MODERN SOVIET CIVIL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP92B00181R000300270038-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 184
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 22, 2013
• Sequence Number: 38
• Publication Date: February 18, 1986
• Content Type: REPORT

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P. 0. DRAWER B
HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA 35805
TR-86-UCA-033
ILLEGIB
INTERIM REPORT
MODERN SOVIET CIVIL TELECOMMUNICATIONS
CONTRACT NO. 9-L65-25910-1
18 FEBRUARY 1986 ,
PREPARED FOR:
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER INTELLIGENCE COMMITTEE
86-093 FOUO
PROTECTIVE MARKING EXEMPT FROM
AUTOMATIC TERMINATION.
FOA OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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INTERIM REPORT
MODERN SOVIET CIVIL TELECOMMUNICATIONS
CONTRACT NO. 9-L65-25910-1
PREPARED FOR:
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER INTELLIGENCE COMMITTEE
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONIY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded)
Page
6.4 SWITCHING SYSTEMS .................................... 6-21
6.4.1 Circuit Switching .............................. 6-21
6.4.2 Message Switching .............................. 6-21
6.4.3 Packet Switching ............................... 6-24
APPENDIX A-SOVIET COMPUTERS ....................~................. A-1
A.1 MAINFRAME COMPUTERS ................................... A-1
A.2 MICROCOMPUTERS .......................... ............ A-7
(U) GLOSSARY ................................................... G-1
(U) REFERENCES ................................................. R-1
(U) BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................... B-1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
'1. KEY JUDGEMENTS .......................................... 1-1
1.1 TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS .................................. 1-1
1.2 THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM .................................. 1-2
1.3 THE TELEGRAPH NETWORK ............... ... ........... 1-4
1.4 DATA TRANSMISSION NETWORKS ............................ 1-4
2.
INTRODUCTION ........ ..................................... 2-1
2.1
PURPOSE ............................... .............. 2-1
2.2
METHODOLOGY .. ...................................... 2-1
2.3
ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT ............................ 2-3
3.
SOVIET TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS ................................ 3-1
3.1
THE CONCEPT OF THE YeASS .................... ........ 3-2
3.2
OTHER NETWORKS .... ............................ .... 3-14
3.3
METALLIC CABLE ............. ......................... 3-14
3.4
FIBER-OPTIC CABLES .................................... 3-18
3.4.1
Soviet Optical Fibers .......................... 3-21
3.4.2
Optical Cable Construction .............~........ 3-22
3.4.3
Prototype Telecommunication Links .............. 3-25
3.4.4
Prototype Computer Links ....................... 3-28
3.5
LINE-OF-SIGHT RADIO RELAY ............. ..... ....... 3-29
3.6
TROPOSCATTER RADIO .................................... 3-39
3.7
COMSATs ............................................... 3-40
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
3.8 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM R&D ............................... 3-51
3.8.1 COMSATs ........................................ 3-52
3.8.2 Superconducting Cables ...... .............. 3-52
3.8.3 Waveguide Communication Lines .................. 3-53
3.8.4 Fiber Optics ................................... 3-53
4.
THE OAKTS .................................................. 4-1
4.1
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE .................................. 4-1
4.2
SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT .................................. 4-5
4.3
TELEPHONE SWITCHING SYSTEMS .......................~.... 4-6
5.
THE NATIONAL TELEGRAPH NETWORK ............................. 5-1
5.1
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE .................................. 5-1
5.1.1
The Public Network (OP) ........................ 5-1
5.1.2
Subscriber Telegraph Network (AT) .............. 5-4
5.1.3
International Networks .......... ............. 5-5
5.2
SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT .................................. 5-6
5.3
SWITCHING SYSTEMS ..................................... 5-9
5.3.1 Telegraph Circuit Switching .................... 5-9
5.3.2 Electronic-Message Switching ................... 5-11
6. DATA TRANSMISSION NETWORKS ................................. 6-1
6.1 LONG-RANGE PLANS ...................................... 6-1
6.2 PRESENT REALITIES ..................................... 6-3
6.3 SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT .................................. 6-9
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Figure Title Page
3-1 The YeASS Concept ..... ............................... 3-5
3-2 A Segment of a Primary Network ......................... 3-7
3-3 Formation of Higher-Order FDM Groups ................... 3-9
3-4 Diagram of IKM-120 Secondary Digital Transmission
System .................................~................ 3-13
3-5 Construction Details of Typical Soviet Coaxial
Cables ................................................. 3-17
3-6 The UIZS-1 Manufacturing System ........................ 3-23
3-7 Fibers Obtained Using the UIZS-1 System ................ 3-23
3-8 Dependence. of Fiber Attenuation on Quartz Support
Tubes ...........................:...................... 3-24
3-9 The IKS-120 Unattended Repeater Station (URS) .....:.... 3-27
3-10 Frequency Plan of Radio Relay Systems .................. 3-33
3-11 Comparison of Parabolic Horn Antennas .................. 3-35
3-12 Periscope Antenna ....: ................................. 3-36
3-13 ADEH Antenna ........................................... 3-36
3-14 An Eight-Element Phased-Array Antenna .................. 3-37
3-15 The Frequency Spectrum of Service Communications
Channels of the Ehlektronika-Svyaz Systems ............. 3-38
3-16 Gorizont Tropo Antenna ................................. 3-41
3-17 Soviet Plans for Utilization of Geostationary
Orbital Regime ......................................... 3-44
3-18 Soviet Satellites in Geostationary Orbits as of 1984 ... 3-44
3-19 Molniya 1 Satellite .........:..:.... ................. 3-45
3-20 Gorizont Satellite .........:........................... 3-45-
3-21 Ehkran Direct Broadcast Satellite System ............... 3-46
vii
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Concluded)
Figure Title Page
3-22 Orbita Ground Station .................................. 3-49
3-23 Fiber-Optic Demultiplexing Techniques .................. 3-57
4-1 Long-Distance Calling Between ,Zones .................... 4-3
4-2 Construction of Automatic Zone Communications Network .. 4-3
4-3 A Delta Modulator ...................................... 4-7
4-4 Comparative Timelines for Telephone Switching
Evolution .............................................. 4-10
5-1 The Soviet Public Telegraph Hierarchy .................. 5-2
5-2 Schematic Diagram of ESK-A ............................. 5-11
5-3 Structural Diagram of Pagoda Message Switching Center ., 5-12
5-4 Structural Diagram of DS-4 Center ...................... 5-15
5-5 Location of Latest-Generation Public Telegraph
Switching Centers ...................................... 5-16
6-1 Soviet Circuit-Switched Data Transmission Networks ..... 6-4
6-2 Experimental Computer Network of the Latvian SSR
Academy of Sciences .................................... 6-7
6-3 Selected Data Transmission Experiments - USSR. .......... 6-8
6-4 Typical Application of YeS Teleprocessing Equipment .... 6-19
6-5 Operation of a Soviet High-Speed Modem ................. 6-20
6-6 PD-KS Network Hierarchy (Plan) ......................... 6-23
6-7 Protocol Layering ...................................... 6-26
6-8 Structure of Communications System ..................... 6-27
6-9 Computer Network Components ............................ 6-29
6-10 Experimental Computer Network of the Academy of
Sciences of Latvian SSR (Circa 1981) ................... 6-30
viii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
3-1 Standard Channels of the YeASS ......................... 3-3
3-2 YeASS Digital Hierarchy ........................ ...... 3-4
3-3 Soviet FDM Transmission Systems of OKOP Family ......... 3-8'
3-4 Soviet Digital Transmiss-ion Systems .................... 3-12
3-5 FDM Cable Transmission Systems Used on CEMA Cables ..... 3-19
3-6 Fiber-Optic Cable Hierarchy for OKZ Zonal and OKM
Trunkline Cables ....................................... 3-25
3-7 Soviet-Developed Radio Relay Systems ................... 3-30
3-8 Soviet COMSAT Constellations ........................... 3-42
3-9 Characteristics of Selected Soviet Facsimile
Equipment .............................................. 3-47
3-10 Transmitters Used With Soviet COMSATs .................. 3-50
4-1 Soviet Local Telephone Switches ........................ 4-11
4-2 Major Soviet Long-Distance Telephone Exchanges ......... 4-14
5-1 Soviet-Built Teletype Equipment ........................ 5-6
5-2 Soviet Telegraph Channeling Equipment .................. 5-8
5-3 Circuit-Switched Exchanges of Soviet Telegraph
Networks ....................... ...................... 5-10
5-4 Characteristics of Various Message-Switching Centers ... 5-14
6-1 Data Transmission Equipment not Conforming to
YeS Standards .......................................... 6-10
6-2 Technical Specifications of Signal Conversion Devices .. 6-11
6-3 Technical Specifications of Error Protection Devices ... 6-12
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LIST OF TABLES (Concluded)
Table Title Page
6-4 Technical Specifications of Data Transmission
Multiplexers ...................... ................... 6-14
6-5 Technical Specifications of Subscriber Points .......... 6-15
6-6 Characteristics of Combined Automatic Exchange ......... 6-22
6-7 Specifications for a Zone Message Switching Center
for the PD-KS Network .................................. 6-24
A-1 Soviet Computers of Telecommunications Significance .... A-6
A-2 Uniform Equipment Identification System of the
Unified Computers ...................................... A-7
A-3 CEMA Microcomputers of Possible Telecommunications
Significance ........................................... A-11
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ARQ
ASVT
AT
BEF
CASTAR
CCITT
CEMA
CMOS
COMSAT
C3U
C
ECMA
EhS
FDM
FDMA
GDR
IC
I/O
IOC
IREE
ISDN
LOS
MEP
MINPRIBOR
MOC
MRP
OAKTS
OGAS
OP
PCM
PIN
PWBC
R&D
SATCOM
SCPC
SMA
SMV
S/N
TDM
TDMA
Automatic Repeat Request
Modular System of Computers
Subscriber Telegraph Network
band elimination filter
Center for the Assessment of Soviet Technology
Acquisition Requirements
Consultive Committee of International Telephone
and Telegraph
Council for Economic Mutual Assistance
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
communications satellite
central processing unit
command, control, and communications
European Organization of Machinery Producers
ehlektronika-svyaz system
frequency division multiplexing
frequency division multiple access
German Democratic Republic
integrated circuit
input/output
initial operating capability
Institute of Radio and Electronic Engineering
Integrated Services Digital Network
line-of-sight
Ministry of the Electronics Industry
Ministry of Instrument Construction, Means of
Automation, and Control Systems
Ministry of Communications
Ministry of the Radio Industry
Nationwide Automatically Switched Te lephone Network
Nationwide Computerized System for Gathering and
Processing Information
Public Network
pulse code modulation
positive intrinsic negative
primary wideband channel
research and development
satellite communications
single channel per carrier
network microprocessor adapter
network access method
signal-to-noise
time division multiplexing
time division multiple access
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS (Concluded)
TDRSS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System
TsNIIS Central Scientific Research Institute
for Communications
URS unattended repeater station
WARC World Atmospheric Radio Conference
YeASS Primary Network of the Unified Automated
Communications Network
Units of Measure
Hz hertz
MHz megahertz
kHz kilohertz
Mbps megabits per second
MOPS million operations per second.
m meters
kbps. kilobits per second
km kilometers
mm millimeters
d6/km decibels per kilometer
?m micrometers
GHz gigahertz
kg kilograms
kV/m kilovolts per meter
dB decibels
kW kilowatts
min minutes
?/deg degrees
W watts
Gbps gigabits per second
bps bits per second
hr hours
% percent
kbd kilobaud
er/ln erlangs per line
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1. KEY JUDGEMENTS
This survey of modern civil telecommunications within the USSR
vas performed as one input to the Center for the Assessment of Soviet
Technology Acquisition Requirements (CASTAR) project.
"Telecommunications" was defined in its broadest sense as including
telephony, telegraphy, and data transmission.' The following conclusions
are derived almost entirely from analysis of open Soviet technical
literature.
1.1 TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Since January 1978, all telecommunications nodes, exchanges,
and transmission systems within the Soviet Union have been defined to
comprise the Primary Network of the Unified Automated Communications
Network (YeASS). Uniform definitions and standards generally
parallelling those of the Consultive Committee of International
Telephone and Telegraphs (CCITT) have been adopted for this network.
This primary network provides the foundation for development of var ious
secondary networks which are usually designated by the type of
information they carry (e.g., telephone, telegraph, data transmission
networks). The Soviets acknowledge that this distinction they draw
between primary and secondary networks of the YeASS has no Western
counterpart.
Transmission media employed by the Soviets for civil
telecommunications include metallic and fiber-optic cable, line-of-sight
(LOS) radio relay, troposcatter radio, and communications satellites.
Although-most of these same media are also employed in the United
States, there are important quantitative and qualitative asymmetries
between civil telecommunications transmission systems of the two
countries as outlined below.
1. The capacity of the U.S. telecommunications network (rated
in channel kilometers) is more than five times greater.
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2. Avast majority (almost 95%) of the U.S. network is
composed of radio relay systems, with the balance divided
between communications satellites and cable (coaxial and
fiber optic). In contrast, landline cable, about three-
fourths of it symmetrical twisted-pair types which had
largely disappeared from U.S. long distance service by
1970, is the most prolific Soviet medium. About 20% of
total capacity in the USSR is carried over radio relay
systems, with troposcatter radio, communications satellites
(COMSATs), and even open-wire lines also making significant
contributions.
3. Soviet communication satellites as compared to their
Western counterparts .have comparatively short lives, fewer
transponders, and have been slow to move to higher
frequencies.
While the civil telecommunications system of the USSR is not as
extensive as in the U.S. and much of it is obsolescent by our standards,
its greater media diversity and emphasis on buried cable systems makes
it potentially more survivable both in natural disasters and strategic
war. There is evidence that civil telecommunications transmission
trends within the U.S. and USSR will converge over the next decade* with
both emphasizing establishment of fiber-optic cable networks and
expanding the use of domestic COMSATs. In addition, both countries are
preparing (slowly) for ultimate transition to the worldwide goal of an
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) by gradually replacing analog
transmission media with digital systems.
1.2 THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM
The Nationwide Automatically Switched Telephone Network (OAKTS)
is the largest secondary network of the YeASS. Compared to the public
telephone network of the U.S., several significant differences can be
noted.
*To some extent, the U.S. and USSR are following parallel trends for
different reasons. The Soviets are attracted to fiber optics because it
offers a high degree of transmission security and conserves scarce
copper and lead which would otherwise go into coaxial cable manufacture.
1-2
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1. The subscriber population is much smaller, with Soviet
telephones located in state-run establishments
(Government bureaus, state industries, collective farms).
As a result, the number of exchanges required to service
these customers is only about one-fourth as great as in the
U.S.
2. A much greater proportion of Soviet exchanges employ manual
switchboards. If the 11th 5-year plan goal is achieved,
the USSR telephone network will be only 55% automated in
1985, while in the U.S. manual exchanges are extremely. rare
today, even in remote areas. As recently as 1982, a
priority goal of the Soviet Ministry of Communications
(MOC) was to increase productivity of telephone operators,
a concession that the present situation is likely to
continue.
3. Although islands of relatively good service exist,
predominantly in the European part of the USSR, the quality
of much of the existing automated telephone service is far
below what would be considered acceptable in most parts of
the U.S.
The Soviets recognize deficiencies of their telephone network
and have an ambitious program to improve it by 1995. A key portion of
this plan is upgrading the switching plant, much of which is comprised
of obsolescent and incompatible, step-by-step relay exchanges. Three
simultaneous approaches are being followed to obtain the necessary
state-of-the-art equipment. These have succeeded in reducing the U.S.
lead in the introduction of new forms of switching technology into
telephone networks from 20 years with second-generation (crossbar)
equipment to only 7 years with fourth-generation electronic exchanges.
1. Outright purchase of third-generation equipment (which the
Soviets term "quasi-electronic") from Yugoslavia and other
countries.
2. Joint development with their European Council for Economic
Mutual Assistance (CEMA) partners, particularly the German
Democratic Republic (GDR), of third-generation exchange
equipment. The "Kvarts" quasi-electronic switching system
resulting from this cooperation was first installed in
Leningrad in the late 1970s and will be the basic type of
long distance exchange during the 12th 5-year plan (1986 to
1990).
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3. A joint Soviet-French "Working Group on Scientific and
Technical Cooperation in Communications" which has been in
existence since 1975. .This high-level body probably
facilitated the Soviet purchase of fourth-generation
telephone exchanges from Thomsom CSF along with a factory
for their manufacture.
1.3 THE TELEGRAPH NETWORK
Within the Soviet Union telegraph service is provided by two
domestic networks, a public network which operates between offices run
by the MOC -and a subscriber network which functions similarly to TELEX
in the West. In addition, limited access is afforded to two
international telegraph networks: GENTEX, which serves mostly Eastern
Europe, and TELEX, an international network with hundreds of thousands
of subscribers mostly in Western Europe and the U.S.
The public telegraph system in the USSR is a relatively more
important communications medium than its Western counterparts. In part
-this is due to less widespread availability of telephones, but also
because it carries much of the Government and Military traffic often
routed over separate networks in other countries.* As a result,
modernization of the Soviet telegraph network has not lagged that of
other developed countries so much as is the case with the OAKTS. A
program to upgrade message switching centers with equipment based on
unified system (Ryad) computers began in 1979 and is progressing
rapidly. There are also longer range plans to~replace electromechanical
switching centers of the subscriber network with electronic exchanges.
1.4 DATA TRANSMISSION NETWORKS
In an economy where the necessity for, and efficiency of,
centralized management is an article of political faith, the concept of
*A comparatively few networks,-such as the PAGODA network of the national
hydrometeorological service, exist outside the national telegraph
framework. However, these primarily function as specialized data
transmission systems.
1-4
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a nationwide computer network to improve economic planning and day-to-
day management is extremely attractive. The Soviets have a longstanding
plan for establishing such a network which they have named the
Nationwide Computerized System. for Gathering and Processing Information
(OGAS). However, until recently both their computer technology and
telecommunications resources were grossly inadequate for the task.
Consequently, OGAS has not progressed very-fast, with only Moscow, Kiev,
and Riga netted by 1982, and network completion has been delayed until
(at least) the year 2000.
Although the OAKTS and subscriber telegraph networks. are widely
used to support the teleprocessing applications operational today, their
error rates are so high when transmitting digital data it was decided to
build a national data transmission network from the ground up. This was
originally intended to have two main parts:
1. Acircuit-switched network, to be built in three phases.
Phase one, known as the PD-Z00 network, has been under
construction since 1979, but major problems in getting it
operational will probably delay completion. beyond the
originally projected date of 1985.
2. Amessage-switched network, originally projected to be an
upgraded version of the national public telegraph network.
It appears increasingly. probable that, when finally built,
this network will instead incorporate packet-switching
technology.
In conjunction with their CEMA partners, the Soviets have
developed an extensive family of teleprocessing equipment to complement
the unified series (Ryad) computers, which are based on IBM S/360 and
S/370 technology. In addition, the SM-EhVM series of process control
computers based on Hewlett-Packard and PDP-11 designs, has proven easy
to adapt to communications handling roles within computer .networks. In
several cities computer networks, like the Latvian Academy of Science
operation in Riga, are quite large and have served as valuable test-beds
for packet-switching technology.
