INFRARED SURVEYS OF HAWAIIAN VOLCANOES

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78B05167A000800050001-1
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• Document Page Count: 12
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 15, 2014
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: February 20, 1963
• Content Type: REPORT

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INFRARED SURVEYS OF HAWAIIAN VOLCANOES
1.33,
W. A. Fischer and R. M. Moxham?U.S. Geological Survey
F. Polcyn?University of Michigan
G. H. Lands--Aero Service Corpotation
st
Reprinted from Science, November 6, 1964, Vol. 146, No. 3645, pages 733-742
Copyright 0 1964 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
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Infrared Surveys a
Hawailian Volcanoes
? Aerial surveys with infrared imaging radiometer depict
volcanic thermal patterns and structural features.
W. A. Fischer, R. M. Moxham, F. Polcyn, G. H. Landis
Kilauea, on the island of Hawaii,
has been one of the most active vol-
canoes in historic time. Though it has
beet studied intensively since establish-
ment of the Hawaiian Volcano Ob-
servatory in 1912, little is known of
the thermal regimq, ddpite its obvious
importance in volcanic processes. Pub-
lished data include those of Jaggar
(1), Ault and his co-workers (2), and
Macdonald (3). I
Obvious surfici41 thermal anomalies
arc associated with Kilauea, as visible
'steaming in many places attests to con-
vective transfer of heat from subter-
ranean sources. Ground adjacent to
these steaming cracks commonly is ab-
normally warm. But the relative in-
tensity and spatial configuration of the
thermal patterns of this extensive vol-
canic system cannot easily be re-
corded by conventional means.
Modern infrared imaging radiome-
ters have enabled us to map the dis-
tribution of anomalies associated with
Kilauea and Mauna Loa, including
some that have later been sites of vol-
canic eruption. These instruments
have also made it possible to locate
fresh water springs discharging into the
ocean and to demonstrate relationships
between surface configuration and con-
solidation and infrared emission that
warrant further study, because of their
possible application to lunar and plan-
etary investigations.
Infrared radiometers have been used
for many years to make surface-tem-
W. A. Fischer and It. M. Moxham are af-
filiated with the U.S. Geological Survey, Wash-
ington, D.C.; F. Polcyn is on the staff of the
Infrared Radiation Laboratories, Institute of
Science and Technology. University of Michi-
gan; G. It Landis is affiliated with the Aero
Service Corporation, Philadelphia, Pa., a division
of Litton Industries.
perature (or, more strictly, energy-
emission) measurements, but .their ap-
plication has generally been limited to
spot measurements or traverses. In the
last decade, airborne electromechani-
cal imaging infrared radiometers have
been developed for military purposes
(4). We feel that these instruments
could be adapted to thermal mapping
for geophysical purposes. Instruments
of this type, as they.evolve, will doubt-
less provide quantitative data, but the
present instrument configuration has
provided only qualitative results. In
this preliminary account we describe
the data obtained for surface tempera-
tures' of Hawaii through the use of
such a scanning device, supplemented
by conventional aerial infrared and
black-and-white photography. These
sensors covered the 0.4- to 14-s region
of the electromagnetic spectrum, pro-
viding, in pictorial form, a measure of
the electromagnetic energy being emit-
ted or reflected from the earth's sur-
face in that spectral region. The earth
radiates energy whose spectrum ap-
proximates that of a black body at
300?K (Fig. 1), with a maximum near
9.5 ?. In addition, during daylight
hours the earth reflects solar energy
whose spectrum approximates that of a
black body at 6000?K, with a maxi-
mum near 0.5 p.. The energy emitted
or reflected from the earth's surface is
selectively absorbed by the atmosphere,
so only that part which passes through
atmospheric windows (Fig. 2) reaches
an airborne detector._
The sensors were carried in an
A-26B aircraft operated by Aero Ser-
vice Corporation. That organization
was also responsible for the photog-
raphy. Infrared imaging was carried
out by the University of Michigan's
Institute of Science and Technology.
The aerial surveys were made from
26 January to 20 Fehrtary 1963, un-
der the direction of thel U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey.
