JPRS ID: 9404 TRANSLATION AEROSPACE METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF SOILS BY VALERIY L'VOVICH ANDRONIKOV

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JPRS L/9404
20 November 1980
Translation
AEROSPACE METHOQS F-OR THE STUD'Y OF SOILS
By
Valeriy L'vovich Andronikov
,
FBISJ FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/9404 ~
20 November 1980
AEROSPACE METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF SOILS
~ Moscow AEROKOSMICHESKIYE METODY IZUCHENIYA POCHV (Aerospace Methods
for the Study of Soils) in Russian 1979 signed to presE 14 Dec 79
pp 1-280
[Book by Valeriy L'vovich Aridronikov, Izdatel'stvo "Kolos", 3,400
copies, 280 gages, UDC 631.4]
CONTENTS
- Atenotation 1
Preface 1
Introductior
3
Chapter 1.
History of Aerospace Methods for Studying Soils
b
Chapter 2.
Aerospace Survey of Soil-Agricultural Resources and
Equipment
for Such a Survey
14
- Chapter 3.
Theoretical Principles of Interpretation as a Soil Study
Method
38
" Chapter 4,
Influence of Changes in Natuxal Conditions on Photoimage
- of Aerial
and Space*Photographs
101
Chapter 5.
Investigations of Soils From Space Photographs
118
- Chapter 6.
Characteristics of Interpretation of Soils and Sown Crops
From Multizanal Aerial Photographs
161
Chapter 7.
Multizonal Space Methods for Studying the Soil Cover.........
205
_ Chapter 8.
Infrared and Radar Methods for Investigating Soils...........
247
Chapter 9.
Effectiveness of Use of Aerospace Methods in Studying
Soil Resources
~
257
Summary

282
Bibliography 291
_a_ [I - USSR - EFOUO]
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- ANNOTATION
- [Text] The book describes the -theoretical principles of inethods for inter-
pretation of the soil cover from its image on photographs from aerial and
space surveys of the earth's surface. The use of materials from multizonal
- and multispectral surveys for the study of soils is discussed for the first
time.
- Preface j This book precents the first experience in a monographic generalization of
= materials from aerospace su:.veys for the study of scils. As a result of
the vigorous development of space research mathods in the USSR, United
States and other countries a number of new directions have appeaxed in
this field: space meteorology, aerospace geology, space cartography, space
geography and others having as their ob3ective the further investigation
- of the natural resources of our planet.
~ in an investigation ot the earth's resources an important role is played
~ by materials supplied by automated artificial satellites, ma.nned space-
_ ships and orbital stations. A full range of photographic and television
- systems and methodological procedures has now been dev.etoped for surxTeying
the earth's surface using aerial and space vehir.l.es with subsequent visu-
al-instrummental and aptical-electronic processing of the collected mater-
ials. �
~
In the near future the use of aerospace remote methods will make it pos-
sible to solve many prohlems in the quantitati.ve and qualitative inventory
and study of the soil resources of the USSR. This monograph will be of
assistance in solving these problems. It gives an analysis of inethodolog-
ical pracedures for the study of the soil cover from the "Mereor" experi-
mental satellites, "Soyuz" spaceships and "Salyut" a'rbital stations. The
1
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Yux ur�r'lclAL ubh UNLY
possibilities of the MKF-6 camera ("Raduga" experiment) for an aerospace
" multizonal snrve,y P-re demonstrated.
The author presents the results af many years of investigations of the use
of black-and-white, spectrozonal, multizona3. and multispectral aerial and
space photographs for studv of the soil cover�and also data from infrared,
radiothermal and radar surveys for soil-agricultural purposes.
V. V. Yegorov, Academician All-Unio)a Agri-
~ cultural Academy
Yu. A. Liverovskiy, Doctor of Geagraphxcal
- and Agricultural Sciences
.MN
 .
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-I
- INTRODUCTION
_ At the present time the attention of Soviet and foreign researchers is be-
- ing given to the use of aerospace materials for study of the soil cover.
In the "Principal Directions for Development of the USSR National Economy
in 1976-1980" the need was pointed out for the expansion of research with
~ the use of space vehicles in studying the earth's natural resources. Re-
mote aerospace methods are objective fiigh-speed automated systems for the
I collection and processing of information on the state of soils, agricul-
tural fields and sown areas. The control of agricultural production can
be organized more effectively on this basis.
One of the new directions in the field of use of aerospace methods for the
study of soils and sown areas of agricultural crops is the development of
multizonal and multispectral aerial and space surveys. In ttiis method one
and the same sector of the earth's surface is photographed simultaneously
in several narrow spectral ranges. As a result photographs are obtained
which carry the maxtmum infoxmation concerning the soil cover and agri-
cultural crops.
The use of infrared photographic, photoelectronic and radar surveys is high-
ly promising itl agriculture (for studying the snil cover and sown areas).
A radar survey caxi be used in the absence of visibility (through clouds
and even at nighttime). Using radar photographs it is possible to inter-
, pret moisture cantent, some structural elements and the diversity of the
- soil cover, tl:e makeup of the upper fiorizons and the types of agricultural
crops.
A space surveq of the soil cover and sown areas of agricultural crops, in
' compariaon with an aarial survey, for the first time is making it possible
to see soils and sgricultural crops objectively simultaneously over ex-
tena4ve areas, individual mountain systems and the vertical zonality of
- the soil-vegetation cover and tfie natuie of irrigation and drainage systems
as a whole. Another important ctiaractertstic of a space survey is that
on space piiorographs there is an objectfve generalization of the aoil
cover; in addition, these photographs ID.-ske it gossible to interpret the
soil cover in. individual, frequently in.accessible regions. The use of
- space materials wi11 assist in awore thorough study of soils.
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One of the principal and fundamental characterietics of a survey from
space is the routineness in the collection of information on the state
of the soil cover, the nature of snow melting, the development of eros-
ional processes and the state of agricultural crops at a national scale.
Still another characteristic of a space survey is the poasibility for a
rapid repetition of the survey. This is especially important for judging
rapidly developing dynamic soil-agricultural processes transpiring at
the earth's surface.
- Aerospace (remote) methods, with the use of corresponding detectors carried
_ on flight (air and space) vehicles, on the one hand register the reflec-
- tion of sunlight frum soils and vegetation, and on the other hand, detect
the characteristic radiation of the soil-vegetation cover of the earth's
surface.
The use of aerospace methods is based on the fact that the absorptiion, emis-
sion, scattering and reflection of electromagnetic energy by different soils
and sown areas is selective and specif ic for each soii and agricultural
, crop.
_ The interpretation of the soil cover is carried out on the basis of its im-
age on aerial and space photograplis, including multizonal photographs.
Studies are made of the tnterpretali.ility and possibility of using aerospace
photographs taken in different zones of the electromagnetic spectrum for
_ investigating the soil cover and keys are tieing developed for soil inter-
pretation.
Investigations of soil interpretation in tce field were carried out in the
- territory of the steppe, dry steppe and desert zones of our country.
_ Investigations in the field of interpretation of the soil cover, agricul-
tural crops and virgin land vegetation have been made using black-and-
white, color and spectrozonal aerial photographs, mu]:tizonal aerial photo-
graphs (green, red, IR zones), obtained using an AFA-39M outfit during the
survey of 1973-1975, multispectral aerial photographa obtained using a
scanner, black-and-white space photographs from the "Soyuz-9," "Salyut-1"
and "Salyut-4," multizonal space photographs from the "Soyuz-32," "Salyut-
- 4" and "Soyuz-22" and from the "Meteor" experimental satellites.
In this monograph we also give an analysis of foreign black-and-white and
- color space photographs from the "Gemini" and "Apollo" vehic3.es and multi-
spectral space photographs in four zones Qf the spectrum J'rom the ERTS
- satellite "Landsat," obtained for the territory of the USSR and foreign
countries.
The joint use of aerial and space photogr3phs is the optimum variant for
- interpreting images of the soil cover aiid vegetation. The interpretation
_ of aerial photographs is used most successfully in key sectors for study-
ing structural elements of tfie soil cover. However, in the interpretation
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of space photographs soil sc3.entists me'et with a generalized image of the
soil surface. The investigation and interpretation of serial and space
photographs begin with a preliminary office work period, the importance
_ of which incr.eases with the use of multizonal photographs and stereoscopic,
optical-electronic and photometric apparatzis for the processing of photo-
- graphs and films.
The interpretation of aerospace photographs included field suxface work
for investigating the soil cover and sown areas of agricultural crops
and checking the results of office interpretation. In the work use was
made of materials from the book of the history of fields, taking into ac-
count data on crop yields. In office and field interpretation, in addi-
- tion to data from field investigations, use was made of existing soil and
- topographic maps of different scales, plans for the distribution of agri-
-cultural crops and materials in the literature.
In the analysis o� aerospace materials use was made of the stereoscogic re-
- search xnethod, employing a stereoscope and an interpretoscope. The spectral
- reflectivity of the soils was measured using air-dried samples, employing
an SF-10 spectrophotometer. In tfie investigation of aerospsce photographs
use wss made of an MF-4 microphotomQter and the quantitative visual-instru-
mental interpretation method, employing the.modern "Kvantimet-720" elec-
= troriic-optical image analyzer. Chemical analyses of soils were made in the
Mass Analyses "Lahoratory of the Soils Institutp. In addition to experimen-
_ tal surveys made by the Soi,ls Institute, extensive use was made of mater-
~ ials from multizonal experimental flights of the Space Research Institute
- USSR Academy of Sciences. A considerable part of the space photographs was
- furnished by the State Center "Priroda" of the Main Administration of Geo-
desy and Cartogr.aphy of the.US5R Council of Ministers and the State Sci-
= entific Research Ceater for the Study of Natural Resources of the USSR
State Committee on Hydrometeorology and Er.vironmental Monitoring,
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Chapter 1
HISTOR'Y OF AEROSPACE METHODS FOR STUAYING SOILS
~ The initial stage in the development of remote methods for investigating
soils is related to the use of aerial surveys. Aerial photographic sur-
veys in soil science, introduced in tlhe 1920's, in a relatively short his-
torica"1 period made an enormous strlde forward.
Development and Introduction of Aerial Methods for Stu3y of the Soil Cover
- (1927-1950)
Y
The first experimental studies in the Soviet Union on the use of an aerial
survey for soils and agricultural purposes were carried out in the Fergana
_ valley in 1427.
~ The importance of ar. aerial photographic survey as a new method for study-
ing natural resources was outlined by Academician A. Ye. Fersman (1928).
' He wrote that an aerial s~lrvey gives a precise and objective photographic
: image of a territory. It makes it possible to repeat surveys during dif-
- ferent periods and ascertain the changes which are introduced by nature
and mar.'s eGOnomic activity in the course of a definite time period. In
1927 in the United States (Bushnell, 1927, 1929) aerial phutographs were
_ used in soil mapping for the state of Indiana. It was establiahed on the
basis of the first investigations that areas of uniform soils could be
discriminated reliably on aerial photographs and then, employing a panto-
graph, cQUld be plotted on a map base.
- At a.pproximately the same time attention was given to the use of aerial
methods in Australia (Prescott, Taylor, 1930).
- Large-scale soils investigatians assumed a broad scale in the USSR during
these years. During the years 1929-1931 alone soil maps at a scale 1:10,000,
- 1:25,000, 1:50,000 were compiled for a territory with a total area of about
50,000,000 hectares. Materials from aerial photographic surveys began ta be
used witti increasing frequency in a study of soils. In investigating the
territory of Don River plavni (low areas covEred with reeds and trees)
- (Levengaup-L, 1932) it was found that aerial photographs have a consider-
- able advantage over plane-talile surveys with plotting of contours. The
aerial photographs clearly depicted all 'tlie details of the vegetation
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~ covPr, this taeing reldted to the charactex of thR soils to be mapped. As _
a result, the houndar-! es hetureen the soil var.ieties were draum with a high
degree of accuracy.
Among the earliest soil mapping studies with the use-of materials from aer- ial surveys we must also include the soil aurveys of Giprovod (State Inst- _
- itute for the Planning of Water Resources) in 1930-1931. Aeri.al photograph-
ic materials were used both as.a_base arzd for the interpretation of the
soil cover. During 1931-1932 aerial photographs were suGCessfully used in
- a soil melioration survey of the Volga-Akhtubinsk floodplain and the Vclga
delta.
_ In 1931 Academician L. I. Prasolov wrote that the best prospects for the
' use of aerial methods in soil science werE opening up ir, the field of in-
= vestigation of inaccessible swampy regions and in compiling detailed soil _
snaps of cultivated regions. In 1933 he indicated that an aerial photograph- -
- ic survey is a new method for carrying out soil investigations.
During 1932-1940 aerial photographs were used in work on the tnapping of
soils carried out in the Ukraine and the Urals, in Kazakhstan, Siberia, .
Central Asia and in other regiorts of our country. It was established on _
- the basis of these studies that in comparison with surface survey maps the
- principal advantage of materials from an aerial photogzaphic survey is as-
surance of orientation in the terrain, ar_curacy and detail in plotting the
houndaries of areas of uniform soil. Work productivity in soil mapping of
a territory with.the use of aerial methods dcubles or triples. iL
Abroad, fn studies involving the use of materials from an aerial photograph- -
ic survey for investigating the soil cover (Belcher, 1948; Frost, Woods, -
= 1948; Troll, 1939), mention is made of the need for using tTie interrela- -
, tionships existing between soils and landscape elements in tnterpretation =
work. For Qxample, using the relationship between the soj.l and vegetation
y cover, by means of interpretation of vegetstion it is possible ro deter- -
mine the soil cover of the investigated territory. In soil investiga*ions _
the materials from an aerial phctographic survey aerve for supporting, as-
siating and deepening work on tfie m.apping of a territory. During the period
_ of development and introduction of aerial methods for study of the soil -
- covex it was establislied by a number of Soviet and foreign researchers that -
when using aerial photograghs there is an increase in the accuracy of the =
~ results and a decrease in the cost of the work.
Aeria? MethDds in Soil Mapping Work in Di�ferent Natural Zones of the
Country (1950-1970)
- During the post-war period, hoth in the Scsviet Union and abroad, aerial
- methods came into extensive use for the purpose of study of the soil cover. -
- This stage is ctaracterized by tY;e use of already available aerial photo- _
graphic materials in the m,apping.6f soils, as well as the formulation of -
_ sgecial tnvestiaations.
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- In 1950, in a specially organized lahoratory fox the large-scale mapping -
of soi'ls a* the Soils Institute imeni V. V. Dok-uchayev, under the direc-
tion of Yu. A. Liverovskiy, work was initiated on a method for compiling
large-scale soils maps on the basis of aerial methods in different soil- -
gEOgrapfiic zones of our country. The aeri8l survey was regarded as a new
method making it possilile to compf.le soil maps of a fundamentally new
content. Similar work in the field of soil aerial methods was initiated
: during this pEriod in the Aerial Metfiods Laboratory USSR Academy of Sci-
ences and at Moscow State Ur,iversity. The tasks and possibilities of such _
= work were dealt with in an article by A. V. Gaveman and Yu. A. Liverovskiy
- (1953). In this study the authors pointed out the need for developing a
method for the interpretation of aerial photographs for study of the sail -
cover, the use of a special aerial survey color and spectrozonal, study
of the spertral refiectivity af soils. During the post-war period in all the Principal soil-geagraphic zones of -
our counrry investigations were ma.de fcr studying the distinguishing char-
- acteristics o.f the interpretation af soils and their mapping on the basis - of aerial materials. In the studies of Soviet specialists published dur-
_ ing this period there were investigations of the possibility of interpret-
_ ation and usP of materials from an aerial survey for the study and mapping
of the soil cover in the forest, wooded steppe, steppe, dry steppe and
= desext zones of our countrv.
