DEVELOPMENT AND RESULTS IN PHYSICS IN HUNGARY SINCE THE LIBERATION

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 11, 2011
• Sequence Number: 28
• Publication Date: November 15, 1956
• Content Type: REPORT

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 A t4avvnr Tudom:anv Tiz Eve
191,5-1955 Ten Years of
Science in Hungary 1945-195f,
1955, Budapest, Pages 107-1214
Prior to Liberation research Lit physics in Hungary was limited to a
few university institutes r?.nd to the research laboratory of the Ujpest
Incandescent Lamp Factory. In the spirit of the old university research
was guided by the individual preference of the directors and the physical
limitations of the availrble equipment, and while purposeful work was
carried on at the research laboratory of the Ujpest Incandescent Lamp
Factory it had primarily industrial airs. The financing of experimental
physics research was a relatively heavy burden to the universities, but
the situation was somewhat better at the research laboratory of the Ujpest
Incandescent Lamp Factory. Experimental research was conducted at approxi-
mately 6 university institutes.
Research in theoretical physics also was tied to the theoretical
physics chairs of the universities. Research in experimental physics was
conducted at approximately 3 locations.
Karoly Novobatzky conducted research in isolation at Pestujhely.
Only a few people knew that he was one of the most outstanding proponents
of the theory of relativity.
Reorganization began very slowly following Liberation, but approxi-
mately 4 years later the organizational skeleton of research in physics
in Hungary had been completed. The organization of physics research
originally was planned on a grand scale. The supreme and imposing
expression of this conception was embodied by the Central Physical
Research Institute (KFKI), under the direct supervision of the Academy
of Sciences. (This book contains a separate account of the KFKI.)
The development of the chairs of physics of the universities also
was begun on a grand scale. New university chairs were founded. Although
the principal consideration in the organization of these academic chairs
was adequate execution of the increased educational tasks of the univer-
sities, the aspect of physical research also was given great consideration.
As a result of the new organizational measures the number of
physics chairs increased to twico, and the number of teachers increased
to 3 times the old level. Entirely new types of physics chairs also
were founded. Among the latter are the 3 medical physics institutes of
the medical schools.
Another important qualitative factor in scientific work is the
equipmentation of the institutes. The extremely rapid development of
this field also can hardly be properly evaluated. During the 5 years
immediately following World War II, and even in the 2 or 3 years after
that neither the financial nor trade possibilities existed for
adequate equipmentation of this field of science. After Liberation
both the Ministry of Education and the Academy of Sciences were very
much concerned with the problem of the equipmentation of the institutes.
The institutional expression cf the latter is the fact that the university
institutes of physics receive aid from the MTA j agar Tudomanyos
 Akademia -- Hungarian Academy of Sci%4nce27 in the pursuance of their par-
ticular goals. As a result, the material resources of the university
institutes of physics for training and research purposes far exceeds
that of the past.
One of the most outstanding results of the new cultural program in
the field of technology is the fact that the Hungarian experimental
research institute could not function without adequate technical
establishments, and without mechanical, glass technical, electro-
mechanicr', and ,joining shops. This aspect must be emphasized because
this fact was not recognized by the old directorate, and wherever such
shops were set up it bras possible only through great personal efforts.
It must be admitted that ir. earlier times even the professors were not
always aware of the importance of such organizations. Because of the
individualistic isolation of earlier times the banding together of
several academic chairs to create and share at least one adequate
installation was not even attempted. At present this situation has
been completely changed and although every institution still does not
have an adequate number of suitably trained research personnel at least
the field of physics research is on the right track for desirable
development along this line.
Considerable developmental progress has been made through the
founding of new academic chairs of physics accompanying the completion
of new teacher tra-ining colleges. Although these academic chairs
are only in the first stages of development they constitute new centers
for the development of the field of research.
Although the overall picture of the development of ti.- university
and college institutes of physics is excellent there is one sore point,
namely the problem. of the premises of the institutes. Despite the fact
that investments were made in this field also, the space occupied by the
institutes was not increased in proportion to the development of the
organizational framework of the institutions. Although the excellent
institutes of the KFKI are still being completed they already have pro-
duced excellent results which, however, because of the remoteness of the
institutes from the research center, have not received adequate
publicity. The spacial demands which are necessary for convenient
instruction under the modern forms of education still have not been met.
The elimination of this very serious lack is a very important task of the
imurediate future.
The training of specialized physicists which has been instituted
since Liberation is providing specialists for increased and enlarged
technical institutes. It must be borne in mind that previously only
professors versed in both mathematics and physics were trained in Hungary.
The academic and research personnel of the institutes came from the ranks
of such trainees. The number of such auxiliary personnel, however, was
very small. For example, 20 years ago some institutes had only 2 or 3
assistant professors. Even at that time this organizational set up was not
adequate to fully occupy ambitious and brilliant technical students
trained in mathematics and physics.
All this has been substantially changed with the present system of
training physics specialists in the universities, as well as training
professors of mathematics and physics. Although this training method
still has not been completely perf cted it already has produced signi-
ficant results. The development c: this program for training physics
specialists is being furthered b, the recently introduced and presently
stabilized method of aspirant training which, although extending over all
branches of learning, is particularly promising in the field of physics.
 The Eotvos Lorand Physics Society plays an i-;.portant role in cultural
propagation and trainin.i outside the schools, and in the broad exchange
of knowledge. The old Eotvos Lorand Mathematics and Physics Society
has now divided into 2 separate institutions. The -J ther'tics section
has been reorganized as the Bolyai Mathematics Society, and the physics
portion has expanded and continues to function as the Eotvos Lorand Physics
Society. Both societies are under the supreme super-vision of the
Acadenw of Sciences. In addition to its weekly evening meetings, the
Eotvos Lorand Physics Society holds an annual itinerant conference which
lasts several days. The "Hungarian Doctors' and Natural Science Investi-
gators' Itinerant Conference" has held national conferences for the dis-
cussion of the achievements in the fields of natural and medical sciences
every 4 years since 1846. However, the developrent of science and this
old and very important institution have been inadequate to this modern
demand since the turn of the century. Independent itinerant conferences
have been held in individual broad fields of science, such as the bio-
logical society, the physiological society, etc. The leading officials
who should have been concerned, failed to provide an adequate organi-
zation for those branches of science which comprised fewer institutes
and personnel than the field of physics which would be adequate for the
institutional activity and social effect of these sciences. The present
activity of the Eotvos Lorand Physics Society should be evaluated in
the light of the latter factors, also.
Although the details still must be improved and further developed,
the essential framework necessary for successful work already has been
established. That this framework is adequate is borne out by the fact
that despite the great work consumed by the organization and equipment-
ation of this framework significant results have been achieved during
the 10 years which have elapsed since the liberation, and especially
during the past 5 years. A brief survey of these results is given
below.