1-5
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It is quite likely that the .USSR will possess a nationwide
packet-switching network before the year 2000 (about 10 to 15 years
behind comparable Western developments) and, thus, bring OGAS closer to
realization. Such a network is likely to:
1. Adhere to ISO and CCITT standards (including the X.25
protocol),
2. Use SM EhVM (SM-3, 4, etc.) computers as communication
handlers, _
3. Incorporate a network architecture similar to the IBM SNA,
and
4. Employ adaptive rather than fixed routing methods.
1-6
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2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 PURPOSE
This summary report on Soviet civil telecommunications was
prepared as a partial input to tasks 2 and 3 of the CASTAR project.
"Telecommunications" is used here in its broadest sense to include not
only telephony, but also telegrapy and data transmission.
Objectives of the CASTAR project include assessment of the
current Soviet state of the art in fiber optics and digital switching
and projecting it through the year 2000. Equipment currently in use for
civil telecommunications defines the lower limit of the USSR state of
the art, while the upper limit corresponds. to what is being demonstrated
in research and development (R&D) laboratories. This report deals with
some of both, but with emphasis on the former. Some Red-Blue comparison
has been included for perspective and to increase the general utility of
the document.
This report is mainly based on Soviet open literature, with
gaps filled in from unclassified U.S. publications where necessary.
Available Soviet translations fall generally into three categories:
textbooks, patent descriptions, and technical magazine articles.
Textbooks offer the most comprehensive treatment of any
particular subject, but usually do not contain truly up-to-date
information. Soviet publications must undergo a variety of reviews much
more time-consuming than that given to books published in the United
States. Once published, additional time (often years) elapses before
the books are translated into English. As a rule of thumb, the
information in Soviet textbooks appears to be about two years older than
its publication date, and at least another year will probably elapse
before the translated work is available to U.S. researchers.
2-1
Gna nGCiriei ii~G nun v
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Patents (or author's certificates as they are referred to in
the USSR) have been disappointing as sources of information about
communications technology. They are typically dull reading,
concentrating on proving the uniqueness of claims, and are rarely
illustrated with more than a single sketchy block diagram. Most
important, they furnish no clue as to whether the invention remains a
laboratory curiosity or has been selected for series production.
The most valuable single information source has been Soviet
technical journals. Prepublication reviews doinot appear to be as
lengthy as for books,.and the authors are usually writing about topics
of high current technical interest as opposed to history.. The most
useful journals are Ehlektrosvyaz' (Telecommunications) and Vestnik
svyazi (Herald of Communications), but for computer-related topics
including packet switching Avtomatika i vychislitel'naya tekhnika
(Automation and Computer Technology) is also of high value. For
journals relevant to fiber-optics developments see Subsection 3.3.
Since all Soviet open-source materials have been approved for
publication only after passing KGB security review, some discretion is
required in evaluating their contents.. Deliberate misinformation would
be potentially dangerous if planted in textbooks and technical
literature, but there are more subtle ways in which a reader can be
misled. There is a disturbing lack of distinction by many Soviet
authors as to whether they are writing about Soviet or Western
technology. Sometimes it is possible to tell by referring to the list
of technical references, but not always. Soviet authors have written so
extensively about Western developments that instances are encountered
where survey articles of Western technology quote only Russian
publications..
One rule almost universally followed in Soviet writings is to
give no credit to the West for anything currently in use within the
Soviet economy. It is apparently acceptable to acknowledge manufacture
in other Socialist countries such as Eastern Europe and even Yugoslavia.
2-2
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But "capitalist" produced equipment, even when it retains its original
nomenclature in Soviet use, is never identified by its origin. Examples
would be ARM-20 long distance telephone exchanges which are imported
from Sweden, Japanese radio relay systems, and foreign made cable.
A further annoyance when using open literature if one is not
literate in the Russian language is dependence upon translators.
Different Americans translate technical Russian expressions in different
ways; for example, "obshchegosudarstvennaya" was. translated by three
different individuals as Government-wide, nationwide, state, and all-
state. Likewise, "Yedinaya" was variously translated as unified or
consolidated, and the Soviet series of unified computers was abbreviated
as either YeS, ES, or EC. Further complications arise because the
Russians themselves sometimes use the same abbreviation to mean very
different things. For example, by itself KP expands to "kommutatsiya
paketov" (packet switching), but PD-KP is an abbreviation for a
collective use data transmission network which will not necessarily use
packet switching. To the extent possible, the most common terms and
abbreviations have been sorted out and are included in the Glossary.
Since under the Soviet concept of YeASS all transmission
systems belong in common to the primary network, it seemed logical to
begin the survey with transmission systems. The four media selected are
cable, LOS radio relay, troposcatter, and COMSATs. They are not the
only ones used for Soviet civil telecommunications, but account for all
but a miniscule portion of the traffic volume.
The survey next considers the three largest secondary networks
of the YeASS. The OAKTS is by far the largest, accounting for (by some
Soviet estimates) 80 to 90% of all transmission capacity. The Soviet
National Telegraph Network (or rather networks, there are at least four)
is discussed next. Data transmission networks are given rather more
space than their limited present use would dictate because they are
2-3
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growing rapidly and may be expected to play an increasingly important
role over the next decade and a half. The discussion of each secondary
network concentrates on subscriber equipment and especially on
switching. Appropriate data conversion gear and channelizing apparatus
are also covered.
Since this report is only intended as a limited survey, much.
in-depth information available in the source materials has not been
included. Those interested in such details may .consult the sources
listed in the references and bibliography. Regretfully, space and time
limitations have also made it impossible to include all the tutorial
background which would have been desirable for this highly technical
subject.
inn A!`!'IA~^I Il~f~ A~11 V
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3. SOVIET TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Both quantitative and qualitative asymmetries exist between the
transmission media employed in the United States and the USSR for civil
telecommunications. In 1980, the last year for which definitive figures
for both countries are available, the United States had about 770
million channel kilometers of long-distance telephone circuits in
service (Reference 1). Although both the Soviet landmass and population
are considerably larger than that of the U.S., the USSR could claim only
145 million channel kilometers of comparable facilities despite a major
growth spurt in 1979 and 1980 to support communications needs of the
Moscow Olympic games.
Media composition also differed significantly. About 95%~of
the U.S. capacity was in microwave and other radio relay circuits, with
the balance divided between domestic satellites -and cable (coaxial and
fiber optic). Radio relay systems in contrast made up less than 20% of
the Soviet capacity. Their most prolific medium was, and continues to
be, landline cable (Reference 2). Nearly three-fourths of this is of
the symmetric al (balanced) twisted-pair type which had largely
disappeared from the U.S. long-distance picture by 1970. A significant
amount of open-wire telephone lines were still active in parts of the
Soviet network in 1980; this medium was last used for long-distance
service in the U.S. in the mid 1960s.
While the United States has by far the more prolific
telecommunications, the Soviet network is inherently more survivable
both in natural disasters and in nuclear warf are because of its greater
reliance on landlines. Interestingly, in the last few years there is
evidence that telecommunications of both countries may be moving in
similar directions where transmission media are concerned. The greatest
growth areas both in the U.S. and USSR are in use of COMSATs and in
transmission by fiber optic landlines. In the case of-fiber optics,
this convergence of interest appears to be for somewhat different
reasons. The massive capacity of fiber optics makes that medium highly
FnR nFF~ciai ucF nNir
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cost competitive within the deregulated U.S. common-carrier market,*
while the Soviets find the enhanced security provided by this medium as
well as the opportunity to conserve the scarce copper and lead which now
go into coaxial cable production** very attractive.
3.1 THE CONCEPT OF THE YeASS
YeASS is defined by GOST 22348-77 which became effective
1 January 1978. The YeASS is conceived as a "telecommunications system
which is a complex of communications devices which interact on the basis
of the principles of organizational-technical unity and automation"
(Reference 4). There is a single primary network, which consists of -~
"all the network nodes, network exchanges, and transmission lines,
forming a network of standard transmission channels and standard group
circuits" (Reference 5). This primary network provides the foundation
for the development of various types of secondary networks, which are
designated based on their function or type of information carried. The
major types of secondary networks recognized are telephone, telegraph,
facsimile, audio broadcast, TV distribution, and data transmission.
This distinction between primary and secondary networks is very
interesting because it lacks any direct Western counterpart. .
A transmission channel is the term describing all technical
means and propagation media that facilitate the transmission of
electrical communications signals either within a specified band of
frequencies or at a specified rate between two exchanges or nodes. A
channel with regulated parameters is called standard. Standard channels
of the YeASS are shown in Table 3-1.
*When the first fiber-optic transatlantic cable (the AT&T TAT-8) becomes
operational in 1988 it is projected to carry 10% of the total traffic.in
that huge telecommunications market (Reference 3).
**Acccording to some estimates, as much as 25% of the total copper and
lead used by the USSR goes into cable production. These materials are
much in demand for military projects, particularly in (or by) the
nuclear industry..
3-2
Fne nFFiciei iicF na~Y
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Table. 3-1. Standard Channels of the YeASS
Designation
Frequency Band
Tonal Frequency Channel (Hz)
300 to
3400
Audio Broadcast Channel (Hz)
30 to
15,000 (upper class)
50 to
10,000 (first class)
100 to
6,300 (second class)
TV Audio Transmission Channel (Hz)
30 to
15,000 (upper class)
50 to
10,000 (first class)
TV Image Signal Transmission
50 Hz
to 6 MHz
Channel
Wideband Channel (kHz)
60.6
to 107.7 (primary group)
312.3
to 551.4 (secondary group)
812.3
to 2043.3 (tertiary group)
groups
of higher order
There is a distinct correspondence between some of these
definitions and the frequency division multiplexing (FDM) hierarchy used
in North America, and elsewhere. Tonal frequency corresponds almost
exactly to voice grade channel, both in use and bandwidth. Compare the
primary group to Bell Network Group (60 to 108 kHz) and the secondary
group to Bell supergroup (312 to 552 kHz). The tertiary group does not
compare directly to Bell mastergroup, but some of the higher-order
groups do have North American counterparts.
A group circuit comprises all the technical means. which
facilitate the transmission of electrical communications signals either
within the band of frequencies (FDM) or at the transmission rate (time
division multiplexing - TDM) of a regulated group of channels. If the
parameters of a group circuit are regulated, the circuit is called
standard. FDM systems currently predominate in mainline primary
networks while time division systems were being introduced .primarily
into local primary networks as recently as 1983. The following standard
digital routes will eventually be used in the primary network as shown
in Table 3-2.
Gnp nG~IC1Al iic~ nun v
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Table 3-2. YeASS Digital Hierarchy
Soviet Nomenclature
`
Transmission Speed
(Mbps)
CCITT Standard
Sub-primary Digital Route (STsT)
0.512
none
Primary Digital Route (PTsT)
2.048
Level 1
Secondary Digital Route (VTsT)
8.448
Level 2
Tertiary Digital Route (TTsT)
34.368
Level 3
Quaternary Digital Route
139.264
Level 4
Pentary Digital Route*
565.148
Level 5
*Mention of this appears mostly in fiber-optic literature.
It should be noted that the CCITT (and Soviet) TDM hierarchy differs
considerably from that used in North America and Japan..
Primary networks are divided into local, zone, and mainline.
The portion of a primary network which lies within a city or rural
region is called a local primary network. An intrazone primary network
is a part of a primary network which lies within a territory coinciding
with a numbering zone of OAKTS. A numbering zone usually coincides with
the administrative boundaries of an Oblast. The intrazone primary and
local primary networks within a territory coinciding with a numbering
zone form a primary zone network. That part of the primary network which
connects standard-group circuits and standard-transmission channels
serving intrazone primary networks throughout the entire country forms a
mainline primary network.- This concept is illustrated in
Figure 3-1 (a).
Network nodes are named in accordance with the primary network
to which they belong, and are divided into junctions and stations.
Network junctions are transit facilities where routes branch, while
network stations are the primary network terminal points at which the
bulk of the channels and routes are made available to the secondary
networks.
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a) NETWORK HIERARCHY
cucrrr.r ?+rrreaa
neoruv..rJ :rm~ 9
rlr..amuur ,u..ra 10
~ nyrrmu cm~.re+a valuv.od
?NO u Jmrorvrrr vervi 1 t
Key: 1 -Terminal exchange (OS); 2 - Central exchange (Ts5); 3 - 'lunicipal a_.c-
matic telephone exchange (GAYS); + - Automatic long-distance telephone exchange
(.~.`fT5); ~ - Eadio broadcast equipment (RVA); 6 - [Expansion not 3iven] (?5);
J - Facsimile newsnaoer; 8 - Legend; 9 - Primary network transmission system;
10 --Subscriber lines; 11 - Junction points between primary and secondary necvorks.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONSOLIDATED AUTOMATED COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS
SOURCE: Reference 6
Figure 3-1. The YeASS Concept
GnR nG~iciei ~icG nai r
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All primary networks are said to have four basic
characteristics (Reference 5). Structure determines the relative
location of the network nodes, exchanges, and transmission lines,
regardless of their territorial position (note: roughly Western
architecture). Topology is the structure considering actual position on
terrain. Capacity is determined by the number of standard channels or
combined spectrum width of all the communications channels in a
transmission line. Viability determines the resistance of transmission
lines and nodes of a primary network to damage. Damage resistance is a
function of the technical reliability of the equipment, resistance to
natural disasters, and a number of other factors (such as protracted
conflict?).
Secondary networks are carried over the primary network and are
defined to include subscriber equipment. Most also have the same three-
tier structure of the primary network. A channel of the secondary
network is any part of the telecommunications channel between nodes.
The type of secondary network gives the secondary network channel its
name. An illustration of the concept of primary and secondary networks
is shown in Figure 3-1 (b). Secondary networks shown are telegraph,
telephone, audio broadcast, and newspaper facsimile.
A primary network transmission line is defined as "an aggregate
of equipment which ensures the generation of aline route, standard
group routes, a,nd transmission channels of the primary network of the
YeASS" (Reference 4). This end-to-end definition includes the
transmission system stations and the propagation medium of the
communications signals. Figure 3-2 shows a fragment of a primary
network employing four different transmission media.
Standard Soviet transmission systems are designated by type of
multiplexing and voice channel capacity. The two types of multiplexing
used are FDM prefixed with the letter K and TDM prefixed IKM. The
maximum channel capacity follows the prefix (e.g., K-1920 is an FDM
multiplexed transmission system with a capacity of 1920 voice-grade
me nrri~~~~ 11@C AYI Y
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run urri~iA~ ua~ un~r
channels). Since the Soviet transmission network is presently largely
analog, the FDM systems predominate. Table 3-3 summarizes
characteristics of the okonyrchnoy komplyeks oburudovaniye peredachye
(OKOP) standard family of FDM systems. Many nonstandard FDM systems are
also in common use.
i c.-r
~ 1 2 ~
A%C /y - 1 ~
~ I
3 TX/7 '~ 92Y Ay A!G
I 1 2 ~
A!D A9 -J
1 - Information equipment (.NCO); 2 - Multiplexing equipment (aC); 3 - Scam_rd
~ranstiission channel (T'IO?) ; 4 - Long-cerm switching device (L~K) ; 5 - Yec?or'.: coca
SU); 6 - Satellite (ISZ); 7 - TroDoscactar (Trot`; 9 - Transmission lines;
. - Standard group transmission circuit; 10 - Standard transmission channel.
SOURCE: Reference 5
Figure 3-2. A Segment of a Primary Network
All FDM transmission spectra are built up modularly from the
standard channels and groups of channels previously described.
Figure 3-3(a) and (b) illustrates the process of forming a 60-channel
secondary group (supergroup) from five separate primary groups (which in
turn are formed from 12 individual voice grade channels), as portrayed
in a Soviet and U.S. text, respectively. The signals added at the
mixers (Figure 3-3 (b)) are called group carrier frequencies. They are
determined by the relationship:
3-7
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tuM urti~iA~ ust un~r
+- -~--~--~---~ 6l2
--- ~ / / ~
60 lOB ~ru ~ ~ ~ ~ i~ ? )
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~o
46B
-----~--~ S/6
J11 J60 40B 456 S04 SS r' M!y ~ ~,
1) Pr_i>?1a>^v group
2) Secondary Group
(a) Diagram of Frequency Conversions of a
60-Channel Audio Frequency Transmission
System (Secondary Group)
SOURCE: Reference 5
12 Channel
group inputs
60 108
n I r
X 504 552
612 Bandpass
Mixers filters
552
m~~
(b) Formation of a Supergroup
SOURCE: Reference 7
60 Channel
supergroup
output
Figure 3-3. Formation of Higher-Order FDM Groups`
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fsec = 312 + 48 m (kHz)
where m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 is the number of a primary group. This results
in a spectrum of 312 to 552 kHz, which is downshifted by 300 kHz to form
the transmission spectrum of the K-60 FDM system. Generation of the
other standard transmission spectra is similar in principle, but more
complex in practice (see Reference 5 for details).
The Soviet K-1920, K-3000, and K-10800 systems specifications
and capacities closely correlate (respectively) to the L-3, L-4, and L-5
transmission systems operated within the U.S. by AT&T. It is believed,
however, that the Soviet systems' performance is probably of lower
quality in terms of signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio and other channel
linearity factors. It has been reported that the military must usually
test and choose the best channels in order to assure reliable
communications for their command, control, and communications (C3)
systems.
Although very much in the minority at present, Soviet digital
transmission systems will become progressively more important over the
next decade as the USSR joins the rest of the world in moving toward the
distant goal of an Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). Soviet
authors (Reference 7) recognize that transition to an all-dig it al system
"in large countries like ours ... is an extremely difficult problem
which takes a great deal of time to solve. The U.S. proposes only to
switch 25 to 30% of all mainline network channels to digital facilities
by 1990." It is not mentioned that this exceeds the total Soviet
telecommunication capacity now in service:
As of mid-1983, development of the basic digital communications
facilities for the YeASS was reportedly in the process of being
completed. However, it was acknowledged that industry will need time to
master production of digital transmission systems. During the
transistion period, digital transmission systems will have to be used as
ordinary analog systems in many cases.
3-10
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A digital channel with a throughput capacity of 64 kbps
corresponds to a voice grade analog channel (using 8-bit coding and
A-87.6 companding) and has been selected as the primary digital channel.
~A digital transmission system hierarchy-has been developed as shown in
Table 3-4. The maximum length of a homogenous digital transmission
system line circuit in mainline, intrazone, and local primary networks
is 2,500, 600, and 100 km, respectively.
.Although digital transmission systems have found application in
both Soviet urban and zone primary networks, in 1982 a plan was
formulated for development of rural primary networks, primarily on a
base of digital systems. It is acknowledged that return on this
investment will be slow, however many rural .networks are underdeveloped
and in need of extensive modernization anyway. This "bottom up"
approach to (ultimate) introduction of digital equipment throughout the
YeASS is almost the opposite of that. being pursued in most Western
countries. If sustained, it could provide an excellent base-for
ultimate transition to a nationwide integrated services digital network
(ISDN).
Existing digital transmission systems incorporate hardware to
ensure compatibility with analog transmission systems. Equipment
designated ATsO-ChD-60 and ATsO-ChD-300 has been developed for setting.
up analog transmission system supergroup and mastergroup circuits
(respectively) within a digital transmission system. An example of how
this is implemented is shown in Figure 3-4.