_ The dependence between spectral brightness and humus content, mechanical
composition, moisture content, nature of the surface and other soil factors -
and properties was Pstablished. The landscape principle for interpretation
of the soil cover was proposed. The problems involved in large-scale and
" medium-scale soils and soils-meliorative surveying were considered. The
influence of natural and technical conditians for carrying out this work -
was established. Color spectrozonal aerial surveying of the soil cover was
~ beginning to acquire great importance; with respect to the degree of in-
_ terpretability of soils this had considerable advantages over a panchrom-
= atic survey. _
_ The considered period (1950-1970) saw the beginning of the use of aerial
. methods in special soil investigations: erodability of the soil cover,
- soil melioration work and soils regionalization. A ntueber of generalizing
_ manuals were devoted to the methods employed in the mapping of soils on
- the basis of aerial methods. It was exceptionally important to introduce
~ a course on the interpretation of soils into the curricula of universities
and other hip;her educa tional institutions.
- Color spectrozonal aer ial survcrying began to come into increasing use in
~ studies for the mappiixg of soils. Among the color films Soviet spectro-
- zonal and Amerir.an (Ko dak Company) films have good properties for making
= surveys in natural and "fictitious" colors; Czechoslovakian, Belgian and
SwiSS films have good natural reproduction of colors.
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Work done in this stage dealt with the possibilities of using co'lor spec-
= trozonal photographs for the interpretation of soil cover in soddy-podzolic,
gray forest, chernozem and cfies.tnut zones. The advantages of their use in
comparison with panchromatic photographs were clarified. In the socialist
- countries, especially in East Germany, Soviet spectro2onal film has been
us.ed s.uccessfully in the interpretation of ineadow soils (Asmus, Reinhold,
19656).
_ In 1952 the Scientific Research Institute of Soils and Fertilizers (Uni*_ed
States) generalized and systematized the requiremenCs imposed on an aerial
survey used in study of the soil cover (Swanson, 1954). It was established
that a scale of 1:20,000 *aas in tFLe widest use for the mapping of soils.
_ The time fer the survey is selected in dependenee an the region, but in
~ most cases an aerial survey is made in spring when the soil is freed of
- snow and has a minimum vegetation cover.
In addition to individual studies of the use of aerial methods in a soil
survey and on the interpretation of soils, during this period special man-
uals on the engineering 'Lnterpretation of soils (MANUAL OF AIItpHOTO INTER-
INTERPRETATION..., 1953) and on general interpretation problems (MANUAL OF
PHOTOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION, 1960, AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION..., 1966)
wPre published.
The American Photogrammetric Society prepared and published a special man-
ual on color aerial photographic surveying (MANUAL OF COLOR AERIAL PHOTO-
GRAPHY, 1168) containing data on the use of color photographs in different
branches of the natural sciences.
In the United States, Sweden, West Germany and other foreign countries ex-
~ tensive use is made of a color aerial photographic survey on reversible
color �ilm and printing on color reversible paper, which make it possible
_ to ohtain a better image of color transmission than negative color film
- (Gerberman, et al., 1971, Kufil, 1970),
; In Che USSR, United States, France and other well-developed countriQS work
_ is being done on the compilation of aerial photograph keys, playing an im-
.portant role in the office interpretation of soi1s.
Ahroa.d the post-war period is characterized by the extensive use of aerial
- methods in soil sr_ience. In a review report prepared for UNESCO (Vj,nk,
- 1968) it was indicated that only during Yecent years has there been a more
_ systematic and fundamental approach tu the problem of use of aerial survey
- materials for study of the soil cover. In the United States during these
_ years a cansidera.hle part of the agricultural areas was covered by an aer-
ial survey at a scale of 1:201000; in addition to panchromatic films, in-
= frachromatic films are used extensiwely in soil surveys. Soils are inter-
I preted hoth in the office and in the field. Interpretation critexia have
~ now been developed for all soil varieties in zhe United States and the key
~ criterion for interpretation of the soil cover is the in,terrelationship
, between soils and vegetation. Special investigations for the interpreta-
tion of soils are made at a number of universities in the United States
_ (Clark, 1957; Mui.r, 1955).
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In ;iolland mucki academic and scientific resEarch work on the interpreta-
= tion of soils was carried :out by the International Znstitute of Aer-
- ial Surveying and the Earth Sciences (Veenenhos, 1956).
- Much wcrk on tiie study an3 mapping of natural resources and soils was
- done in France and other countries. Serious work on the study of the nat-
- ural resources of the developing countries with the use of aerial methods
was carried out during this period by the Sciences Department of UNESCO,
whose general director over a period of years was V. A. Kovda, Correspond-
ing Memher USSR Academy of Sciences.
- In many foreign countries Great Britain, Australia, Belgium, Ho lland,
- India, Italy, Canada, Mexico, United States, 'West Germany, France, Sweden,
Japan aerospace (remote) methods were then used succsssfully in the
study of natural resources, including the soil cover, when making a soil
- survey. Firms fn a number of cotntries (United States, Great Britain, Hol-
- land, Italy, Canada, France) carried out similar survey work in develop-
- ing countries of. Asia, Africa, Latin America. The studies made by foreign
specialists during this period outlined the characteristic peculiarities
of interpretation of soils from aerial photographs, the good prospects for
the use of aerial methods in study of the soil cover and the effectiveness
of use of color spectrozonal photographs.
During the considered period (1950-1970) of development of aerial methods
in the IJSSR and foreign countries an ever-increasing role was played by
- soil aerial mEthods in the mapping of soils carried out in different nat-
- ural zones over the earth. Color and especially spectrozonal aerial photo-
graphic surveying of soils was beginning to acquire ever-greater impor-
- tance.
Modern Stage in Aerospace (Remote) Methods in Soil Science and Agriculture
_ (1970-1979)
This period is characterized by improvement in the earlier developed in-
terpretation methods and a changeover from description of the character-
- istics of the investigated object to quantitative indices.
- In the USSR a number of systematic manuals have been published on the mapp-
ing of the soil cover with the use of materials from aerial surveys
(KRUPNO14ASSHTABNAYA KAROGRAFIYA POCHV, 1971; Afanas'yeva, et al., 1977).
Special fundamental investigations have been carried out for studying the
optical properties of the landscape applicable to an aerial survey (Tol-
~ chel'nikov, 1974), and also an analysis of spectral reflectivity and soil
colcr as indices of their properties (Karmanov, 1974).
In carrying out an experimental soiZ aerial survey in our country and abroad
great attention during these years was being devoted to the choice of tech-
nical and natural conditions for carrying it out, s tandardization prob lems,
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i preliminary and office interpretationy development of interpretation k.eys
' for soils in different geographical zones and the landscape interpretation
_ method. Aerial methods are heing used on an ever-broader scxle in soil
melioration investigations.
i
This period has tieen characterized by the successful use uf aerial metnods
in soil investigations in. Belorussia, Moldavia, Kazakhstan, the Baltic and
' Transcaucasian repuhlics, in the Ukraine, Central Asia and Siberia.
- A new direction is the development and use of data from a remote aerespace
survey in study of the soil cover and agricultural resources.
- The studies of Soviet scientists have demonstrated the broad possibilities
which are opening up in study of the earth`s natural res6urces using space
vehicles. A new branch of science is being created space geography, as
pointed out in 1971 by B. V. Vinogradov and K. Ya. Kondrat'yev.
- tJe can iiote the advantages of space methods for study of the environment
- the globality, regularity, periodicity ann multisided nature of the ob-
~ servations, clarification of the relationships existing between natural
features, the possibility of routine study of the dynamics of natural pro-
cesses dnd phenomena and investigations of inaccessible natural regions.
The introduction of space methods into geology, soil science, agriculture
and other fields of science is creating new possibilities for study of
natural resources, their space mapping, monitoring the state and preserva-
tion of the environment.
- Special investigations are being made for studying the possibilities of us-
ing materiaZs from a space survey in the f-`.eld of soil science and agricul-
_ ture. Using space methods it Is possible tc, determine the types of soils,
evaluate moistening conditions, ascertain the areas of agricultural fields
� and deterniine agricultural crops.
R. Chevallier (1973), in generalizing the materials of work in Commission
_ VII (Interpretation) at the 12th Congress of the International Photogram-
metric Society in Canada, noted that when using surveys from satellites
- the main problem is a study of the earth's natural resources, the develop-
ment of optimum scales and condi.tions for the survey, the ca?-rying out of
multisided surveys from satellites and aircraft, as well as the interpret-
ation space images.
In the United States investigations.in the use of space materials in the
f ield of soil science and agriculture are being carried out by the Depart-
- ment of Agriculture in collahoration uzith NASA (National Aeron.autics and
Space Administration). During recent years one of the leading research
studies sias the compilation of the first photomap (by the Division of Soil
Mapping and Protection of the US Department of Agriculture) of the entire
country on the basis of photographs from the ERTS satellite at a scale of
1:1,000,000. A total of 595 Fr~otograpfis in the red zone (0.6-0.7f,1.m) were
used for this purpose.
; 11
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= At Purdv.e Uni�:ersity (Indiana) M. J. Baumgardner, S. J. Kristof, C. J.
Gahansen, A. L. Zachaxy and other researchers are carryir.g out work with
- the use of remote investigations for studying soils. Problems i.n the use
- of remote investigatians in agriculture are also being made by the Experi-
= mental Agricultural Station in Weslaco (Texas), a number of ur.{trPrsities
" and departments in the United States (Tyers, et al., 1966, 1969; Westin,
1974; Park, 1968).
~ In 1975 the American Society of Photogrammetrists published a fundamental
work for the first time the MANUAL OF REMOTE SENSING. The first volume
examines the theoretical principles and techniques used in remote surveys.
The second volume is devoted to a photographic interpretation and use of
remote methDds, including study of agricultural crops and soils.
In Holland, at the International Institute of Aerial Surveying and the
Earth Sciences the systematic training of specialists for study o.f soils
with the use of remote methods is being conducted by D. Goosen and others.
At the tdational Agronomic Institute in France investigations for the devel-
opment of aerospace methods in the field of soil science and agriculture
are being developed by M. C. Girard.
In the USSR two centers have been established fo�r studying the earth's nat-
ural resources using space vehicles: the State Center "Priroda" of the
- Main Administration of Geodesy and Cartography of the USSR Council of Min-
isters and the State Scientific Research Institute for the Study of Natur-
- al Resources of the USSR State Committee on Hydrometeorology and Environ-
mental Menitoring.
The great possibilities and prospects for the study of natural resources
_ over the earth which are opening up with the use of space photographs con-
stituted the subject of discussion at international and national confer-
ences iri different countries. In the USSR one of the first major scientific
conferences for problems relating to study of the earth`s natural resources
from space was the All-Union Scientific School held at the Space Research
- Institute USSR Academy of Sciences in 1975 (LIBROKOSMICIIESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA
ZEMLI, 1979).
_ The problems involved in the use of remote methods in the field of soil
science and agriculture have been discusse3 in many countries and insti- -
tutions, specifically: at Houston (United States) at conferences on the
use of artificial earth satellites for geographic investigations in 1965
and 1975 using the results obtained with the "Skylab" orbital stazion; at
- 11 international symposia on remote sensing of the environment at the
Utiiversity of Michigan; at international congresses of soil scientists
- in Australia in 1968 and in Moscow in 1974; at the 12th International Con-
_ gress of Photogrammetrists in Canada in 1972; at the 13th Session of COSPA.'t
in Leningrad; at the Sth and 6th Congresses of the USSR Geopgraphical
Society; at the 23d International Geographical Congress in 19176; at the 13th
International Congress of Photogrammetrists in 1976 at Helsinki; at the In-
ternational School in Rome and at other conferences. ~
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Cooperation is developing between the USSR Academy of Sciences and NASA in
the United States in the field of study of the earth's natural resources
using space vehiclea. One of thQ directions is the use of these methods
for investigation of vegetation, soils and land use. The exchange of sys-
tematic attainments in this field between the USSR and the United States
is of great theoretical and practical importance.
In the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Hungarian People's Itepublic, German
Demacratic Republic, t4ongolian People's Republic, Polisl People's Republic,
Socialist Republic of Rumania and other socialist countries work is devel-
= oping on the use of remote methods for study of soils and agricultural
" crops.
_ A session of the presidia of the All-Union Orcler of Lenin Academy of Agri-
~ cultural Sciences imeni V. I. Lenin and the Academy of Agricultural Sci-
ences of the German Democratic Republic was he3.d in Moscow in 1977. There
was discussion of prohlems relating to joint investigations of the use of
multizonal space photographs taken with the MKF-6 camera for studying
soils and agricultural crops.
The modern research period is characteriaed by the use of different remote
aerospace, including multizonal and multispectral methods for study of the
soil cover and areas of agricultural crops in the USSR and in foreign.
countries.
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Chapter 2
- AEROSPACE SURVEY OF SOIT~-AGRICtJLTURAL RF.SOURCES AND EQUIPMENT FOR SUCH
_ A SURVEY
:A new method for the collection of information on natural resources has
been developing during recent years in our country and abroad, especial-
ly in the United States. It has been givpn the name remote sensing. This
term was introduced in 1960 by the geographer Evelyn Pruitt (United States)
- and is now being used throughout the xaorld. In this mathod, without direct
contact with the studied object, by the use of instruments it is possible
- to register electromagnetic waves reflected and radiated by the earth's
surface from the flight altitude of an aircraft or aXCificial earth satel-
lite (AES).
a
The totality of inethods used in investigations and in mapping from an air-
- craft, artificial satellite, helicopter and other flight vehicles is
known as aerospace methods for studying the earth's natural resources.
The physical properties and characteristics of soils and agricultural glant-
ings can be registered using different instruments in different zones of
= the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelengths (Table 1).
The visible spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations with wavelengths from
0.4 to 0. 7~ m is subdivided into different colors (Table 2).
- Beyond the violet spectral region lies the ultraviolet, and beyond the red
the infrared.
Aerospace methods for studying the earth's soil and agricultural resources
- aia subdivided into photographic and photoelectronic. During recent years
ever-increasing attention of researchers working in the field of study of
- natural resources has been devoted to the use of photoelectronic methods.
On the basis of achievements in development of the latest technology these
methods are finding ever-increasing application in such fields as geology,
meteorology, agriculture, soil sciencey and others.
An aerial survey is a survey of the terrain (from an altitude as little as
hundreds of ineters to 20 lan) executed from flight vehicles using different
_ surveying instruments operating in different zones of the el?ctromagnetic
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spectru.no At the present time an aerial survey also includes a photoelec-
tronic survey. A space survey of the earth results iA photographs and
- traces of the earth's surface taken from altitudee greater than 80-100 km
from different flight vehicles: research rockets, artificial earth satel-
litea, automatic orbital stations, manned space stations. Information con-
cer.ning the earr.t's surface can be obtained from these flight vehicles as
- a result of visual observations, in the form of television images, photo-
graphs of the earth and data from photoelec:tronic apparatus.