The following results in the field of theoretical research may be
mentioned.
Theory of Relativity
Karoly Novobatzky was occupied with the problem of relativity
throughout his entire lifetime and following Liberation he gathered
a school of followers. He was the first to demonstrate that the
usual method used for the determination of the square component of
the relativistic square power Phi does not always .ve a good result
because the assumption used in this derivation, that the squaring
operation is equal to zero, does not always apply. This method is
successful for electromagnetic forces, but not for conservative forces
taken in a relativistic sense. In the latter case the squaring opera-
tion is equal to the change in potential -dV. Novobatzky showed that
in conservative fields of force the mass equivalent value of the local
potential energy of a particle at its location is additive to the mass
at rest, and as a result the resting mass of a particle changes from
place to place.
Karoly Novobatzky also worked on the problem of the forces acting
on dielectrics at rest and in motion, which at that time had not yet
been solved. In this work Novobatzky used the method which has been
very successful in the field of the theory of relativity in developing
the Lagrange function from which the now known spatial equations and
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spatial energy expression of the electrodynamics of dielectrics is derived.
From this the energy-impulse tensor which determines the force acting on
isotropic dielectrics through the electromagnetic field could be readily
derived.
The same problem was investigated by another approach by G. Gyor.~i
and Gy. Marx, and they found the expression of the field forces acting
on the dipole which is formed in the dielectric to be equal to the ex-
pression developed by Abraham.
Gy. Marx generalized the isotropic dielectric results of K. Novobatzky
in relation to anizotropic substances.
The determination of the effect of an electromagnetic field on a
permanent magnet has been a long debated problem. Gyorgy Marx applied
the method used for determination of the energy-impulse tensor in the
generalized theory of relativity in the solution of this problem, and
showed that the divergence of the energy-impulse tensor denied from the
Lagrange function gives the laws governing the forces acting on magnets
at rest and in motion.
In his investigation of the same problem Janos Horvath obtained more
general results. Using the method of Weyl, Horvath derived the equation
of the motion of dipoles, and his results also account for the back-action
of the electromagnetic radiation generated by the accelerating magnetic
dipole.
Gyorgy Marx developed a method for determination of the energy-impulse
tensor of fields of force which are described by higher order field
equations which are in interaction with the environment, based on the
special theory of relativity of Euclidian geometry.
The proportionality of heavy and inactive masses is one of the basic
principles of physics. Gy. Marx poses the question of the type of
gravitational field generated by masses in motion. Many universities
throughout the world have been occupied with the determination of the
forces of inactive bodies. Marx shows that a similar phenomenon occurs
in electrodynamics, in that a rotating body generates a magnetic field
as a result of interaction with the gravitational field of the masses
adjacent to it. This indicates a close connection between gravitational
and electromagnetic forces.
Because it has not been possible to attribute sufficient physical
properties to the fifth dimension, Karoly Novobatzky has continuously
attempted to derive the fifth dimension from the theory of relativity.
In the presentation on the occasion of his accepting his academy chair,
Novobatzky described a unified theory of space which describes phenomena
in terms of the space-time four dimensional geometry. The curvature of
space is determined by gravitation. The geometric effect of an electro-
magnetic field is observable through the divergence between parallel
vectors. The curve described '5y the parallel divergence of a velocity
vector along its own line of direction serves as the course of a
particle. This fact is illurilnating with respect to electromagnetic
effects, as well as to the effects of gravity.
Janos Horvath is basing his work along this line of theoretical
research on the geometry of Finsler. In Finsler's space the force effects
produced by an electromagnetic field have a favored direction. An in-
variant distance also may be treated in the terms of this space, which is
 defined by a curvature tensor, which also gives information on gravita-
tion.
In another report Janos Horvath discusses whether the geometric
evaluation of an electromagnetic field is possible independent of gra-
vitational effects. In his opinion this is possible.
Two works of Pal Selenyi must be mentioned in connection with the
theory of relativity, which are basic questions of the development of the
theory of relativity. Selenyi describes a simple experimental method for
the comparison of heavy and inert masses. If the inert mass of a body
floating on water were not equal to the inert mass of the displaced water
the centrifugal force of the rotating earth would drive the floating
body toward the poles or toward the equator. His other work is a further
development of the rotating balance experiment used to demonstrate the
Eotvos-effect. Instead of a rotating balance he uses a pole mounted
horizontally in a north-south direction which is placed in oscillation
through torsion. Because of the Eotvos-effect the pole will have vertical
displacements, which can be accentuated through utilization of resonance.
In his academic chair acceptance speech Lajos Janossy contributed to
the clarification of the basic principles of the theory of relativity.
His concept may be considered a further development of the Lorentz con-
traction hypothesis.
Tibor Matrai also has done work in the field of relativistic kinematics,
and he has achieved significant results. Matrai developed certain
hypotheses with respect to the rigid movement of mass points which yield
6 degrees of freedom, in contrast to the work of Max Born.
Fenyes demonstrated that the classical investigations of Gyula
Farkas with respect to the differential theories of mechanics are com-
pletely equivalent to the conventional method of approach, but in a
different sense. According to this view the theory of virtual displace-
ment is not a displacement of infinitely great velocity, but is a
Galilean transformation of the possible displacements. Furthermore, the
theory of virtual displacement is dispensable. He indicates in his work
that in this manner the relativistic generalization of differential
theories is possible (Lorentz transformation instead of Galileo trans-
formation), which previously was prohibited by the infinitely great
velocity postulated for the virtual displacement.
In the field of domestic literature on the theory of relativity,
the university text book by Novobatzky must be mentioned, which is a
notable work even on an international scale.
During the past year Geza Szamosi and Gyorgy Marx have been
working in the field of relativistic dynamics and their results are of
interest to the field of nuclear physics, also.
Tibor Neugebauer has investigated an interesting problem in connection
with the existence of magnetic poles. However, the most outstanding
results of Hungarian researchers have been related to the discussion of
the energy and impulse relationships of electromagnetic radiation passing
through insulators, in terms of spatial theory methods. Under the
leadership of Karoly Novobatzky these researchers have systematically
developed this problem which has been a moot question for half a century,
and they demonstrated for the first time a method by which all phenomena
in this field may be evaluated on the basis of a unified theory. Gyorgy
Marx and Geza Gyorgyi investigated the classical problems, taking the work
of Karoly Novobatzky as a starting point. Karoly Nagy developed the
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quantum theory of photons passing through an insulator in his candidate's
thesis. In 1951 Gyorgy Marx was awarded the Rezso Schmidt prize by the
Eotvos Lorand Physics Society for his work in physics.