,
Geologic Setting
Kilauea is a shield volcano built
against the east side of its larger neigh-
bor, Mauna Loa (Fig. 3). The volcano
has grown to an altitude of about 1200
meters from repeated outpourings of
basaltic lava along two major rift
zones. At the summit is a caldera about
4 kilometers in diameter, whose floor
is formed of lava erupted in historic
time, most recently in 1954. Steam
issues from arcuate patterns of cracks
on the caldera floor and from several
other localities adjacent to the caldera.
Some cracks yield pure water vapor;
some yield steam, at near-normal steam
temperature, carrying salts in solution
(for example, Sulfur Banks). A few,
as at the crest of the Kilauea Iki cinder
cone, are superheated. Halemaumau,
a crater in the southwest part of the%
caldera, has been the scene of repeated
volcanic activity. For many years it
was filled with liquid lava, but the
crust is now solidified. Adjacent to the
caldera on the east is Kilauea Iki, a
crater filled by a lava lake during a
spectacular eruption in 1959 (5).
Two major rift zones transect the
volcano. The cast rift zone of Kilauea
is a curvilinear system of faults, ex-
tending southeast from the summit
area, thence east and northeast, where
it intersects the coastline at Cape
Kumukahi. Near the summit the rift is
marked by a chain of pit craters; to-
ward the east, open fissures and cinder
cones are more common. The other
major rift zone curves southwest from
the summit to the sea. It is thought
that, in the eruptive cycle of Kilauea,
lava enters the summit area through a
system of conduits beneath Halernau-
man and commonly is discharged
through tubes that follow the two rift
zones. In the past two decades most
of the lava eruptions have been in
Halemaumau or along the east rift
zone. The latest eruption prior to the
survey discussed here was .on 7 De-
cember 1962, when about.' 335.000
cubic meters of lava were discharged
into and near Aloi Crater. (For ad-
ditional details on the geology of Ki-
lauea, see 6 and 7.)
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instrumentation
The following aerial sensors were
used.
1) An infrared scanner (Fig. 4)
that records an image whose gray scale
is controlled by the instantaneous en-
ergy focused upon the detector. De-
tecting elements sensitive to radiation
in the 2- to 6-p. and 8- to 14-p. parts
of the spectrum were used. The energy
radiated from the earth's surface, and
hence the image gray scale, is a func-
tion of surface temperature and emis-
sivity. As emissivity of earth materials
and vegetation ranges from perhaps
0.7 to 0.98, the image tone depicts
what we term "apparent surface tem-
peratures." Lighter shades on the ac-
companying images indicate higher
apparent surface temperatures.
2) Infrared aerial photography
(long-wavelength cutoff, 0.9 p,)
which records reflected solar infrared
enevgy. These photographs helped iden-
tify features that were seen on other
images and prOvided a means of es-
timating relative absoption of solar
energy. Darker, tones indicate greater
absorption.
?
3) Conventional aerial photography,
to assist in identification and to pro-
vide information on surface configura-
tion and absorption of solar energy.
In the following discussion the rec-
ords provided by the infrared scanning
technique are termed images; the term
photographs is used only for records
obtained by conventional aerial cam-
eras.
Temperature Measurements
" on the Ground
Figure 5 shows air temperatures and
surface temperatures of several ob-
jects measured with a contact pyrom-
eter. The apparent temperature of the
soil, rock outcrops, and vegetation in
a small area warmed by volcanic steam
varied relatively little during the hours
0200 to 1000 (all times given here
are local standard time), while other
nearby materials show a normal diur-
nal temperature curve. Thus, between
0200 " and daybreak at about 0630
(and probably for several hours before
0200), thermal anomalies have maxi-
mum contrast with their natural sur-
roundings; this finding is confirmed by
the infrared images shown in Figs. 6
and 7. The basalt outcrop and the
blacktop road are very faint or absent
in the 0640 image, whereas at 1008
they are nearly as bright as the thermal
anomalies.
Field measurements made during
this study suggest that the tempera-
tures of some thermal sources vary
with time; for instance, temperature
of the ground surface adjoining a small
steaming vent near Aloi Crater ranged
from about 29? to 41?C during the
survey period. The vent is in an active
collapse area resulting from the De-
cember 1962 eruption.