Figure 3-4 also illustrates the three basic functional parts of
digital transmission equipment: 1) channel formation equipment (one in
figure); 2) time group formation equipment (two in figure), secondary is
illustrated but ternary and quaternary are the same in principle; and
3) line circuit equipment (eight in figure). This is special-purpose
equipment dedicated to a specific transmission medium. The diagram
shows a cable, but digital line circuits have also been developed for
optical cables, radio relay, and satellite links.
3-11
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3.2 OTHER NETWORKS
Despite the Soviet emphasis on YeASS, special needs of the more
important ministries are recognized to sometimes require communications
systems which do not completely conform to the definition of YeASS
secondary networks. These departmental (or ministirial) networks may
lease channels from the YeASS or, where these will not suffice,
sometimes develop their own .cable, open wire, or radio relay
transmission lines. The largest civil users of departmental networks
are the petroleum and gas industry, the Power Engineering and
Electrification Administration, and the Ministry of Railroads. It is
safe to assume that the military and KGB also operate similar networks.
3.3 METALLIC CABLE -
Cable is the dominant transmission medium within Soviet civil
telecommunications networks. By the end of 1980, the Soviets had more
than 70 million channel-kilometers of cable in service, about three
times the capacity of their common-carrier radio-relay facilities.
Cable is used for telephone, telegraph, TV (video and audio), broadcast
audio, facsimile, and data transmission.
Much of the expansion of cable (and other) transmission
facilities occurred toward the. end of the 10th 5-year plan (1980) to
support the Olympic games in Moscow that year. While much new cable was
laid, the majority of the capacity increase (which exceeded the goals of
the 5-year plan by 17~) was achieved by the installation of higher
capacity multiplexers on existing cable routes. The Warsaw Pact is not
fully self-sufficient in cable product ion. While much of the new cable
installed 1975 to 1980 came from domestic production, or from East
Germany and Hungary, some equipment was purchased from Yugoslavia,
Finland, and Japan.
Although the Soviets have published equally ambitious goals for
telecommunications expansion under the 11th 5-year plan (1981 to 1985),
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. run urriciA~ ust un~i
there are several reasons to believe that their record-setting progress
of the recent past is unlikely to be repeated.
1. A large portion of the channel-kilometer increases during
the 1975 to 1980 period were achieved by installing higher-capacity
multiplexing equipmerit on existing routes (chiefly replacing K-1920 with
K-3600 on mainline coax as described in Reference 9). This approach has
reached the limits existing communications lines can support. Although
higher capacity FDM multiplexers than those already installed are under
development, their 60-MHz bandwidth requirements will stress
capabilities of the present transmission plant. The Soviets admit
existing mainline cables are designed for operation only up to 25 MHz;
when operated at 60 MHz they do not meet CCITT attenuation standards.
2. Some gains will continue to be achieved as television, .
audio broadcast, and newspaper facsimile distribution is increasingly
shifted from cable and radio relay lines to COMSATs, freeing up those
trunks for communications. However, this will soon reach the point of
diminishing returns, and represents only a one-time saving.
3. Many existing Soviet cable links are outmoded and incapable
of operating at the full potential of new transmission systems. In
addition, some Warsaw Pact-manufactured cable has proven to be incapable
of demonstrating the expected 50-year service life given the extremely
harsh operating environment in much of the USSR. As a result, it
becomes increasingly uneconomical to keep much of the older cable plant
in service. Significant resources which might have gone toward
expanding the network may instead have to be diverted to replacing older
cables.- Since the replacement cables will be of higher capacity, this
will result in some gain, but less than if the improved cables were laid
on new routes.
Within the USSR telecommunications cables are classified as
national (long distance), provincial (urban), and district (rural).
They are further categorized by intended installation (suspended,
buried, submarine); by the type of insulation and/or armor employed; and
3-15
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as symmetrical, coaxial, or optical fiber. Symmetrical cable consists
of at least two insulated conductors that are structurally identical and
electrically balanced. These conductors are then twisted into groups of
pairs or quads. A coaxial cable in contrast consists of an inner and an
outer conductor separated by insulating material.
Symmetrical (balanced) multiconductor cable is about three
times as common within the Soviet civil telecommunications networks as
coaxial. The most widely used symmetrical cables are those containing
one, four, and seven quads. Each quad can handle up to 60 multiplexed
voice-grade channels, and more than one cable can be laid in the same
trench. While capacities of symmetrical and coaxial cables overlap
somewhat, the balanced multiconductor cables cannot rival the
capabilities of the larger coaxial types.
Coaxial-type cables employed in the USSR are categorized as
composite, mainline, small, or lightweight. The Soviets have a few
standardized coaxial tube sizes, which are specified by outside diameter
of inner conductor/outside diameter of the outer conductor. Cable with
an inner conductor of 2.6 mm and an outer conductor of 9.4 mm (2.6/9.4 )
is referred to as standard, while 1.2/4.6 tubes are considered small.
Most of the major types of coaxial cables are made up of combinations of
these tubes. For example, the KMB-8/6 composite cable has eight
standard and six small tubes, while the KMB-4 mainline coaxial cable has
four standard tubes. Cutaway diagrams of these are shown in Figure 3-5.
The KMB-4 cable is used on the Druzhba (friendship) cable route which
connects Moscow with Berlin, Prague, and Warsaw.
As can be seen from the figure, these cables contain more than
just the coaxial tubes. The KMB-8/6 also contains one symmetrical quad,
eight symmetrical pairs, and six single conductors, while the KMB-4 has
five additional symmetrical quads. These extra wires can be used for
additional communication capacity or some may form service
communications for keeping the main trunks operating, providing remote
control or feedback signals for managing unattended repeaters, or
3-16
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Soviet R&D efforts in fiber-optic communications have been
centered at the Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics (IREE),
the P. N. Lebeder Physics Institute (FIAN), and the Institute of
Chemistry, of the Academy of Sciences. The primary sources of
information on fiber-optic technology are the two journals: Soviet
Journal of Quantum Electronics, which emphasizes research and computer
applications, and Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, which
stresses the implementation of fiber-optic communication systems. Some
prominent Soviet personalities in this field are E. M. Dianov,
V. V. Grigor'yants, A. N. Gur'yanov, A. M. Prokhorov, M. I. Belokolov,
and I. N. Sisakyan.
From the Soviet standpoint, the advantages inherent in fiber
optics as opposed to coaxial cable transmission include:
1. The comparative abundance of the natural resources utilized
to manufacture optical fibers, allowing the conservation of
the scarce, nonferrous metals (copper and lead) which is a
continuing, critical Soviet concern;
2. The large data transmission capacity, expressed in
Gbit-km/s, permitting a large number of channels over great
distances;
3. The small size and mass of optical cables;
4. Immunity to electromagnetic effects;
5. Low attenuation; and
6. The wide, usable bandwidth potentially-permitting efficient
spectral multiplexing.
3.4.1 Soviet Optical Fibers
One of the critical barriers the Soviets face is development of
the highly integrated manufacturing technology necessary for efficient,
reliable, and controllable fiber fabrication. Parameters of Soviet-
produced fibers often vary from batch to batch, and major problems have
limited the length of continuous fibers to less than a few kilometers.
3-21
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turn utticiA~ ust un~r .
Also, no mention was found in available Soviet literature describing a
domestic manufacturing system similar to the axial deposition method
used in the West for continuous fiber manufacturing.
In 1979, Soviet automated production of fibers began using the
"Model UIZS-1" chemical vapor deposition system (Reference 10). This
equipment is located at the IREE and is shown schematically in
Figure 3-6. The authors of this 1982 article claim production of
multimode and single-mode fibers with losses of 0.4 dB/km at 1.3 wn with
a passband of 1.5 GHz-km. The manufacturing technique has dopant
profile flexibility through four teflon diffusers containing SiC14,
BBr3, POC13, and GeC14 and a programmable device employing a 15VSM-5
computer. Figure 3-7 shows the characteristics of the fibers obtained
using the UIZS-1 system. The degree of similarity between this system
and past/present Western manufacturing techniques has-not been assessed.
Quality of the fibers produced by the UIZS-1 system depends on
the quartz support tube as shown in Reference 11. Tubes from the USSR,
Bulgaria, and West Germany were used, and the resultant fibers are
compared in Figure 3-8. From this curve, we see that Soviet quartz
support tubes yield fibers with the highest attenuation and the widest
sample-to-sample variation. It is apparent from this study that the
Bulgarian quartz support tubes were probably used to obtain the
0.4 dB/km fibers reported in Reference 10.
3.4.2 Optical Cable Construction
There have been several good summary articles published by the
Soviets on optical cable construction, but is is not clear which of the
structures discussed is currently being manufactured in the USSR
(References 12 and 13). Appreciation for the desirable properties of
the AT&T 12 x 12 ribbon cable which requires advanced manufacturing and
connector technology is frequently expressed. It is apparent from the
Soviet literature that connectors remain a very weak spot in .the
development of high-capacity cables for communications applications.
3-22
~nA nFFir.iei IISE ONLY
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SOURCE: Reference 10
CP.YING STATION
NEUTRALIZATION SYSTEM
CONTROL UNIT
PROGRAMMING UNIT
ISVSM-~
~L'ARTZ SUPPGRT TUBE
GAS-OYYGEN BURNER
LIMIT SWITCHES
GAS-FLOW REGULATOR
FILTER
BUBBLER-TYPE METERING APPARATUS
Figure 3-6. The UIZS-1 Manufacturing System
(a) Doping Profile
SOURCE: Reference 10
(b) Attenuation Curves
Figure 3-7. Fibers Obtained Using the UIZS-1 System
cne nrr~n~^~ ~~c+r nun v
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(11,0 Q9 QB 47 ~, ;~ dun
SOURCE: Reference 11
1) Bulgaria
2) West Germany
3) USSR
Figure 3-8. Dependence of Fiber Attenuation on Quartz
Support Tubes
There has been an attempt to standardize the Soviet notation
-for labeling optical fiber communication cables (Reference 14). The
hierarchy is divided into OKZ intrazonal cables and OKM trunkline long-
distance cables, as shown in Table 3-6. OKZ cables list the number of
fiber pairs, followed by the channel capacity for each fiber. Thus, an
OKZ 2 x 120 cable is a two-pair fiber cable, each pair of which carries
IKM-120 transmission system for use in a zonal network. OKM cables list
the number of fiber pairs and channel capacity defining the long-
distance capacity, followed by the capacity of those additional fibers
intended for distributive systems (i.e., those channels which can be
branched off at junctions and some repeaters). Thus, an OKM
4 x 1920/2 x 480 is a four-pair fiber trunkline cable, each pair of
which can support an IKM-1920 transmission system, with two additional
pairs, each pair of which can handle a distributive IKM-480 system. It
3-24
Cf1p ACCIf'IAI IICG AYI Y
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
run UttltiiAL ust, UMLi
should not be assumed that because a cable appears in this table, such a
system is actually operational.
Table 3-6. Fiber-Optic Cable Hierarchy for OKZ
Zonal and OKM Trunkline Cables
Type Network
Cable
Nomenclature
Number
Fibers
Total Number
Channels
Intrazonal
OKZ
1
x
120
1
120
OKZ
1
x
480
1
480
OKZ
2
x
120
2
240
OKZ
2
x
480
2
960
OKZ
3
x
120
3
360
OKZ
3
x
480
3
1440
Trunk
OKM
l
x
1920/1
x
480
~ 2
1920/480
OKM
l
x
7680/1
x
1920
~ 2
7680/1920
OKM
2
x
1920/1
x
480
3
3840/480
OKM
2
x
7680/1
x
1920
3
15,360/1920
OKM
4
x
1920/2
x
480
6*
7680/960
OKM
4
x
7680/2
x
1920
6*
30,720/3840
*Reference gives this number as 4, which is believed to be in error
SOURCE: Reference 14
3.4.3 Prototype Telecommunication Links
A review article of May 1982 (Reference 15) describes four
prototype installations in operation in the USSR at that time. The
first link began operation in 1977 carrying an IKM-12 system. A second
setup became operational in January 1980 to connect two private-branch
exchanges in an IKM-30 system. In November 1980, a third system became
3-25
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
operational functioning between a long-distance exchange and an
automatic city exchange carrying IKM-30 data rates. The fourth system
became active in November 1981 carrying IKM-120 traffic between
automatic city exchanges. All of these systems operated in the 0.85-?m
regime.
An IKM-30 optical cable link for use in a city telephone system
is described in detail in Reference 16. The cable supports
interexchange and intertoll city telephone exchange trunks at a data
rate of 2.048 Mbps, and uses a laser-diode source and silicon PIN
photodiode detectors. Tests on the system showed that the error
probability was no worse than 10-g with a total optical power loss on
the order of 45 d6.
The IKM-120 system mentioned above is described in great detail
in Reference 17. This fiber-optic system was demonstrated by the
Soviets at the International Exposition "Telecom-79" in Switzerland. It
is designed to provide a communication link between either automatic
telephone stations or within urban telephone networks at a data rate of
8.488 Mbps. This system also used a laser diode operating at 0.85 Eun
and a PIN photodiode detector and had the same error specification as
the IKM-30 link described previously. In addition to the primary
transmitter and receiver modules, there is a remote control system that
checks the status of the data channel equipment at the unattended
repeater stations (URS). A schematic of the URS is shown in Figure 3-9.
The volume of this repeater is 1200 x 560 x 350 mm and it weighs 150 kg,
which is very bulky relative to comparable Western repeaters. The URS
was designed for installation through large and medium manholes. This
fiber-optic system is relatively capable and quite representative of the
best operational Soviet systems available for installation in the early
1980s.
Reference 18 reports on a fiber optic system based on Soviet
elements which-has a 400-Mbps capacity. Because 400 Mbps is not a
standard increment in the Soviet digital transmission heirarchy, the
3-26
~nR n~Gir_~ei iic~ nNi Y
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FUfl UFFIGIAL U~t UNLT
C2b1o ~ ter. i; ~_~- __ ~ i
~r
ii' !;
` ~ ~J
Su
erviso
p
ry
communica-
- - lion
LR -LINE SIGNAL REGENERATOR
RSR -REMOTE CONTROL AND SUPERVISORY
COMMUNICATION REGENERATOR
PU -PROTECTION UNIT
RCU -REMOTE CONTROL UNIT
RP -REMOTE POWER SUPPLY
SOURCE: Reference 17
Figure 3-9. The IKS-120 Unattended Repeater Station (URS)
FtiR OFFICIAL IISF t1Nl Y
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device was obviously experimental. A 2-km long, single-mode fiber and
an A1GaAs laser source were used. The device used to mate the cable to
the source was a very bulky three-axis coupler which would be obviously
unsuitable for operational use. At the time this development was
reported (1983.), single-mode laboratory demonstrations in the West
exceeded 100-km spacings at several hundred megabits per second, and the
first commercial U.S. and British single-mode links began to appear
(Reference 19).
3.4.4 Prototype Computer Links
In many applications of fiber optic lines to computer networks,
the distance between source and receiver is not very large, allowing
high-loss (up to 100 d6/km) fibers to be used. In addition to their
advantage of high capacity, the small volume and electromagnetic
immunity of optical fibers are very attractive features for computer
networking applications. The possibility of developing hybrid optical-
electronic computers could serve as a further spur to the use of fiber
optics in the Soviet cybernetics field.
An excellent 1982 review article on fiber optic computer links
(Reference 20) describes many of the new trends in this field. In this
article, which also describes many Western systems, two Soviet successes
are noted. First, a single fiber replaced a 10-conductor cable for data
transmission at 5 Mbps in the KAMAK data collection system. The second
development allowed conversion of the YeS computer parallel interface
having 34 conductors to atwo-fiber, 60-Mbps series interface. The
authors also mention that "significant difficulties arise in the
development of the necessary framework (rapid code converters, various
types of switching and logic elements, etc.)."
The VEB Robotron Center for Research and Technology in Dresden,
East Germany has been conducting experiments using fiber optic
interfaces in the K1600 and YeS 1055 computer systems (Reference 21).
The authors note that CEMA member nations have a standard with respect
3-28
Gnp nG~ir_iei usF nN~Y
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
. a run urri~~A~ u~c un~~
to logic conditions but stress that agreements must be made to
standardize optical cables, transmitters, receivers, and connectors to
insure system compatibility.
A 1982 Soviet article discusses the use of fiber optics in the
.computers using parallel "Interfeys-T" and series YeS-7920 interface
algorithms (Reference 22). Two implementations of the interfaces appear
in the "Electronika-60" microcomputers and the YeS series computers,
both employing the KAMAK-standard equipment.
Other prototype fiber optic computer interfaces which have been
installed include:
1. A charged particle accelerator automatic control system
making communication between objects at a potential
difference of 100 kV/m possible (Reference 23),
2. An interchange network in the Polish E-10 computer
(Reference 24),
3. A 3.4-km link in the Fellas-2500 system developed at the
Bucharest computer plant (Reference 25), and
4. The first permanent link in the USSR, used to transmit data
from the USSR Ministry of Geology to the Leningrad Computer
Scientific Research Center of the Academy of Sciences
(Reference 26).
3.5 LINE-OF-SIGHT RADIO RELAY
The Soviets recognize three distinct generations of radio relay
systems: the first generation which employs vacuum tubes, the second
which uses mostly discrete semiconductors, and the third which is built
on integrated circuits (Reference 27). Table 3-7 summarizes
characteristics of the main Soviet-developed systems in use today in the
USSR (Voskhod and Druzhba were developed jointly with Hungary). In
addition, equipment manufactured in Hungary, the GDR, and Japan, is
currently in service.
3-29
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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FOA OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23 :CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
? FOA OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23 :CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
. ~ 1'Un U~~IV111L UDC UnLi
mostly by the military.. Molniya 3 carries civil telecommunications and
relays television through the Orbita network.
As can be seen from Figure 3-17, the Soviets have announced
extensive plans for utilizing geosynchronous COMSATs through their
registrations with the World Atmospheric Radio Conference (WARC) and
other international bodies. Of the announced programs, two have yet to
appear:- GALS (Tack), which will operate in the military 8/7-GHz band,
and SORS, a Soviet counterpart of the NASA Tracking and Data Relay
Satellite System (TDRSS). The COS 1366 type satellites may represent
initial steps to implement the POTOK digital-data relay system, which
was announced about the same time as GALS and SDRS. None of these will
serve civil telecommunications functions. Existing Soviet
geosynchronous satellites at the end of 1984 are illustrated in
Figure 3-18.
The three predominently civil satellite programs using the
geosynchronous regime-are illustrated in Figures 3-19 through 3-21.
Ekran (Screen) is a television relay directly rebroadcasting national
television programs to low-population density areas of the USSR.
Because "it uses the regular TV frequency band (714 MHz) for its
broadcast downlink, Ekran service areas are restricted to those where
interference with other nations will not occur. Raduga (Rainbow) and
Gorizont (Horizon) satellites also handle television as part of the
Orbita distribution network. Gorizont can broadcast television signals
directly to 2.5-m antennas as part of the "Moskva" distribution system.