The residual theories of physics, the law of the residuum of energy
impulse and impulse-momentum, lend themselves very well and in a unified
sense to discussion under the terms of the theory of relativity. The
Hungarian physicists who have worked on problems along this line include
Karoly Novobatzky, Gyorgy Marx and Pal Roman.
Quantum Theory
The quantum theory is beyond doubt one of the most important, fields
of modern physics. At the turn of the century this branch of science revo-
lutionized the concept of the structure of matter, and since the 1920's
the general methods developed in this field have placed a powerful tool
in the hands of the physicists. Despite all the advances achieved,
however, there are still 2 open questions in the forefront of research.
First of all, it cannot be said that the quantum theory is a closed chapter
with respect to logic and philosophy. Secondly, the experiments aimed
at description of the behavior of elementary particles under the quantum
theory, or the general quantum theory of elementary particles, still have
not produced noteworthy results.
Hungarian physicists have done significant work in both fields during
the past 10 years. Hungarian researchers have done varied and extensive
work primarily with respect to the theoretical problems of the quantum
theory and in the evaluation of theoretical problems. Academician Karoly
Novobatzky was awarded the Kossuth Prize for his results achieved in this
field. Academician Lajos Janossy worked on similar problems, but with a
different approach, as did Imre Fenyes, who was concerned primarily with
the possibility of hidden parameters. It is mentioned here that Lajos
Janossy also investigated the philosophical problems related to this
subject. In his investigation of theoretical problems, Imre Fenyes also
obtained important practical conclusions.
The quantum theory of fields of force i.s a well developed branch of
physics research. Gyorgy Marx, Geza Szamosi and Pal Roman have done work
in this field in connection with the spin of elementary particles. The
work of Geza Szamosi has dealt with the problems of higher order fields.
An especially large number of researchers have done work on the
problem of quantum electrodynamics. Academician. Karoly Novobatzky had
commenced work in this field in Hungary as early as the 1930's. Pal
Roman recently has been occupied with formulation of the expression of
an electromagnetic field in terms of quantum theory. Frigyes Karolyhazi
has published a discussion of the complex problems of the interference
of photons by quantum electrodynamics methods. Peter Farago and Gyorgy
Marx have done work on a possible method of experimental control of
quantum electrodynamics, utilizing the quantum energy transferral of
cavity resonators. The work of Judit Nemeth is along the same lines.
Two research projects of Gyorgy Marx in the field of quantum field
theory have dealt with the description of the mutual interaction of
elementary particles. Pal Roman is doing work on the polarization of a
vacuum. Two projects of Aladar Komjathy deal with certain peculiarities
of photon and de Broglie waves.
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 verse{arch or. .he t.i.corr of c
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f.. Janossy was the first to begin work on the theory of cosmic
rnd1r.tion. A large part of the work of Janossy relates to the cascade
theory. the .:cost important recent work developed by Janossy is the G
equation, which MMs been cited frequently in the literature. In his
later work, Janossy :,eneralized the G equation. Several derivations are
possible with the Generalized theory which could be obtained from the
orir'.inal theory only through long and arduous calculations. The wide range
of the work of Janossy also encompasses the further development of the
mathematical apparatus of the theory of cosmic radiation in many different
aspects. Thus it may be hoped that Hungary may achieve reknown in this
field of physics, which has been little developed in Hungary in the past.
One indication of such achievement is the fact that 4 of the works of
Janossy have been or will be published in the journal of the academy of
sciences of the Soviet Union. Janossy was awarded the Kossuth Prize in
1951 for his work in Physics. It should be mentioned also that Janossy
increased the prestige of Hungarian research in cosmic radiation through
the publication of his books (including his great monograph) which have
also been published in England, the Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy.
While research in cosmic radiation gained impetus through the
return of world-famous Hungarian scientists to Hungary, domestic research
in theoretical nuclear physics gained its impetus from gradual develop-
ment of original Hungarian research. Tibor Neugebauer was working on
the magnetic momentum of atom nuclei in 1937. Significant results have
been achieved in the field of nuclear physics in recent times.
Three works of Pal Gombas deal with the problems of the basic status
of atom nuclei and determination of the cohesive energy of atom nuclei
and the density of nuclear particles. It is worthy of note that only one
empirical parameter is involved in the theory. The numerous works of
Geza Szamosi and his associates deal with modern problems of the skin
structure of atom nuclei and with other problems. (The work of ;,eza
Szamosi along this line was awarded the Rezso Schmidt Prize in 1953 by
the Eotvos Lorand Physics Society.) One of the works of Karoly Nagy also
is along this line.
Hungarian researchers also have become interested in the problems of
the induction-excited state of atom nuclei. A work of Gyorgy Marx deals
with the dilation vibrations caused in atom nuclei by strong inductive-
excitation. Geza Szamosi utilizes several new results in the field of
nuclear forces in the determination of the energy density of the
induction-excited state of atom nuclei. A work of Gyorgy Narx and Geza
Szamosi deals with the role of atomic nucleus surface tension in the
induction-excitation state of the nucleus.
The third field in which Hungarian physicists have done extensive
work is that of the problems of nuclear forces. Utilizing relativity
theory methods Gy. Marx and Geza Szamosi showed that the existence of
repulsive forces between the active parts of atom nuclei can be derived
from very recent experiments. A work of Tibor Neugebauer deals with
the problem of the distance function of nuclear forces. Although not
strictly within the field of nuclear forces a work of Gyorgyy Marx per-
taining to nuclear forces may be mentioned here, in which Marx sets up
a hypothesis for the so-called residual fermion charge.
 The Statistical Atomic Theory, the Wave-Mechanics Approach Methods, and
Their Applications
A world-famous Hungarian school of thought has been estab'.iahed in this
branch of modern physics (which is of great practical importance), due to
the work of Pal Gombas. The results achieved by Gombas are the most
important in this field, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
The only monograph in this field was written by Pal Gombas, has
appeared in German and Russian language editions, and has received
world-wide recognition. This work reviews all theoretical results and
practical applications used since 1949. Gombas also is the author of the
description of this field in the new edition of Handbuch der Physik
Lar,dbook of Physic, which includes, the developments in this field in
Hungary since 1949.
During the past 10 years Hungarian researchers h=ve been active in
the followine fields.
The statistical expression of the Pauli principle is of basic import-
ance to the statistical atomic theory because the mutual orthogonal
expression of the functions of individual electrons is not possible under
the terms of the latter theory. Gombas long ago showed thrt the Pauli
principle may be taken into consideration under the statistical atomic
theory by the utilization of a repulsion potential, and he also derived
a method for the analytical expression of this potential. Gombas recently
succeeded in correcting the repulsion potential, as a result of which the
numerical values of the d-valence electrons have been considerably improved.