Minor, short-term variations in tem-
perature are relate.d to changes in sky
temperature, relative humidity, vol-
canic action, and rainfall. Rainfall is
thought to be particularly significant;
it percolates downward through the
highly permeable :volcanic rocks, is
heated, and subsequently vented as
steam or warm vapor. Many thermal
anomalies on the infrared images cor-
relate with this visible evidence of con-
vective beat transfer.
Classification of Thermal Sources
A thermal source of given area and
emissivity, as its temperature increases,
emits inCreasing amounts of energy
at decreasingly -shorter wavelengths.
Three anomaly groups were estab-
lished through confrast of their rela-
tive emission in different parts of the
infrared spectrum. The thermal
sources were further classified into
seven orders of magnitude, designated
by roman numerals which indicate the
relative amounts of energy emitted;
the higher the energy, the smaller the
numeral. Magnitude assignment with-
in groups was accomplished by densi-
tometer measurement of relative image
brightness.
Group I (magnitudes I, II, and III).
Sources visible on all infrared images,
including those recording wavelengths
2.6 p..
Group 3 (magnitude VII). Sources
which appear only on images recording
wavelengths >.5.5 ft.
Measurements on the ground sug-
gest that magnitude III sources have
temperatures 5? to 10?C (varying with
time) above ambient temperature (ap-
parent temperature of the surround-
ing arca). Locally this group may in-
chide small sources having appreciably
higher temperatures.
2
Kilauea Summit Area
The dominant volcanic and struc-
tural features of the Kilauea summit
area, as depicted by various sensors,
are shown in Figs. 8-11. The spectral
response of the infrared detectors was
controlled by interference filters; Fig.
4000? it SLACK
(SUN)
; ; 10 It 4 II. IS 20
WAVELENGTH (M.cro,$)
Fig. I. Radiation curves for black bodies
at temperatures of 6000? and 300?K.
Earth materials, being "gray bodies," de-
part from this curve according to their
spectral emissivity.
INFRARED
WINDOW
33333 10 1 12 13 14
WAVELENGTH (Microns)
Fig. 2. Atmospheric transmission in the
visible and the infrared regions of the
spectrum.
S6. ISS.
20
N.1.0
PUNALUU
If.
X?ls?NATOOM
pelt CratIlr
4
Fig. 3. Volcanic and other features of
Hawaii. 1, Kilauea caldera; 2, Halem-
aumatg, 3, Kilauea Iki; 4, Keanakakoi; 5,
ma Mann; 6, ['Oilman; 7.; Kokoolau; 8,
Heake; 9, Patuahi; 10, Aloi; 11, Alae; 12,
Makaopuhi; 13, Napau; 14, Cape Kumu-
kahi. Inset: 15, Kilauea; 16, Mauna Loa;
17, Mauna Kea; 18, Kohala; 19, Hualalai.
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10 (right) shows only the hotter areas,
Fig. 10 (left) shows the smaller varia-
tions in apparent surface temperatures
but does not resolve the hotter areas,
and. Fig. 11 is a ? compromise between
these two extremes.
Most of the peripheral faults of the
caldera show, on the infrared images,
some thermal abnormality, ranging
from very indistinct diffuse linear pat-
terns to highly localized anomalies that
are believed to be correlated with
steaming vents. The caldera floor is
reticulated, with curvilinear elements
of greatly varying intensity that also
correspond in part to steaming fissures.
One prominent subcircular feature [D
in Fig. 11, q and I)] apparently cor-
responds to the buried margin of a
sunken central basin that existed in
the caldera during the 19th century,
as described and 1Mapped by Macdon-
ald (3). Point /1 in Fig. 10 (right)
has the highest pparent temperature
of the thermal i anomalies associated
with.Kilauca. It is the vent and spatter
cone of the July 1961 eruption into
the floor of Halemaumau, and it is
located where the southwest rift zone
intersects the crater wall. Rock tem-
peratures of .10?C are measured here
about a meter below the surface (see
At Kilauea Iki, an intense thermal
anomaly was recorded at the apex of
the cinder cone (B in Fig. 11) on the
.southwest flank of the crater, immedi-
ately adjacent to the vent. Cinders on
the crest of the cone are a bright
yellow, in contrast to dull gray on the
flanks and base. This color contrast,
evident in the tones on the conven-
tional photograph (Fig. 8), is attrib-
vted to pneumatolytic alteration and
deposition. The lava lake, formed
during the 1959-60 eruption, is about
110 meters deep; the solidified crust
is now about 15 meters thick (9).