We will examine different types of aerial and space surveys.
Types of Aerial Photographic Surveys of the Earth's SL:rface
An aerial ghotographic survey is a method for photographing of the earth's
surface by an aerial camera which is mounted on an aircraft, helicopter or
other flight vehicle.
The choice of equipment and instrumentation for carrying out an aerial sur-
vey of the soil cover is of great importance for obtaining spectrograms and
aerial photographs with the best possibilities for interpretation. During
recent years in our country IL-14 aircraft, specially re-equipped for the
placement of aerial cameras, and -,ist recently, also the AN-30, have been
used for photographing the earth's surface.
Modern aerial cameras are classified on the basis of focal length, angle
of �view or objective and number of objectives. On the basis of focal length
aerial cameras can be classified as short-toGus (f to 150 mm), mediimm-focus
(f from 150 to 300 mm) and long-focus (f above 300 mm). Short- and medium-
focus (focal length) objectives have assumed the greatest importance for
soil surv2ys, carrying aut land surveying and for mapping purposes. In low-
lands and slightly hilly territories it is desirable to use aerial cam-
eras with a short focal length (50-100 mm). Suvpr-wide-angle aerial cam-
eras (50-70 mm) ca.n give the best results in steppe and dry steppe zones
in the territories of the plains bordering on the Black Sea, Sea of Azov
and Caspi.an Sea, as well as in the lowland e-.tpanses of Kazakhstan with
well-developed mi:.rorelief. Aerial cameras with a medium focal length (200
rnm) should be used in mountainous and highly dissected territories with
local relief of nore than 150-200 m.
In a suFer-small-scale photographic survey (1:100,000-1:250,000) a compar-
ative analysis of different types of aerial cameras with a short focal
length indicated that for an aerial survey of different territories it is
possible to recommend the TES-50 and 41/7.5 aerial cameras with focal
lengths of 50 and 75 mm (Apostolov, Gorbatov, 1975).
_ In making a large-scale aerial photographic survey (about 1:10,000) it is
reconmended that use be made of an AN-2 aircraft ani an AFA-39 aerial
- camera.with a focal length of 100 mm. It is simple to service, is reliable
- in operation and makes it possible to obtain photographs with a high in-
formation content.
15
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- Table 1. I+fethods for AerQSpace (Remote) Study of Soil Cover and
Agricul-
; tural Crops (According to B. V. Shilin)
Photographic Survey
Infrared Survey Radio-
Radar
Black- Color Spectro- Multi-
thermal
survey
and- zonal zonal
survey
white
Visible Visible-infrared
Infrared Microwave
=
near middle f r
~ 0.4-0.74 ~ m 0.4-1.2Km
0.74 5.5- 20-
0.8-100 cm
-5. 5 20 800~.1 m
=
�m �m
= 5�108 rHZ
108 107 106 2�104-0.3�103 rHZ
rHZ IlHZ rnHZ
Passive (reflected from soil sur-
Passive (to 1.2K m Passive Active
~ face or crops [solar radiation];
reflected solar ra-
(radar)
- beyond 1.2 ~m emission of fea-
diation, then effiis-
on carr-
tures)
sion of soil-crogs)
ier
- Film.s
To 10 2 �.m film, r_inen
_
photoelectric detectors
Antennas
Day
- Surface, I~. m
1
Weak
= Aerial or space photograph
Day and night
Several Tens of
centi- cm and
meters m
Atmospher;c windows: Very weak
1. 8-5 0 3 � m, 7. 0-14. 0
~m
To 1.2~Lm aerial or Antenna sig-
space photograph; then nal, curve,
image, signal image
16
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Characteristic Ultriiviolet
survey
Range of electro- Ultraviolet
magnetic spectrum far near
Wavelength (a )
3000-
up to
100A
4000A
Frequency
1�104
8�108
-3�
MHz
1010
MHz
Relationship
Pas
sive
of inethod to
radiation
source
5ensitivity of Photo- Films,
element (detec- multi- photomul
tor) plier tiplier
Time of day
in survey Day
Depth of survey
Natiare of atmo-
Almost
Strong
spheric absorp-
total
tion
Ilature of col-
Sig-
Air
lected data
nal,
pho+to,
curve,
signal,
ima.ge
curve
Luminescent
Photoelectronic survey
survay
spectro- TV
multispec-
metric
tral
Visible
UV, vis- Vis-
Visible,
ible, IR ible
IR
0. 4-0. 74 ~t m
0. 3-5. 5 0. 4-
0, 4-12. 5 f.t m
~t. m 0.74
~,tm
5�108 MHz
Active source Passive (reflected from
of radiation soil or crops [solar ra-
on carrier diation]; beyond 1.2 m
(secondary lum- emission of. features ~
inescence is
excited in
visible light)
Photomultipliers Detectors with
- electronic
scanning
Night Day
Surface, j,t m
Weak
Signal, image Spectral Aerial or space
bright- photo, ima.ge,
ness signal
curves,
image
17
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Tahle 2
_ Colors of Visible Spectrum of Electromagnetic Oscillation3
Color Wavelength, 1~k m
- Violet 0. 40-�0.44
- Dark hlue-violet 0.44-0.47
llark hlue 0.47-0.485
_ Light blue 0.485-0.50
Green-ligYnt blue 0.50-0.52
Green 0.52-0.55
Ye11ow green 0.55-0.57
Yellow 0.57-0.58
Orange-yellow 0.58-0.59
Orange 0.59-0.60
Red-orange 0.50-0.62
Red 0.62-0.70
On the basis of angle of view objectives are classified as wide-angle (with
- an angle of view from 80� or mor,~:), normal (45-75�) and with a small angle
of view (from 40� or less, long focal length) (Table 3)0
On the basis of the num.ber of objectives aerial cameras are classified as
single-, two- and multiobjective cameras. During reeent years there has
been a particular increase in the role of multiobjective aerial cameras
employed in a multizonal survey in a study of natural resources, soil
cover and the state of agricultural crops.
A set of light filters was used in carrying out a multizonal photographic
survey in 1973a Data on some of these are given in Table 4. The materials
obtained in this survey were used in our study.
The broad array of aerial survey photographic and photoelectronic appar-
atus carried aboard aircraft enables specialists in the field of study of
the soil cover and agricultural crops to use materials from an aerial suir-
vey not onlq for the purposes of mapping, but also for study of the makeup
of the compositton and properties of soil$ and determining their fertility.
These data make possible an approach to automation of the process o*
j.nterpretation of the soil cover and agricultural crops-with use of an el-
ectronic computer. In additiony the methodology used in a number of exper-
iments carried out with aircraft is used wh,an carrying out space invest-
igations.
TypPs of Space Surveys and Equipment Used in Study of the Earth's Natural
Resources 18
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~ The development of space technol.og,y and new methods and apparatus for re- ,
mote sens inQ (together with an aerial photographic survey) and their suc-
cessful application for scientific and national economic purposes have =
created the grerequisites for a new approach to study of natural resources,
especially in the iield of sail science and agriculture. -
Table 4 Characteristics of Some Light Filters Used in an Aerial Survey in 1973 _
" Light fil ter components ~-eff, }xm Q coefficient Thickness, mm
- SZS-20, ZhS-16 0.499 9.4 8
_ SZS-222 ZhS-17 0.519 9.7 10 -
_ SZS-23, O S-12 0.537 8.2 10 '
ZhZS-18, KS-10 0.637 8.2 8 =
' KS-17 0.683 43.7 5
The first visual observations of the earth's surface from space were made
in 1961 by the cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin. G. S. Titov �or the first time
in histo ry carried out a survey of individual natural features by camera.
Visual ob servations from space were also made by other costnonauts.
= A great number of original photographs of the earth's surface was obtained
in the U SSR and in the United States as a result of flights of spaceships
and artificial earth satellites. Black-and-white, color, and spectrozonal
photographs at scales 1:200,000-1:2,500,000 and smaller have a clear image
of the so il cover and agricultural fields.
The images of the earth obtained from space can be divided into two main
groups~ o riginal space photographs and television images. The original
photographs are characterized by high measurement and interpretation prop- -
erties. In compariGon with space photographs, a televisian survey has ad- :
vantages with respect to frequency, repetition and regularity of collec-
tion of images of the earth's surface. However, television photographs are
- characterized by a lesser resolution.
In the Soviet Union photographing of the earth's surface from space, with
the obtaining of original space photographs, was accomplished using hand
cameras and photographic apparatus from the sutomatic stations "Zond-5,"
"Zond-7" and "Zond-8," the "Vostok," "Voskhod" and "Soyuz" spaceships and
the "Saly uC" orbital station. Photographing of the earth was carried out
during flight of the "Voskhod-2" ship-satellite in 1965 during the emer-
gence of A. A. Leonov into space.
During 1968 the "Zond-5" automatic station was used in obtaining the first
_ global photographs of the earth from an altitude of about 90,000 km.
20
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I
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_ During the first docking af the "Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" spaceships in or,-
bit the cosmonauts Ye. V. Khrunov and A. S. Yeliseyev emerged into open
. space and carried out visual observations, still and motian picture aur-
- veys of the earch'a surface. In accordance with the program, during the
- group flight of the "Soyuz-6," "Soyuz-7" and "Soyuz-8" manned spaceships
~ observations were made and phoCographs were taken of the soi.l-vegetation
cover and the nature of the geologica:t-geographic features in different
regions of the USSR.
- A space survey was made for territories well studied in natural respects
. for the purpose of developing a method for using space photographs for
studying the earth's natural resources. Another important aspect of the
program was a study of the specCral brightness and contrasts of the earth's
surface in the visible zone of the spectrum (steppe, desert, forested
areas, lakes), necessary for determining the optimum conditions for the
nhotographing of natural features. As indicatsd by K. Ya. Kondrat'yev, et
al. (1971), tiy ha.ving spectra of natural features obtained irom space it
is possible to differentiate types of soiZs, determine the state of ag-
ricultural crops and solve other problems.
- In mid-June 1970 the cosmonauts V. I. Sevast'yanov and A. G. Nikolayev
flew aboard the "Soyuz-9" spaceship. During the flight they made observa-
tions of agricultural fields and the soil cover over the territory of
the Sal'sko-Tsimlyanskiy and other regiona of the USSR. In accordance
with the program, they carried out photographing of the earth's surface
in the Northern Caucasus, in the neighborhood of the Caspian and Ara1
Seas, Kazakhstan and Western Siberia. Simultaneously with the survey from
= space, these same features were photographed �rom aircraft (Sevast'yanov,
1972). The cosmonauts were able to discriminate sown areas with respect
~ to the variety of agricultural crops and the phenological stage of,devel-
opment. The survey from the "Soyuz-9" was made using a yellow light fil-
ter on sma11-format panchromatic film using a hand camera with the frame
measuring 6 x 6 cm from an altitude of about 230 1m at a scale of about
1:7,500,000, with a resolution of 200-300 m in the terrain.
_ The long-lived orbital station "Salyut-1" was l4unched in 1971. It was a
_ complex manned space vehicZe making it possible to carry out a broad com-
plex of scientific experiments in circumterrestrial sgace. The station
was launched into orbit at an altitude of 240-260 km with an inclination
- of 51.6� to tYie equatorial plane and urith a period of revolution about the
= earth of 89 minutes.
- After the docking of the "Salyut-1" with the "Soyuz-11" spaceship the crew
_ carried out a spectral survey of characteristic features on the earth's
surface. At the same time, an aer.ial survey was made of these same regions
from specially outfitted aircraft of an expedition of Leningrad State Uni-
versity and the USSR Academy of Sciences. During this space flight for the
' firsc time there was a continuous reconnaissance photographic survey along
global trajectories running along and across the earth's latitudinal phys-
- iographic zones. The survey was made in June with an AFA-�;;ls aerial camera
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without a light F:LLter w1.th a focal length of 31.6 mm (frame measuring 60
x 70 mm). The photographs were taken us.ing isopanchromatic film type 17.
The 5cale of the photographs was ataout 1:8,000,000 with a-resolution in
the terrain of 250-300 m. The area covered by one photograph is abouC. 250
kmZ. `Phege phoeo};r.aphs, due to their great coverage, are of grPat iinpor-
tance for smal]-scale special mapping.
_ '1'lie beginning of a multizonal survey of the ear.th's surface from space is
assnctared with the Flights of the manned spaceships "Soyuz-12" and _
_ "Soyuz-13" in 1973-1974. The survey was made using the special LKSA,-3
9-abjective camera in wtiich three photof ilms were used simultaneously.
_ Further visual observations and photographing of the earth's surFace for
the purpose of xational use of terrestrial resources in the inh.erests of
the nattona:l economy wer.e carried out during subsequent tlights of space- :
ships, the orbital station "Salyut-3," launched in June 1974, anci during
' the "Soyuz-Apollo" joint flight.
Much experimental photographic material from space, necessaZy for study of -
the earth's natural resources, was obtained as a result of the "Salyut-4"
flight. I'hotograptis for a considerable area were obtained for the terri- -
tory of aur r_ountxya pr.imarily in ttie middle and sourhern latitudes. Spec-
_ trographic measurements of individual geological-geomorgiiological forma-
tions on the earth�s surface were made. The "Salyut-5" wcs launched in
1976, and for joint er.periments with it, rhe "Soyuz-21." `
Ttie iiew qualitative characteristics of phorogrophy of the earth's surface
f rom space by means of lonp-term orbital stations of the "Salyut" type are
as Eollows: 1) Lhe possibility of carrying out a great volume of photo-
grapliy with coverage of different survey seasons; 2) regeated surveying of _
- one and the same natural features; 3) use of different cameras and diffe. - - -
ent f.ilms, making it possible to carry out a survey at different scalES -
- and hn d:l.fferent spectral zones; 4) choice of the optimum atmospheric
conclir:.ion:; for a space survey.
'I'tier Fi.tght of tlie "Soyuz-22" spaceship took p1ace in SeptemUer 1976. It
earr.Iecl t:lit, MICP-6 mul c(zonn:l camera, devel.oped by USSR and I;ast German _
sPecialtsts. Photo};r.aphs of a number of sectors of the earth's surface were '
obtai.neci Ll5 Cllf; LIi.Ls camera in six spectral aones with a high resolution.
lluring the L-ime of the work piiotographs were taken in the visible and IR
spectral zones in the range from 0.46 to 0.89 r m. With a flight altitude
250-260 km a fil.m measuring SS x 80 mm covers an area of 115 x 165 km, _
that is, about 19,000 km2. In 1978, during the flight. of the "Salyut-6" -
orbital station, a multizonal survey of the earth was continued using the
MKF-6rt camera.
In addition to direct photographing of the earth from space, another impor-
tant direction which is new experiencing vigorous growth and development is
a televislon space survey. In a television survey from a satellite the
photoimage of the earth's surface is fed to a vidicon and then is sent
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ttirough a rad Co channel to si
image is photnqraphed, and a
for exposure of onE: frame hy
tlie ttme of its transmission
videomagneli.c memory systems
storc imaKes on a film. Such
irface TV receivel-s, from whose screens the
screen photograph is obtained. S1nce the time
television systems is 1/25 sec or less, and
is 200-400 sec, the need arises for using
aboard the satellite. It is also possible to
systems ar2 known as phototelevision systems.