Utilizing these corrections Gombas has constructed a statistical model
in which the electrons may be grouped according to their auxiliary quantum
numbers, and the density of s-electrons at r = 0 no longer diverg3 (which
is contrary to the Hellmann grouping). Fenyes showed that the variation
problems which give rise to the Hartree-Fock equations may be solved by
the use of nonorthogonal functions, in which the Hartree-Fock equations
are modified by the appearance of a repulsion potential. The null-
expression of the repulsion potential derived in this way is suitable for
use with the Gombas expression described above. Fenyes also has succeeded
in grouping the electrons of the statistical atomic model according to
auxiliary quantum numbers and in eliminating the divergence of the Hellmann
grouping, but his method is more unwieldy than the new method developed
by Gombas.
Researchers in the field of statistical atomic theory long have been
at a loss to explain the excessively large value of the so-called (Weiz-
sacker) inhomogenation correction of kinetic energy. The location and
correction of this error was desirable because the electron density of
the statistical model exhibits the same exponential decrease with the
use of the inhomogenation correction as does the electron density cal-
culated according to the wave mechanics theory. Gombas also successfully
solved this difficulty, through the introduction of his "kinetic specific
energ3-tt concept. Gombas showed that the energy valy derived through
the use of the Weizsacker correction is too large because the "kinetic
specific energy" appears in both the Fermi zero-point energy and in the
inhomogenation member, and thus appears twice in the calculation. Gombas
determined the expression of the kinetic specific energy and through the
use of this value developed a statistical model of the energy and electron
density of which are in excellent agreement with the wave mechanics
values. Pauncz also has done work on the problem of the accuracy of the
Fermi scheme of kinetic energy. He found that the zero-point energy
calculated accordin to the quantum mechanical box-model is much larger
than that derived by the Ferri rrethod, This indicates that the impulse
 of the electrons of a Fermi Pas can be equal to zero (which is contrary
to the present hypothesis).
The connection between the wave-me.:hanics and statistical atonic
theories h^s not only theoretical interest, but is an important problem
from the point of view of the further development of the statistical
model, as well. Fenyes has further developed the results of Dirac and
Brillouin in this field, and he has greatly simplified the expression of
their ideas and rendered them more readily verifiable. His method
consists essentially of solution of the "self-consistent field" equations
with the use of the W. K. B. method, which leads to the unified wave-
m.echanical establishment of all forms of the statistical model. Gaspar
showed that the electrostatic potential, which appears as a universal
function in the statistical atonic theory, exists with very good approxi-
mation in both the Hartree and the Hartree-Fock methods. When this is
taken into account the statistical model can be of very great aid to the
wave-mechanical methods. Gombas recently demonstrated that the basic
statistical equations pertaining to the electron density of the statistical
model are very siaular to the wave-mechanical equations of the multiple-
body problem. Gombas thereby demonstrated the close connection of the
statistical and wave-mechanical theories from the opposite approach. Fenyes
elaborated the analoc>y discovered by Gombas through the addition of several
new viewpoints which further strengthen the connection between the two
theories, and indicates a possibility for the correction of the electron
density of the statistical model which also gives information on the skin
structure.
In a joint work Gombas and Gaspar utilized the Umeda solutions of the
Thomas-Fermi-Dirac equation, which take account of the unsatisfactory
Brillouin boundary surfaces, together with a pertubation method for the
derivation of solutions pertaining to the more exact Jensen boundary
hypotheses.
Hungarian researchers have originated several important uses of the
statistical atomic model. Konya determined the profile of the Compton
zone through the utilization of impulse distribution derived from
statistical density values. The theory of metals derived by Gombas on
the basis of statistical atomic theory is an important development,
which is discussed in the section on the theory of solids. Investigations
in the field of statistical nuclear theory also are discussed separately
under the heading of theoretical nuclear physics.
Many Hungarian researchers also have done work on other methods of
theoretical expression and certain special applications of quantum
mechanics. The major work ii. this field, also, is the monograph of
Gombas, which has appeared in German and Russian language editions, as
well (the second edition already has been released).
The work of Gombas and Gaspar is very noteworthy, which gives the
theoretical justification of the semi-empirical Slater self-consistent
function. An analytical method developed by Gombas and Gaspar also may
be mentioned here. which is used in the determination of the self-consistent
functions of the atomic electron. This work utilizes the results of
Gaspar (mentioned above), according to which the reduced effective nuclear
charge obtained by the "self-consistent field" method, expressed in
appropriate units, is a universal function independent of serial number.
In a study of the problem of the divergency of the W. K. B. method
Imre Fenyes established that the series derivation method used in the
W. K. B. method does not exist. He also showed that an existing series
derivation always may be applied (according to the effects). The
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investigations of Fenyes on phase quantum derivations and the wave
mechanics basis of mathematical methods based on classical foundations also
are relevant to this field of research.
Some individual special applications which may be mentioned are the
followd.nn: the calculations of Gaspar pertaining to the dispersion of
x-rays. Janos Horvath performed again the usual calculations pertaining
to the HCl molecule, utilizing the recently developed more accurate
density tables. Geza Freud discussed a method for the mathematical
treat:rent of the H2 molecule, and Zsolt Naray discussed a method for
the mathematical treatment of the HC1 and HF molecules. Berenc and Gaspar
developed new methods for the accurate determination of the binding of
the H2 molecule. Gaspar and Konya determined the constants of the HI
molecule on the basis of the correlation-supplemented statistical model.
A work by Gaspar adds several qualitative determinations to the
statistical atomic theory, and 2 works by J. Horvath add to the variation
method.
Molecular Theory
Several Hungarian researchers have done significant work on the
molecular theory. Agoston Budo has investigated the dielectric relaxation
of polarized molecules and extends the theory to ellipsoid shapes in the
case in which polar groups can rotate freely within the molecule, and when
such rotation is inhibited. Because the structure of molecules varies
greatly, Budo devoted 2 works to the investigation of characteristic
special molecular structure. His results are in good agreement with
experimental data. In his next work Budo will treat the effect of
environment on the polarization of molecules through complicated mathe-
matical calculations. Because the mathematical methods used in the
molecular theory are very specialized, Budo treats these methods in a
unified manner in a separate work. Pal Kovesdi, a study of Budo,
generalized the Debye-Ramm theory for ellipsoid shapes for use with high
frequency and for the performance of dielectric investigations.
The works of Istvan Kovacs and Agoston Budo which further develop the
theory of zonal perturbation in spectroscopic photographs and the methods
for determination of the molecular term constants which cause perturba-
tion also fall within the field of molecular theory. In a joint work by
these 2 researchers they investigated the problem of the perturbation
between 2 discrete and one continuous term series through utilizat'on of
quantum electrodynamic data, which they published as an explanation of
the phenomenon known as accidental predissociation. In another work they
investigated the reciprocal effect of spin-path on the structure of certain
multiple states. In another work they derived explicit formulas for the
transitory state term values between the Hund-type b and d linkages, and
for the distribution of intensity in the zonal branches and for the
Zeemann decomposition of the terms. They successfully applied their
results to one term complex of the He2 molecule.