The molten lava at the base of the
crust has a temperature - of about
1065?C (2). A double row of vents
(Fig. 11) bordering the lava lake and
along the walls of Kilauea lki runs
near or along the peripheral fracture
.zone developed during back-drainage
of the lava. It is evident that there are
differences in the apparent surface
temperature of the lava lake (Fig. 11,
areas 1 and 2), though there are no
known corresnonding compositional
differences. Moreover, there is nothing
obvious in the lake-bottom configura-
tion to account for the apparent varia-
tion in surface temperature. There are
1
Fig. 4. Infrared scanning system. Radiation from the earth is collected on the surface
of a rotating mirror a, reflected to the surface of a parabolic mirror 6, and thence to
the surface of a solid state detector c. The output of the detector is amplified d and
modulates the output of a light source e. The modulated light is recorded on film f.
Lateral coverage is obtained by rotation of the collecting mirror a; forward coverage
is provided by forward movement of the aircraft and is coordinated with the recording
film-transport mechanism. [Modified from diagram supplied by the H. R. B. Singer
Corporation]
?
differences in the .sarface texture of
the lava (Fig. 12), however, which
relate to differences in cooling history.
One anomaly .adjacent to the caldera
(B irr Fig. 10, left) is surrounded by
a broad area of diffuse brightness
(marked with arrows). This broad area
does not appear on other images. Its
margins do not correspond to topo-
graphic or vegetation boundaries.
Southwest Rift Zone
The most recent eruption along the
southwest rift zone took place in 1920
in an area about halfway between the
summit and the sea. A few local ther-
mal anomalies, not manifested on con-
ventional aerial photographs (Figs. 8
and 13), were recorded along the rift
zone approximately 3 kilometers south-
west of Halernaumau (Fig. 14). Field
investigations at one of these disclosed
a series of small vents (Fig. 15) from
which water vapor, at a temperature
of 91?C. issues at velocities of 16 to
32 kilometers per hour. No color
changes in the rock or other mani-
festations of thermal alteration were
3
found, except for slight coloration im-
mediately adjacent to the vents. No
other thermal anomalies were found
between those shown in Fig. 14 and
the coast. At the intersection of the
southwest rift zone with the coastline.
however, a warm spring of significant
size issues into the relatively cool ocean
waters.
Chain of Craters and East Rift Zone
The thermal expression of some vol-
canic features along the Chain of
Craters (Fig. 16, top and bottom) in
the summit area of the east rift zone
appears differently on the two images,
owing to differences in electronic gain,
photographic processing, and time of
recording. Some differences may also
relate to changes in apparent tempera-
ture.
The linear thermal source B of Fig.
16 is faintly visible on images for the
2.0- to 2.6-? region of the spectrum,
and thus its temperature was, signifi-
cantly higher than ambient 'tempera-
ture on 17 February. It is likely that
the linearity of this source relates to
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ent of 1369
Vent of 1832 ?I
Keonokokoi
Fig. 11. (a) Infrared image of Kilauea summit area. Time,. 0702, 28
'January; spectral region, 4.5 to 5.5 ,t4; altitude, 1800 meters. A, Hale-
maumati; B, cinder cone formed during eruption of 1959; C, Kilauea lki
areas 1 and 2 shown in Fig. 12. (b) Map of Kilauea caldera, showing areas
of pnetimatolytic deposition and alteration. D, Suspected margin of inner
basin in 1840. [From Macdonald (3)]
Are*, of deposition 8 alteration
Eruptive fissure .11954
Fig. 12 (above). The floor of Kilauea lki,
as one looks westward. 1 and 2, Parts of
the floor having different surface con-
figurations. The line of contact between
areas 1 and 2 is indicated by arrows. A,
Peripheral fractures at the edge of con-
gealed lava.
Fig. 13 (top, right). Conventional aerial
*photograph of area shown in Fig. 14. A,
Area shown in Figs. 14 and 15.