The nature of the Soviet system causes considerable resources
to be devoted to the distribution of official information (propaganda)
from Moscow (where almost all programming is prepared for the rest of
the country) via television, radio broadcast, and newspapers, which are
transmitted to local printing plants by facsimile. One-half the
capacity of each Molniya 3 is usually devoted to TV transmission, as is
one of three available channels on each Raduga and two of six on each
Gorizont. .Significant portions of the remaining capacity are used for
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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FOA Of FICIAI USE ONLY r
GOaIiANT, ~uCN, vO~NA oAOUGA, VuCN P, GABS, vO~NA
90RN POTOK, PROGNO Z. (K09MOS t78eI
EKRAN--~~~ ~~-OO~uS
oa o ++p1
a,r O om'o
~ OPEN (STA TSIONAR t 2)
~RAOU GA. GADS. PROGNOZ
GORIZANT, :UCM, `iOINA
4ADUGA, LJCN P, GADS. vOINA
~QPEN (9TAT910NAR t tl
-WCM, YOINA,GORIZAVT
vOTOK
~90RN
\- pQOGN02
`~_UCM P, GADS, vOLVA
SOURCE: Reference 30
Figure 3-17. Soviet Plans for Utilization of Geostationary
Orbital Regime
SOURCE: Reference 30
Figure 3-18. Soviet Satellites in Geostationary Orbits
as of 1984
3-44
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(a) Ehkran Satellite
SOURCE: Reference 31
(b) Ehkran Service Area
Figure 3-21. Ehkran Direct Broadcast Satellite System
CAD A[[If+lAl 11 L'[ A111 V
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audio broadcast and facsimile distribution. Sometimes these are
transmitted by FM multiplexing onto a TV broadcast channel, but the
"Orbita-RV" equipment permits some combination of audio and facsimile
channels (up to 25) to be time division multiplexed into one-half the
capacity of a Raduga or Gorizont transponder. Special coding (3:4
redundancy ratio) is used to reduce undetected errors on audio broadcast
channels to less than 1 x 10-9. The corresponding error probability for
"Gazeta-2" newspaper facsimile is 1 x 10-4; this lower standard is
considered acceptable. Table 3-9 lists specifications for this and
other. commonly used Soviet facsimile equipment.
Table 3-9. Characteristics of Selected
Soviet Facsimile Equipment
Nomenclature
Primary Use
Size Image I
(mm)
Transmission Time
(min)
"Aragvi"
Transmit/Receive
220 x 150
6.0
Shaded Images
"Shtrikh"
Transmit/Receive
220 x 150 I
2.1
Shaded Images
FTA-PM
Transmit/Receive
220 x 300
12 5
Shaded Images
"Ladoga"
Weather Maps
i 480 x 690*
~ 22.0
"Neva"
Half Tones and
220 x 300
I 6.0
Shaded Images
"Gazeta-1"
Newspapers
520 x 610
~ 50.0**
"Gazeta-2"
Newspapers
520 x 610
i
, 2 to 3
*Maximum limit for width; length is unlimited
**Strict requirements for image-skew (NTE 1/100 mm page length)
Two main civil telecommunications networks?are in operation
with Soviet COMSATs: the Orbita 2 network for domestic service and the
Ft1R ~FFICIAI IISF t1Nl Y
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Intersputnik international network. The space segment of the Orbita
network consists of Molniya 3, Raduga, and Gorizont satellites. The
ground segment is made up of "about_100" large Earth stations most of
which employ 12-m (TNA 57) parabolic antennas, one of which is
illustrated in Figure 3-22. The Orbita network is used for television
distribution, newspaper facsimile distribution, telephony, and
telegraphy. A portable ground station known as "Mars" with a 7-m dish
can also work with the Orbita system. It has the capacity of one TV
channel or an equivalent communication trunk, and is air transportable
and truck mounted. It has been in use since 1973 (usually for TV
relay). Both FDM and TDM circuits are available for domestic service.
TDM streams typically have the higher capacity.
Intersputnik was established in 1971 as a socialist alternative
to Intelsat. Although originally subscribed to by only European
Communist countries, Mongolia, and Cuba, it is open to any state. Many
Soviet-aligned "neutrals" have joined in recent years including Vietnam,
South Yeman, Afghanistan, Syria, and Laos. Algeria and Iraq also lease
channels from Intersputnik because it is cheaper than Intelsat. Each
subscriber-must establish a station built to Orbita (12-m dish)
standards, but the equipment need not come from the USSR (Nippon
Electric supplied most components for the stations built in Algeria and
Iraq). The space segment consists of four transponders on Gorizont-
Statsionar 4 and two on Gorizont-Statsionar 5. Typically, nearly half
this capacity is devoted to television and radio broadcast interchange,
with the balance devoted to single channel per carrier (SCPC) telephony
and telegraphy generated through the use of "Gradient-N" channeling
equipment.
An important feature of Soviet COMSAT systems is the high
degree of equipment standardization. Only three transmitters are used
within the entire range of civil telecommunications systems, with
characteristics shown in Table 3-10. Likewise, Orbita receiving
equipment is standardized, the installations differing mostly between
3-48
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those intended for broadcast distribution-only and those which also can
receive telecommunications streams.
Table 3-10. Transmitters Used With Soviet COMSATs
Nomenclature
Power Output
(kW)
Frequency
Band (GHz)
Cooling
Use
"Gradient"
10
5.975-6.225
Water
Ehkran Earth
Stations
3
5.975-6.225
Water
Mars-2 Earth
Stations
"Gelikon"
3
6.000-6.250
Air
Other Earth
Stations
"Grunt"
0.2
5.975-6.275
Air
"Gradient-N"
(1 of 6 WB
Trunks "Gruppa"
Trunks)
FDMA Telephony
At least three standard forms of multiple access equipment are
used*; two incorporate frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
techniques and the third uses time division multiple access (TDMA). The
"Gradient-N" FDMA equipment is mostly used in Intersputnik service;
there are 200 carriers in the SCPC trunk, and two must be combined to
form a duplex channel so the capacity of a trunk organized with this.
equipment is only 100 duplex channels. "Gruppa" equipment can place.
either a 12-channel FM multiplexed group or a 512-kbps digital system
stream on each of up to 24 carriers. Total trunk capacity is 288 FM
channels or in excess of 12-Mbps digital data.
"The MDVU-40 equipment is based on the TDMA principle with a
40-Mbps line digital stream transmission rate in a satellite trunk. The
equipment is intended for joint operation with terminal equipment that
performs analog-digital conversion either of a standard 60-channel
frequency division multiplex group (the binary stream rate is 5.12 Mbps)
*This list is probably not exhaustive
3-50
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or of eight standard audio frequency channels (binary stream rate is
512 kbps). In either case, pulse code modulation is~~used for analog-
digital conversion" (Reference 32). The MDVU-40 equ~i,pment may be used
.either alone (carrying only telecommunications channels) or in
conjunction with "Orbita RV" equipment for distributing audio/facsimile
transmissions, in which case its normal telephony capacity is halved.
Up to 36 stations can be accommodated in TDMA networks formed using this
equipment. Each of these multiple-access systems provides pilot tones
and service channels to accomplish the "orderwire" function. In the
case of MDVU-40, the service channel uses voice "delta-modulated" at a
16-kHz rate.
Although they use the same frequency bands as Western COMSATs
for the most part, Soviet systems. such as Molniya, Raduga, and Gorizont
differ in significant ways from Western counterparts. Their service
life is typically much shorter, and they carry less than half as many
transponders (of roughly equivalent bandwidth) per satellite. The
satellite modulation and access schemes do not incorporate the
flexibility of techniques common in the West. On the average, the
Soviets appear to be between 5 and 10 years behind Western countries in
several areas of COMSAT technology.
3.8 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM R&D
Soviet R&D intended to lead to improved civil
telecommunications transmission systems is primarily involved-with
satellite communications and landlines. In addition to the items
discussed below, it should be remembered that several of the higher-
capacity transmission systems of their "standard" hierarchies-the
K-10800 FDM and the IKM-1920- are still considered exper imental, and that
the IKM-7680 is best described as conceptual.
GAp nG~ie~ei iicG nNi v
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3.8.1 COMSATs
Since the experimental 14/11 GHz Luch* (Ray) transponder was
orbited on Gorizont 5 on 15 March 1982, the USSR in conjunction with all
its European CEMA partners except Romania, has been using the transponder
as part of a research project known as the "Dubna Test Bed" (Reference 33).
Dubna is a city some 128 km north of Moscow, and in addition to being
the primary ground station for the Luch experiment, the test-bed also
includes ground test facilities for 11-, 20-, and 30-GHz communications.
The other end of the experimental COMSAT link is at Nev Holm in the GDR,
and receive-only terminals are located in other CEMA countries. The
first-class ground terminals, which can transmit and receive, employ
12-m dish antennas; the second-class receive-only terminals require only
3-m dishes. Objectives include an "integrated study of RF propagation
above 10 GHz" and "assessment of atmospheric/weather influences on data
transmission at frequencies greater than 10 GHz" (Reference 32). The
experiment was scheduled to be completed in 1985.
Opening up the Ka and Ku bands for satellite communication will
greatly expand the bandwidth potentially available to 'the USSR for
telecommunications, as well as enhancing transmission security .because
of the smaller broadcast footprints at the higher frequencies. It
should be noted, however, that the Soviet efforts considerably lag
Western state of the art in this area. The first commercial satellite
carrying Ku (14/11 GHz) band transponders was launched by Canada in
1978, and many have since followed. The first U.S. space tests of
Ka-band (44/20 GHz) communications will begin after the launch of
FLTSATCOM 7 in 1987.
3.8.2 Superconducting Cables
The Sovi-ets have reported successful experiments involving.
cryogenically-cooled, miniature, coaxial cables (Reference 34) over a
3-km distance. These experiments resulted in an extremely wide, usable
*Luch is sometimes also spelled Loutch or Lutch.
me nrrlnl ^ 1 11~[ Afll Y
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bandwidth and high data throughput without frequent repeaters. Many
aspects of this "BSPK-50" test, however, indicate a program still in the
early research stages. While the author of Reference 33 attempts to
create the impression that the Soviets are as near to making
superconductive cable a viable transmission medium as are the Japanese,
the facts suggest otherwise.
3.8.3 Waveguide Cortmunication Lines
During the 1970s, the Soviets reported significant research on
communications by means of millimeter waves (30 to 120 GHz) propagating
within closed waveguides. These were represented as being suitable for
high-capacity digital data transmission within the primary YeASS
network. Both line and spiral waveguides and combinations of the two
were investigated. Although Reference 29 reported that by 1980 "the
major technical problems have been practically solved," recent
literature takes little note of this transmission medium. It seems
likely that this technology has been obsoleted by rapid developments in
the field of-fiber optics over the last decade.
3.8.4 Fiber Optics
The wide scope and large magnitude of Soviet fiber optics R&D
suggest a well-funded, serious program. Work is being performed on all
crucial phases of this technology needed for near-term and realizable
future developments. Generally Soviet laboratory prototypes closely
follow, both in time and reported results, comparable Western
developments. But Soviet prototypes have tended to remain in the
laboratory environment because of difficulties associated with
manufacturing and control. One field in which the .Soviets have the
potential to overtake Western R&D efforts is integrated optics. Their
advanced understanding of solid-state theory and materials science may
help in the design of novel, integrated, optical systems for application
in computer architecture and fiber-optic communication system
components.
FOR OEEICIA~ USE OH~Y
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Soviet fiber-optic R&D efforts can be subdivided into the
following areas:
1. 2 to 11-wn fibers and new approaches to 0.8 to 2.0-?m
fibers ;
2. Advances in manufacturing technology., primarily in response
to the demonstrated superiority of existing Western
capabilities;
3. New sources and detectors for use at 1.3 dun and above;
4. Connector technology;
5. High-speed repeaters;
6. Spectral multiplexing to utilize the large bandwidth of
fibers;
7. Understanding fundamentals of optical transport within
fiber waveguides, and the effects of environmental
disturbances on it; and
8. Integrated optics and hybrid electronic-optical structures.
A sampling of the published Soviet R&D work is presented below to
highlight the scope of these efforts.
Optical fibers which support transmission in the 2 to 11-?m
region offer the potential to decrease fiber losses to 10-1 to
10-3 dB/km. The authors of Reference 16 state that, as of 1982, "the
literature does not contain any reports on the fabrication of low-loss
infrared (greater than 2 ?m) optical waveguides, but there is intensive
research on the subject." The use of arsenic-sulfur and arsenic-
selenium glasses for transmission in the 3.4- to 4.7-?m band is
investigated in Reference 35, and the interaction of 10.6-?m radiation
with KRS5 waveguides is discussed in Reference 36. New approaches to
fibers in the 0.8- to 2.0-?m regime include using chalcogenide vitreus
glasses such as As2S3, As2Se3, As2Te3, and Sb2Se3 to fabricate fibers
(Reference 37); and using organic salts of suitable metals as dopants in
fibers (Reference 38). Reference 39 claims the capability to fabricate
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graded index fibers by the chemical vapor deposition method with losses
as low as 0.25 dB/km at 1.55 ?m and a bandwidth of 900 MHz.
In order to utilize these advances in fiber technology,
associated system .components must be improved as well. For operation in
the 1.0- to 1.6-4un regime, the most promising source is the GaInAsP
heterostructure laser (Reference 40). The most popular detectors of
radiation being investigated by the Soviets for use in this frequency
range are the geranium avalanche photodiode and the GaInAsP photodiode
(Reference 41). Although somewhat dated, Reference 42 presents a good
insight into Soviet. perceptions of the prospects for using the 1.0- to
1.6-4un band and suggests some of their current research directions.
Source and detector developments for fiber optics are also aided by the
complementary developments in infrared atmospheric communication and
infrared imaging in the USSR.
To date, connector technology has been the greatest barrier to
successful implementation of practical, system-level fiber optics in the
Soviet Union. Although there has been an effort to analyze the losses
in present connectors and couplers, and a stated emphasis of the need
for better components, little R&D work can be identified in this area.
What effort has taken place has tended to be directed toward developing
laboratory elements sufficient to demonstrate the properties of fibers,
sources, detectors, and the like. Not surprisingly, the resulting
connectors tend to be bulky and impractical-for implementation in
telecommunication and computer systems.
Repeater development assumes increased importance to the
Soviets due to their apparent inability to fabricate long, continuous
fibers. Reference 43 contains an analysis of a high-speed repeater that
operates at transmission capacities in excess of 1 Gbps. The design is
based on the controlled Gunn diode which aids in restoring the pulse
amplitude and duration. The authors note that it may be possible to
combine the detector, source, and Gunn diode elements into one substrate
in an integrated form.
me nre~~~ ^ ~ ~~c+r nun v
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As a method of utilizing the large bandwidth in the optical
frequency domain, spectral multiplexing is very attractive and has been
the subject of a number of papers. An excellent review article (see
Reference 44) contains an assessment of the Soviet and Western methods
of achieving spectral multiplexing as of 1983. The methods described
for multiplexing and demultiplexing in frequency include interference
filtering, Figure 3-23 (a), diffraction at gratings, Figure 3-23 (b),
focusing rods combined with gratings, Figure 3-23 (c), concave gratings,
Figure 3-23 (d), holographic elements, Figure 3-23 (e), and integrated
waveguide structures, Figure 3-23 (f). The author concludes that
.spectral multiplexing of optical fibers can be used to handle tens of
channels in one fiber tens of kilometers long. Two prototype spectral
multiplexed fiber optic communication lines were also operated
experimentally. The first (Reference 45) used a laser source and the
grating multiplexer/demultiplexer shown in Figure 3-23 (b). The second
(Reference 46) utilizes a light emitting diode, combined with a set of
optical filters, to multiplex and demultiplex using a diffraction
grating structure also similar to Figure 3-23 (b).
There have also been intensive investigations into the effects
that different environmental factors have on fiber systems. For
example, factors that are affected by thermal variations are considered
in Reference 47, and Reference 48 discusses the use of different
polymeric coatings to extend the temperature immunity of a fiber. The
effects of mechanical stresses on the fiber are considered in
References 49 and 50. Losses due to the relaxing of a polymer
protective coating, which causes microbends in the fiber, are analyzed
in Reference 51, and the effect of water on fiber strength is evaluated
i n Reference 52.
The area of integrated optics is receiving a lot of well-
deserved attention by the Soviets. This technology is the key to
creating efficient optical computers and processors. Reference 53
[AD A[[If+lAl 11~[ A111 Y
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~+.r. s. ?
~ C
1. INPUT FIBER
2. FOCUSING RODS
3. OUTPUT FIBERS
4. INTERFERENCE FILTERS
(a) Consecutive Demultiplexing of Four Components
Using Filters
1.
INPUT FIBER
3.
OBJECTIVE
2.
OUTPUT FIBERS
4.
GRATING
(b) Parallel Demultiplexing by a Ciffraction
Grating and Autocollimator
SOURCE: Reference 44
Figure 3-23. Fiber-Optic Demultiplexing Techniques
Gnp nG~iciei iicG naiv
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1. INPUT FIBER
2. FOCUSING ROD
3. GRATING
4. PRISM
5. OUTPUT FIBERS
(c) Focusing-Rod Demultiplexer
1. GRATING
2. OUTPUT FIBERS
3. INPUT FIBER
(d) Concave-Grating Demultiplexer
SOURCE: Reference 44
Figure 3-23. Fiber-Optic Demultiplexing Techniques (Continued) ,
FnR nFFiciai IISE ONLY
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a. METHOD TO RECORD HOLOGRAM
b. DEMULTIPLEXING SCHEME
1. INPUT FIBER 2. GELATIN FILM 3. OUTPUT FIBERS
(e) Holographic Demultiplexing
1. THIN-FILM (3 to b um)
As2S3 WAVEGUIDE
2. INSULATING 5:02 FILM
(0.5 um)
3. SILICON PLATE
4. SUPERIMPOSED BRAGG GRATINGS
5. BIPOLAR PHOTO-TRANSISTORS
6. TRANSISTOR SWITCHES
(.f) Integrated Optical Waveguide Demultiplexer
SOURCE: Reference 44
Figure 3-23. Fiber-Optic Demultiplexing Techniques (Concluded)
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discusses research involving integrated structures of LiNb03, CdS, and
ZnSe for modulating the light in a communication system. Although this
source is dated 1979, it contains good review material. The capability
of the Soviets to manufacture thin film waveguides in integrated
structures is discussed in Reference 54, and the potential of the
present state of hybrid optical devices is shown in Reference 55. It
can be assessed that the Soviets may keep pace with the West in this
very important field.
cno nccir+~s~ IICC AYI Y
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4. THE OAKTS
4.1 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
The OAKTS is the largest single secondary network of the YeASS.
At present, the nationwide telephone network does not completely conform
to the outline of the OAKTS because of the way it evolved. For many
years, the Soviet long-distance telephone network was built and expanded
on the "radial center" principle (star topology). In order to
accommodate increased traffic flow, tandem connections were made at all
levels. The organization of tandem centers and tandem exchanges was a
first step toward network rationalization. Tandem centers are connected
to each other by the "each-to-each" principle (grid topology) and the
tandem exchanges by direct channels to the tandem center serving their
territory.