In comparison with photographs from space, television photographs have a
lesser resolution (from 80-1.00 m to several kilometers); their metric prop-
erties are also poorer due to the nonlinearity of scanning, etc. 14hereas
at the presEnt time in the actual study of the earth's natural resources
- from space photomethods, with the best resolution, play an important role,
in the l.ong rtin scanning systems with the transmission of ir,formation from
satellites via radio channels will have ever-greater impor ance. The role
of scanning systems will increase still more if it is take., into account
that in a photographic survey of the earth's surface the deliveries of
materials to the earth are considerably less routine. Precisely the rou-
tineness of r_ollection of information on the state of terrestrial re-
sources is one of the basic and fundamental characteristics of a survey from
space.
In our counrr.y a television survey for national economic purposes is also
- made Froin meteorological satellites, which ma.kes it possible to obtain rou-
- " tine informarion on the state of weather on the earth and the characteris-
tics of the underlying surface.
Satelli.tes of the "Cosmos" series were used in 1963 in testing the corres-
ponding television systems and electrotechnical deviczs. In 1966 rhe "Mol-
niya-1" satel_lite was used in the USSR for obtaining a TV image of the
earth from a distance of 40,000 km. Later dt!ring flight of one of the sat-
e I I i t.t-:; of the "Cosmos" series photographs wzre taken of the cloud cover
rzncl the underlying surface in the infrared in the spectral range 8-12 Nt.m.
in 1967 lrtificial ear.tli satetlites of the "Cosmos" series were launched
for EorminR the unified "Meteor" space system. The satellites were put in-
to circular orbits wirh an altitude of 625-630 km. During 1977-1979 rou-
tinc: information on the state of the earth's surface was regularly trans-
mitted from experimental "Meteor" satellites in four zones of the visible
- and infrared spectral ranges.
_ In the United States flights of ttiel"Mercury" (1961-1963), "Gemini." (1964-
1966) and "Apollo" (1968-1971) spaceships made it possible to obtain hun-
dreds of space photographs of different regions on the earth.(most of the
photographs were color photographs). The survey was made with hand small-
- format cameras.
Since 1960 television images oi the earth` s surface have been regular?_y
traiismitted from American meteorological satellites. The first eight sat-
ell-s of the "TIROS" series were launcheA in 1960-1965.
24
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Satellttes of the ITOS series (ITOS Improved TIROS) were laiinched in
1970 into a solar-synchronoiis polar orbit with an altitude of about 1,400
km (wtth a period of revolution 115 minutes).'Phey carr i.ecl 'I'V c,uneras
for tranamission of images of the earth at a real time scale (with a reso-
lution of ahout 1 km) and in the record (resolution 3.2 km).
The United 5tates meteorological satellite, whic'i is of interest because
its materials can be used in interpretiny
, the ear*_h's surface, is the
_ "Nimbus." The latest-satellites of the "Plimbus" series carry a microwave
probe fo r determining soil moisture content.
- The first specialized satellite for studying the earth's natural resources
(ERTS-.L Garth Resources Technological Satellite) was launched in July
1972 in the United States. The ERTS-2 was launched in January 1975. These
= satellites have now been given the name "Landsat." A third satellite was
- launched in 1978. The satellites were put into a solar synchronous orbit
with an altitude of about 910 km with a period of revolution of 103 min-
- utes. The selected orbit ensures an almost constant solar altitude above
the horizon N 35�, that is, identical illumination conditions for each re-
gion. The satellites make 14 revolutions per day and each 18 days there
. is a possibility for a repeated survey of one and L-he same sectors r,f the
earth's surface.
The 1iRTS-2 was launched in such a way that the frequency of recurrence of
, a survey of one and the same sector of the earth was 9 days, whj.ch made
- it possible to observe the dynamics of the soil-vegetation cover and the
development of agricultural crops, to study the sotl-vegetat:ton cover in
different seasons of the year, to select cloudless periods oF the survey
in order to have a better image of the soil-vegetation cover in dependence _
on weather and seasonal conditions of the survey, etc. The satellite carr-
- ied a multichannel oPtic.al-mechanical scanning television camera, tlze MSS
(Mult1. Spectral Scanner), an instrument scanning in the visible and IR spec-
tral r.egions: 0.5--0,6, 0.6-0.7, 0.7-0,8, 0.8-1.1 V-m. The camera angle of
view is 11.5�; in scanning from an altitude of 910 km there is coverage
of a zone with a width of 185 km and the resolution in the terrain is 70-
80 m.
Photographs with the MSS multizonal scanner are of interest for diff erent
branches and departments and are effective when using such automatic sat-
ellites for studying the earthTS natural resources.
~ In May 1973 l-he "Skylab" orbital station was launched into an orbit close
to circular, with an altitude of 435 km and a period of revolution of 93
minutes. One of the scientific objectives of operation of this station was
an investigation of the earth's natural resources.
Thus, artificial earth satellites, spaceships and orbital stations are used
for studying the earth's natural resources. Special automated satellites
for studying the earth's resources have been developed and used in recent
years. Photographic and television cameras are among the instruments
,
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- widely tised on space vehicles. Both space multizonal photography and multi-
spectral scanning of the earth's surface from space are successfully devel-
_ opinR. Infrar-ed and microwave apparatus is also used in space surveys.
The altitudes for a space survey of t}le earth's surface can be divided into
- four grouPs:
1) great altitudes 10,000-100,000 km surveys from interplanetary
sutomatic stations of the "Zond" type;
2) medium altitudes 500-1,500 km surveys from natural resources and
meteorological satellites;
3) low altitudes 200-400 km surveys from manned spaceships of the
"Soyuz" type, long-lived orbital stations of the "Salyut" and "Skylab"
type, and experimental satell.ites;
4) very low altitudes less than 200 km surveys from experimental sat-
- ellites.
Witli respect to the area of coverage of the soil cover by a single space
photograph we propose that photographs be classified as:
a) global transmission of the image of individual continents or the
earth as a whole (for example, photographs of the earth from the automat-
ic station "Zond-511);
b) macroregional'-- images of major parts of the continents with an area
- of 1.00,000 km2 or rnore (photographs from NOAA, and others);
c) mesoregional with coverage of geographic regions with an area of tens
_ of thousands of square kilometers, for example, the multizonal survey with
_ the MKP'-6 camera from the "Soyuz-22" and the "Salyut-6" from an altitude
of 250-260 km in six spectral zones (from 0.46 to 0.89~tm) with an area
of coverage of one photograph of 19,000 km2; a multispectral scanning sur-
vey with the MSS camera from the ERTS ("Landsat") from an altitude of 310
km in four spectral zones (0.5-0.6, 0.6-0.7, 0.7-0.8, 0.8-1.111m) with an
area of coverage of one photograph of 35,000 km2;
d) regional with a coverage of individual regions (landscapes) with an
_ area less than 1,000 km2.
- Depending on the survey scale space photographs can be classified as large-
' medium-scale (greater than 1:100,000), medium-scale (1:100,000-1;900,000),
small-scale (1:1,000,000-1:9,000,000); generalized (1:10,000,000 -
1:100,000,000).
In the present stage in the develogment of space technology the resolution
_ (R) of the space photographs, dependent on altitude (H) of the survey,
focal length (f) and resolving power of the receiving instrument
R = f H
r
can be subdivided into:
- a) tens of kilometers Por radar images, the IR range of Soviet and Amer-
ican meteorological satellites, surveys from interplanetary automatic sta-
tion~; of the "Zond" type or satellites in high orbits;
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b) a few kilometers tor television photographs in the visible range _
from meteorological satellites;
c) hundreds of ineters for photographs taken with hand cameras and also -
medium-focus cameras from spaceships and satellites;
d) tens of ineters for high-quality ordinary and multizonal cameras of
the MKF-6 type and also multispectral scanner systems. -
Materials from Aerospace Survey and Instruments for Interpretation
As has been noted, the materials from aerial and space surveys can be used
in studying the soil cover and individual properties of the soil, for de-
termining the yield of agricultural crops and soil fertility, and also as
a cartographic base for the compilation of soil maps at different scales.
It is possible to use blaak~and-white, color and spectrozonal negatives,
double negatives and double positives obtained in.the course of aerial
and space surveys; black-and-white, color and spectrozonal aerial and
space photographs obtained by the contact method or by enlargement on the
average by 4x-5X; reproductions of preliminary compilations, photomosaics,
photoplans and photomaps. During recent years increasing importance has
been assumed by aerial and space materials from a multizonal survey, tele-
vision photographs, materials from multispectral scanning systems, traces
ohtained from ultraviolet, infrared and microwave radiometers, and radar
photographs of the soil cover and plantings of agricultural crops.
In this sect:ion we will examine the importance of materials obtained using _
photographic systems; others wiZl be examined in describing new photoelec-
tronic methods for investigating terrestrial resources.
~ Black-and-white, color, spectrozonal and multizonal negatives and double r
- positives are of great importance in studying the soil cover and the con- _
dition of agricultural crops. Their role has especially increased in con- -
nection with the use of multizonal surveys of the earth's surface. The
principal photographic characteristics of black-and-white aerial films
are giv'en in Table 5.
A black-and-white panchromatic film and a yellow light filter were suc-
cessfully used in surveys from the "Soyuz-9" spaceship. In surveys from
the "Salyut-1" orbital statidn successful photography was carried out
- using arL isopanchromatic film (type 18) with a yellow light filter. ~
Wben making a multizonal survey from the "Soyuz-12" spaceship the photQ-
graphy was with different light filters on fine-grained isopanchromatic
aerial film (type 17), coarse-grained isopanc:izromatic ffiotion picture neg-
ative film KN-3 and coarse-grained infrachrb:n:itic aerial film 1-840. _
In multizonal photography of desert and semidesert zones of Kazakhstan
in February from the "Salyut-4" orbital station use was made of black-and-
- white films: isochromatic of the type AS-1, isopanchromatic of type 17
- and infrachromatic of type I-840. A comparison of one and the same soils
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and natural features surveyed from space on differert films indicated
that moistened sectors of the Muyunktmm sands and the eastern part of
the Betpak-Dala desert, ancient valleys in the territory of the Betpak-
Dala and contaminated territories in the region of Lake Bayksl are in-
terpreted most clearly from photographs abtained from infrachromatic
- film and less clearly from photographs obtained with isochromatic film
(Table 6).
In the United States, when carrying out a multizonal survey from the "Ap-
0ll0-9" spaceship, the photography of the earth's surface was taken on
panchromatic and infrachromatic film. During the period of operat?on of
the "Skylab" orbital station black-and-white panchromatic film was used
in two surveying cameras of the multispectral photographic apparatus
S 190, whereas infrachromatic film was used in two others covering the
infrared spectral zone.
WYen making a super-small-scale aerial survey of the earth's surface Apo-
_ stolov ar_d Gorbatov (1975) recommend the use of black-and-white films:
_ for lowland regions types 17, 18, 20, 27, 28, for mountainous regions
types 17, 20, 25, 33.
Isoorthocrromatic black-and-white aeriai films of the RF-3 and AS-1 types
are recommended for aerial surveying in the yellow-green spectral zone.
- In addition to isopanchromatic films, the infrachromatic films I-740,
I-760 and I-840 are af great importance for studying the soil cover.
A comparative analysis of the soil cover image on aerial photographs taken
- with isopanchromatic and infrachromatic films indicated (Fig. 1) that on
infrachromatic photographs it is considerably essier to see the boundary
contrast of chernozem and alluvial soils; dark gray, gray forest and soddy-
meadow soils. On isopanchromatic photographs these soil differences are
seen poorly or not at all (Table 7).
The use of infrachromatic film for soil purposes can be recommended for
the detection of soils with a different degree of moisture content, gley-
ey, swampy, irrigated soils. This film is effectively used for discrimin-
ating plowed sectors amidst virgin land with natural vegetation, for the
interpretation uf areas of alluvial (floodplain) soils.
However, when using infrachromatic film it must be remembered that in com-
parison with isopar_chromatic film there is a deterioration of image devel-
opment in shaded sectors. In order to reduce the influence of shadows it
. is desirable that the infrachromatic survey be made at about 1200 houzs
with a high solar altitude.
- B. V. Vinogradov (1966) mentions the limited possibilities of use of this
fiim in studying the soil-vegetation cover of arid zones. in a survey
wict: this film the dry sectors of brown desert-steppe soils, solonetz and
- other soils merge with vegetation oiz the photoimageo
~ 28
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4
Fig. l. Aerial photographs of one and the same territory obtained using
different aerial films. At top isopanchromatic; at bottom infra-
chromatic (1 leached chernozems; 2-- gray forest gleyey soils; 3) al-
luvial-meadow; 4) alluvial-moist meadow).
This film can be used successfully in soil melioration work.
Color and spectrozonal aerial films. In the study and proper interpreta-
tion of the soil cover color and especially spectm zonal aerial films
have broader possibilities. The human eye perceives the differences in
chramatic tones tens of t3mes better than the tonality of a gray scale.
The use of the color differences of the soil-vegetation cover in the case
- of a survey on color aerial film considerably broadens the possibilities
for soil interpretation.
33
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Among the color multilayer films there are two principal types: color
three-layer aerial films which reproduce the soil-vegetation cover in
natural (or nearly natural) colora and spectrozonal two- or three-layer
= aerial films with an image of the earth's surface in conventional colors.
Color revsrsible three-layer aerial films for neutral and transfo rmed
color transmission of the earth's surface are widely used abroad.
Modern color films, both in our country and abroad have a quite high sen-
sitivity, low distortion, good color balance and resalution (Table 8).
They can be used successfully not only for a qualitative, but also quan-
titative interpretation of the soil cover and plantings of agricultural
crops but are inferior to black-and-white aerial films with respect to the
economy of photoprinting.
TsN-3 color negative film is an improved TsN-1 type with respect to color
transmission, with a higher resolution and light sensitivity. Th is is a
three-layer fi1m; the arrangement of its layers, the type of sens itizing
of the emulsion and the spectral zones of effective light sensitivity are
indicated in Table 9.
Good results were obtained in the USSR in a survey from space us ing SN-6M
and SN-8 spectrozonal. films (zones of sensitivity 570-650 and 650-800 nm
j respectively). A somewhat worse image of the earth's surface was obtai.ned
in a space survey on TsN-3 color film (zone of sensitivity 450-730 nm)
with natural color transmission.
Color natural film of the Kodak Ectachrom MS type and color IR Kodak-Ecta-
_ chrom Infrared film was used during flights in the American spaceships
" "Mercury," "Gemini" and "Apollo" for extensive survey work.
In the irrigated zone of the Colorado River (United States) colo r IR film
was also successfully used in discriminating agricultural fields up to
20 hectares in area, eccupied by different crops, from the red and.gray-
green color. A red color was characteristic of fields with alfalfa and
a gray-green color is charactsristic of fields with harvested co tton. In
a mountainous area a brown-red color corresponded to coniferous forests
(Pinus ponderosa) and a light red color corresponded to oak forests.
In the study of soils with different moisture content (from 2-8 to 30-34%)
it was established that the best results in determining the mois ture con-
tent of plowed soils were obtained in an aerial survey from an altitude ;
of 600-1,200 m on color IR film (Sewell, Parks, 1972).
The use of negatives and photometric instruments makes it possible to
carry out quantitative measurements of the photoimage of the soil cover,
based on determination of the density of blackening of the analy zed nega-
tives. It is now acknowledged that the photometric approach to the study ~ of soils from negatives is one of the promising means for autamation of ~
- 34
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interpretation of the soil cover. The basic studies on use of photometric
instruments are now being made using black-and-white negatives. However,
there are investigations of the use of color and spectrozonal images for
these purposes.