Fig. 14 (middle, right). Infrared image of
part of the southwest rift zone. Time,
0610, 17 February; altitude, 900 meters;
spectral regions: top image, 2 to 2.6 p.;
bottom image, 1.9 to 5.5 g. A, Area shown
in Figs. 13 and 15. On bottom image, note
the progressive decrease in temperature
with increase in ground elevation along
the flight path, requiring a change in elec-
tronic gain. Roman numerals indicate
orders of magnitude of apparent temp-
erature.
Fig. 15 (bottom, right). Ground photo-
graph of a steaming vent associated with
thermal source A in Figs. 13 and 14. A
in this figure indicates a cigarette, in-
cluded for scale.
-???
5
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a similarly aligned fracture which
forms the northwest margin of the
anomaly and which may. form a path
for hot gases escaping from below.
The low apparent temperatures of
the floor of Kcanakakoi and some
other craters along the rift zone are
believed to be caused by deposits of
cinders on the crater floors. Repetitive
observations of cinders discharged dur-
ing the 1959-60 eruption suggest that,
in early morning hours, cinders emit
less energy than other surficial ma-
terials do.
The most thermally active area along
the Chain of Craters is at Aloi, the
site of the 7 December 1962 eruption.
A lava lake 131/2 meters thick was
formed at that time, but subsequent
drainback reduced its depth to 41/2
meters ( 10) . Copious amounts of
steam issue from fractures in and sur-
rounding the crater. Surface cracks
associated with these fractures were
observed to both lengthen and increase
in breadth during the course of the
investigations. Field temperature mea-
surements of a small thermal source
near one of the steaming surface
cracks (A in Fig. 16, bottom) varied
from day to day but, on the whole,
increased from 37?C (28 January) to
46?C (17 February). On the infrared
images Aloi Crater shows a slightly
off-center vent and a peripheral ring.
The large hot area, southwest of the
crater, is a steaming afea that lies
along a northeast-trendiUg fault sys-
tem: ,
Linear thermal sources extending
eastward from Aloi and Alac craters
(Fig. 17) arc fractures associated with
movement along the cast rift and with
lava from the December 1962 erup-
tion. These ? linear thermal sources con-
sistently display right offset, en echelon
displacement, and a fishtailing or splay-
ing of their eastern termini. Common-
Fig. 16. Infrared images of Kilauea summit area and Chain of CI aters. (Top) Time, 0800, 26 January; spectral region, 4.5 to 5.5 A;
altitude, 1800 meters. 1, Keanakakoi; 2, Lua Manu; 3, Kokoolau; 4, Puhimau. (Bottom) Time, 0455, 17 February; spectral region,
1.9 to 5.5 it; altitude, 5100 meters. 1, Keanakakoi; 2, Lua Manu; A, thermal source near Aloi crater; B, linear thermal source. The
bright linear streak passing through numeral I results from electronic malfunction.
Puy2.,4.11001,11[3,L7,07677 liu u u
1
Fig. 17. Infrared image of part of the rift zone extending east from Aloi. Time, 0348, 14 February; spectral region, about 0.5 to
5.5 0; altitude, 900 meters. Roman numerals indicate orders of magnitude of apparent temperature.
6
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ty, the northern margins of the thermal
sources arc sharply defined; the south-
'ern margins are diffuse and irregular.
In Fig. 17, wind. streaming contributes
to the diffuse south limits of the frac-
ture patterns.
The thermal patterns of parts of the
rift zone east of Aloi may have
changed. during the course of the in-
vestigations. Figures 18a and 18b are
images of Alac Crater; there is an
obvious difference in electronic gain
on the two images, but, in addition,
thermal sources appear in Fig. 18b
that do not appear in 18a. Images
produced at times between those of
Fig. 18 suggest a progressive develop-
ment of these features. An eruption
occurred in, and adjacent to, Alac
Crater on 22 August 1963, along a
northeast-trending fracture (10) which
passes through tile thermal sources
shown in Fig. 16. Figure 19 shows
images of Napau Crater, approximately
5 kilometers cast lof Alac. An eruption
occurred along this lineament on 6 Oc-
tober 1963 (1q. Images of Napau
Crater were. recorded 1-2 times from
26 January to 26 February. The ther-
mal anomaly, iiidicated by the un-
labeled arrow in Fig. 19b, was first
seen on 8 February on an image for
the 8- to 14-p. region of the spectrum.