The term "automatically switched" in the OAKTS title is also
presently somewhat of a misnomer. As of 1983, "almost 50% of all long-
distance channels employed automatic methods for making connections. By
the end of the 11th 5-year plan (1985) the level of automation of long-
distance telephone communications is to reach 55%" (Reference 56). Even
where automation has been achieved, the quality of service is not
satisfactory. "The average number of attempted connections per
conversation is 3.1 to 3.5, while the optimum number is 1.6 to 1.8"
(Reference 56). Widespread use of "step-by-step" switches in the
automatic exchanges severely limits utility of the OAKTS for digital
data transmission. However, there are plans to reduce or eliminate
these deficiencies. The OAKTS is being developed in stages; the 11th
5-year plan (1981 to 1985) is phase one. Physical construction will be
completed by the end of stage two, which is to be the completion of the
12th 5-year plan (1990).
The OAKTS consists of long-distance and zone networks. The
latter include local (municipal and rural) and intrazone telephone
networks. The long-distance network incorporates automatic long-
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distance telephone exchanges (AMTS), first- and second-class automatic
switching centers (UAK-I and UAK-II), and bundles of voice-grade
channels obtained from the primary network. All automatic long-distance
exchanges are terminal exchanges in the long-distance network, and are
connected to automatic switching centers by bundles of high performance
channels. In the future, it is planned that all automatic long-distance
exchanges will have direct access to two automatic switching centers.
Automatic switching centers (tandem exchanges) are intended to handle
tandem traffic and to distribute telephone traffic between automatic
long-distance exchanges. Automatic long-distance exchanges, however,
can be directly connected to one another if traffic density dictates.
All class-I automatic switching centers (UAK-I) are connected
to one another by direct bundles of channels designed for high-
performance transmission which form a "last choice path" for long-
distance traffic. These channels carry telephone traffic between
automatic long-distance exchanges, which was not able to be accommodated
over a more direct path. Figure 4-1 shows operation of the long-
distance phone network in this limiting case (i.e., the "last choice
path").
All zone telephone networks are also part of the OAKTS. These
networks provide telephone communications between subscribers within a
zone and, via the long distance network, subscribers in other zones.
These networks also provide access to the international telephone
network (Automatic telephone communication has been in effect between
Moscow, East Berlin, Prague, Warsaw, and Budapest since 1970, and with
Sophia since 1974). A zone usually, but not necessarily, corresponds to
a political division. As a rule, a zone will contain only a single,
automatic long-distance exchange, although exceptions are made where
technically or economically advisable. A diagram of a conceptual
automatic zone communications network is shown in Figure 4-2.
With automatic and semiautomatic long-distance telephone
communications, the called party is dialed by the calling party or
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Long Distance
Telephone Networ
Municipal
Net A ~--
Rural
Net A
SOURCE: Reference 6
Zonal Net-
work A _
Zonal Net-
work B
Figure 4-1. Long ,D4stance Calling Between Zones
1 - Terminal
exchange (OS); 2 - ;lode exchange (US); 3 - Central exchange (TsS); G - Automatic
telephone exchange (ATS); 5 - Region; 6 - Automatic long-distance exchange (~.`1TS)
(LDX); 7 - Oblast' center; 8 - Recording-completion trunk (ASL); 9.- Toll trunk (SL`1);
10 - US~1*1 (expansion not given; 11 - To automatic long-distance exchange (LDX);
12 - To automatic switching center (UAK).
SOURCE: Reference 6
Figure 4-2. Construction of Automatic Zone Communications Network
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operator in the following manner: 8-ABC ab xxxxx, where "8" is the
access code for the automatic long-distance exchange; ABC =three-digit,
long-distance zone code; ab = two-digit code for 100-thousands group of
exchanges or regions within zone; and xxxxx =five-digit local
subscriber number. In order to make an automatic connection with a
subscriber within his own zone, a caller must dial the guide digit "2"
instead of the three-digit, long-distance code. The number dialed in
this case is 8-2 ab xxxxx.
While there are similarities between this description of the
Soviet national telephone system (drawn entirely from Russian sources,
principally References 6 and 55) and that which operated in the United
States prior to AT&T divestiture, certain marked asymmetries are also
evident. The most obvious is the number of subscribers serviced by the
two systems. The United States, with approximately 71 telephones per
100 population (1983), ranks number three in this statistic among the
countries of the world (after Sweden and Switzerland). Comparable
figures for the entire Soviet Union are not available,* but judging from
some statistics for Eastern European countries (East Germany 20
telephones/100 population, Hungary 12.5/100, and Poland 10/100), the
number of subscriber instruments serviced is probably less than one-
fifth that in the U.S. (Reference 57). The majority of phones in the
USSR are located in state-run establishments (Government bureaus, state
industries, businesses, and collective farms) with location in
residences less common.** This smaller subscriber popoulation
translates into a smaller number of required exchanges- perhaps about
one-fourth the 21,000 operating in the U.S. in 1983. In turn, this
requires a less hierarchical system; the OAKTS appears to have a four-
level hierarchy- UAK-1, UAK-2, AMTS, and central office. The
*Available information suggests, however, wide variation between
various regions of the USSR with 14.57/100 population in rural Latvia
and only 1.06/100 in rural Tatzhikistan (national rural average
4.04/100).
**However the Soviets claim that 3.5 million of 6 million subscribers
added in 1975-1980 were "residence telephones."
cno ncG~r_iei i~c~ nNi Y
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predivestiture Bell System hierarchy in the U.S. had five levels-
Regional, Sectional, Primary, Toll, and Local Central. Another
asymmetry concerns the level of system automation, which exceeded 90% in
the U.S. in 1970 and is close to 100% today, while in 1985 (if all 5-
year plan goals are accomplished) it is scheduled to reach 55% in the
USSR. Finally, it should be noted that despite a much smaller system
which is also much more labor intensive, Soviet subscribers enjoy
service which, by official admission, does not meet norms and is
certainly much poorer than would be accepted in the U.S.
It should be not be .assumed, however, that poor telephone
service is experienced everywhere in the USSR. As a result of enjoying
the highest priority for installation of imported equipment over the
last decade and a half, telecommunications within and between Moscow and
Leningrad are probably significantly better than in the country as a
whole. Many of the European Republics (Latvian, Lithuanian, Moldavian,
and Belorossian) enjoy automated service on afar higher percentage of
lines than the national average while in the Turkman, Tadzhik,
Azerbaydzhan, and Georgian SSRs only 18 to 25% of connections are
automated. Reports of new equipment installations and modernization
plans (Reference 56) suggest continued priority on improving service in
and between major cities of the European USSR (Vilnius, Minsk, Kiev,
Kharkov, and Rostov on Don). Near-term upgrades are also planned for
Tashkent, Alma-Ata and Novosibirsk.
4.2 SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT.
Several types of telephone sets, including the TA-60, TA-65,
and TA-72, are manufactured in the USSR. Additionally, the Soviet Union
imports significant numbers of telephones from its CEMA partners Poland,
Czechoslovakia, and the GDR. Most of these phones are probably of the
dial type, although newer types of exchange equipment are compatible
with pushbutton sets. There are also coin-operated telephones for long-
distance service, of which the latest model is designated MTA-15-3 and
includes a rate-computing attachment. It should not be assumed these
cno nccir~ei ii~~ nui v
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are widely distributed; in 1982 there were only 1200 coin-operated
phones in all of Belorussia (population more than 10 million): All of
these telephones are conventional analog models intended for operation
,on normal, analog, voice-grade channels.
Although the need for substantial quantities of such
instruments seems far off, the Soviets have published a number of
articles describing digital telephones. In most cases, these have used
a special form of differential PCM called delta modulation. In delta
modulation what is transmitted is not a function of the total message
but only the sign of an increment referenced to previous samples in
calibrated time slots. The process of implementing delta modulation in
a CODEC is illustrated in Figure 4-3. This type of modulation seems
similar to the continuously variable slope delta modulation used to
digitize voice at 16 kbps in Tri-Tac digital subscriber voice terminals,
but differs significantly from the more straightforward 8-bit PCM
approach used in T-carrier systems in the U.S.
A drawback of delta modulation is that distortions occur during
transmission of fast changes of a signal. In order to' reduce this
problem, a modified coding referred to as "adaptive delta modulation"
can be used. Adaptive delta modulation is said to reduce the required
digital channel capacity to only 10-16 kbps instead of the 64 kbps that
would be needed for normal 8-bit PCM coding of a voice grade channel.
Several Soviet engineers have been issued patents for various voice
coding (vocoding) schemes that would reduce the transmission requirment
further to the 1200- to 2400-bps range.
Equipment used for data transmission over the telephone network
will be described in Subsection 6.2.
4.3 TELEPHONE SWITCHING SYSTEMS
The Soviet Union has historically been quite backward in its
introduction of automatic switching into the national telephone network.
Widespread automation of long-distance traffic did not begin until about
ono nrcir+ie~ i~eG nui v
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J~flJ~f~(N(U~f
YcAparaar rose J drs Yrweovc~ree
(oNawwd loao0a~emoe~
uMn-rtoenreo
a -- diagrams of voltages;
b -- structural diagram: 1 -- input LF signal; 2 -- local
demodulated signal; 3 -- difference of the two signals;
4 -- polarity of the difference signal after digitization;
5 -- digitized signal; 6 -- encoded signal.
7) Comparator IO) (Local demodulator)
8) Digitizer integrator
?) Output 11) Input
[MKC=us; B=vJ
SOURCE: Reference 27
Figure 4-3. A Del to Modulator.
4-7
CAA ACCIf'IAI IICC AYI Y
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1971. Even in 1982 a Soviet author (Reference 56) noted that: "in
spite of all the work being done to automate long-distance telephone
communications, manual and semi-automatic traffic comprise a major
share...there will be practically no reduction in its absolute
amount...(for) about the next five years." Consequently, as late as the
early 1980s, considerable effort was being devoted by the MOC to develop
and field equipment designed to improve operator efficiency. This
included cordless switchboard equipment and "light weight headsets
without headbands."
The same four generations of automatic telephone switching
equipment can be distinguished in the U.S., the USSR, and the rest of
the world.
1. Step-by-step or 10-step exchanges are comprised entirely of
bulky electromagnetic relays, many of the pulsed-rotary
type from which the term "step-by-step" is derived. These
use progressive control where each dialed digit
successively sets up a communication path through the
exchange. This is the simplest type of control to
implement with electromagnetic components, but has the
drawback that all equipment is tied up for the duration of
the call and that even if a clear path is available it may
not be properly selected because of an unfortuitous early
step in the selection process. Exchanges built on this
principle require a great deal. of space and are very noisy
in operation.
2. Crossbar exchanges are also composed of electromechanical
relays but the "common control" principle permits some real
improvements over step-by-step systems. All dialed digits
are accumulated in a register, and then the equipment
selects the optimal route. This arrangement uses less
equipment to "hold" a call than to "establish" one, with a
corresponding increase in operating efficiency. Crossbar
equipment is considerably smaller than step-by-step,
quieter in operation, easier to maintain, and uses less
power.
3. The Soviet writings all refer to-the third-generation
equipment as "quasi-electronic" to distinguish it from the
forth-generation; this nomenclature is not generally used
in the United States. Quasi-electronic exchanges implement
stored program control over the switching process with
special-purpose digital computers, but the switching
. w . w ~ ~ ^ w ^ ^ ^ ^^ A r A ~~ ~ V
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elements themselves are still basically electromechanical.
Switching element contacts are usually enclosed in glass
tubes, which greatly improves reliability. Because the
control element is a computer, it is possible to introduce
a variety of specialized services such as conference
calling and call forwarding.
4. Fourth-generation exchanges are entirely digital with both
the control computer and switching elements composed
largely of integrated circuits. In contrast to the first
three generations which were strictly space-division
switches, time-division switching is often implemented in
fourth-generation equipment, which truly deserves its name
"electronic switching." This generation of exchanges is
fully compatible with the needs of an all-digital network
like the ISON.
Figure 4-4 compares the dates when the various switching
generations first entered service in the U.S. and the USSR. The U.S.
lead in the introduction of new switching technologies has been reduced
from approximately 20 years for crossbar equipment to 14 for quasi-
electronic switching and only 7 for fourth-generation gear. As in many
other areas of the Soviet economy, this performance has been achieved
primarily by importing, and in many cases copying, foreign-made
equipment. A rather surprisingly small portion of switching equipment
presently in service represents original Soviet designs, and this trend
shows little sign of changing.
Soviet telephone switching plants are usually divided into
local and long-distance equipment by intended use, and the distinction
is important. Local switching, particularly in the major cities, was
the first to be implemented; consequently, more obsolete step-by-step
equipment is in service at this level. Despite considerable effort to
modernize local telephone service, at least 50% of the switching plant
employs "10-step" switching. Local switches are often distinguished as
being intended for municipal or rural exchanges, which implies
differences in the number and lengths of subscriber loops they are
designed to accommodate; although, in practice, some cross-application
occurs. Table 4-1 (drawn mostly from References 58 and 59) summarizes
the most important types of exchanges in local service. Many types of
eno neciriei ~iec nui v
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local exchanges were not designed for incorporation into a nationwide
network because they use a numbering system inconsistent with the OAKTS
and do not incorporate automatic (caller) number identification. In
many cases,~it will probably prove more economical to replace these
obsolete exchanges rather than modernize them.
Widespread automation of long-distance telecommunications was
.not initiated until the early 1970s, so long-distance switching is not
plagued by the same high proportion of obsolete equipment. It is
estimated that approximately 60% of mainline switching is by crossbar
exchanges.- Characteristics of the most important types of toll
exchanges are shown in Table 4-2.
At least three different approaches are simultaneously being
taken by the Soviets in an effort to modernize their telephone switching
plant with third- and fourth-generation equipment. As an interim
measure, they are importing a number of exchanges. One supplier the
Soviets publicly acknowledge is the Iskra firm in Yugoslavia which
produces "Metakonta-lOS quasi-electronic exchanges..in accordance with
the USSR Ministry of Communications specifications" (Reference 55).
These are believed to be minimally modified versions of the
Metaconta lOC exchange which Iskra manufactures under license to ITT*.
Overtures to other Western or Western-licensed suppliers of third-
generation equipment are also likely. The expertise is so widespread
and the industry so competitive that the USSR can probably obtain
multiple bids on third-generation exchanges.
As a more long-term solution, the USSR and some of its European
CEMA partners are cooperating in development of third-generation
exchange equipment in a program called ENSAD. While Hungary and some
other CEMA members have developed advanced small exchanges of PBX size,
the most significant results have come from USSR/GDR bilateral
cooperation. In 1979 a quasi-electronic prototype long-distance
*Among t e nown installations of this equipment is the Moscow
international telephone exchange.
FOA OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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tuM utri~iA~ ust un~r
5.3 SWITCHING SYSTEMS
Two types of switching are used in telegraph networks: channel
switching and message switching. Channel or circuit switching, which is
almost identical to the process of the same name in telephone systems,
will be described first.
5.3.1 Telegraph Circuit Switching
Five generations of telegraph circuit switching centers have
existed in the USSR:
1. 10-step exchanges without registers (ATA-Sh, APS-Sh)-now
obsolete,
2. The same 10-step exchanges modernized with registers
(ATA-Sh-R, APS-Sh-R),
3: Exchanges built on the basis of multiple crossbar
connectors (MKS),
4. Quasi-electonic exchanges, which use gercon matrix
connectors (MGS) or ferride matrix connectors (MFS), and
5. Entirely electronic, automatic channel switching centers
(ESK-A,B).
Ten-step exchanges use step selectors of the DShI-100, ShI-11,
and ShI-25 types. The industry is presently manufacturing only crossbar
exchanges, but there are still many 10-step exchanges in the subscriber
telegraph network. The most important types of exchanges used in the
subscriber telegraph network are listed in Table 5-3. _
Electronic switching equipment, being designed in 1980,
includes the ESK-A electronic switching exchange and the ESK-B
electronic switching unattended substation. ESK-A will be able to
handle between 512 and 16,394 channels and form up to 400 communications
routes. Approximately 2% of total traffic is intended to be 2400 bauds,
4% 1200 bauds, and the balance 200 bauds. It will be common to PD, AT,
and PS networks.
FnA nF~ir.iei iisF nNtY
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Table 5-3. Circuit-Switched Exchanges of Soviet Telegraph Networks
Type of
Exchange
Type of
Switching
Instruments
Number of
Subscriber
Sets
Number of
Main Line
Channels
Location
' ATA-57-1
DShI*
Up to 1000
Up to 800
Main and major
(AT Net)'
communications
junctions
APS-57-1
(OP Net)
ATA-57-2
DShI
Up to 300
Up to 300
Medium Oblast
(AT)
communications
junctions
APS-57-2
(OP)
ATA-K (AT)
MKS**
From 100 to
Up to 800
Large and
medium
APS-K
600
communications
(OP)
junctions
ATA-MK-2
MKS
10 or 20
4 or 8
Rayon
.
(AT)
communications
junctions
APS-MK-2
(OP)
ATK-20
MKS
20
6
Same
(AT)
APS-20
(OP)
*OShI = 10-step selector
*MKS =Multiple crossbar connector
The ESK-A, shown in schematic block diagram as Figure 5-2, will
have impressive specifications. Error probability for information
passing through exchange equipment is not more than 10-7 per binary
symbol, and the mean accrued operating time to failure is five years
with an average repair time of one-half hour. The computer complex is
identified only as "svyaz" and is said to be a special-purpose machine.
All systems are duplicated for reliability. The design timeframe of
ESK-A seems more consistent with a quasi-electronic than full electronic
FnA n~Ficiei IISE ONLY
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' I'Ulf UrtllrlNL UDC UnL-
switch, and the specifications are almost identical to those associated
with the Neva-1 control computer of the Kvarts quasi-electronic
telephone exchange in 1983. Perhaps "svyaz" was a generic name for this
computer while it was under development.
3)_ 4) 03y
Ba j ~p 6BA yyAXH
5 6)
10)
MK
9)
12 1 14)
Bei.~ i
llep
6HA Bei,-. j
Oep
11)
1. Input 9. Computer complex VK
2. Receiver Pr 10. Multiplex channel MK
3. Incoming line unit BVL 11. Circular and conference
4. Internal storage system OZU communications system UTsKS
5. Code address switchboard 12. Outgoing line unit BIL
control system UUAKK 13. Transmitter Per
6. Communications system US 14. Output
7. Control system UU
8. Monitor and display con-
sole PKO
SOURCE: Reference 66
Figure 5-2. Schematic Diagram of ESK-A
5.3.2 Electronic Message Switching
It is uncertain whether Pagoda, the automated network of the
Soviet National Hydrometeorological service, should be classed as a very
early data transmission network or as amessage-switched telegraph
network dedicated to a single user. Perhaps it is properly both. The
Pagoda network was operational in 1974, reflecting design in the .late.
1960s, before computers of the unified series (Ryad) became available.
.However, the high priority traditionally accorded by the Soviets to
anything dealing with weather forcasting is reflected in choice of the
Minsk-32 computer as the basis for Pagoda message-switching centers. By
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all reports, the Minsk-32 was the best of the second-generation Soviet
computers (utilizing discrete semiconductor components), which were
generally a poor lot. Minsk-32 characteristics are summarized in
Appendix A, Table A-1. Pagoda reportedly is a highly reliable network
with an error probability of about 1 x 10-6. _
The configuration of atypical Pagoda switching center is shown
in block diagram form in Figure 5-3. Not shown in the block diagram, is
the full duplication of much of the computer complex required for
reliability. It appears likely that Pagoda message switches employ the,
Minsk 1560 or Minsk 1500 interfaces. When YeS computers were introduced
at hydrometeorological service headquarters in Moscow about 1977, a ~
special input device (which was designated YeS 6022) was developed to
ensure compatibility with Pagoda. Eventually the Pagoda network will
probably be entirely rebuilt to YeS standards.