In another work Budo and Kovacs discuss the problem of perturbation
in the zones of spectrographic photographs from a unified viewpoint,
taking into cons aeration the reciprocal effect of electron path and spin
momentum. Through this method they succeeded in presenting for the first
time in the literature, an explanation of the perturbation between the
various multiple terms of tie zones of the spectroscopic photographs
of molecules. For the benefit of nonspecialists in this field, they
have published an accosnt of the structure of molecular color photographs
under the title Mclekulaszinkepek spectrographic Photographs of Molecule7.
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Istvan Kovacs and the Swedish researcher Albin Lagerquist est.-t1ished
the oscillatory and rotational tern system of electron states caul'
perturbation solely on the basis of perturbation data of the spec'-:-x
lines of bariw:. oxide. By way of further development of these retnods
I. Kovacs gives a neneral discussion of the previously developed methods
for determination of the constants of molecular terns which cause pertur-
bation. In another work he describes the newer methods for Bete urination
of the molecular term constants which participate in the transition.
Budo and Kovacs presented an explanation of the anomalic behavior
of the ?, -- term, which is the only term of the spectrograph of the
Ogt molecule which has been subjected to detailed experimental study.
Their results a;ree with the measurement data. The work of Budo and
Kovacs was awarded the Kossuth Prize in 1951.
The spectroscopic investigation of molecules began anew in Hungary
after the Liberation. Kovacs and Budo, Iren Deezsi, Edit Koczkas and
Tibor Matrai reported the discovery of several rotational analytical
zones within the blue zone system of strontium oxide. On the basis of
these discoveries they solved the problem which has been long disputed
in the literature, viz., that the lower electron state of the blue zone
system is common with the lower state of the ultra red zone system.
Tibor Neugebauer is occupied with the calculation of the ellipsoid
of polarization of the hydrogen molecule. He shows that the ellipsoid
consists of the superposition of 2 phenomena, and the reason why researchers
have been unable to confirm the observed data in the past is that they had
taken only one of these phenomena into consideration. Another work by
Tibor Neugebauer deals with the role of polarization phenomena which
appear in crystal grid systems play in the determination of the type of
grid system of the crystal, in the appearance of semileading character-
istics, and in the problem of the transition between the 2 types of
binding. Janos Horvath did work on the polarization of the HC1 molecule,
and some of his results have helped supplement the method of Go:mbas and
Neugebauer. In a later work he further refined the method used, in
that he treats the polarization of individual, closed electron shells.
In 2 later works J. Horvath further improved his results after improve-
ment of his mathematical methods and his physical line of'reasoning.
In 2 of his works Tibor Neugebauer evaluates biological processes with
the help of the van der Waals reciprocal effect. In one of these works
he discusses the fact that through van der Waals forces, polypeptide chains
which have been straightened out can bind amino acids. In his next work
he applies the van der Waals reciprocal effect to the aromatic hydrocarbons.
Rezso Pauncz has been working on the optical characteristics of
molecules, on the basis of the Pauling method. His results state that
theoretical computations can agree with experimental data only if the
calculations include ionic, as well as homeopolar functions. In another
work Pauncz attempts to explain the spectrographic picture of condensed
aromatic molecules on the basis of a quantum mechanical model. R.
Pauncz and Ferenc Berencz investigated the magnetic properties of
molecules. They studied the connection between diamagnetic anizotropia
and the shape of the molecule in aromatic compounds. Their results are
in good agreement with experimental data. Pauncz and Berenca also have
computed the diamagnetic anizotropia of a very complicated condensed
aromatic compound, and are investigating the effectiveness of the
mathematical methods for the treatment of this problem.
Janos Horvath has been working on the binding relationships of m. le-
cules, applying the method of T. Neugebauer in the case of the a.rimonium
ion. In another work, Horvath reconstructs the ammonium ion utilizing
the method of Pal Gombas in the mathematical calculation, and he calculates
- 11 -
 the several Raman frequencies of the molecular ion. In another work he
generalizes his earlier results to include the case in which the central
core of the molecule is Si. Zsolt Naray has perfected the mathematical
method for the calculation of the binding energy of molecules and of
molecular constants. R. Pauncz and Ferenc Berencz utilized the method
of the linear combination of atomic paths in determining the sequence of
binding strength for individual bindings of aromatic compounds. In a
more recent work they investigated changes in physical and chemical
properties through the addition of benzine rings. Rezso Pauncz investi-
gated the efficiency of the Moffitt method, and he states several prin-
ciples for the proper selection of the wave function. In one work, Ferenc
Berencz improved the molecular path method, and in another work he
studied the Fourier-series method as applied to specific cases.
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
Imre Fenyes has published several works in the field of thermodynamics.
Fenyes has been concerned with the axiomatic foundation of thermodynamics.
He considers the thermodynamic system to be a mechanical system with
several involunt-urily imposed conditions. As Helmholtz had indicated
earlier, this is possible because the thermodynamic concepts may be con-
sidered as the average values of mechanical properties of the molecules.
Thus it is not at all surprising that the classical formalization is
applicable to the mechanical averages. Fenyes uses a system with 2
degrees of freedom. He considers the Hamilton function to be internal energy.
and the Lagrange function to be free energy, and treats the irreversible
mechanical theory through this formalization. In another work Fenyes
deals with the quantitative characterization of irreversible thermodynamic
processes. Fenyes has devoted several works to the axiomatic foundation
of thermodynamics, as did Gyula Farkas, who performed experiments along
this line as early as 50 years ago.
In the field of statistical mechanics Kalman Szell has been occupied
with the Fermi statistical method, as applied to the degenerate stage of
an ideal gas. In another work he investigated the variation in. energy of
single-atomic gases according to the statistics of Bose and Fermi. Szell
also intends to extend his calculations to the variation in rotational
energy of ultiple-atomic gases.
In 2 joint works Jeno Egervary and Pal Turan have shown that contrary
to the false notion that because of the large number of particles in
gases the mechanical theory cannot be applied, with the consideration of
certain conditions the density of the gas may be evaluated. In the end
result, this means that the deterministic and statistical methods of
approach can be made to agree. Fenyes has shown that the indeterminate
relationship discovered by Furth in the theory of diffusion is applicable
in a much generalized for- to every stochastic process. Along this save
line he attempts to derive the equation of diffusion dy.ia:.ics.