B1ack-and-white, color, spectrozonal and multizonal contact or enlarged
_ aerial and space photographs are of basic imgortance for visual-instruren-
tal interpretation of the soil cover and its mapping.
In accordance with the type of aerial survey cameras usPd the common size
- of aerial photographs is 18 x 18 cm; 24 x 24 cm; 30 x 30 cm; for multi-
_ zonal cameras it is 7 x 7 cm. The photographs taken by a multispectral
scanning system can have the form of strips. In our country a size 18 x
~ 18 cm is used for measurement and cartographic purposes and the principal
photograumetric instruments have been developed for this size; abroad
a size 24 x 24 cm is used for this purpose. Aerial photographs measuring
30 x 30 cm are convenient for interpretation of the soil cover.
- A considerahle economic effect can be obtained when using photographs en-
larged by 3-4X in comparison with the original. According to data publish-
ed hy American specialists, a photographic enlargement of the space photo-
graphs obtained with the.ERTS for the purpose of facilitating their soil
interpretation and increasing the information yie13 is dependent on the
negative quality and after a SX enlargement gives virtually no increase
in information.
The scale of the photographs is determined using the formula 1/m = f/H,
where f is the focal length of the objective, H is survey altitude.
Near-vertical aerial photographs have a normal end lap of 60% and a side
lap of 40%, wnich ensures inspection of stereopairs with stereoscopic in-
struments. Aerial ar space photographs are of importnnce for soil mapping
- hecause they are a good geographic base. The great number of details
appe4ring on aerial photographs make possible a more precise identifica-
- tion of the location of soil profiles and orientation in the terrain.
Aerial or space photographs constitute completely objective material on
- natural conditions and the soil cover, which is obtained using photo- �
_ graphic or phototelevision instruments.
It is particularly important that on aerial and space photographs there
are a number of direct and indirect indicators necessary in interpreta-
_ tion of the soil cover. This property makes it possible to carry out the
office interpretation of soils and with the development of knowledge
concerning the image of different soils on photographs and the develogment
of soil keys it is possible to reduce the time-consuming field work for
study of the soil cover gradually to a minimum.
The reproduction of a preliminary compilation is a mandatory supplement
to aerial photographs. These are prepared from aerial photographs (con-
tact prints) and make it possible to draw conclusions concerning
35
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the correctness with which the aerial survey was made. On the reproductions
of the preliminary compilation it is mandatory to indicate the number of =
the sheet, the number of the rectangle, the names of individual populated -
places, r ivera, lakes and some other featurea. This information makes pos-
sible a rapid determination of the region and the numbers of Che aerial pho- -
tographs required for the work. -
Photomontages are an assembly of unrectified aerial and space photographs -
(thar is, the use of photographs without elimination of existing distor-
- tions).
A photoplan is a plan of the terrain (mosaiced montage), assembled from rec-
tified aerial and space photographs. It has a coordinate grido On photoplans
the relief is frequently drawn in with contour lines. According3.y, photo-
plans are valuable material for studying the soil cover and its mapping.
We note that when photoplans are available there is no need for photomon-
tages.
- Photomaps (black-and-white and color) are the most valuable base for carry- -
_ ing out soil mapping. They conatitute polygraphically reproc:ucible photo- _
- plans on which contour lines are used in plotting local relief, whereas
' hachures are used for representation of the topographic necessary for the soil survey. In comparison with topographic maps photomaps provide a sav-
~ ing, according to preliminary computations, up to 15% of the cost of work -
on a specialized survey (Gol'dman, 1972).
Instruments for interpreting soils and agricultural crops. The visual.-in-
strumental method for the study of photographs is the most promising for
soil interpretation. It provides for the extensive use of photometric and
photogrammetric measurement instruments under field and office conditions.
- Depending on their purpose, interpretation instruments can be classified as ,
enlargement, measurement, stereoscopic, micropho tome tric and automatic -
systems for readout of the image. 34.-_
Among the magnification instriunents extensively used in the soil inter-
pretation process are monocular lenses with different magnifications.
- Those with 2X and 4X are most widely used.
The measurement instruments include parallaxometers, parallactic plates,
proportional dividers, etc. In the mapping of soils the use of proportional
- dividers is of great importance for eliminating a noncorrespondence of
scales (between the photograph and map) in the transfer of special content
from the interpreted photographs onto topographic maps or land surveying
plans. Among the measurement instrimments used in the interpretatian of
the soil cover an important role is played by MF-4 and IFO-451 microphoto-
meters and among the foreign instruments a high-speed microphotometer
with a contiguous stand and a compensation automatic recorder produced by
"Karl Zeiss" in the GDR and others. The use of these instruments for meas-
uring optical densities of aerial photograph negatives makes it possible
36
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to ascertain the nature and indi,vidual preperties o� soila in the analyzed
territary. The "Macbeth" TR-527 instrument (United States) makea it pos-
sible to determine the density of negatives and poaizives with an accuracy
- 0.02D.
Among the stereoscopic insCruments are stereoscopes of different makes,
stereometers, interpretoscopes, the SP-2 steieoscope-pantograph for the
- transfer of feati:res, and universal ste�reophotogrammetric instruments mak-
ing it gossible to obtain an image of the relief, measure it and draft it
in contour lines, as well as to tr.ansfer soil areas from photographs to
the map.
= Among the autonated systems for image readout are the "Kvantimet-720"
- ("Quantime*_-720") optical-electronic instrument produced by "Metal Re-
- search" (Great Britain), which can be used successfully in studying the
photoimage of the soil cower on aerial and space photographs.
Connected to the "K�.rantimet-720" instrument is an epidiascope, used in ob~
taining images from aerial.znd space photographs, diapositives and films
by means of transmitted and ;.ncident light with a dark field. Scanning
_ devices vidicon and plambioon transform the image into electric sig-
nals for reception by the instrument detector4 These devices have been
developed for the precise ana.ly sis of images dnd have digita"1 control of
scanning. The results of ineasurements, repeated 16 times, have an accuracy
to 1%.
Among the processing instruments neceasary for the computerized interpret-
~ ation of multizonal photographs we no'ce the "Y-1700" ".'Photomachine" devel-
oped by "Optronics International" in the United States, making it pos-
~ sible to carry out rectif.ication of the photographic image and construct
maps of isodensi..ty lines for the forest and soil cover and f.or agricul-
tural crops (Sukhikh, E1'man, Bogachev, 1978).
The ISI electronic systera (International System Incorporated) makes it
possible to carry out rectification on the basis of densities for both
integral and a series of multizonal aerial and space phozographs.
In the synthesis of a black-and-white or color image from multizonal photo�-
graphs it is possible to use MSP-4 multizonal analyzers preduced by "Karl
Zeiss Jena" (GDR), or the MSV-300 produced by the "Konon" Company (Japan),
whereas the "Phosdak-1000" system produced by the "Kimoto" Company (Japan)
and others can b e used in transforming soil information from color densit-
ies.
_ 37
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1
Chapter 3
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION AS A SOTL S1UDY METHOD
IL
A study of the problems related to the interpr.etaLion of aerc�npace mater- -
ials is of the greatest interest among the complex of aerospace work for -
the surveyine of lar~d resources by soil scientists and a whole series of
other specialists. -
The Russian term for "interpretation" (deshifrirovaniye) is a derivative
- from the French word "dechiffrer" to analyze, ur.ravel. In both English :
and Russian the corresponding term is "interpretation." During recent ~
= years the corresponding Russian tenn "interpretatsiya" has been used ae
a synonym for "deshifrirovaniye."
Originally interpretation was carried out for, military-topographic pur-
poses. However, beginning in the 1920's, with the development of civil
aerial surveying, the interpretation of aerial photographs began to ac-
quire a special character. In addition to topographic interpretation,
forest, geological, soil, geobotanical, hydrological, agricultural and
- other types of special interpretation of aerial photographs began to de- _
velop. At the present time the soil cover is being interpreted from space
photographs. By the term "soil int_erpretation" is meant the method for studying the
soil cover from its image obtainecl as a result of aerial or space sur-
- veys.
At the very dawn of development of aerial surveying A. Ye. Fersman wrote
that an aerial survey does not characterize any one phenomenon, but dif-
ferent aspects of the landscape. It puts into the hands of the researcher
- a dialectic method which in the study of each feature makPs possible a
determination of its relationships to others. In this respect a study
of the Qoil cuver from aerial or space photographs ia a clear example of
use of the dialectic method.
Pt. G. Kell' emphasized that the interpretation of aerial photographs is a
multifaceted process and no facet of this proceas can be separated from
-
th4c branch of research in which it is manifested (Kudritskiy, 1973).
38
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, L. A. Bogomolov (1976), L. M. Gol'dman (1960), G. V. Gospodinov (1961)
and L. Ye. Smirnov (1976) define interpretation as a method for studying
terrain from its image on photographs, as a process for revealing the
diverse content of photographs, based on an anal,ysis of the interpreta-
tion criteria and a knowledge of their properties.
" General Principles of Soil Interpretation
The interpretation process, from the point of view of knowledge and logic
can be subdivided into a number of basic stages. I. S. Komarov, V. F.
Rubakhin, L. T. Safronov (1967) indicate that with respect to structure
the interpretation process consists of interpretation of individual fea-
tures from aerial photographs and interpretation of situations. Three
- stages can be discriminated in interpretation: detection, identification
and evaluation. A number of researchers call the third stage "interpreta-
tion ; however if the feature does not show up on the aerial photograph
the interprptation process begins with identification. L. Ye. Smirnov
_ (1967) defines the third stage of interpretation as the forming of judg-
- ments concerning individual features, phenomena and the terrain as a
whole. V. F. Rubakhin (1966) ends the third stage in an evaluation of the
results of identification of individual features and as an independent
final section discriminates the process of real intarpretation of situa-
tions.from the aerial photograph, that is, there is a transition from the
- identif ication of one feature to another, from the identification of
simple features to complex ones.
L. M. Gol'dman, R. I. Vol'pe (1968) also divide the interpretation process,
on the hasis of psychophysiological principles, into three stages: 1) vis-
ual perception of the studied features; 2) formulation of concepts (taking
into account the conditions for carrying out the aerial survey) concerning
, the investigated territory and 3) a conclusion and description of the es-
_ sence of the interpreted features.
A number of foreign authors (Buringh, 1960; Vink, 1968) include the fol-
lowing under the term photointerpretation: 1) recognition and identifica-
- tion of features appearing on phatographs; 2) their anaZysis; 3) deduction,
whose role is limited and can be used in the extrapolation and intergola-
tion of data.
- According to Buringh (1960), the terms recognition and identification take
-in obtaining the most complete and clearest idea possible from the photo-
graph. Some foreign authors use the term photoreading instead of identif-
ication.
M. Girard (1972), in examining the problems involved in the soil interpret-
, ation method, discriminates three stages: 1) identification, that is, de-
termining the relationships between the feature and its image on the
photograph; this correspondence is not always expressed clearly for soils;
2) recognition, which essentially involves drawing of conclusions concern-
ing the soil cover on the basis of knowledge concerning the morphology of
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soils and the peculiarities of their formation; 3) interpretation pro-
vides for estahlishing the interrelationships between soils and soil-
forming factors.
In the interpretation of features, including, the soil cover, it is neces-
sary to take into account the initial level of interpretation. It is depen-
denr on the level of training and capabilities of the interpreter and
also the availability or nonavailability of interpretation keys.
A. P. A. Vink (1968) points out that the term identification or photoread-
- ing must be defined as a method for studying the aerial photographic image,
which is based on a direct study of the features.
The soil, as a natural feature having a definite structure of the genetic
profile and difftrent soil horizons,.does not show up on aerial photo-
graphs. On such photographs we see indices oniy of the surface horizon.
However, this main surf.ace horizon is genetically related to the e;itire
soil profile. Accordingly, by analyzing the image of the surface horizon
on aerial and space photographs in most cases it is possible not only to
determine and interpret soi: boundaries and changes, but also (in field
- investigations when samples are available soil interpretation keys or
soil maps) to determine the soil cover.
~ According to B. B. Polynov, all soil horizons are paragenetic, that is,
_ inCerrelated in their origin. On this basis, asserts Yu. A. Liverovskiy,
(1962), the properties of the upper horizon can serve as indicators for
determining the genetic category for the entire soil.
The relationship of tb,e volume of field and office interpretation is of
considerablE importance in this stage of development of the soil inter-
pretation method. Whereas during the first period of study of the soil
cover with the use of material from an aerial photagraphic survey the
- role of field interpretation was fundamental, with the development of
aerial methods, with the use of new equipment, with the broadening of
- knowledge concerning the peculiarities of the photoimage of soils on
different films and for different s2asons of the year, with the develop-
ment of soil interpretation keys and with use of multizonal photographs
- there is a marked increase in the role of preliminary office interpreta-
tion of soils. Without question, in the future with the development and
improvement of aerospace (remote) methods for investigating the environ-
ment the role of office interpretation will increase to the point of
automated computer analysis of the soil cover and plantings of agricul-
cural crops on the basis of aerospace photographs and trace data (when
soil-agricultural interpretation samples are available).
During recent years three principal methods have stood out clearly in the
problem of interpretation of photographs (Zonn, 1975). The first method,
pr,: -iiltng broadly until recently, is the visual interpretation methoda
The essence of this method is that recognition of the soil cover is based
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on experience and the ability of specialists to use direct and indirect
criteria for soil interpretation. Its shortcoming is the descriptive ap-
proach to soil and agricultural resources and a definite subjectivity.
_ At the present time it is being replaced by the visual-instrumental method,
_ in which, on the one hand, there is the most complete use of the logical
inferences of the interpreter, and on the other hand, a quantitative anal-
ysis of the photoimage and interpretation of the soil cover. Visual-in-
strumental interpretation as an objective quantitative method for study
~ of aerial and space photagraphs is based on the broad use of such meas-
urement instruments in the practice of soil and agricultural research as
microphotometers, densitometers and optical-electronic image analyzers.
A third method, which is in the stage of initia:t experimental investigation,
is related to automation of the process of interpretation of photographs.
It provides for the transformation of the photoimage of t,he soil cover and
agricultural fields and the statistical processing of the filtered images.
For example, in a soil melioration description of the territory of the
dry steppe zorie use was made of optical-structural machine analysis, which
is a method for generatized (statistical) analysis of the morphological
structure of the feature carried out in the optical range (Kozlovskiy, et
- al., 1975). Digital methods in the processing of aerial and space informa-
= tion are being developed most intensively in the Soviet Union and in the
United States. They provide for the development of equipment, input of
data on the image into an electronic computer, methods for its storage and
extraction and creation of mathematical support for the processing of in-
formation (Lur'ye, Tishchenko, 1966).
In a report at the Eighth International Mapping Conference (Bel'chanski.y,
et al.,.t976) it was pointed out that three problems are time1y among the
principal directions in the development of inethods for the digital auto-
mated processing of images: 1) processing and formalization of videoin-
, forn,ation; 2) automation of interpretation of photographs with the use of
an electronic computer or optical-electronic instruments; 3) formulation
of mathematical models in the plotting of predictive maps.