---------- ~ l'K
~ 1 RN ,~'
~ 4
I
I 4 ) APG7 A/IP APC7 -~
1)
Clock pulse generator
6)
Technological equipment complex
2)
Message
storage equipment
7)
Prestorage equipment
3)
Computer
complex
8)
Matching equipment
4)
Message
distribution
9)
Data transmission equipment
equipment
10)
Communications channels
5) Standby switching equipment
SOURCE: Reference 69
Figure 5-3. Structural Diagram of Pagoda
Message Switching Center.
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? run UrrIt+IHL UDC UnLi
Characteristics of a number of types of message-switching
centers described in Reference 66 are summarized in Table 5-4. Although
the equipment of obvious Western manufacture has been deleted, there is
some uncertainty about origin of the DS-714 and TRC systems. They seem
too advanced when compared to those known to be built in the USSR.
It is believed that the Soviet public telegraph network was
first upgraded to electronic message switching using centers of the DS-4
series. Atypical center of this type is shown in block diagram form in
Figure 5-4. It is based on the ST-21 special-purpose control computer
and, as shown in the figure, nearly all equipment is duplicated for
increased reliability. The basis for the modernization/extension of the
public message-switched network which is now in progress, however, is
the TsKS-T equipment. This is the first Soviet message-switching center.
to be built around a Ryad computer. Originally it was planned to use
two YeS 1030 computers (known as VK1030 in this application) but
production models apparently incorporate twin YeS 1033 machines
(VK-1033), an improved successor. AS-160 (160 channels) or AS-250 (250
channels) interfaces connect the computer complex to communications
lines. The interfaces are also duplicated for reliability, except for
the channeling equipment. Operation of the complex is very similar to
that of the DS-4 illustrated in Figure 5-4. A recent article in
Ehlektrosvyaz (Reference 70) was unusually candid about the locations of
the new message-switching centers, shown in Figure 5-5. It is
interesting that the European portion of the USSR has been largely
neglected by this program. Perhaps it already has a satisfactory
network as a result of earlier construction, or possibly the Soviets are
concentrating on modernizing telegraph facilities in areas of the
country where telephone service is the worst.
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FOfl OFFICIAL USE ONLT
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6)
S ~~-~+
Icy ~7)z)~~
I
11.
Magnetic
tape control system
UUML
12.
Magnetic
drum storage NMB
13.
Complex
14.
Magnetic
tape storage NML
15. Reader S
16. Perforator P
17. Teletype T
18. Alphanumeric printer ATsPU
Figure 5-4. Structural Diagram of DS-4 Center
I ~ ,----~ - ,~
I~
I I I 5j 8 ~
5?$)
1 ) ~~ I
i
~ u I ~ i
1 3 )XaMn,,eXc 1 1 4y,Hp 13 ~vonnneKc 1
1. Internal storage system CZU
2. Priority system SP
3. Scanning system SU
4. Line set LK
5. Dispatcher console DP
6, Modem interface system USM
7. Input-output unit BVV
8. Character unit BZ
9. ST-21 (computer].
1.0. Magnetic drum control
system UUMB
SOURCE: Reference 66
CAR ACCIP_IA1 u~c nui v
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cno ncc~~~~~ i~~c nun v
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' FOA OFFICIAL USE ONIY
6. DATA TRANSMISSION NETWORKS
The purpose of data transmission networks is to link computers
to users and to each other. The Soviets have well-developed long-range
plans for a nationwide network for management of the economy and
shorter-range plans for smaller networks to serve specific groups of
users. Actual accomplishments to date have been modest in comparison to
those in other developed countries. One reason for this is the abysmal
inadequacy of existing Soviet switched networks (OAKTS, subscriber
telegraph network) for data transmission, a role never considered in
their original design.
6.1 LONG-RANGE PLANS
In an economy where the necessity for and efficiency of
centralized management is an article of political faith, the concept of
a nationwide computer network to improve economic planning and day-to-
day management is extremely attractive. The Soviets have a plan for
establishing such a network which they have named the Nationwide
Computerized System for Gathering and Processing Information (OGAS).
This system was originally intended to serve 600,000 enterprises and
organizations~by 1990, but this has since been delayed until 2000. OGAS
has not progressed very fast, and only three cities (Moscow, Kiev, and
Riga) were netted by 1982.
A 1982 article (Reference 71) provided a historical summary and
conceptual outline of OGAS, the technical base of which. is to be the
National Computer Center Network and the National Data Transmission
System. The National Computer Center Network consists of all the
computer centers in the country, combined via the National Data
Transmission System into a consolidated system to satisfy user
requirements for data processing and computation at minimum cost.
Calculations have shown that, through more efficient utilization of data
processing resources and organization and by expansion of a centralized
pool of standard algorithms and programs, the National Computer Center
6-1
ene AcC1A1 A 1 u~+r nun v
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Network can reduce the unit costs for automated data processing by at
least a factor of two and one-half. The concept of a state computer
center network was shown to be theoretically feasible as early as 1966,
but the appropriate hardware to implement the idea did not exist at that
time.
Five categories of state computer center network-shared
resource computer centers have been proposed, distinguished by required
operating speeds of their equipment as follows. .
Category 1 = 20 to 50 MOPS/s
Category 2 = 10 to 20 MOPS/s
Category 3 = 5 to 10 MOPS/s
Category 4 = 1 to 5 MOPS/s
Category 5 = 0.5 to 1 MOPS/s
Categories 1 through 4 correspond to capacities of various levels of
territorial shared resource computer centers (TVTsKP). Category 1 would
exist at the all-union level, Category 2 at republic level, and so
forth. There will be a requirement for approximately 200-300 TVTsKP,
based on computer modeling. Category 4 computational requirements can
be met with YeS 1060 or 1065 machines; Categories 1 through 3 will
require supercomputers now under development. Category 5 corresponds to
the capacity required for cluster computer centers of which some 2,500
will be required.
Although these collective use computer centers (VTSKP) are
described in Soviet literature as the "base cells" of OGAS, their
establishment has not been rap id. By 1980 only seven experimental
centers had been created. The 11th 5-year plan (1980-1985) only calls
for construction of several dozen. Such slow growth will make the
scheduled completion of OGAS by the year 2000 difficult to achieve..
This structure will impose high demands on the National Data
Transmission System for reliable, high-performance, data transfers
between subscribers and shared-resource computer centers, between
subscribers and cluster computer centers, and between different
categories of shared resource computer centers. Approximately 200,000
~ 6-2
one ncc1A1 A 1 Ill+[ Attu Y
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FUfI UFFIGIAL U~t UNLT
network subscribers operating at rates from. 50 to 48,000 bps and higher
must be supported. The optimal structure of this data communication
network would be one employing packet switching.
6.2 PRESENT REALITIES
The present status of the National Data Transmission Network
(PD-KP) is far removed from that which will ultimately be needed to
support OGAS on a national scale. The construction of two networks
dedicated to data transmission is planned: one to support medium-speed
data transmission using circuit switching (PD-KK), and the other for
medium-speed data transmission using message switching. Although the
original concept of this second network was a conventional message-
switching system along the lines of that employed in the public
telegraph system (Reference 66), the likelihood is increasing yearly
that, when eventually built, it will employ packet-switching techniques.
The PD-KK network will be built in three phases. Phase one,
which will provide 200-bps service to users, is known as PD-200 and has
been under construction since 1979. As shown in Figure 6-1 (a), this
network will have a three-level hierarchy and is built on the "radial
junction principle" (star topology). As the network expands, it will be
converted to a four-level hierarchy as shown in Figure 6-1 (b), three
classes of priority will be established for servicing calls, and
additional services will be added. The PD-4800 network will offer
service at rates up to 4800 bps to selected users.
Initial expansion of PD-200 was rapid; as of 5 January 1981,
129 stations and substations were included in the network. However,
major problems soon became evident. In January 1982 only 25~ of the
installed capacity of the PD-200 network was operational. Among the
difficulties were problems with installation and repair of the TAP-2
Hungarian-manufactured subscriber equipment and training of subscriber
personnel. In addition, there is apparently a lack of enthusiasm for
6-3
~nA n~~iriei uc~ nNi v
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FuH uFFiciA~ u~t un~r
LEVEL TWO
SWITCH
LEVEL ONE
SWITCH
LEVEL ONE
SWITCH
(a) PD-200 Network
LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL
\ TWO TWO TWO
\ SWITCH SWITCH SWITCH
\
\ / \1200 BAUD
4800
BAUD ~
\
(h) Planned PD-4800 Network
Figure 6-1. Soviet Circuit-Switched Data
Transmission Networks
6-4
cno nccir~e~ iiec nai v
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this new network on the part of some MOC personnel assigned to run it as
evidenced by this excerpt from Reference 72.
"PD-200 Network subscribers sometimes wait hours for a
connection, and answers about the cause of connection delays
are untruthful. There are cases when service sets of around-
the-clock data transmission exchanges are turned off or nobody
bothers to answer an incoming call. As a result,
communications are idle for a long time, and the subscribers
have no faith in the performance reliability of the PD-200
network. Serious deficiencies continue to exist in the
organization of technical servicing by communications offices
of the PD-200 network."
Specifically, MOC technical personnel often do not bother to check out
subscriber complaints of communications failure.
Assuming that these problems were corrected by 1985, the USSR
MOC plans to expand the PD-200 network to where all kray and Oblast
centers of the country are connected. Priority will be given to
satisfying the needs of republic data transmission networks in
Belorussia, the Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, Latvia, Estonia, and
Turkmenskaya SSR.
In addition to the National Data Transmission System, a number
of other teleprocessing-based networks are in operation throughout the
USSR. One of the oldest of these is the Ekspress system for railroad
ticketing and reservations (Reference 73). This system became
operational in the early 1970s with three "Marshrut" computers; by 1978
there was already a plan to upgrade to Ekspress-2, which will use
unified series computers (YeS/Ryad) (Reference 74).
Local area networks have been developed in a number of cities,
including Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Novosibirsk, Perm, and Riga,
containing substantial concentrations of computers (Reference 75).
cno nccir~ei u~c nun v
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These are providing valuable test-beds for experience in developing and
operating packet-switching systems. The favored computer to handle
communications within such networks seems to be the SM-3 or SM-4,
although a number of other machines, including M-6000, SM-2, Elektronika
100, and Elektronika 60, are also in use. Choice of the SM-3/SM-4 is
not surprising for this application since these machines are basically
copies of the PDP-11 series computers widely used as communications
handlers in U.S. computer networks.
Perhaps the most extensive (and certainly the one best
publicized in the United States) is the experimental computer network of
the Latvian SSR Academy of Sciences. That network currently serves some
dozen institutes located in Riga; its growth from 1977 to 1981, traced
in Figure 6-2, is illuminating. High-level satisfaction with this
effort is evidenced by the large amount of new equipment (2 to 3
systems) received each year and, even more significantly, by receipt of
new computers less than two years after they entered series production
(compare Table A-1). It is thus not surprising that a "computerized
information network developed at the Institute of Electronics and
Computer Technology at Latvia Academy of Sciences" is to be used to link
"all institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences and of the Academies of
the Union Republics" (Reference 76). An experimental section was
already in operation in 1984 linking Riga, Leningrad, and Moscow; this
is shown in Figure 6-3, along with other pioneering data transmission
network efforts. In 1984 the experimental intercity network would
support only a 300-baud data rate, but "this will soon be increased to
1200." There are eventual plans for joint projects to develp such
networks linking all CEMA members.
An examination of the communications media that these
experimental networks are forced to use illustrates why the Soviets
decided to build anew data transmission network from the ground up
rather than adapting existing telecommunications plants. Medium-speed
data transmission (up to 1200 bauds) is possible on the public telephone
network (OAKTS). The expected error rate on this network at 1200 bps
6-6
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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without error correction systems is not supposed to exceed 2.5 x 10-3
but because 10-step exchanges are still widely used which cause a-great
deal of pulse interference, the error factor on some connections can
reach 5 x 10-2. Low-speed data transmission can also use the subscriber
telegraph network, but for similar reasons the expected error rate there
is also substantial- approximately 1 x 10-3 per letter, excluding
terminal equipment errors. Many of these problems can be overcome by
utilizing unswitched communications (leased lines). These are
categorized as low-speed (50 to 200 bps, typically telegraph channels),
medium speed (600 to 9600 bps, mostly voice-grade channels), and high
speed (12 to 480 kbps). High-speed traffic requires wideband channels
which can be either pregroup (12 to 24 kbps), primary (48 to 96 kbps),
or secondary (240 to 480 kbps). These channels are supposed to offer
the highest quality indices in terms of fidelity and reliability, but
tests of the Modem-48000/UZO-48000~on the Leningrad-Moscow PWB line
(K-60 and K-1920 systems) in 1976 encountered errors which "varied.
within the broad limits from 10-2 to 10-6" (Reference 77).
6.3 SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT
Data teleprocessing systems are becoming increasingly important
in the USSR since introduction of the unified series (Ryad) of
computers. Prior to that time only a small variety of equipment was in
use, which is summarized in Table 6-1. This equipment is largely
obsolescent and not recommended for new installations.
A unified computer system data teleprocessing family of
equipment has been developed and extensively reported upon in the 1979
to 1981 timeframe (References 66, 78, and 79). The equipment consists
of
1. At least 11 data conversion devices (Modems) with technical
characteristics as shown in Table 6-2,
2. Four error protection devices (UZO) with technical
parameters as shown in Table 6-3,
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23 :CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23 :CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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3. Six data transmission multiplexers with characteristics
shown in Table 6-4, and
4. At least 21 subscriber points with different configurations
of equipment and technical characteristics, as shown in
Table 6-5.
The way in which this equipment is utilized is very similar to
the arrangements used to transmit digital information over analog lines
in Western countries. Atypical arrangement involving the MPD-3
multiplexer; Modems 200, 1200, and 2400; UZO 1200; and AP-1, -3, -11,
and -70 subscriber terminals is illustrated in Figure 6-4.
Modem 48000 (YeS-8019) is the highest-speed data conversion
device in common use within the unified system. It is designed for
duplex synchronous digital transmission with operating speeds of 24 and
48 kbps on primary wideband channels of the public communications
network, which have a nominal frequency band of 60 to 108 kHz. Two-pole
amplitude modulation with one sideband partially suppressed and with
suppressed carrier is used. The equipment is constructed primarily of
integrated microcircuits (Reference 77).
Figure 6-5 (a) shows how this modem uses the available
frequency bandwidth of the primary wideband channel (PWBC). Soviet
PWBCs differ from the CCITT recommended standard in that a group pilot
frequency is located in the center of the channel band at 84.14 kHz
instead of 104.08 kNz. This necessitates band elimination filters (BEF)
in the Soviet design. The data transmission occurs within the frequency
band of 65 to 103 kHz while the 104- to 108-kHz band is reserved for
voice signals of the service telephone channel.
A high-speed error protection unit UZO-48000 (YeS-8140) is used
in conjunction with Modem 48000, with interfaces as shown in
Figure 6-5 (b). In addition to this primary purpose, UZO-48000 can also
be used at less than its full capacity in 2400 and 4800 bps telegraph
channels. This extends its usable range from 5000 to 7000 km (high data
rate mode) to 13,700 km at the lower data rates. At the lower rates,
operation with satellite communications (SATCOM) is feasible. Error
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23 :CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23 :CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23 :CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
tUn UttI~IHL UDC UnLI
protection is accomplished via the "auto-interrogation method"
(basically ARQ with pullback). the cyclic code used is designed to
ensure a probability of less than 10-~ that a byte will be sent to DPE
with an undetected error. Redundancy of the code (including service
bits) is approximately 3~.
(a) Spectrum of Modem 4800
within a PWBC
(b) Modem 48000 and UZO 48000 in a
Typical Teleprocessing Application
(a)
S3
I~-~
UZO-48000
S2
MODEM-48000
N-~
S1-ShK
INTERFACE
,
(YeS-8140)
INTERFACE
(YeS-8019)
INTERFACE
(GOST (COST
18145-72)
18146-72)
(b)
Figure 6-5. Operation of a Soviet Nigh-Speed Modem
The primary subscriber equipment used in the PD-200 network is
the-TAP-2 (YeS-8502) manufactured by the "Budavoks" company in Hungary.
One contributing factor in delays to getting the PD-200 network
operational has been difficulties in installing, repairing, and training
operators for this equipment. Specifically (from Reference 72):
1. "Some subscribers have been storing expensive equipment in
warehouses for a long time - as a result many TAP-2s are
connected to a data transmission station for the first time
only after the service warranty has expired." (the
warranty lasts 15 months from the day it crosses the USSR
border),
6-20
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
2. "In the vast majority of cases organizations that have
.purchased TAP-2 cannot indpendently perform technical
servicing of them,"
3. "Considering that it is rather difficult to repair
TAP-2...,"
4. "The training of TAP-2 operators for subscribers has not
been undertaken everywhere," and
5. "There are cases when subscribers' information cannot be
transmitted -because of the fact that TAP-2s, installed in
telegraph offices, have been damaged for a long time, and
no active measures have been taken to repair them."
6.4 SWITCHING SYSTEMS
Data transmission networks can be circuit switched, message
switched, or packet switched, although the last of these is rapidly
becoming the method of choice in Western countries. Soviet efforts or
plans in each area will be described in turn.
6.4.1 Circuit Switching.
As noted earlier, the PD-KK data transmission network now under
construction will use circuit switching. Initial installations of
switching equipment have involved Soviet-built AT-PS-PD and Yugoslavian
"Nikoli Testla" crossbar exchanges as well as PTS-K and ATK-PD
substations. Characteristics of each are summarized in Table 6-6. In
Phase 3 (PD-4800) electronic switching using ESK-A and ESK-B equipment
will be employed.
6.4.2 Message Switching
The original plans for the PD-KS data transmission network
envisioned a four-level hierarchy as shown in Figure 6-6 (Reference 66).
Conceptual specifications had been drawn up for the zone message
switching center (ZTsKS), as shown in Table 6-7. It was to employ a
"Svyaz" computer, but whether this is the same unit intended for ESK-A
or merely a generic term is unclear. There is no evidence construction
me nrrin~ ^ ~ ~~nr nun v
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
7
LINE MESSAGE
SWITCHING
CENTER (MTsKS)
ZONE MESSAGE
SWITCHING
CENTER (ZTsKS)
1200- 1200-
2400
2400
1
BAUD BAUD
LOW-LEVEL
MESSAGE
SWITCHING
CENTER (NTsKS)
TT
200
BAUD
Figure 6-6. PD-KS Network Hierarchy (Plan)
run urriciA~ u~t un~r
LINE MESSAGE
SWITCHING
CENTER (MTsKS)
FnR nFFiciei iisF nai r
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on this network ever began, and with each year bringing the Soviet
computer users to a fuller appreciation of the advantages of packet
switching, it is increasingly unlikely to be built.