The research which has been conducted on the theory of solid bodies
since Liberation may be divided into 2 groups: 1. investigations based
on the statistical atomic model and 2. other quantum mechanical inesti-
gations. Pal Go:bas utilized the metal theory which was developed even
before Liberation, supplemented with a potential which includes the
modified Pauli principle, for the calculation of the more important con-
stants of alkaline and earth-alkaline metals, and extended the method to
the noble methods, as well.
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This theory was further expanded to include theoretical determination
of the status equation of metals, and the calculations of the pressure-
compressibility curve of alkaline and earth-alkaline metals for higher
pressure values.
Albert Konya calculated the Gruneisen constants of alkaline and earth-
alkaline metals on the basis of the theory of retale derived by Gor:bas.
Rezao Gaspar extended the calculations to metals with many valence
electrons, primarily aluminum.
Tibor Hoffmann performed calculations on the Rbl crystal, which
also were based on the statistical atonic model.
Amon.- other calculations based on the quantum mechanics method the
so-called quantum che:ical method should be mentioned, in which the
quantum che^ical methods were applied to a crystal, taken as a gigantic
molecule. Using this method, Tibor Hoffmann and Albert Konya performed
calculations on a. crystal composed of single-dimensional uniform atoms,
and Tibor Hoffmann later performed calculations on a crystal composed
of two-, and three -di:ensional uniform atoms. Hoffmann later extended the
investigations to solid bodies consisting of different components (alloys),
in the case of single-, t:?:o-, and three-dimensional cases. He later
utilized this theory in the explanation of surface phenomena appearing in
conjunction with certain problems of semiconductors, and of pollution
phenomena. Hoffr:nann recently has made some progress in the application
of this theor; to pollution with a statistical distribution.
The following research was conducted in certain independent fields
of the theory of solids. Tibor Neugebauer clarified certain problems
of the Plotrikow dispersicn theory. Pal Gombas and 71bor Hoffmann
performed calculations on the mechanism of luminescence in the course
of development of an industrial problem. Tibor Neugebauer investigated
magnetic phenomena associated erith hyperconductivity. Pal Gombas and
Tibor Hoffmann performed calculations on the possibility of the contract-
ion of organic chain mmolecules. Tibor NeuFebauer investigated the
reality of the null-point vibration of solid bodies, and also attempted
to explain the amt netic behavior of the Earth. Geza Schay published a
simple account of the thermal expansion of crystals on the basis of a
classical model. The following experimental research was performed:
Prior to Liberation research in the field of electronics was con-
ducted only at the research laboratory of the Unified Incandescent Plant.
The most intense research along this line following Liberation also was
conducteJ at this laboratory. Theoretical research was concerned with
the problem of thermal electron emission, which has great practical sig-
nificance in the field of manufacture of electronic tubes. The second field
of research along this line concerned the secor:d.:ry emission of electrons
and the electron multiplier, which is based on the latter phenomenon.
Electron multipliers now are extensively used in laboratories. Peter
Fara~o and L. Takacs employed the electron multiplier for investigation of
the mechanism. of secondary electron emission. Andras Dallos is developing
a method for the measurement of the amplitude of impulses generated by
the electron multiplier. J. Pocza utilized the electron multiplier for
counting ultra violet photons. He also measured tha quantum efficiency
and, considering the fact that surface effects are involved, he found this
value to be low, which is in agreement with the earlier photo-electric
investigations. However, as Farago makes it plain, this is no hindrance
to its practical applicability because the electron multiplier has a very
 small side effect. Gyorgy Papp and Kalman Sasvari also use the electron
multiplier for m.-asurement of the intensity of x-rays, and in the analysis
of crystal structure. P. Farago built and studied a type of electron
multiplier with a large cathode surface. Gyorgy Szigeti and Elemer NacJ
used the electron multiplier for the spectrographic registration of the
luminescence of various types of fluorescent dust. P. Farago and J.
Pocza have utilized the electron multiplier at the Szabadsag Mountain
Observatory. The electron multiplier performs very well in this type
of application. Farago and Pocza also have used the elect or. multiplier
in coincidence equipment, which enables an analysis of 10-r to 10-8
second with co.-y.fercinl grade tubes. J. P. Valko and Gy. Gergely have
utilized the electron ;.ultiplier in research on luminescence.
Istvan Cornides has developed a homogenous energy ion source for
mass spectrographic purposes.
Farago and his associates have developed a quantitative ^ethod for
determination of the agnetic force of atomic nuclei by the radio fre-
quency resonance absorption method.
Pal Selenyi has established the effect of mercury vapor on selenium
rectifiers, and is investigating the phenomena caused by mechanical
deformation of the rectifier plates. He also developed his electrographic
method for the production of electron microscope photographs.
Selenyi reports on an important phenomenon of electronic physics
in his work on the electric windmill, which ties in with his earlier
investigations on the inert mass of electrons. Two of his works are
devoted to the i:provement of selenium rectifiers.
The appearance in 1954 of a monograph by P. Farago and J. Pocza
entitled Elektronfizika CElectronic Physic (Acade.-,W Press, 431 pages)
must be mentioned as an important literary event.
Farago and Grow. have done theoretical research in connection with
problems of velocity-modulated generators, and which problems have been
subjected to debate in the literature.
Radioactivity and ?ucle.ar Physics
(a) Excitation of Atomic Nuclei
These investigations were begun under the initiative of Sandor Szalay
prior to Liberation at the Physics Institute of the Debrecen University,
and considerable progress has been made since Liberation. These investi-
gations extend to several allied fields, also. The excitation state of
light atom molecules is determined through measurement of the Y ra-di:,ticn.
Eva Csongor bombarded magnesium and lithium. with Po c rays, and the same
rays were used by N. Kovacs for bombarding Na atoms. and by Szalay-Czcn or
for bombarding Mg. Janos Nagy investigated the Mg/;.t , n/Si process with
the use of a Boron trichloride neutron counter, and studied the Al excita-
tion eouation through cc ray bombardment. Laszlo Medveczky investigated
the Mg/;,, n/P process by a photoemission method and noted the ener
distribution of the neutrons of the AI/^c, n/P nuclear process. S. Szalay
and Tibor Fenyes constructed a new type electron-magnetic '\ -ray spectro-
meter. S. Szalay gave a report on the excitation state of l- ht atori
nuclei at the First Hungarian Rotating Congress of Physics. 1. Medvecz:._:
developed the photoertulsion method for the neutron spectroscope. L.
`Medveczky and Erno Bujdoso are developing a dark-field microscope _-e* _hod
for use in conjunction with the photoemuision method for exacin^tion of
 neutrons. T. rri..'.rdcz}cy is ut1lizing a pmt, r-uya_v,.
-ration of the enervy- spectrum of the Po - Be neutron source. Janos Nagy
is investigating the B5/ C\ , n/N7 nuclear transformation.