A. Rozenfel'd (1972) discriminates five types of image transformation:
discretization, quantization, coding, approximation and filtration. As
- indicated by L. A. Bogomolov (1976), all these transformations can be
used in automation of the process of interpretation of aerial and space
photographs. However, automatic interpretation simplifies and to a defin-
- ite degree distorts the informa.tion on the photograph. It is done inde-
pendently of the environment and without reference to existing natural
interrelationships. As indicated by discussion of these matters at inter-
- national and national symposia, success in the automation of interpreta-
- tion at this stage for the time being can be expected in the solution of
special problems and in narrowly specialized fields of investigation.
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' The tasks oL soil interpretation can be formulated in the following way:
first, detection and outlining on aerospace photographs of terrttories
with an identical structure of tlie soil cover, which must be defined as
unit soil interpretation; second, determination of the content of the
soil units detected on the photographs genetic soil interpretation;
an important independent task is the extrapolation of the results obtain-
ed for individual points (profiles) or key sectors on the basis of visual-
instrumental or instrumental (automated) interpretation of the soil cover.
. The specific nature of the soil as a feature to be interpreted also deter-
mines the content of the process of analysis of the photomaterials (Vink,
1968, and others). It includes all aspects of their identification or
- photoreading and also the digital evaluation, determining the mutual re-
- lationship of the photoindicators detected ii; the interpretation. The
_ analysis involves carrying out work for study o! the individual components
- of the environment and their interrelationships to the soil cover. Yu. A.
Liverovskiy (1962) mentions the need for using physiographic synthesis as
n basis for soil interpretation. Its importance increases sharply in space
investigations.
A specific property of use of space photographs in soil science is that
in their interpretation (due to the great coverage of considerabie ter-
ritories) there is a marked increase in the role of indirect interpreta-
tion criteria, the geographic method for the study of space photographs
and allowance for interrelationships and intercausalities of all environ-
mental components.
_ In tr.e study of soils from aerial and space photographs as a point of de-
parture one must apply the principle expressed by V. V. Dokuchayev that
the soil is part of the geographic landscape, is its "mirror." Soils and
- such factors of soil formation as relief and vegetation are refiected on
- photographs in a reduced generalized form. In this connection the inter-
- pretation of soils is essentially based on a comparative geographic anal-
ysis of the photoimage of na.tural or man-modified landscapes.
On the basis of the principles fo-rmulated by B. B. Polynov relative to
- elementary landscapes and types of terrain, the use of photographs makes
it possible to determine interpretation criteria characterizing the safls
- of these landscapes. In formulating the principles for soil interpreta-
- tion from photographs we used as a point of departure interpretation, on
_ the one hand, of soils of natural landscapes, and on the other soils
- of cultivated (plowed) elementary landscapes.
The interpretation of soils and agricultural objects can be improved (es-
_ pecially in multizonal aerial and space surveys) if we know the charac-
teristics of their reflectivity in a definite spectral zone and carry out
a siirvey in those narrow ranges where the spectral differences between
- soiis ar.d planted crops are maximun. These matters will be considered
below.
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Spectral Reflectivity of Soils
Multizonal brightness of objects and features, including soils and agri-
cultural crops, is a new and important interpretation criterion which
makes it possible to carry out quantitative measurement of soils and
agricultural fields on the basis of their image on photographs. With the
- use of scanning systems the digital processing of mu].tispectral photographs
can proceed until an image is obtained. For example, for studying the soils
of the northeastern part of Kansas use was made of reaterials from a multi-
spectral scanner having 15 spectral ranges in the zone 0.4-0.9~J.m. The re-
_ sults of the scanning were registered directly on a magnetic tape which
could be processed on an electronic computer. At the same time, a survey
was made on 70-mm color and color IR film. In computer processing use was
- made of the differences in the spectral reflectivity of the soils (greatest
in the near-IR spectral zone), which were registered hy a scanner. In each
of the sectors of the electromagnetic spectrum there are differences in
_ the spectral brightness of the soils and therefore in working in each
= range use was made of the mean values of spectral reflectivity of soils
(Carroll, 1973).
= The use of the photoimage of one and the same objects, obtained simultan-
eously in different spectral zones, makes it possible to obtain addition-
al information on soils and agricultural crops. It can be seen from a com-
. parison of two aerial phutographs of one of the experimental sectors in.
the steppe zone during spring in such a survey, taken in the red (640 nm)
_ and orange-yellow (590 nm) spectral zor,es,that in the zone 640 nm there
- is reliable discrimination of typical chernozems from meaclow-chernozem
soils associated with depressions and also chernozems with different de-
grees of erosion. A field of winter rye stands out sharply amidst plowed
areas of typical chernozems; in the zone 590 nm these differences are con-
siderably weaker, but sectors of freshly plowed chernozems stand out better
as a result of an increase in surface moisture content. In the field of
winter rye it is easy to see a banding wliich is associated with the dif-
ferent nature of working of the soil, which is completely absent on photo-
_ graphs of the red spectral zone. Thus, a comparison of the photographs
taken in different parts of the spectrum makes it possible to increase
the interpretability of soils and agricultural fields.
~ In this connection, in our country and abroad great interest is being
shown in study of the spectral characteristics of soils and agricultural
crops surveyed in different zones of the electromagnetic spectrum. Inves-
_ tigations indicated differences in the srectral reflectivity of soils in
dependence on their comnosition and state. It was established that there
_ 3s an influence of the humus content, light-colored compounds (silicon and
aluminum), carbonates, easily soluble salts, different iron compounds, and
also moisture content and mechanical composition of the soils on the
characteristics of spectral distribution of reflected radiations of soils.
The curves of relative spectral reflectivity of soils (sands, clayey loams),
determined under field conditions (Holmes, 1970), indicated that the maxi-
mum of the differences falls in the zone 0.6-0.711- m. This is one of the
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surve,y zones adopted in working with the ERTS satellite.
An increase in soil moisture content to complete capillary moisLure cap-
acity reduces their reflectivity by a factor of 2-3 (Obukhov, Orlov,
1964). Yu. S. Tolchel'nikov (1959, 1974) notes that during summer under
field conditions the soils dry out from the surface to an air-dry atate.
Accordingly, with a uniform mechanical composition thc brightness of the
soils has a direct relationship to its humus contento
N. P. Sorokina (1967) for typical chernozems studied the correlations
b =Lween the coefficient of reflection for soils and their humus and car-
bonates content. It is shown that with a humus content of less than 5%
there is a direct relationship between the quantity of humus and ths log-
arithm of integral soil reflection.
The coefficient of spectral reflection of soils has been proposed; RC is
determined using the formula
- RC = 440 + 490 + 540 + 590 + 640 + 690/6
where 440, 490 and the others are the reflection values for wavelengths
- 4402 490 nm, etc.
In this section we will examine the spectral reflectivity of soils and its
influence on their brightness in different spectral'zones.
The coefficient of spectral reflection of soils is the ratio of the reflec-
tion value of the soil sample to the value for an ideal surface reflecting
100% of the light for all wavelengths. The term "reflection coefficient
for soils" coincides with the term "brightness coefficient" (Krinov, 1947).
For a definite wavelength X it can be determined using the formula
, r;k = B a /Bp
where B;, is the brightness of the soil surface and Bp is the brightness
- of the standard (byrate plate) for identical illumination conditions.
Whereas in an analysis of the photoimage of soils on integral panchromatic
photographs it is more important to take into account the reflection coef-
ficient in the visible part of the spectrum, in a multizonal survey it is
necessary to take into account the reflection (brightness) of soils at a
def inite caavelength.
The reflection coefficient for soils (with an accuracy to 0.1%) for a def-
inite wavelength was determined directly from the spectral reflection
curve, registered with a spectrophotometer. The SF-10 recording spectropho-
tometer makes it possible to obtain the absolute reflection value in the
visible zone of the spectrum 400-750 nm. In the analysis use was made of
ai;�-dried samples passed through a 0.25-mm sieve. The samples were poured
into instrument.cells and leveled by a spherical glass in order to impart
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- a uniform roughness to the sample surface during registry hy tiie instru-
ment.
r%I
_ 40 30
~
'~.i ~..r�.
, ~ 2
20 3
~

/0
400 500 604 70P yM nm
= Fig. 2. Spectral reflection curves of experimental sector of steppe zone.
1) meadow-chernozem heavy clayey loam; 2) typical heavy clayey loam cherno-
zem; 3) typical slightly eroded chernozem; 4) typical medium-eroded cherno-
zem; 5) typical iaedium-eroded chernozem (depth 30-40 cm).
Soil samples of experimental sectors of the steppe and dry steppe zones
- were analyzed. Table 10 gives data on the spectral reflectivity of tilled
_ soils of an experimental sector of the steppe zone. It can be seen that
the total integral reflection coefficient for typical chernozems in the
entire visible zone of the spectrum on the average is 10.7%. Some very
' insignificant increase in brightness was observed for typical chernozems
- with an increase (up to 11.8%) of effervescence.
Meadow-chernozem soils are close in reflectivity to chernozems (Fig. 2).
_ In a dry state they cannot be distinguished in plowed land. The differ-
ences in meadow-chernozem soils against the background of chernozems
are attributable to their different moisture content. They are reliably
interpreted due to the nonidentical deve].opment of vegetation in these
soils.
r, %
SO
- 40
30 3
2U - - _ _ _ 2
f0
0
400 500 600 700 NM nm
Fig. 3. Spectral reflection curves.for soils of undulating sandy plain in
experimental sector of dry steppe zone: 1) meadow-chestnut solonchak-like;
2) meadow-chestnut solonetz-like; 3) dark chestnut sandy loam; 4) meadow
solonchak.
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- The reflectivity for slightly (12.6%) and especially for medium-eroded
chernozems (14-22%) is sharply different from that of typical cliernozems
and meadow-chernozem soils. On photographs they are reliably interpreted
- from the light gray image tone.
In a multizonal aurvey of an experimental sector of the steppe zone use
was made of photographs in the visible zone of the spectrum sensitive
to the green (520 and 540 nm) and red (610-690 nm) zones. In the green
and red spectral zones the reflection of typical chernozems and meadow-
chernozem soils is almost i.dentical. In the green zone these soils are
more readily cliscriminated from calcareous excavated chernozems (the
difference in the reflectivity of these soils in the green zone is 1.1-
1.2%, in the red zone 0.6-0.7Y). The differences in reflection be-
tween chernozems and their eroded varieties are sharply expressed in
hoth the green and red spectrai zones.
the spectral reflectivity of soils in the experimental sector in the dry
steppe zone was analyzed for the three principal regiona of this zone.
Dark chestnut sandy loam, meadow-chestnut soils and aolonchaks were stud-
ied in the territory of an undulat�ing sandy plain. All these soils, espec-
ially solonchaks, are readily distinguished from one another on the basis
of the mean reflection coefficient in the visible zarne (Table 11). The
spectral reflection Curves for these soils are given in Fig. 3.
In an experimental sector of the dry steppe zone multizonal surveys were
made at 520 and 540 nm, 610 and 690 nm. A comparative analysis of the re-
- flectivity of soils in the green and red zones indicated the following.
The greatest difference in the reflection values for dark chestnut and
meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils is observed in the red (610-690 nm)
zone 5.4 and 6.1% respectively; in the green zone (520 and 540 nm)
zone it is 2.7 and 3.1% respectively with a 4% difterettce in reflectivity
of these soils in the entire visible spectral zone.
Salina and meadow solonchaks, having a salt crust on the surface, can be
represented by an identical tone because the reflectivity of the salt
- crust (except for the blue-green zone) is close for them. However, solon-
chak vegetation is usually present at the surface of ineadow solonchaks.
J Accordingly, on the photographs they differ reliably from salina solon-
- chaks.
The difference betwsen dark-chestnut and meadow-cheatnut soils can be seen
shArply, since for these RC = 12.5-14.9%; for meadow-steppe and steppe
solone*_z soils, however, RC = 23.3-24.3�6 (Table 12). The differences
in the reflectivity of dark chestnut solonetz-like and meadow-chestnut
soils are seen better in the red (610 and 720 nm) apectral zone 3.4 and
- 4% respectively, with a general average of 2.4�6. In the blue-green zone
the corresponding figure is 1.4-2.29;. .
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_ E
r, %
40 _ ~.,..,4
30 . ~ 3
2U

/0
- Oti00 50b G00 700 Hff nm
_ Fig. 4. Spectral reflection curves for soils of ancient runoff valley
of experimental sector of dry-steppe zone: 1) meadow-chestnut solonetz-
like; 2) dark chestnut solonetz-like; 3) meadow-steppe solonetz soils;
4) steppe solonetz soils.

- r, %
_ 40 3
- 30 ~
- ~ 20
0
Wm SOO 600 v0 NM ~
Fig. 5. Spectral reflection curves for soils of territory of plateau in
experimental sector of dry steppe zoae: 1) meadow-cheetnnt calcareous; 2)
dark chesrnut calcareous; 3) dark chestnut calcareoua (sffiall Hillocks).
~
0,3
0,1
0 ~
0,4 OS 0,6 0,7d,MNM m
Fig. 6. Spectral image of territory of aandy desert (according to Kondrat'-
yev, et al., 1472): 1) ground measurements af surface; 2) measurement of
surface from "Soyuz-9."
G
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' Steppe solonetz soils reflect more light and on photographs show up in a
lighter tone tha. meadow-steppe solonetz soils (Fig. 4). These differences
were also especially clearly established from space photographs of this
territory during the spring survey period when a high soil field moisture
content was expressed in a decrease in reflection of ineadow steppe solonetz
soils.
_ The reflectivity of soils was also studied in the territory of plateaus.
_ with dark chestnut calcareous, meadow-chestnut calcareous and dark chest-
nut calcareous excavated soils ofsmall hillocks. The_ref].ectivity of
these soils is shown in Fig. 5. The dark chestnut calcareous and meadow
chestnut calcareous soils have a close general reflection coefficient
20.0 and 19.1% respectively (Table 13) ; it wae svmewhat higher in the red
- spectral Lone - 24.4-27.6 and 22.8-26Z; in the blue-green zone the dif-
ferences in the reflection of these soils are equal to 0 or not more than
1%. In.the dry steppe zone dark chestnut and meadow chestnut soils were
most ef�ectiveZy interpreted from photographs taken in the red spectral
zon2. Dark chestnut calcareous excavate3 soils @mall hillocks [at the
mouth of marmot burrows] --,as a result of the considerable content of
- carbonates and the lesser humus content in the upper tilled horizon have
a high reflectivity. On the photographs, in the green and especially in
the red spectral zone, they were represented by a light gray, almost
white tone.
As a result of study of the spectral reflectivity of soils in the steppe
zone it became clear that the lesser the humus content in the soil, the
greater is the reflectivity and the lighter is the soil image on the pho-
tographs. These indices are especially important in the interpretation
of plowed sectors of the soil cover in the steppe zone.
:teflectivity measurements quite clearly indicated that the calcareousness
or rock material is manifested sharply in the blue-green spectral aone,
close to the ultraviolet, where very low reflection coefficients are noted
- for the soils.
At the same time, study of the spectral reflectivity of soils revealed the
necesaity for taking into account not only the general reflection coef-
ffcient, but also the peculiarities of refleetion in a specific spectral
zone. Their investigation make4 possible a still greater increase in the
effectiveness of sail cover interpretation. The spectral peculiarities of
the soi7.a and agr3.cultural crops, manifested in different tonality on
multizonal photographs, constitute an important interpretation criterion.