Table 6-7. Specifications for a Zone Message Switching
Center for the PD-KS Network
No.Channels
Capacity
Transmission Speed
Message Storage
File Capacity
Message Survivability
Address Accuracy
Data Fidelity
Priority Categories
Reliability
up to 128 telephone, 1024 telegraph
5 to 20 messages/s
50, 100, 200, 1200, 2400 bps to subscribers
1200, 2400, 4800 bps to other ZTsKS
24 hours
Up to 2.5 x 109 bits
No less than 10-8
Not worse than 10-8
NLT 10-7/character
Four (delivery times 5 min, 30 min, 4 hr,
24 hr)
0.99999 with average 30 min time to repair
6.4.3 Packet Switching
In the last five years, Soviet Bloc technical literature has
contained a deluge of articles on various facets of packet switching,
much of it of a highly theoretical nature. Virtually every facet of the
problem has been covered, from protocols and network optimization to
packet voice and packet satellite networks. A number of experimental
hardware installations have also been described. A 1983-paper described
an experimental shared-resource computer network nicknamed SEKOP (which
possibly expands to "Set' Kommutatstii Paketov" or packet switching
network), which had been in operation since at least 1978
(Reference 80). It consists of BEhSM-6 computers controlled by a Dispak
6-24
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operating system with virtual memory, termed information processors, and
M-6000 ASVT-M process control computers, which function as network
processors. These network processors support duplex data exchange in
the packet-switching mode between any pair of information processors in
the network. Each pair of network processors is connected by 10 simplex
data transmission channels (5 in each direction) which are independently
bidirectional. An APD-MA-TF data transmission set supports a 1200-baud
keying rate. Effective data transmission rate between a pair of network
processors is about 925 bps.
It is clear that the X.25 protocol is not being used in this
network, probably because the high overhead of that format would slow
data transfer unacceptably. Instead it apears that a simplified, four-
level protocol model (Level 1 - physical control, Level 2 - data link
layer, Level 3 - network control, and Level 4 - general functional
protocol) has been adopted. Developers are interested in replacing the
M-6000 with an SM-2 and the 10 simplex data transmission channels with
one 48-kilobaud duplex channel. This will reduce delay in delivering a
single packet by about 2.4 s, and may make switchover to an X:25-based
protocol feasible.
Another notable paper (Reference 81) presents a conceptual
architecture for creating an open computer network using YeS EhVM and SM
EhVM series computers. The seven-level ISO conventional architecture is
employed (Figure 6-7). The bottom three levels (physical, channel, and
network) facilitate implementation of the X.25 international-standard.
The fourth (transport) level employs a version of the protocol proposed
by the European Organization of Machinery Producers (ECMA). The fifth
(session) level protocol was developed by the Institute of Electronics
and Computer Engineering of the Latvian SSR Academy of Sciences. The
top two levels (representation and applications) employ the ES EhVM
standards which define the functioning of the software complexes
designated KROS, SRV, OKA and KAMA. The complex of programs that
implement the five bottom levels in the ES EhVM or SM EhVM is called the
network access method (SMV).
cno n~~~riei tier nui v
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/23: CIA-RDP92B001818000300270038-8
ruH urriciA~ ust un~r r
Protocols:
~ Applica-
tions
G. Representa-
tion
~ Transport
3. Network
2 Channel
f. Physical
*TMD - teleco~.r:unicatious
method
SOURCE: Reference 81
Applications
progra:^9
KROS, SRV,
OKA, KAMA
-~--`OGIP VENTA.
SESSION
ECP1A
X.75/3
UYB
x. 2f bis
nter-
1 Z ?
Figure 6-7. Protocol Layering
FnR nFFicia~ uSE nNLY
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Implementation of the two bottom protocol levels shown in
Figure 6-7 is provided by a microcomputer-based network microprocessor
adapter (SMA). The ES EhVM or SM EhVM machine implements the protocols
of levels three through seven and executes applications programs. As a
result, the ES EhVM or SM EhVM machine, in conjunction with the SMA,
forms the subscriber system of the computer network. Subscriber systems
within a network are divided into working, terminal, administrative, and
interface.
The structure of the communications system (within the open
computer network architecture) is shown in Figure 6-8. The first two
protocol levels, like in the subscriber system, are implemented by the
SMA. The other levels are executed by SM-3, SM-4, or SM-300
minicomputers. The communications system is thus made up of an SM EhUM
minicomputer and "g" adapters, where "g" is the number of data
transmission channels leading to the communications systems.
0
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cn
Administrative control
processes
SOURCE: Reference 81
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Figure 6-8. Structure of Communications System
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The program complex shown in Figure 6-7 can serve as the basis
for different types of computer network systems. Figure 6-9 shows 14
different types of systems that execute different tasks within the
network. The notation XXX is used to designate programs written by
developers or users.
Program complex eight, called OSKS, makes up the X.25
communications system. The use of one or several communications systems
makes it possible to create a data transmission network. In accordance
with Recommendation X.25, a computer network is formed by adding
subscriber systems to this network.
This article was authored by the Vice President of the Latvian
Academy of Sciences, who, as a prolific writer, also serves as its
unofficial chief publicist. The "conceptual example" shown in
Figure 6-9 is almost an exact description of the configuration used in
the experimental computer network operated by that institute.
(Figure 6-10). From this and numerous other sources, a picture emerges
of the likely characteristics of a Soviet nationwide packet switching
network:
1. Adherence to ISO and CCITT standards (including the X.25
protocol) wherever possible,
2. Use of process control minicomputers of the SM EhVM family
(SM-3, -4) as communications handlers,
3. Incorporation of some form of network architecture similar
to SNA (announced by IBM in 1975) possibly including use of
the IBM SDLC algorithm (a modification of HDLC); (Soviet
YeS EhVM family machines, being functional copies of
IBM 360 and 370 series equipment, are particularly suited
to this software), and
4. Use of adaptive rather than fixed-type routing methods.
It also appears likely that packet=switching development in the
USSR will benefit from collaboration with Western countries. In 1981 a
protocol on scientific exchanges related to networks for packet
switching of computers. Architecture of those networks and theory of
6-28
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' FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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rA/f ArrIA1 ^ I IIAr Af,ll V
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? FOR OFFICIAL USE ~UNLT
their protocols was concluded between the USSR Academy of Sciences and
the National Research Council of Italy. Annual technical conferences
which alternate between Italy and the Soviet Union have resulted. These
exchanges have not been so one sided as -those with France; at the 1982
conference Soviet papers outnumbered Italian presentations by 2:1 and
the Soviets may be expected to seek bilateral exchanges with other
Western countries in similar areas.
6-3i
(Reverse Blarik)
Gt1p ACCIf`IAI IICC 11111 Y
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one nrr~A1 A ~ II~C A~11 V
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APPENDIX A-SOVIET COMPUTERS
This report is not concerned with computers per se, but the
influence of those machines on modern telecommunications technology has
become so pervasive that at least a brief treatment is required. Much
modern telecommunications expansion is primarily driven by the need for
computers to exchange information, both with each other and with remote
users. Nor is their influence limited to the needs of computer
networking; state-of-the-art telecommunications switching is virtually
impossible without computers. Special-purpose machines are used to
implement stored program control in third- and fourth-generation circuit
switches. Message switching has involved computerized equipment since
at least the early 1960s, and packet switching involves computers
exchanging information through a network composed of multiple nodes each
of which is itself aspecial-purpose computer. Consequently, the
numerous serious problems that have afflicted the Soviet computer
industry over the last two decades have had a profound effect on the
development of Soviet telecommunications as well.
A.1 MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
Historically, computer design and production within the Soviet
Union have fallen under the jurisdiction of three primary ministries.
General-purpose computers are designed under the auspices of the
Ministry of the Radio Industry (MRP). The computers intended for
process control of industry and manufacturing are developed at
institutes subordinate to the Ministry of Instrument Construction, Means
of Automation, and Control Systems (MINPRIBOR). The Ministry of the
Electronics Industry (MEP). has primary responsibility for the
development of the individual components necessary for the success of
computer manufacturing efforts.
By the mid-1960s, it was obvious that the Soviet computer
industry was in such disarray that the most basic automation needs of
the economy were in danger of not being met. The reasons for the
A-1
GnR ncG~ciei i~eG nui v
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industry problems were numerous. First of all, the industry was almost
unbelievably fragmented. During the period 1951 to 1970, 13 research
facilities were associated (at one time or other) with computer design,
and no less than 22 production plants were identified as manufacturers
of computer systems. This led to a proliferation of designs. Of nearly
60 computers known to have been developed during that timeframe, fewer
than 20 achieved production levels of 100 or more.
Initially the computer industry suffered from limited financial
support and insufficient qualified technical personnel. Many components
provided by MEP for use in the computers were of low quality and not
readily replaceable through supply channels. For this reason many
computer systems were produced containing marginal (or even inoperative)
components with corrections intended to be made "later." The component
problem was aggravated by the transition from second-generation
machines, which were largely built up from discrete semiconductors, to
third-generation computers based mostly on integrated circuits (ICs).
Although early Soviet ICs were basically copied from Western designs,
inadequate manufacturing techniques frequently resulted in low yield,
unreliable circuits. As many ICs as possible were imported from Western
sources, but there were never enough.
Inadequate or nonexistent maintenance procedures also plagued
the computer industry. In many instances the computers selected for
production were quickly surpassed by improved models and thus were
manufactured in such limited quantities that it was not feasible to
develop full-scale maintenance packages.
Perhaps the most troubling single area of Soviet computer R&D
was software development. In the early days of the computer industry,
most programs were produced in machine language. As the need to use
higher-level languages increased, a keen shortage of skilled programmers
developed. Since training and development of programmers in advanced
languages was a slow process, attempts were made. to replicate Western
software for implementation on Soviet machines. Delivery of even basic
inn n~~~n~ ^ ~ ~~nr n\11 v
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software to computer users usually lagged delivery of equipment,
sometimes-by years. It was not uncommon for those institutes receiving
computers to write their own applications packages in lieu of waiting,
nor was it unusual for those without software specialists to allow the
machines to sit idle until software support was available.
High-level political attention was soon focused on the problems
of the computer industry, and when efforts to cure those problems
through edicts went unimplemented, fundamental changes in the way
computers were developed were directed.' Reform focused upon industry
consolidation and the manufacture of standardized systems of computers
that were fully hardware and software compatible, including peripherals.-
- The first successful attempt at a unified series of computers
began in 1966 to 1967 when MINPRIBOR announced the designs for an upward
compatible family, the Modular System of Computers (ASVT). These
machines were to be medium-sized computers to serve industrial process
control functions. The development of this series signaled the first
attempts by Soviet computer engineers to produce IBM 360 look-alike
machines in lieu of designing new machines on their own. The first
three models in this class (designated ASVT-D) were second-generation
computers and proved only marginally successful, in part because the
available peripherals proved inadequate to complement the powerful IBM
instruction set.
In December 1967, the first official announcement was made.
detailing another new series of upward-compatible machines, the general-
purpose Ryad ("series") microelectronics-based computers. In 1969 this
effort was expanded to include participation by member countries of the
CEMA, all of which except Romania made substantial contributions to the
project. Similar to the goals of the ASVT project, the RYAD computers
were to be closely modeled after and program compatible with the IBM 360
series.
The Ryad project demonstrated that the computer .industry
problems would not be cured quickly. Peripheral device development for
CAD A[[Ir1A1 11~[ AIII Y
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the Ryads fell behind schedule by two to three years. Upper-end models
experienced major component problems and eventually had to be
redesigned. Only two of the five planned systems were in the production
stage by 1972, and only a few of those had been delivered by 1973. Some
which did reach users lacked software and maintenance support.
To fill the gap until the Ryads could assume their intended
role, considerable effort was devoted to upgrading an existing second-
generation machine -the Minsk-32 -which had proven unusually versatile
and reliable. It was still produced in 400 to 500 units annually as
late as 1973. Enhancements were made to its peripherals and core memory
size. Additionally, two third-generation machines, the Nairi-3 and
K-200, were developed independently of the national effort.
Shortly after introduction of the first IC-based models of the
ASVT series (the so-called ASVT-M computers), work was begun on another
"unified series" of process control computers known as the SM series.
Unlike the ASVTs which were strictly products of Soviet industry, the SM
development was to involve other CEMA members. The low-end SM machines
were basically copies of Hewlett-Packard computers, while the high-end
models (like some of the later ASVT-M computers) resembled PDP-11 series
machines both functionally and physically.
Deficiencies with the first-generation Ryad machines included
unreliable memory units, poor-quality peripherals, no developed time-
sharing capability, and lack of hardware modularity. These were dealt
with first by a series of upgrades (the Ryad 1.5 family) and then by a
totally redesigned group of machines (the Ryad 2s). Ryad 2 capabilities
had been upgraded to the point where these machines were roughly
comparable to IBM S/370 equipment. By the end of the 1970s, many of the
computer industry troubles had, to an extent, been corrected, but a few
problem areas remain. It is uncertain if the third Ryad generation,
presently in the design stage, will resolve these.
The most glaring deficiencies which continued into the 1980s
involved peripherals. Punched paper tape was rarely used as an input
me nrrlnl ^ 1 uc+t Avl V
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tun utriciA~ usr un~T
medium for U.S. computers after about 1960, but many modern Soviet
machines are oriented toward paper tape as the primary method of data
input. Soviet line printers have traditionally been poor by U.S.
standards. CRT terminals have been slow to be adopted as part of
baseline computer configurations; only one of the first-generation Ryads
(model YeS 1050) had such a device, and it had alpha-numeric capability
only. As late as 1981 this problem persisted on some special-process
machines. When the "Kvarts" quasi-electronic computer was initially
installed in Leningrad, the primary communication between the operator
and the "Neva-1" control computer was by means of a YeS-7073 electric
typewriter. On an experimental basis, an AGAT-2000* display terminal
was compared to the typewriter and (not too surprisingly) found to be a
far superior tool for operator interaction (Reference 82). Hard-copy
devices for Soviet display terminals have also been generally
unavailable.
Characteristics of series-produced computers mentioned most
prominently in this report are summarized in Table A-1. Generally, the
large machines are significant from a telecommunications perspective
only as processors to be networked. The Minsk-32, YeS 1030, and
YeS 1033 have been used as (or proposed for) processors of message-
switching nodes. The smaller machines (M-6000, SMs) are being widely
used to handle communications in experimental packet-switching networks.
The YeS 1010 is often used as the basis for an intelligent terminal.
Both of the unified computer systems employ a standardized
nomenclature system that permits some knowledge about the class of a
device to be gained if only its designator is known. This system is
described in Table A-2, with emphasis on those devices used for
teleprocessing (the 8xxx series).
*The AGAT appears to be a domestically produced APPLE II-compatible
"personal computer" class device. Western observers have faulted it for
shoddy construction and slow speed as well as its exorbitant $17,000
price tag (Reference 83).
FnR nFFir.iai iisF nNi Y
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLT
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Table A-2. Uniform Equipment Identification
System of the Unified Computers
Item Code*
Nature of the Item
0001-0999
Special Devices and Support Equipment
1001-1999
Computer System Models
2001-2999
Central Processors
3001-3999
Core Storage (Main Memory)
4001-4999
Input/Output (I/0) Channels
5001-5999
Storage Units
6001-6999
Input Devices
7001-7999
Output Devices and I/O Units
8001-8999
Teleprocessing Devices
SOxx **
Modems (Signal Conversion Devices)
81xx
Error Protection Units
83xx,84xx
Multiplexers
85xx
Terminals
9001-9999
Off-Line data preparation
*Preface by "YeS" for Ryad computers or by "SM" for SM EhVM machines.
**A few exceptions to this subcategory breakdown have been found.
Microcomputers* began to appear in the USSR about 1975 with the.
introduction of the Elektronika S5-O1. It was made possible by the K536
family of 8-bit, bit-slice microprocessor* chips which entered
*As is also the case with process-control-computers, the Soviet
definition of microcomputers is much broader than that commonly used in
the West. The Soviets define a microprocessor as any implementation of
a "program controlled device for the processing of digital information
on the basis of one or several microcircuits." In the West, the term
microprocessor is applied almost exclusively to single-chip
implementations of a computer CPU. Since a microcomputer is by
definition based on microprocessors, it follows that many Soviet
microcomputers would not conform to the usual Western usage of the term.
inn n~~~n~ ^ ~ ~~n~ nun v
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production a few years earlier and appears to have been of domestic
design. This S5 series, which was developed to satisfy requirements for
industrial automation and scientific processes, was expanded with more
modern models based on later generation chips, but is now regarded as
obsolescent. In 1981 Electronika S5-12 and 55-20 microcomputers were
reportedly used in an experimental automated centralized system for
technical servicing of IKM-30 links within the Leningrad Telephone
System (Reference 82).
Further progress came with introduction of .the K58X
microprocessor series of families about 1979, as part of the 10th 5-year
plan. There are 10 of these families (K580 - K589) each built around
either a single-chip microprocessor or a set of bit-slice chips
sufficient for constructing a central processing unit (CPU). They
include supporting chips for I/0, interrupt prioritizing, and similar
functions. At least four of these families are functional copies of
Western chips, as it is these that appear to have been the most
important in development of microcomputer systems.
The K580 is an 8-bit microprocessor based on the Intel 8080
chip and NMOS technology. Although not pin-for-pin compatible with the
Intel 8080, it executes the Intel 8080 instruction set. This chip and
the technology for its production have been widely exported to European
CEMA members and were used to establish the microcomputer industries in
several Eastern European countries.
Another important microprocessor family, the 16-bit NMOS K581,
consists of functional copies of the CP1600 series chips. The most
significant use of the K581 family has been in Elektronika 60
microcomputers, which are copies of the U.S. LSI-11/2 microcomputer,
which is fully-compatible with the low end of the Digital Equipment
Corporation PDP-11 computer line. Production of this machine, both in
the USSR and in Poland (where it is known as the Mera 60), has been in
quantities sufficient to make it a workhorse in a variety of Soviet
industrial and scientific applications. Open-source literature
inn APP~A~ ^ ~ ~~n~ nun v
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.indicates numerous attempts to use Elektronika 60s in packet-switching
networks and as interfaces in teleprocessing applications.
About the same time the K58X families were being introduced in
the USSR, the East Germans brought out the first models in what would
eventually become a strong microprocessor program. -With one exception,
East German microprocessors were all copies of Western architectures.
Particularly significant is the 0880 family which is based on the
Zilog 280, one of the most successful Western 8-bit chips. All
microprocessor production in the GDR is controlled by~the
Microelectronics Combine, and, although not high volume by Western
standards (135,000 units in 1983), has been sufficient for both domestic
requirements and export to other CEMA countries.
Unlike the USSR, which developed a number of different machines
on the basis of each of its microprocessor families, the East Germans
have tended to design a single microcomputer architecture for each
microprocessor. This is due to the dominance of the Robotron Combine in
Dresden within. the GDR computer industry. The Robotron microcomputer
based on the 0880 is designated the K1520. It is the basis for GDR-
manufactured quasi-electronic circuit switching systems and could have
other telecommunications applications as well.
Both the Soviet Union and the GDR have introduced true 16-bit,
general-purpose microprocessors since 1982. The Soviet K1810 series,
based on the Intel 8086, is their most important offering. The East
Germans continue to prefer to copy the Zilog families with their 08001
and 08002 being based on the Zilog 28001 and 28002, respectively.