(b) Petrographic Radiological Investigations
In 1946 S. Szalay initiated the prospecting for sizeable deposits of
uranium in Hungary. This problem is very important from the point of
view of the peaceful uses of atomic energy. When traces of uranium
were discovered in the Transdanubian coal fields this research had a
great effect on the national economy. A discovery of considerable theo-
retical importance was the discovery by Szalay and his associates of the
cause of the geochemical concentration of uranium in organic substances.
From this it is hoped that a cheap method for the extraction of the
uranium may be developed, and that this low concentration occurrence of
uranium may meet the power demands of Hungary for several centuries.
It is an important task, therefore, that in the field the uranium
prospecting be continued and that the uranium content of the domestic
coal fields be mapped, and in the laboratory that the uraniuni-corcentra-
tion and metallurgical experiments be furthered. Many scientists par-
ticipated in this extremely varied research, the results of which have
appeared in more than 20 publications, including 7 by Sandor Szalay,
one by Szalay-Csongor, 5 by Szalay-Foldvari, 2 by A. Foldvari, 4 by
B. Makranczi, 3 by Almassy-Nagy, one by Almassy-Straub, one by Alrassy-
Kovacs, 3 by Almassy and one by Almassy-Dezso.
(c) The Use 21 1. Tracers
The use of radioactive isotopes in the fields of medicine and biolor
was begun during the past decade with the application of naturally
radioactive-, and bizmuth isotopes. The necessary equipment for use in
this field was developed by the institute headed by S. Szalay, and a
doctor (Laszlo Kertesz) and several laboratory assistants were specially
trained for research requiring medical attention. One of the important
scientific achievements in this field has been the development of
quantitative histochemical procedures through the use of radioactive
isotopes (in conjunction with the institute headed by Imre Toro).
Another important achievement has been the investigation of the function-
ing of defense mechanism which protects the living organism from particles
which intrude into it through the use of colloidal particles marked with
radioactive isotopes.
Experiments may be conducted on an adequate scale only after the
remodeling and installation work at the Debrecen Physics Research Institute
are completed. The researchers who have done work in this field and have
published accounts of their work are the following: Szalay-Barka-
Posalaki-Kertesz, Barka-Kertesz-Gerecze, Szalay-Posalaky, Bartos-Kertesz,
Sxalay-Kertesz-Simonyi, Kertesz-Aros-Barka-Posalaky, Keztyus-Valyi
Nagy-Kertesz-Kocsar, Barka-Posalaky-Kertesz, Arts-Barka-Posalaky-Gerecze,
Kocsar-Salaky-Kertesz-Szalay-Keztyus, Kocsar-Keztyus-Szalay-Kertesz-
Valyi Nagy, Valyi Nagy-Kocsar-Kelentei-Keztyus-Czernyanszky-Kertesz-
Okros, Szalay-Kertesz, Keztyus-Szalay-Kocsar-Kertesz-Salanky, Barka-
Posalaky, and Kertesz-Toro-Szalay.
To this list of names it must be added that this field of research
reflects the collective efforts of scientists because the medical appli-
cation of radioactive isotopes requires the joint work of many specialists.
This is significant also for individual modern scientific research and
achievement.
 A 280,000 v small neutron generator is being built at the Debrecen
institute. The neutrons generated by this machine will in turn produce
new artificially radioactive isotopes. Another machine also under con-
struction at the Debrecen institute] is a 2,000,000 v Van de Graff gen-
erator, which will accelerate ions for the purpose of transformation of
atom nuclei. A report by Szalay-Puskas deals with the latter.
In other fields of research, regular measurements have been made at
the Institute since 1952 for the determination of the radioactive content
of the atmosphere. The latter shows great variation due to remote explos-
ions of atomic bombs. Investigations by Szalay-Berenyi and Decsi-Horvath
on the increase in radioactive pollution (radium emanation) caused by
spilling of krypton at the Krypton Plant were aimed at the protection
of the health of the plant workers. From a practical viewpoint it is
important that the planned Debrecen Physics Research Institute of the
MTA be completed to a point where it would be equal to the development
of the allied fields.
The Physics of Solid Bodies
The following institutions are active in this field: Experimental
Physics Institute of the Technical University of the Construction Industry
(academician Zoltan Gyulai and associates); Physics Institute of the
Eotvos Lorand University; Physics Institute of the Szeged University;
Physics Institute of the Budapest Medical School, and the Telecormrnuiica-
tions Research institute.
Zoltan Gyulai and his associates have done work on problems of the
electrical conductivity of hard semiconductors and on crystal growth
and recrystallization.
Gyulai and Tomka have shown that there is a variation in Ohm's law
observable in colored alkali halogen crystals. Boros has investigated
electrical and optical peculiarities of vanadium pentoxide crystals and
has shown that the disturbing energy level may be reached by either
electrical or optical means.
Boros and Sibelszky obtained the identical result with both colored
and de-colored alkali haloids.
Boros and Csaszar demonstrated that the activation energies produced
during conduction in NaCl and 1Br tablets are the same as those deter:ri.ned
by optical measurements. They explain this phenomenon by the fact that
electrons participate in the conduction process.
Tomka investigated deviations from Ohm's law in the conductivity
of colored, and de-colired alkali haloids. He also has concluded that
a great role must be attributed to electrons in t}-- process of electri-
cal conduction.
Several of the works of Gyulai were devoted to the problem-0 of crystal
growth. Gyulai established the fact that in growing a crystal from a
solution a very important role is played by the transitional layer
between the solid phase and the solution, and he cites several examples.
Gyulai, together with Litre Tarjan and Gyula Zironyi have developed
a method for the synthetic production of quartz crystals. He has
developed several methods for growing needle-crystals of Na,'! and he has
investigated the elastic and rigid properties of these crystals. In this
investigation he reached the noteworthy conclusion that the structure of
the needle crystal is much Tore perfect than that of the large single
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crystals. In further work on growing needle crystals he discovered that
needle crystals have a destructive effect in porous substances. (Z.
Gyulai was awarded the Kossuth Prize in 1953.)
Gyulai and Morlin are performing a series of experiments involving
NaCl tablets. They find a correlation between pressure, temperature
and particle size. They have established that in recrystallization in
the solid phase the crystal growth follows the Kossel pattern, just as
in crystal growth from solution or from vapor. Gyulai and Morlin
connect their recrystallization investigations with the dislocation
theory of solid bodies.