As. the survey progressed, the anomaly
was detected at increasingly shorter
wavelengths. Electronic gain settings
varied from image to image, as shown
in Figs. 19a and 19b; likewise, visible
steaming associated with thermal
anomalies is known to vary from time
to time, and it is possible that -this
apparent 'change in thermal pattern re-
lates entirely to one or both of these
?lariables. The progressive development
of this feature, however, and its ap-
pearance at successively shorter wave-
lengths, tempts us to speculate that its
growth represents a change in the con-
77,ective heat-transfer system .associated
with the ingress of magma prior to
,:ruption.
Eastward from Napau Crater to the
site of the former village of Kapoho
(Fig. 3). the rift zone is expressed on
infrared imagery by a series of warm
en echelon fractures interspersed with
'thermal sources having roughly circu-
lar configurations. Additional apparent
rhanges in thermal pattern were ob-
served in this segment of the rift zone.
One such change in an 8-day Period
occurs in an area approximately 16
'llometers east of Napau Crater (Fig.
20) along the north side of the rift
zone in the September 1961 eruption
area (11).
Figure 21 is a conventional aerial
photograph showing the lava flow that
destroyed the village of Kapoho. The
initial events have been described by
Richter and Eaton (5). "On 13 Janu-
ary strong earthquakes centered near
the village of Kapoho, 28 miles cast
of Kilauea's summit, and an old
graben (an elongated block which has
subsided between a pair of normal
faults) two miles long and half a mile
wide, which contained part of the vil-
lage and most of ?the farmland that
sustained it, began to subside. By
nightfall displacements along the faults
bounding the graben had grown to
several feet. . . . At 7:30 PM the
flank eruption began along a line of
en echelon fissures 0.7 of a mile long,
a few hundred yards north of the
. . . The main fountain area,
two miles from the sea coast . . . soon
produced a steady stream of lava that
slowly ? flowed down through the
graben, reaching the sea. . . ."
By the end of the week the graben
had been filled, and lava then spread
laterally over the adjacent land . sur-
face. The infrared image (Fig. 22)
shows that the peripheral part of the
flow has reached ambient temperatures,
in marked contrast to the vent area
at the western end and to the central,
thicker part of the flow, which occu-
pies the graben. Temperatures at the
surface of a series of small vents, near
Fig. 18. Infrared images of Alae crater. (a) Time, 0710, 26 January; spectral region.
4.5 to 5.5 A.; altitude, 1800 meters. (b) Time, 0712, 20 February; spectral region, 4.5 to 5.5
g; altitude, 900 meters. Arrows designate thermal Sources visible on image b that do no,
appear on image a.- ?
r1 -
,
,0?????*7
Fig. 19 (left). Infrared images of Napau crater.
(a) Time, 1657, 1 February; spectral region,
4.2 to 5.5 ?; altitude, 600 meters. (b) Time,
0249, 14 February; spectral region, about 0.5
to 5.5 p; altitude 900 meters. (c) Time, 0642,
20 February; spectral region, 4.5 to 5.5 IA;
altitude, 360 meters. White arrows designate .a
thermal source that does not appear on image
a but is visible on images b and c. Roman
numerals indicate orders of magnitude of ap-
parent temperature.
,
Fig. 20 (left). Infrared images of a part of the east rift zone cast of Napau. (a) Time,
1800. 12 February; spectral region, about 0.5 to 5.5 p; altitude, 750 meters. (b) Time,
0642, 20 February; spectral region, 4.5 to 5.5 A; altitude, 750 meters. White arrows
designate thermal source visible on image b which does not appear on image a.
r
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the former site of the village of Ka-
poho, ranged from 26? to 108?C.
Near the center of the Kapoho flow,
rocks immediately ? below the surface
have temperatures much higher than
the 108?C measured at the surface.
A contact pyrometer lowered about
half a meter into a small fracture went
off scale at 333?C.
