provided three sensitometric curves, each separated by 1/2 stop. In addition, a single-level "Dual Gamma"
process was used starting with Mission 1104 that produced a wider exposure range. For 3404 the RMS granularity
was 9.5, and resolving power was 615 cpm at a T.O.C. of 1,000:1 and 185 cpm at a T.O.C. of 1.7:1.
Eastman Kodak manufactures a wide variety of gelatin filters for use in almost all fields of pictorial and
scientific photography. Most of the filters are .005 inch gelatin that have been coated with a lacquer for
protection. A few of the filters are available in glass only, while most of the gelatin filters are cemented
between glass. There are four main classes of filters: Wratten, Color Correction, Photometric, and Light
Balancing.
The Wratten filters are available in approximately 100 different spectral colors. They range from almost
clear to saturated colors visually representing most wavelengths and some cases combinations of wavelengths
in the spectrum. This class of filters includes the haze cutting filters used by CORONA. The Color Correction
filters are used to adjust the color balance for color films with both ground and aerial photography. These
filters, unlike the Wratten filters, are not saturated but are pastel in color. The Photometric and Light
Balancing filters are used to change the color temperature of a light source to match that required for a
particular color film sensitivity. These filters are not generally employed in aerial reconnaissance.
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Filters are required for most aerial reconnaissance systems in order to counteract the contrast reduction
effects from the bluish haze light. The spectral filters commonly employed are Wratten gelatin filters and are
yellow to red in color. Generally, the deeper red the filter, the greater the haze cutting ability and, hence,
the higher the contrast. There is a tradeoff that must be considered in selecting the best filter for any given
camera. The redder the filter, the higher the filter factor which in turn requires longer exposure times.
Increased exposure has a direct relationship to smear. Thus, filters are chosen that provide the best contrast
and minimize image smear. These considerations are then incorporated into the lens design so that
performance can be optimized for that region of the spectrum.
The haze cutting filters for CORONA black and white photography consisted of either a Wratten 21, 23A,
or 25, the characteristics of which are given in Figure 5-1. Operational conditions and specific lens types
govern the choice of a specific filter for a mission. A third generation Petzval lens, for example, is designed
for a Wratten 25 filter. However, for a winter mission, where the exposure time would be long, total system
performance could be enhanced by using a Wratten 23A filter with an appropriate reduction in exposure time
due to the lower filter factor. The CORONA J-3 system had a filter switching mechanism that allowed the
mission to be flown with two filters per camera. The primary filter position was generally used for most of
the mission, the alternate filter could be commanded into position on real time or automatically with a
material change detector (MCD) on the film. This was particularly useful when a split film load was flown.
It also should be noted that a filter change in the J-3 system could be accommodated by changing the exposure
slits.
The higher f/number of the DISIC index camera system required the filter factor to be low. The Wratten 12
filter was used having a factor of 1.5. In order to maintain the precision geodetic characteristics of the
camera, the filter was an integral part of the system, and therefore a filter changing mechanism was not
employed. The Wratten 12 filter is yellow in color and has the widest bandpass of all filters used on CORONA.
The purpose of the stellar portion of DISIC is to provide interlocking photographs of star patterns with the
terrain photography. There were no requirements for filters on these lenses.
Figures 5-2 thru 5-7 illustrate samples of photographic imagery of airfields acquired by each of the
CORONA camera systems beginning with the first success, Mission 9009 launched on 19 August 1960. All
photos have been enlarged 20 times from their original scale.
Table 5-1 lists the mission parameters of each sample of CORONA photography shown in Figures 5-2 thru 5-8.
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Volume III
W- 12
Wratten 12
Wratten 21
Wratten 23A
Wratten 25
W- 21
W-23A
W-25
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Figure 5-1 TOP SECRET
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Volume III
SUMMARY OF MISSION PARAMETERS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGERY SAMPLES
SHOWN IN FIGURES 5-2 THRU 5-8
Figure
Page
Mission
Requisition
Filter
Film
Altitude
Solar
Elevation
Number
Number
Number
Date
Type
Type
Scale
(nm)
(degrees)
5-2
5-5
9009
19 Aug 1960
W-21
SO-1188
1:345,165
114
-63
5-3
5-6
9017
17 Jun 1961
W-21
4400
1:427,384
141
-49
5-4
5-7
9022
12 Sep 1961
W-21
4404
1:431,225
142
-33
5-5
5-8
9037
23 Jun 1962
W-21
SO-132
1:348,388
115
-36
5-6
5-9
1006
9 Jun 1964
W-21
4404
1:329,000
105
-58
5-7
5-10
1104
15 Aug 1968
W-21
3404
1:261,300
83
-61
5-8
5-11
1105
Nov 1969
(Top)
5-8
5-11
1104
Aug 1968
-
SO-180
-
(Bottom)
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