STAT
Gyulai, working with Szilvassy and Gaal, discovered that a thermo-
electric potenti;+]. rany arise also between the oxides of semiconductors.
iarjan and his associates at the Budapest Medical Physics Institute
are doing work on the color centers which cause the coloration of alkali
haloid crystals. They have studied the absorption and the light-electrical
properties of crystals which have been treated with x-rays, and crystals
which have receive' additive coloring. They developed methods for the
production of various single crystals, such as single phosforus alkali
haloid crystals for scintillation counting equipment for use in atomic
physics. They also have produced single crystals of naphthalene and
anthracene for similar purposes.
Most of the work of Pal Selenyi has been in the field of semiconductors.
Selenyi was the Hungarian expert who worked out the technology of the
manufacture of selenium rectifiers in Hungary, and he contributed a
further theory on the functioning of selenium rectifiers. Selenyi had
performed numerous investigations on the semiconductor selenium, during,
the course of which he has shown that selenium can be used for a photo-
graphic plate. He discovered that when a selenium rectifier plate is
bent the closing current increases, and the increase subsides after a
period of time. He made selenium photoelectric cells sensitive to ultra-
red light by exposing the photoelectric cell to mercury vapor.
Pal Selenyi died one year ago. In his decease Hungary lost a first-
rank researcher and an inspired teacher. The Kossuth Prize which he was
awarded in 1951 was only an indication of the esteem of the country, and
could not make amends for the suffering which he had to endure. It is
essential that he be remembered with esteem in the present report.
At the Rcperimental Physics Institute of the Szeged University inves-
tigations are being conducted on semiconductors and on lu:inescence.
Gombay has investigated lead sulfide and lead selenide, and Gombay and
Lang have investigated ferrosilicon. The other field of research of
the Institute concerns the luminescence phenomena of organic plant
phosfors. These investigations were conducted by Frohlich and his
students: Gombay, Szalay, Szor, Dombi, and Ketskemety. The light
absorption and emission of gelatin phosforous paints were investigated
by Frohlich and Szor. Frohlich and Szalay investigated the effect of a
rotating magnetic field on a luminescent plate. They attempted to explain
the phenomenon of preexcitation through the light absorption by oriented
molecules. Gombay showed that a photoelectric current appears in these
phosforus paints. He considers this to be the same as the current which
appears in inorganic types of phosforus. He theorizes that the conducti-
vity of the gelatin plates is a type of organic conductivity. The therral
potential which he measured on these preparations is another proof that
electrical conductivity exists under these conditions.
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 Szalay is working on the excitation and preexcitation of organic
phosforus compounds, and on the saturation of emission. He shows that the
gelatin phosforus plates rotate the plant of light polarization. Szalay
and Szollosy are jointly developing a method for the demonstration of
self-excitation. Szalay and Grasselly have investigated the structure
of gelatin, and have come to the conclusion that gelatin must have a
crystalline structure. Szor has been doing work on the absorption of an
NO alcohol solution of acridin orange. Dembi has been working on the
permanent photodichroism of solid paint solutions. The theme of a dis-
sertation by Ketskemety was the luminescence of aluminum-morin.
The phenomena of luminescence of solid bodies, which has considerable
technological importance, is under investigation at the laboratories of
the Unified Incandescent Lamp Plant and the Electricity Company, which is
now the Telecommunications Research Institute. Szigeti and Nagy investi-
gated the emission of willemite. The emitted light was analyzed by
means of a spectroscope. Gergely devised a method for the measurement
of extinguishing time. This was no mean task, because the extinguishing
times are in the order of one-millionth of a second. He and Valko use
an electronic compensation method for measurement of the extinguishing
time. Nagy and Gergely show that the various emission bands have
different extinguishing times. Nakai successfully explained the 2
emission bands of willemite. The lighting capacity decreases with the
temperature. According to Szigeti there is a connection between the
decrease in lighting capacity and the constant dielectrical increase.
Nagy, and later Bodo, investigated the role of the activator and of
pollution in luminescence. It is very important from the point of view
of understanding the mechanism of excitation that the absorption co-
efficient of these substances be known within the ultraviolet range.
This is not an easy task when it is remembered that these substances are
in a powdery form. Several of the works of Bodo were devoted to this
subject, and he succeeded in determining the absorption coefficient of
the powdery substances. Bodo also determined the absolute efficiency of
light transformation of these powdery substances. On the basis of their
results Nagy and Bodo established a hypothesis for the laws governing the
lighting capacity, which was useful in the explanation of many other
phenomena. The investigations of Nagy pertaining to the centers offer
great possibilities for evaluation of other luminescent phenomena which
are studied in relation to these centers. During the past 2 years the
work at the laboratory has included, in addition to research on lumin-
escence, the production of transistors, and investigation of the
electroluminescence of silicon carbide (SiC).
The work in this field during the past 10 years has been done by
Naray-Szabo, Sasvari, Szanto, Papp, and Hegedus. Naray-Szabo have been
working on the class of crystals exhibiting perovskite structure. Papp
and Sasvari have employed the electron multiplier for the measurement of
x-ray intensity in determining crystal structure. Sasvari has determined
the structure of bayerite, and has investigated the origin of alpha-
corund rocks. Sasvari and Hegedus have been tracing the thermal origin of
aluminoxide hydrates by x-ray and thermoanalytical methods. Szanto has
developed a method for measurement of the internal strain of metals,
using x-ray diffraction, and he established an accurate grid parameter,
using alpha-titanium. Sasvari developed a method for measurement of the
elastic tension of metal ire, using a back-reflecting x-ray chamber.
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In the field of acoustics az.. ?"^
searchers may be mentioned: Tarnoczy, Greguss, Tari. and Szilard. In
many of his works Tarnoczy has made sound disk recordings, and he hn1
studied the acoustics of the Varosi Szinhaz Lninicipal Theater,,
is now the Erkel Theater of the State Opera). He drew up plans for +.i.r
correction of the poor acoustics of this theater, and on the basis of
these plans the acoustics of the theater have been improved. His ::se
of acoustically diffuse surfaces for the improvement of acoustics is
the first such example in the literature. He also has developed a bal-
ance for the measurement of supersonic wave pressure. Together with
Greguss he developed a method for the precipitation of aerosols (cem?nt
dust), using supersonic waves. In a joint work with Somhegyi he shows
that acoustic energ infl,iences the processes of combustion. In a
joint work with Tari he used a condensor microphone for measurement of
the amlitude of acoustical vibrations. Greguss established the fact
that supersonic waves cause a change in coloration of certain colored
solutions, which may be used for measurement of supersonic e ve inten-
sit;;. Szilard developed a method for the measurement of supersonic
wave intensity, using the so-called compensating calorimeter.
This brief account cannot give a detailed picture of the entire
theoretical experimental work which has been carried on in Hungary. An
indication of the scope of the work which has been done is the fact
that the individ::al publications, which do give a detailed account of
research in physics in Hungary during the past 10 years, total approxi-
mately 400 volumes, with more than 2,000 pages.