Spectrometric survey of soil cover. Work is successfully developing on
study of the spectral brightness of the earth's surface synchronously
un( - ground conditions, from aircra.ft and from space.
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As a result of investigation of spectral reflectivity of soils and vege-
tation (Kondrat'yev, et al., 1972) in the territory of a sandy desert
and from space from the "Soyuz-9" from an altitude o� 250 km (synchron-
ously) it was possible to define two fundamental prineiples: 1) during
a survey from space there is an increase in the total brightness of Ci:e
~ soil-vegetation associations in comparison with surface measurementa;
2) perticularly sha.rp differences in their reflectivtty are observed in
= the blue-green region of the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 5).
A spectrometric survey o� the earth's surface does not give images in the -
form of photographs. It serves for obtaining the apeetral characteris- ~
tics of sofls and areas of agricultural crops and the choice of the op-
timum survey zones in a multizonal survey (Raehkul3k, Sitnikova, 1976;
Tolchel'nikov, Chukov, 1977). For exampZe, ground investigations carried
out for study of the aurface moiature content of typical chernozems in
an experimental sector of the steppe-zone using a spectrometer operating
in the spectral range 0.4-0.5� m indicated that the soil dries out rapid-
ly from the surface and moi.sture content exerts little influence on the -
spectral brightness coeff3cients of the soil (Bulatov, et al., 1976).
In comparison with a photographic survey,* a spectrometric aurvey for each -
_ soil or agricultural crop, in dependence on the seleeted spectral range
- and epectral resoluti.on of the apparatus, can give a large number of char-
_ acteristics. According to data published by Vinogradov and Kondrat�yev -
(1971), it appears that in the range AA0.4-0.7t1m with a spectfal resolu-
tion L1,'A0.5 �m in one spectrum it is possible to obtain up to 60 charac-
teristics of one so31. An important index is the ratio of the spectral
brightness coel"ficients (K for definite spectrai intervals. It is as-
- sumed that K a= r'` red 0.64 - 0, 66/r aIR 0. 81-0. 85 fd m
is of interest fox evaluating moisture content and ttte humus content in
the soil (Vinogradov, 1976).
_ A spectrometric survey is of great imgortance for the sensing of agricu].-
tural crops. A study made by foreign specialists in one such experiment
_ using about 40,000 spectra of these cropa indicated that for the recog-
nition of plan.eings of soq beans, corn, oats, wheat and red clover it is
most effective to study their spectral brightneesea in three ranges: 0.40-
0.44, 0.66-0.72, 0.72-0.80 � m. The percentage of eorrect identification
of these crops is 85-92%. .
We note in conc?i-isjon that spectrometric sensing of soils and sown crops,
based on reg-stry of the refl.ection spectra of suna.ight and the charac-
teristic emission of the earth's surface, with reapect to the peculiarit-
- iea of the measurement method, ean be subdivided into: 1) visible and
near-IR 0.3-1.10m; IR, or thezmal 3.0--300 �m; 3) microwave (milli-
meter, centimetex and decimetex radiations).
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At the preseut time thesa methods for studying soils and agricultural
crops are in the stage of experimental development in our country.
' Interpretation of Soil Criteria
_ The specific nature of tnterpretation of the soil cover relates, in par-
ticular, to the principal criteri.a (direct and indirect) used in the in-
terpretation of aerial and space photographs. The direct interpretation
criteria for the soil cover are tone, color, pattern (texture of the
photoimage), size and shape of th,e soil units; the indirect criteria are
nature of relief and hydrography, vegetation, man's agricultural activity.
In soil interpretati.on it is infeasible to be guided by any one interpret-
ation criterion, such as phofiotone. The most correct analysis of the pho-
toimage of the soil cover can be made only when all the interpretation
criteria are taken into account.
Tone of Photoimage; its Visual and Quantitative Evaluation
- The tone of a photoimage of soil and agrieultural features on aerial and
space photographs is one af the important, but rather variable criteria.
Visually in soil interpreCation it is possible to make successful use of _
' a gray scale of tones having the .following seven stages (Mikhaylov, 1959).
Tone Density
1. Wfiite 0.1 or less
_ 2. Almost white 0.2-0.3
3. Light gray 0.4-0.6 -
4. Gray 0.7-1.1
-
5. Dark gray 1.2-1.6
6. Almost black 1�7-'2�1 -
7. Black 2.2 or more
Visually i*_ is possible to discriminate nine tones: 1) white; 2) almost -
white; 3) light; 4) light gray; 5) gray; 6) dark gray; 7) dark; 8) Rlmost
black; 9) black
In soil interpretation the presence of a tonal difference between adjacent
soil units ia exceptionally important. The interpretation of the soil
cover will be difficult or impossible if its image tone merges with the
general hackground of the terrain and therefore the transmission of the
boundary optical image contrast (difference in image tone) is the pri-
mary criterion of interpretability of soil formations. In actuality, if
the surf.ace brigfitness of one soil,unit does not differ from the surface
b.r3ghtness of another, the boundary between them will not be visible on
- ar aerial or space photograph. .
50
_ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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,
j
' FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
The brightness contrast is characterized by the cmntrast value:
Kbr a B1 - B/B,
where'B1 is the brightness of the objeet= B is the brightneae of the back-
ground surrounding tTie object. Tbe minimum brightness difference which is
die criminated by the eye and which is detec*_ed bv the photoemulsion is the
contraet threshold and this is denoted !lB/B (d B is the minimum brightness
difference between the oliject and the background perceived by the eye). The
brightness contrast threshald fvr the human eye is N2Xo If the contrast be-
tween a soil unit and the surrounding background is above the threshold of
contrast sensitivity, it is reflected by the photographic emulsion.
_ In addition to a visual evaluation of the tonality of different soils and
, sowm cropa, it is possible to carry out quantitative measuxements. Micro-
- pho tometers of the MF-4, IFO-451 and other types are used in measuring the
different density of aerial pTiotographs.
- Using a new electronic instrument, the "Kvantimet-720" image analyzer, it
is possible to discriminate 64 levels of gray tone from photographs and
f rom films. On the basis of numerous visual-instrumental determinations
these 64 detection levels, in dependence on the determination of the gray
tone on aeroapace photographs, were classifiQd into 11 steps in the fol-
lowing way:
1. Black 0-10 7. Gray 35-40
2. Atmost blaek 10-15 8. Light gray 40-45
3. Gray-black 15-20 9. L3.ght 45-50
4. Dark 20-25 10. Almost white 50-55
_ 5. Dark gray 25-30 11. White 55-64
6. Darkish-gray 30-35
- On the basis of j.nvestigations for meaauring the difference AB- B1 - B2
of the boundary optical image eontrast of different soil units and plant-
ings of agricultural crops it was possible to prepare a scale of the de-
gree of interpretability of the objects (in relative units).
[The above quantitative scale for .the discrimination of -gray tones was
przpared in determining the cletection level from black to white (0-64)
with a setting of sensitivity (response):in manual siid automatic regimes
. equal to 5.]
Degree of "Lnterpretability of objects Difference in boundary contrast
(l:evels oiE gray tone)
Not interpreted or determined doubtedfully 0-2
Wzak . 3-5
- Medium 6-10
Goo d 11- 20
Sharp 21-30 or more
51
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Fig. 16. Spectrozonal aerial photo-
graph of territory of slope along
ravine in experimental sector of
steppe zone. Photograph taken in
summer (June): 1) grains; 2) grass-
es; 3) corn sprouts; 4) pasture
113
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Fig. 17. Spectrozonal serial photograph
_ of territory of slope along ravine in
experimental sector of steppe zone. Sur-
vey made in sutuma (September): 1) stubble
of graias; 2) corn; 3) co=n (harvested);
4) graeses; 5) grasaes (mown); 6) pasture
114
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Dnepr basins (30-40%). The maximum dissection of the lands with a con-
siderable participation of moderately and strongly eroded soj.ls is inter-
preted from a photograph in the region of tfie upper course of the Oskol
River (40-50%).
A minimum dissection of lands of the gully-ravine network is a characteris-
tic of watersheds in the neightiorhood of the town of Livny (10-20%).
Alluvial-meadow soils of river floodplains show up on the phatogLaph in an
almost white tone. Among the agricultural crops a light gray tone is char-
acteristic of fields with winter whea.t. An almost white tone is character-
istic of fields with winter wfieat. An almost wfiite tone is characteristic
for plantings of perennial grasses (sweet clover, clover, timothy, alfalfa).
A gray tone corresponds- to fields of spring wheat, barley snd a vetch-oat
mixture. Forests and virginland vegetation of the meadow steppe do not dif-
fer and show up in a light gray tone.
D
1,0
0,6
0,2
Fig. 18. Microphotometric profile obtained from space photograph from ERTS-
1 satellite in spectral zone 0.7-0.8 ~Lm. Survey time 10 May 1975. 1) typ-
ical chernozems, leached chernozems an3 mea.dow-chernozem soils; 2, 3) gray
and dark gray forest soils with participation of poorly consolidated sands
and alluvial meadow soils; 4) alluvial meadow and meadow-swampy soils; S)
clouds. Fields: + plowed and sprouts of agricultural crops; o planted in
- winter wheat; - planted in spring crops; V in alfalfa.
A microphotometric profile which we ohtained from this space photograph of
an experimental sector of the steppe zone and the territories adjacent to
it makes it possible to distinguish the following.
On the basis of the nature of the trace pattern it is possible to identify
_ typical and leached chernozems and meadow-chernozem soils from gray forest
- soils with the participation of consolidated sands and areas of alluvial
~ meadow and meadow-swampy soils (Fig. 18).
Among the agricultural plantings it is poQsible to determine fields with
srands and sprouts of agricultvral crops ~:~hich do not mask the surface of
chernozems. On the trace tfiey give sharp peaks pointing in a downward di-
- rection. Diametrically opposite peaks on the trace are formed by fields
occupied by alfalfa and winter wheat. It was demonstrated that in the zone
115
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0.7-0.8 w m these crops during the spring period show up in a light, almost
white tone. The middle segments of tfie curve with poorly expressed peaks
correspond to the image of plantings of spring crops.
An analysis of the phDtoimage of the sgace photograph taken in the IR spec-
tral zone (0.8-1.1 fXm), in comparison with tlie 3ust examined photograph,
- did not rp-veal special fundamental differences with respect to the inter-
pretation of soils and plantings of agricultural crops.
On a late summer space photograph, taken in the zone 0.7-0.8f.tm, as indi-
_ cated hy our investigations, an almost black tone corresponds to the plow-
ed surface of typical chernozems and meadow-chernozem soils (Table 21).
Considerable spaces on the photograph have a light gray photoimage tone
which corresponds to fields covered witli the stubble of grain crops.
Against a light gray background through.virginland vegetation it is vir-
tually impossifile to interpret meadow-chernozem soils associated with
longitudinal trougfis and ravines, as was demonstrated for the spring per-
iod. On the basis of a light gray tone it is possible to discriminate
areas of gray and dark gray forest soils. On the basis of an almost white
tone there is reliable interpretation only of alluvial-meadow soils of
- such large steppP rivers as the Seym. Small steppe rivers, as well as the
nature of the erosional dissection of the territory, are not determined
from the summer photograph or are interpreted unreliably.
Among the dgricultural crops fields of corn, sugarbeets and alfalfa have
an almost white tone. Fields of harvested corn have a gray tone. Forests
- and virginland steppe show up in a light gray, almost white tone.
Clouds are a considerable obstacle to the successful interpretation of the
soil cover and agricultural crops; these show up on the photographs in a
gray tone, whereas the shadows cast from clouds onto the earth's surface
� have an almost black tone. It is very difficult and sometimes almost im-
possible to use a suunner photograph in the zone 0.7-0.8 � m to interpret
the presence of small cumulus clouds. On the ground the shadows from it
show up as small spots of an almost black tone which with respect to image
tone merge with plowed fields with chernozems and meadow-chernozem sotls.
The photoimage of the soil-vegetation cover on a space photograph taken in
the red zone of the electromagnetic spectrum (0.6-0.7 �.m) has a fundamen-
tally different character in comparison with the photograph just consider-
ed. On this photograph a gray tone shows sectors of bare fallow and plowed
fields with a direct image of the soil surface.
Against a general gray and light gray background of the photograph, against
an almost white or light gray tone along the right bank of the Oskol, Rat'
and Tuskar' Rivers, it is easy to interpret gray and light gray forest
soils with the participation of eroded soils and semiconsolidated sands.
In the IR zone fields with corn, sugarbeets and alfalfa have an almost
_ white tone; in tfie red zone they appear in a dark gray or almost black tone.
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The stubble of grain crops and corn, due to the high reflectivity of
3traw and afterharvest remnants, is interpreted from a light-gray or al-
most white image tone. The forests have an almost b lack tone, whereas the -
virgin land of mixed grass vegetati.on has a gray tone. Accordingly, on
this photograph they are easily discriminated from one another. The images
of alluvia]-meadow soils of tFie floodplains of such steppe rivers as the
Seym are characterized by gray and dark gray tones with a poorly discrim-
inated internal differentiation of the soil-veget,ation cover on the flood- _
plain. The clouds on this photograph show up in a white toiie but their
shadows are almost black, wliich makes it difficult to discriminate them
from forest areas.
A comparative analysis of the space photographs taken at different survey
times indicated that they mutually supplement and enrich one another with
respect to a more complete transmission of in.formation on the soil and ag-
ricultural resaurces of the investigated natural regions. It was estab-
- lished that the surface of typical cherno2ems and meadow-chernozem soils
- on both spring and on summer photographs shows up in a dark gray tone in
the range 25-39 units of the gray tone level, wherea.s fields of alfalfa
and perennial krasses have'an almost white tone, equal to 50-60 units. Ad-
ditional significant data on the soil-vegetation cover can be obtained
when using space photagraphs of different spectral s urvey zones.
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Chapter 5
INVESTIGATIONS OF SOILS FROM SPACE PHOTOGRAPHS
- During recent years there has been ever-increasing use of space photo-
graphs and methods for remote observations in agriculture boCh in our
country and abroad.
Fundament;=1 Russian publications (Beregovoy, et alo, 1972; Vinogradov, Kon-
drat'yev, 1971; Gonin, Strel'nikov (editors), 1975; Grigor'yev, 1975; Vino-
gradov, 1976; ISSLEDOVANIYE PRIRODNOY SREAY KOSMICHESKIMI SREDSTVAMI, 1973,
1974, 1975, 1976; Rodionov (editor), 1973; METODY DESHIFRIROVANIYA, 1976;
ISPOL'ZOVANIYE KOSMICHESKIKH..., 1977; Kravtsova, 1977; KOSMICHESKAYA
S"YERCA..., 1979; AEROKOSMICHESKIYE..., 1979) examined the general prob-
lems involved in the interpretation of space surveys, including their use
in the study of the soil and vegetation cover. Abroad these matters have
been dealt with in systematic aids (MANUAL OF REMOTE SENSING, 1975; Bar-
rett, Curtis, 1976).
- Space methods ensure broad possibilities for obtaining information on the
use of terrestrial resources in agriculture (Table 22).