Infrared Surveys of
Other Hawaiian Volcanoes
During the course of the investiga-
tion, one or more flights were made
over the rift zones associated with
Mauna Loa, Hualalai, and Kohala vol-
canoes on the island of Hawaii (7, 12).
Mauna Loa last erupted in 1950,
Hualalai in 1301; Kohala has not been
active in historic time. To facilitate
navigation, these flights were made
shortly after dawn. No thermal ac-
tivity was observed on Kohala or
Hualalai; some thermal sources, how-
ever, were evident on the southwest rift
zone of Mauna Loa, and warm springs,
flowed into the sea near where the rift
Fig. 21. Conventional aerial photograph of the Kapoho area showing 'areal extent of 1960 lava flow (dashed white line). Solid out-
line indicates the area common to Figs. 21 and 22. A and B are the roads referred to in text, shown in Fig. 25.
Fig. 22. Infrared image of a part of the Kapoho flow of 1960. Time, 0340, 14 February; spectral region, about 0.5 to 5.5 it; alti-
tude,. 900 meters. Flow originated near vent at west end.
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? ? p.' 7.?
..,?
\ 1 / ?
? ;' ' '
! ? i.i..?
1/2
I 1 K1 I LE
L. 1
Fig. 23. Conventional aerial photograph of the coastline east of Hilo.
Fig. 24. Infrared image of the part of the coastline shown in Fig. 23. Time, 0723, 19 February; spectral region, 4.5 to 5.5 ?*
altitude, 900 .meters. Dark areas in the ocean area are believed to represent cool water discharged by springs. Numerals are
estimated rates of flow of springs in millions of gallons per day. ?
Fig. 25. Infrared image of area near Kapoho. Time, 0225, 14 February; spectral region, about 0.5 to 5.5 ?; altitude, 900 meters.
A, Blacktop roads; B, roads surfaced with cinders. 1 and 2, Thermal sources that extend beneath the blacktop roads. This area
is also shown in Fig. 2L
9
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. ?
zone intersects the coast. .A single flight
was made across the southern flank
of Haleakala volcano on the island of
Maui (7), which last erupted in 1750.
Images produced on this flight, made
in mid-afternoon, show no evidence of
thermal activity.
Thermal Patterns in Water
There are few well-developed
streams on the island of Hawaii, as
most rain water percolates downward
through the highly permeable volcanic
rocks. Because it is less dense than
the saline ocean waters, the fresh water
"floats" outward and is discharged into
the ocean. The pound water com-
monly has a lower temperature (mea-
surements in cave i suggest a tempera-
ture of about 15?C) than the ocean
(about 20?C). i
Because the (emissivity of water
is essentially iftniform and near
unity, changes in film density on
the infrared images almost certainly
relate to changes of the surface tem-
perature of the Water, provided the sky
?
temperature is Uniform. Thus, large
discharges of fresh ground water can
be recognized from their thermal con-
trast with the ocean and from the pat-
tern of discharge. More than 25 major
spring areas on the periphery of the
island of Hawaii are visible on the
infrared images (13). Most of these
springs have low apparent temperature
in contrast to that of the sea water;
some, however, adjacent to the north-
east and southwest rift zones of Ki-
bum, have relatively high apparent
temperatures.
An infrared image of the coastline
east of Hilo shows the cooler (darker)
water impounded by a breakwater
(Figs. 23 and 24). Darker, northeast-
trending streaks are also evident. Their
orientation and shape and the fact that
they are cooler than the ocean suggest
springs discharging large quantities of
fresh ground water into the ocean. The
flow rates estimated from ground ob-
servation (14) are given in Fig. 24.
Engineering Geologic Information
Cinders are widely used as a con-
struction material on the island of
Hawaii. They can commonly be rec-
ognized on infrared images by high
apparent temperatures in daylight hours
and relatively low apparent tempera-
tures in early morning hours (as at
the .floor of Kcanakakoi, Fig. 16). This
characteristic is further illustrated in
Figs. 21 and 25. The blacktop roads
(A in Fig. 21) and roads surfaced
with cinders (13 in Fig. 21) absorb
similar amounts of visible solar energy.