Today virtually all European CEMA members have fledgling
microcomputer industries and are beginning to produce significant
quantities of microprocessor chips as well as machines based on them.
The Bulgarians are using the K1810 family to construct an IBM
PC-compatible, called the Pravets 16 (they also manufacture an Apple II-
.compatible, designated the Pravets 82, using imported Western chips).
Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary also have active programs. It is
Cf1~ AG~Ir1A1 II~C A111 V
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likely that PDP-11 compatibilty of larger systems will continue to be
maintained and that smaller systems will largely conform to the 8080
architecture, followed by the 8086 architecture as production is
mastered. Soviet pressure will prevent other CEMA members from pursuing
divergent development paths such as the GDR, with its well-developed
industry, has followed; conversely, the. USSR is unlikely to interfere
with microprocessor development within East Germany because of its self-
evident successes.
In addition to problems with chip manufacture which have
generally kept production quantities low, other difficulties .are
retarding growth of a viable CEMA microcomputer industry. Most of these
sound like "replays" of the mainframe industry problems in the mid-1960s
to early 1970s. There is an almost complete lack of any mechanisms for
computer service and repair for "normal" users (who do not enjoy the
high-priority priviledges of the CPSU Central Committee, the KGB, and
much of the military). Domestic software development for the
microcomputers has been very weak; however, the compatibility of these
machines with Western systems permits partial circumvention of the
problem through use of imported application software packages. Computer
literacy in the USSR is low compared with the U. S. and some Western
countries and, although in the long term more general availability of
microcomputers will help correct this, in the shorter term it adversely
impacts utilization. The Soviet Politburo, concerned with this
situation, has announced plans to introduce computer technology
instruction in all USSR secondary schools. Barriers to early
implementation of this policy are the massive requirements it imposes
for both equipment and qualified teachers (References 83 and 84).
Soviet and other CEMA microcomputers that can be identified to
date as having potential for telecommunications developments are
summarized in Table A-3. While applications can currently be identified
for only a small number, it is likely that the next few years will see
the newer microprocessors incorporated into telecommunications equipment
to an increased extent.
A-10
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(U) REFERENCES (Continued)
33. Bykov, V. L., et al., "International Test Portion of DUBNA
Experimental Satellite Communications System," Ehlektrosyyaz',
No. 10, 1983, pp. 27-32, Translated in W31-36-84, "Soviet Bloc
Technical Literature Review, September 1984.
34. Gal'perovich, D. Ya, "Experimental Studies of Superconductive
Communications Lines, A Review," Ehlektrosvyaz', No. 11, 1983,
pp. 17-21. Translated in W31-36-84, "Soviet Bloc Technical
Literature Review, September, 1984."
35. Bagrov, A. B., et al., "Arsenic Sulfer and Arsenic Selenium
Fiber Optical Waveguide in the Middle Infrared Band with
Optical Losses Less than 1 dB/m," Soviet Journal of Quantum
Electronics, Vol. 10, No. 9, 1983, pp 05-1907.
36. Kovalev, V. I., et al., "Nonlinear Scattering at 10.6 ?m in a
Fiber Optic Waveguide Made of KRS5," Soviet Journal of Quantum
Electronics, Vol. 11, No. 8, 1984, pp. -
37. Abashkin, V. G., et al., "Properties of Fibers made from
Chalcogenide Vitreous Materials," in Poluprovodnikovyye
Materialy Dlya Tverdotelnoy Elektroniki, SHTIINTSA, Kishinev,
1982, 246 pp. FSL 39839, Collection.
38. Yeremyants; M., "Yerevan Scientists Develop New Fiber Optical
Communications Technology," Kommunist (Yerevan), 6 February
1980, No. 31, p. 4.
39. Bepov, A. V., et al., "A Graded Index Fiber Optic Waveguide
with Ultimately Low Optical Losses," Soviet Journal of Quantum
Electronics, Vol. 11, No. 4, 1984, pp. 646-6 7.
40. Alferov, Zh. I., et al., "Low-Threshold Laser with In-Ga-As-P
Heterostructure," Soviet Technical Ph sics Letters, Vol. 3,
No. 11, 1977, pp. 48 -482.
41. Stel'makh, M. F., "Components of Optical-Fiber Communication
Lines," Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, No. 2, 1982,
pp. 70-76.
42. Dianov, E. M., "Prospects for the Use of the 1 to 1.6 Eun
Wavelength Range in Fiber-Optic Communications (Review),"
Soviet Journal of Electronics, Vol. 10, No. 3, 1980,
pp. 259-265.
R-4
CAD A[[If+lAl II~G A111 Y
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(U) REFERENCES (Continued)
43. Aksenov, E. A., "A High Speed Repeater for Optical Fiber Line
Pulse Signals," Telecommunications and Radio Engineering,
" No. 2, 1982, pp. 117-119.
44. Dianov, E. M., et al., "Wavelength-Division Multiplexing of
Channels in Fiber-Optic Communication Lines (Review)," Soviet
Journal of Quantum Electronics, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1983,
pp. 1~=1 8.
45. Alferov, Zh. I., et al., "Multichannel Duplex Fiber-Optic
Communication Line Operating at a Wavelength of 1.3 ?m,"
Soviet Journal of Quantum Electronics, Vol. 12, No. 8, 1982,
PP? 1088-1090.
46. Belovolov, M. I., et al., "Experimental Fiber-Optic
Communication Line with Spectral Multiplexing of LED Radiation
by a Diffraction Grating," Soviet Journal of 4uantum
Electronics, Vol. 12, No._2, 1~~L~~-243.
47. Vlasov, A. V., et al., "The Effect of Temperature on the
Attenuation Factor and the Numerical Aperture of Optical Fibers
and Cables," Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, No. 9,
_1981, pp ._ 29-32.
48. Aleksandrov, I. V., et al., "Large-Aperture Lightguides with a
Hard Outside Coating," Telecommunications and Radio
Engineering, No. 3, 198 pp. 26- 3 .
49. Aleksandrov, I. V., et al., "The Mechanical Reliability of
Fiber-Optic Light Guides," Telecommunications and Radio
Engineering, No. 5, 1982, pp. 62-67.
50. Shatalov, F. A., et al., "An Effect of Pressure and Tension on
the Coherent Radiation Phase in Fiber Optic Waveguides," Soviet
Journal of Quantum Electronics, Vol. 12, No. 5, 1985,
pp.~.086-1089.
51. Shitov, V. V., et al., "Additional Losses in Optical Fibers
Induced by Microbends due to a Polymer Coating,"
Telecommunications and Radio En ineerin No. 4, 1984,
pp. 14- 6.
52. Bogatyrev, V. A., et al., "An Effect of Water on the Strength
of Fiber Optic Waveguides," Soviet Journal of Quantum
Electronics, Vol. 11, No. 7, 984, pp. 1467-1469.
R-5
Cf1~ ACCIr1A1 IICC A111 Y
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(U) REFERENCES (Continued)
53. Gulyayev, Yu. V., et al., "Optical Fiber Communication Lines
and Their Constructional Principles," Telecommunications and
Rad. Eng., No. 5, 1979, pp. 76-81.
54. Petrovskiy, G. T., et al., "The Production of Homogeneous Thin
Film Optical Waveguides from Quartz Glass," Journal of A lied
Spectroscopy, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1985, pp. 147- 49.
55. Svechnikov, G. S., et al., "The Principles of Organizing Hybrid
Optical Bistable Devices and Their Application in Electro-
Optical Data Processing Systems," 0 toelektronna a i
Polu rovodnikova a Tekhnika, Kiyev, RZRAB-8 -9YE 96, No. 5,
984, pp. 56-64.
56. Aleshin, A. A., "Methods of Automating Long-Distance
Telecommunications," Ehlektrosvyaz,, No. 9, 1983, pp. 5-9.
Translation published in W3~-36-84, "Soviet Bloc Technical
Literature Review September 1984."
57. IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 22, No. 11, November 1985. From graphic on
p. 68, attributed to The World's Tele hones, a statistical
compilation as of January 983, AT&T.
58. Gryaznov, Yu M. and Salalovich, L. I., Municipal Telephone
Exchanges: Textbook for Middle Professional-Technical Training
Schools,~rd Edition, Vysshaya Sh ola Press, 983. Translated
asas W3'~-40-84, "Selected Articles: Telephone and Data
Transmission Networks."
59. Gol'shtejn, L. M. and Snsonko, S. M., Rural Telephone System,
Radio i Svyaz', Moscow, 1978. Translated as W31-40-84,
"Selected Articles: Telephone and Data Transmission Networks."
60. Ya G. Koblents, et al., "Results of Experimental Operation of a
Quasi-Electronic Automatic Long Distance Telephone Exchange,"
Ehlektrosvyaz', No. 4, 183, pp. 7-13. Translated in W31-36-84,
"Soviet Bloc Technical Literature Review, September 1984."
61. Dedoborshch, V. G., "Construction Features of Kvarts Quasi-
Electronic Automatic Long Distance Exchange," Ehlektrosvyaz',
No. 4, 1983, pp. 4-7. Translated in W31-36-84, "Soviet Bloc
Technical Literature Review, September 1984."
62. Shlyapoberskij, V. I., "Microelectronics in Communications
Equipment at the 1983 Leipzig Spring Fair," Ehlektrosvyaz',
No. 10, 1983, pp. 48-62. Translated
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FUN UFFIGIAL U5t UNLT
(U) REFERENCES (Continued
63.
Zorpette, Glenn, "Computers that are 'Never' Down," IEEE
Spectrum, Vol. 22, No. 4, April 1985, pp. 46-54.
64.
"Microprocessor-Controlled RFT Local Exchange OZ-1000," Trade
Technical Review, Vol. 2, 1983, pp. 14-16.
65.
"USSR France: Scientific -and Technical Cooperation in
Communications," ECOTASS (English Edition), No. 37,-1984, p.
8.
66.
Malinovskiy, S. T., Digital Transmission Networks and Systems
and Automated Control Systems, Radio i svyaz', Moscow, 1979.
Translated as W31-1-82.
67.
Repinskiy, A. M., "Information Displays in Telegraphy," paper
at Symposium on Information Displays in Communications System
published by Radio i svyaz', Moscow, 1982. Translated in
s,
W31-08-84, "Selected Excerpts and Articles, Computrs and
Information Systmes."
68.
.
Ryabchuk, M., "Experience Using a Terminal Device for a Call-
Switching System (OUKS-T)" Vestnik Svyazi, No. 5, 1984,
pp. 32-33.
69.
Shestopalov, et. al., Messa e Switchin Centers, Radio i
svyaz', Moscow, 1982. Trans at as W - -
70.
Zhevlyuk, K. S., "Public Telegraph Network Improvements on the
Base of Message Switching Centers Introduction," Ehlektrosvyaz,
No. 9, 1984, pp. 19-21.
71.
Maksimenko, V. I., "The National Computer Network: Basic
Assumptions," Radioehlektronika i sv az', No. 12, 1982.
Translated in W - -8 "Selected artcles: Computers and
Computer Networks."
72.
Makhovik, L. P., "The PD-200 Network Needs a Lot of Attention,"
Vestnik Sv azi, No. 11, 1982, pp. 37-38. Translated in
W - 8-84.
73.
Automatika Telemkhanika i svyaz', No. 2, 1972, pp. 6-10.
74.
"The 'EKSPRESS-2' System," FTD-ID (RS)T-1766-78, 30 October
1978.
75.
Yakubaytis, E. A., Commuter Networks are Born, Nauka, Moscow,
1984,-176 pp.
FnR nFFiciei uc~ nNi r
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REFERENCES (Concluded)
76. "Computerized Information Network for all Soviet Institutes,"
TASS, 12/29/84 (0955).
77. Romanovskiy, V. V., et al., "High Speed Data Transmission
Equipment," Ehlektrosvyaz, No. 12, 1978, pp. 38-44. Translated
in W31-26-79, "Soviet Patents and Communications Technology.
78. Kriushin, V. N., et al., Com uters and Com uter Networks,
Statistika Press, Moscow, 980. Translated as W3 - -83.
79. Bunin, D. A. and Khetn, D. Sh, Trans ort Wire Communications
Equipment, Transport, Moscow, 198. Translated in W3 -OS-84
"Selected Excerpts and Articles: Computers and Information
Systems."
80. Boguslavskiij, L. B., et al., "Use of Modeling and Measurement
to Investigate SEKOP Network," Avtomatika i v chisli'tel'na a
tekhnika, No. 2, 1983, pp. 21-3 Translated in W3 - 8-84,
"Soviet Bloc Technical Literature Review, May 1984."
81. Yakubajtis, Eh. A., "Open Computer Network Architecture,"
Avtomatika i vychislitel'naya tekhnika, No. 4, 1983, pp. 3-7.
Translated in W3I-44-84, "Selected Articles, Computers and
Computr Networks."
82. Berlin, B. Z. Eval, "Automated Centralized System of Technical
Servicing of Equipment IKM-30 on City Networks,"
Ehlectrosv az', NR 7, 1981, pp. 8-13. Translated as
FTD- 0 RS T- 224-83, 1 December 1982.
83. Artsishevskiy, V. V., "Experience in the Use of AGAT-2000
Display Complex in Quasielectronic Telephone Systems, paper
given at symposium on information displays in communications
systems, published by Radio i svyaz', Moscow, 1982. Translated
in W31-08-84, "Selected Excerpts and Articles: Computers and
Information Systems."
84. Strode, Rebecca, "Soviet Computer Education: Why Ivan Can't
Program," DS&E, August 1985.
85. Stapleton, Ross A., "Soviet and East European Microcomputer
Systems," Signal Magazine, December 1985, pp 69-76.
Cn~ nCCIP1A1 iiec nun v
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. _ Yemel'yamov, Yu. I., "The Use of ATS of System 'PENTAKONTA' on
GTS of the USSR," EhlektrosvYaz' No. 1, 1980, pp. 53-61.
Translated as FTD-ID RS T- 884-80, 27 February 1981.
2. Koltun, A. N., "Telegraph Apparatus RTA-80," Vestnik Svyazi,
No. 3, March 1981,. front and back inside cover. Translated as
FTD-ID(RS)T-0786-81, 1 September 1981.
3. Shamshin, V. A., "On New Labor Accomplishments," Vestnik
Svyazi, No. 3, March 1981, pp. 2-5. Translated as FTD-ID(RS)T-
0787-81, 1 September 1981.
4. Linets, I. M. and Filatov, G. N., "Apparatus for Automatic
Control of the Subscriber's Section of the TAKT Telegraph Net,"
Uestnik Svyazi, No. 3, March 1982, inside front cover.
Translated as FTD-ID(RS)T-1519-82, 9 December 1982.
5. Glushkov, V. and Kanygin, Yu, "For the Entire Country Control
of Science and Practice: Problems of Creating the Nationwide
Computerized Management System," Pravda, No. 347, 13 December
1981, pp. 3, cols. 2-8. Translated as FTD-ID(RS)T-0974-82,
15 July 1982.
6. Tyulyayev, A. N., "Long-Distance Communication in the Eleventh
Five-Year Plan," Ehlektrosvyaz', No. 4, 1982. Translated as
FTD-ID(RS)T-1261-82, 30 September 1982.
7. Sharashenidze, A. I., "Structure of the Searching Units of ATS
of System 'Pentachonta', Ehlektrosv az', No. 4, 1982.
Translated. as FTD-ID(RS)T- 593-82, 7 January 1983.
8. Misulovin, L. Ya., et al, "Multiple Gezakon Connector,"
Ehlektrosvyaz', No. 4, 1982. Translated as FTD-ID(RS)T-1593-
~3 January 1983.
9. Mann, Dieter, "Radio Bridges via 'Lighting' and 'Rainbow': Ten
Years of the USSR National Communications Satellite System
Molniya-Orbita, Jugend Technik, No. 10, October 1977,
pp. 828-832. Translated as FTD-ID(RS)T-0711-83,
10 August 1983.
10. Voronin, I. Ya, "Departmental Communication Networks as
Component Part of YeASS," Ehlektrosv az', No. 11, November
1982. Translated as FTD-IO~RS T-0844-83, 20 October 1983.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY (Continued)
11. Staff Report on Tallin Conference, "Improvement of the Means of
Automatic Switching in YeASS," Ehlektrosvyaz,, No. 11,
November 1982, Translated as FTD-ID RS T-0844-83,
20 October 1983.
12. Laptev, A. V. and Molochnikov, V. I., "The Joining of the
Automated Data Transmission Network 'POGODA' With the Unified
Computer System," Trudy Vsesoyuznogo Nauchno-Issledovatel'
skogo Instituta Gidrometerologicheskoy Informatsii-Mirovogo
Tsentra Dann kh, No. 1978, pp. 70-72. Translated as
FTD-ID RS T-0838-83, 2 September 1983.
13. Yakhnis, L. N., "Seminar on the 'Istok' System,"
Ehlektrosv az', No. 2, 1983, p. 64. Translated as
FTD-ID RS T-0976-83, 3 October 1983.
14. Lazarev, V. G., Doniants, V. N., "Soviet-Italian Collaboration
in the Area of Computer N.etworks," Ehlektrosvyaz,, No. 1,
January 1983. Translated as FTD-ID RS T- 19-~,
8 November 1983.
15. Gorokhovskiy, A. V., "The 'POGODA' System," Radio, No. 9,
September 1975, pp. 11-12. Translated as FTD-ID RS)T-0552-84,
9 November 1984.
16. Gritsuk, I. M., "For the Good of the People," Vestnik Sv azi,
No. 9, September 1982, pp. 7-8. Translated as FTD-ID RS T-
1415-84, 15 August 1985.
17. Vornotsov, A. S. et al, "60 MHz Coaxial Trunk Cable,"
Ehlektrosv az', No. 2, February 1983. Translated as
FTD-ID RS T-0738-83, 24 August 1983.
18. Netes, A. Ya, et al, "The Structure of an Integrated
Ministerial (Departmental) Electrical Communications System,"
Ehlektrosv az, No. 2, February 1983. Translated as .
FTD-ID RS T-0738-83, 24 August 1983.
19. Zdorovtsov, I. A. et al, "The K-24T Transmission System,"
Avtomatika, Telemekhanika i Sv az', No. 1, 1983, pp. 6-11.
Translated as FTD-ID RS T-0840-83, 9 September 1983.
20. Semenikhin, B. K., et al, "The KS 60 + 60 Transmission System,"
Vestnik Sv azi, No. 4, 1979, pp. 21-23. Translated as
FTD-ID RS T-1609-79, 21 December 1979.
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`' "` tUK UttI~IAL UJt UNLT
21. Bayev, A. P., et al, "Development of Rural Primary YeASS
Networks on a Base of Digital Transmission Systems," Vestnik
Svyazi, No. 8, August 1983, pp. 30-32. Translated as
FTD-ID(RS)T-0506-84, 7 November 1984.
22. Maslenkova, I. P., "For Intrazonal Unified Automated
Communications System Networks," Vestnik Svyazi, No. 4, 1981,
p. 29. Translated as FTD-ID(RS)T=1221-83, 5 December 1983.
23. Glink, V. I., "Major Goals of Communicators," Vestnik Svyazi,
No. 12, 1982, pp. 2-5. Translated as FTD-ID(RS)T-0484-83,
26 July 1983.
B-3
(Reverse Blank)
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