The infrared image (Fig. 25), how-
ever, shows that more radiation is
emitted from the roads surfaced with
cinders.
Numerals 1 .and 2 in Fig. 25 desig-
nate thermal sources which extend be-
neath the blacktop roads and which
consequently may have a detrimental
long-range effect on the road surface.
The foregoing relationship between
absorption of solar energy and emis-
sion of infrared energy suggests that
these parameters may provide clues to
the configuration and physical compo-
sition of surficial .materials, and that
they may be particularly useful where
surfaces cannot be adequately resolved
.on conventional phoiographs.
Summary
Aerial infrared-sensor surveys of Ki-
lauea volcano have depicted the areal
extent and the relative intensity of ab-
normal thermal features in the caldera
area of the volcano and along its as-
sociated rift zones. Many of these
anomalies show correlation with visible
steaming and reflect convective trans-
fer of heat to the surface from sub-
terranean sources. Structural details of
the volcano, some not evident from
surface observation, are also delineated
by their thermal abnormalities. Sev-
eral changes were observed in the pat-
terns of infrared emission during the
period of study; two such changes
show correlation- in location with sub-
10
sequent eruptions, but the cause-and-
effect relationship is uncertain.
Thermal anomalies were also ob-
served on the southwest flank of
Mauna Loa; images of other volcanoes
on the island of Hawaii, and of Ha-
leakala on the island of Maui, re-
vealed no thermal abnormalities.
Approximately 25 large springs is-
suing intothe ocean around the periph-
ery of Hawaii have been detected.
Infrared emission varies widely with
surface texture and composition, sug-
gesting that similar observations may
have value for estimating surface con-
ditions on the moon or planets.
References and Notes
1. T. A. Jagger, Hawaiian Volcano Ohs. Bull.
7, 77 (1922); 9, 107 (1922); 10, 113 (1922).
2. W. A. Ault, D. H. Richter, D. 13. Stewart,
J. Geophys. Res. 67, 2809 (1962).
3. G. A. Macdonald, Volcano Letter No. 528
(1955), p. 1.
4. Aviation Week 72, No. 8, 76 (1960). For an
excellent review of the state of the art as of
1959, see Proc. I.R.E. (Inst. Radio Engrs.)
47 (Sept. 1959).
5. D. H. Richter and J. P. Eaton, New Scientist
7, 994 (1960).
6. H. T. Stearns and G. A. Macdonald, Hawaii
Div. Hydrography Bull. 9 (1946); G. A.
Macdonald and J. P. Eaton, U.S. Geol.
Sun'. Bull. 1171 (1964), P? 1.
7. H. T. Stearns, Hawaii Div. Hydrography
Bull. 8 (1946).
8. J. B. Moore, written communication, Feb.
1964,
9. H. Krivoy, written communication, Oct. 1963.
10. J. G. Moore, written communication, Oct.
1963.
and D. H. Richter, Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull. 73, 1153 (1962).
12. 0. A. Macdonald and D. H. Hubbard. Vol-
canoes of the National Parks in Hawaii
(Hawaii Natural History Association, 1961).
13. W. A. Fischer, R. M. Moxham, T. M. Sousa,
D. A. Davis, "U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geol.
Invest. Map," in preparation.
14. D. A. Davis, written communication, Mar.
1963.
15. Publication of this article is authorized by
the director of the U.S. Geological Survey.
We gratefully acknowledge the assistance
given by James G. Moore, Scientist-in-Charge,
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, and his staff.
Dr. Moore provided assistance in the field
and continues to supply many relevant ob-
servations. Howard A. Powers pointed out
several of the geologic features related to the
thermal patterns. We also thank Commander
D. W. Linker, U.S. Navy, for assistance in
the field and for his personal interest and
Initiative, which did much to facilitate this
investigation; Jack C. Pales and the staff of
the Mauna Loa Observatory, U.S. Weather
Bureau, for guidance and for the use of dark-
room facilities; Robert Beals for reconnais-
sance flights; Major Paul K. Nakanntra,
Hawaiian National Guard, for providing
hangar facilities; and the U.S. Army Elec-
tronics Command for making available an
Infrared scanning system. Alva B. Clarke pro-
vided valuable assistance in photographic and
image processing.
11.
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