Soviet and American specialists in the field of use of space photographs
for agricultural purposes assume that about 90% of the data necessary for
rational land use can be obtained using aerospace methods. The latter
-make it possible to identify the principal categories of use of agricul-
tural lands: cultivated lands with different types of agricultural crops,
meadows, pastures, fallow lands, etc. Remote methods constitute an impor-
tant tool for the successful solution of agricultural problems.
In 1968 the US Department of Interior outlined a program for investigating
natural resources using artificial earth satellites of the EROS type
(Earth Resources Observation Satellite), a satellite for observing the
- earth's resources. In addition to NASA, the US Department of Agriculture
and other departments are taking an active gart in this program.
One of the principal aspects of this program is obtaining,the space photo-
graphs necessary for compiling and revising different types of special maps
(Cfllvocoresses, 1975). This objective is one of the most important as well
in the Soviet program for the use of space materials (Bryukhanov, Makhin,
1973; Salishchev, et al., 1975; Kiyenko, Kel'ner, 1976; Zonn, 1977; Knizh-
- nikov, Kravtsova, Fivenskiy, 1975; PRIMENENIYE..., 1978).
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- In the US and USSR space programs for the study of natural resources great
attention is being devoted to solution of practical problems. Below we
will describe a number of matters which are being dealt with in this pro-
gram for the use of space materials in the field of agriculture.
The inventorying of agricultural fields provides for investigations for
measuring the areas of agricultural fields, establishing the boundaries
between fields and wooded areas, preparation of maps showing agricultural
_ crops, and also compilation of special speedily prepared maps of agricul-
- tural fields based on satellite data.
The estimating of the yield of agricultural crops provides for investiga-
tions of the use of space data for determining the state of virginland
vegetation and agricultural fields, the degree and area of weediness and
diseases of agricultural crops, shortages of moisture for growing vegeta-
tion, and also for routine monitoring of the state of wintering of winter
crops, estimation of the productivity of hay fields and pastures.
Improvement in use of arable land. In solving this problem plans call for
investigations for studying the structure of the tilled soil layer, for
determining soil moisture content and temperature, the needs of soils for
drainage and irrigation, degree of erosion and salinization of soils, for
evaluating the results of recultivation of soils, for deterniining the re-
gions subjected to frosts and the falling af precipitation, for detecting
the shortage of nutrients in the soil, for the mapping of different types
of soils wieh clarification of structure of the soil cover, for regional-
ization of soil resources.
The soil-agricultural interpretation of photographs taken from space makes
it poss.ible to have data on a global and regional scale on the soil cover
and on plantings of agricultural crops. Among the specific properties of
soil-agricultural intermination are extensive caverage, sma.ll scale and
- generalization of the photoimages of features.
i
Coverage of Space Photographs and Study of Soils
In comparison with materials from an aerial survey, space photographs cover
enormous areas oi the earth's surface. Depending on the frame format, -
- fo cal length.of the objective and survey altitude the area covered by one
_ photograph will be different. Space photographs of extensive territories
of the earth for the first time are making it possible to see objectively -
- the nature of the soil cover of individual regions and provinces, indi-
vidual m:)untain systems and the vertical zonality associated with them.
On a space photograph of the territory of the southwestern part of Morocco, -
obtained as a result of flight of the "Gemini-5" spaceship from an alti-
tude of about 280 km at a scale of r'1:900,000,it is easy to see the coast-
al rt:gion near Sidi Ifni and the marginal part of the Atlas and Antiatlas _
mountain system (Fig. 19, 19a). The comparison of this photograph with -
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the soil tnap of Morocco at a scale of 1:15,000,000 which we made indicated
_ the possibility for a substantial refinement of the soil cover in this re-
gion on the basis of space photographs for the lowland and mountainous
parts of the territory. Mountain cinnamon soils and mountain cinnamon
soils eroded to different degrees are formed here under sub tropical for-
est or scrub. Beneath forests these soils appear on the piiotograph as dark
_ gray and under thin forest in a gray tone with a folded-corroded structure
of the photoimage characteristic for mountainous areas. In the northwest, in the coastal sector, the Antiatlas I4ountains border an
extensive lowland with elevations less than 200 m. The vegetation is rep-
resented by thin forest with the argan tree, thorny scrub with a predom-
inance of acacia and jujuba, as well as desert-adapted grass associations.
Cinnamon soils, gray soils of subtropical semideserts, irrigated gray soils
o.f oases and black subtropical soils are developed here. On a space ph.oto-
graph, against the uniform gray background of the image of the desert land-
s.cape of the coastal lowland with its cinnamon soils, it is easy to see
dark spots sectors occupied tiy oases. The gray soils of the subtroplcal
- semideserts have a light gray tone of the photoimage. A dark gray tone
clearly reveals the moister sectors of irrigated gray soils and black sub-
' tropical soils. A lowland with sandy soils extends in a narrow band along
the Atlantic coast in the lower part of the photograph.
Another space photograph, taken during the flight of the "Gemini-4" space-
ship over the territory of Oman, in great detail (at a scale 1:750,000)
reveals the nature of the earth's surface in the eastern part of tre Arab-
ian Peninsula (Figures 20, 20a). We carried out soil interpretation using
a soil map of Asia based on black-and-white and color photographs. The al-
titude of rhe survey was 180 km; the area of the survey was 22,500 km2. The
color photograph clearly shows sand dunes in a reddish-yellow color with
the crests extending from north to south for tens and hundreds of kilo-
meters parallel to the prevailing wind direction. Chains of mounfiains rise
aharply from them to t}ie northeast; these mountaine of Oman rise up to
3,000 m. 'I'hcHC mauntnlnx are mnde up of limestones, tru-irls nnd shales with
c~tacropr+ ol' volcnn:ic rc>cky. vegetation ia very spur5e. The soil cover
l.y repre:ieited by reddisti-hrowri mauntain soils of the savanna nnd is char-
acterized by extensive occurrence of rock debris.
_ Tlie pllotograph clearly shows a finely corroded folded dendritic pattern of
- a gray tone associated with erosional dissection of the surface, the di-
rection of the mountain folds and dry valleys. A very rocky foothill zone
around the mountains with a width of about 20 km is clearly interpreted
from the more uniform-homogeneous pattern. Dry rocky wadis are represented
' on the photograph by the light-colored veins of the dendritic pattern.
Reddish-brown desert-adapted savanna soils are formed in the foothill szc-
tor. Along the southeastern part of the peninsular coast the light gray
tone on the photograph represents a zone with coastal off-shore bars and
gentler relief forms than in the foothill and especially in the mountainous
_ part of the territory. This zone consists of soils of the tropical deserts,
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- and in the sector transitional to the mounta~ris there are reddish-brown
desert-adapted savanna soils. Individual snall spots and dark points along
the boundary of dunes and along the coast correspond to cultivated oases.
- Swamps, lagoons and residual lakes have the darkest tone on the photograph.
Fig. 19. Space photo graph of territory of southwestern Morocco adjacent to -
Atlantic Ocean. Scale -J 1:900,000. Survey made from "Gemini-5" spaceship.
The mountain and foothill zone, coastal strip and zone of sand dune occur-
rence are reliably discerned in general on the space photograph on the ba-
sis of the nature of the earth's surface and soil cover (its structure and
_ different erosional dissection). -
- Zt was established in our investigations of space photographs of mountain- _
- ous regions that the vertical zonality of the soil-vegetation cover is _
clearly traced from them. For example, from a comparison of space photo-
gra;-',s of Altayskiy Kray taken during flight of the "Salyut" orbital station
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in the summer of 1971 and soil maps of this region, taking into account
- the change in the gray phototone and the image pattern, it is possible
_ to see the transition from mountain gray farest soils formed under th.:
dark coniferous mountain forests of Southern. Siberia, to mountain and or-
dinary chernozems, partially tilled or occupied by mountain meadow steppes.
I ATJIAHTXYeCJfXlf
okeAx
Y.
1
~2
~3
4
~5
~6
7
B
9
.
~a
~it
Fig. 19a. Interpretation of soil c.over from space photograph of territory
of southwestern Morocco adjacent to Atlantic Ocean. Soils: 1) mountain - red dish- cinnamon and cinnamon; 2) mountain reddish-cinnamon and eroded
cinnamon; 3) mountain reddish-cinnamon, cinnamon and reddish-brown; 4)
- mountain cinnamon; 5) reddish-cinnamon and cinnamon; 6) cinnamon and gray-
_ cinnamon; 7) gray-cinnamon and black subtropical; 8) gray soils of sub-
tropical semidesert; 9) gray soils of irrigated oases; 10) sandy coastal
zone of ocean; 11) alluvial.
The lower zone of steppe expanses of the analyzed territory is represented _
- by southern chernozems, dark chestnut and chestnut soils with a high per- _
centage of solonetz. In the lowland part, against the general gray and
- light gray image bacYcground of the image of chestnet and solonetz soils,
on the basis of the dark granular pattern of the photoimage and the ex-
tended linear form of the contours, it is easy to distinguish sandy uncott-
olidated soils formed under steppe-adapted band pine forests which occur
along the channels of anctent watercourses.
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Fig. 20. Space photograph of eastern part of Arabian Peninsula in region
of Cape Guardafui (Ras Assir). Scale 1:750,000. The survey was made from
the "Gemini-4" spaceship.
a Small Scale Properties and Generalization-of Soil Photoimage
An i.mportant characteristic of a space survey is that the photographs are
small scale. The photographs may be of a very small scale, about
1:10,000,000 - 1:100,000,000 and smaller, with great generalization not
only of the soil-vegetation cover, but also relief forms on the earth�s
surface. Such photographs are used for scanning purposes. Both in our
country and abroad rather extensive use is made of small-scale photo-
graphs at a scale of 1:1,000,000 - 1:2,500,000. These space photographs
can be used in small-scale soil mapping. The optical generalization of
the soil cover, which is reflected in the nature of the photoimage of these
photographs, makes possible successful interpretation and ma.pping of zon-
� al and especially intrazonal soils and dettction of"erod"ed-. and'salinized
sectors revealing a different character of agriculturajoIand use.
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Table 22
Possibilities of Use of Space Research Methods in Agriculture
(AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS..., 1967)
Field of application Necessary resolution rela- Interpretation methads
tive to maximum possible
theoretical resolution in: photographic IR and
photographic IR and infra- infrather-
methods thermal methods mal
- Determination of Minimum Developed Not developed,
principal types of
- land use
Observation of " Same Same
soil cover
Observation of
- water resources
Mapping Minimum Unsuitable
"
Ohservation of MinimiTm Partially
state of pastures developed
Observation of ag-
ronomic conditions Same
Determination of Average Mj.nimum "
types of agricul-
tural crops
Observation of in- Maximum
tensity of develop-
ment of agricultural
crops
u n
Determination of
yield of agricul-
tural crops
Observation of " Piot developed
- farm animals
124
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Table 23. Interpretation Criteria for Soils for Space Photograph and Aerial
Photographs (Table-Key). Survey Time Late Spring and Early Siunmer. Pho-
- tographs: Black-and-White (Isopanchromatic). Aerial Survey Scale: Mediumo
Space Photograph Scale: Small
11
12
13
14
_ 15
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8,0
7,8
7,9
KEY TO TABLE 23
1. Soil-forming rock
2. Vegetation, agricultural crops
3. Depth of ground water, m
4. Depth of sample, cm
5. pH aqueous
6. Humus, %
7. Absorption capacity, meq/100 g of soil
8. C02, %
9. Sum of salts, %
10. Mechanical composition of particles, mm
11. Micellar-calcareous extra-thick chernozem
12. Leached, extra-thick meadow-chernozem
13. Solodized, medium-thick meadow-chernozem
14. Leached chernozem-meadow
15. Solonchak-like meadow solonetz
16. Meadow solunchak
17. Slightly convex watershed
18. Narrow flat trough
19. Flat swale
20. Terrace, flat sectors
21. Slightly raised terrace
22. Depi�ession near terrace
23. Loessial deposits
24. Talus deposits
25. Talus d-eposits
26. Ancient alluvial clayey loam
27. Ancient alluvial clayey loam
28. Saline deluvial clays
29. Cultivated land
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~2
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Fig. 20a. Interpretation of soil cover from space photograph of territory
of eastern part of Arabian Peninsula in neighboriwod of Cape Guarclafui
(Ras Assir). Soils: 1) mountain reddish-brown savanna soils; 2) mountain
reddish-brown soils of dry savannas; 3) reddish-brown highly rocky desert-
adapted savannas; 4) reddish-brown desert-adapted savannas of intermont
- basins; S) soils of tropical deserts; 6) soils of tropical deserta with
sandy off-shore bars; 7) ridged deflatable and semiconsolidated sands; 8)
irrigated soils of oases; 9) coastal lagoons and swamps.
_ Applying specialized photographic systems and artificial earth satellites
it is possible to obtain space photographs at the inrermediate scale of
_ 1:100,000-1:200,000 which with a high detail impart the image of the soil
cover, the nature of the mechanical composition, different humus content,
moisture content, erosion and salinization of soils.
At thp present time the most widely used scales of space surveys are
� 1:10,000,000 - 1:1,000,000 or larger. A survey at scales 1:100,000 -
1:1,000,000 is promising for study of the soil cover on a regional basis.
_ The choice of scales of these photographs is determined by the necessary
accuracy in soil mappinb. An an3lysis of space photograpYls taken from the
"Soyuz-9," "Soyuz-12" and "Soyuz-22" spaceships and the "SaTyut" orbital
station indicated that these photographs can be used in compiling and
correctfng a soil map at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
Data from foreign authors show that materials from the "Apollo-9" space-
ship at a scale of 1:3,000,000 were used in compiling a phn tomap at
1:250,000, whereas the photographic systems of the "Skylab" orbital station
_ ensured the preparation of maps at a scale of 1:118;000 with an initial
survey scale of 1:2,500,000.
- The p,roblems involved in the generalization Qf space photographs are insep-
arable from complex special mapping. In order to compile internediate- and
small-scale soil maps it is desirable to have a sc:ale of space photographs
_ (enlarged from the original by 2X-4x or 3x-5X) identical wi:th :.he mapping
135
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scale (Kravtsova, 1974, 1977). This is associated not only with the tech-
nical conveniences for work with space photographs, but also with the sim-
ilar generalization level.
- An important characteristic of a space surve:y is that on space photographs
there is an objective optical generalization of the earth's surface and
soil cover. In order to analyze this problem we studied the possibilities
of interpretation of the soil cover of the dry steppe zone in the region
of the "Tsimlyanskiy" sector on the basis of a space photograph and mat-
erials from an aerial survey.
The scale of the sp3ce photograph taken from the "Soyuz-9" ship in June
1970 was 1:2,500,000. The sca.le of the aerial photographs is different.
The photographs were black-and-white. In carrying out the work we compared
ancl analyzed the,photographic images of different soils on the aerial photo-
graphs and on the spac.e photograph for the territory of different natural
regions. We analyzed sectors of different water�divides, terraces and flood
- plains of a steppe river. The materials of field checking are given wi*h an
indication of the morphological and physicechemical data for the investigat-
ed soils (Table 23).
_ The s.pace photograph and small-scale maps were used in identification and
geographical tie-in to the terrain. This was done most easily using a
, photoimage of the shores of the Gulf of Taganrog, Tsiml.yanskoye Reservoir
and Lake Manych-Gudilo. The meanders of the lower course of the Don and
. Manych Rivers show up clearly. Due to cloud cover the Sa1 River could be
traced reliabiy only in the lower mouth reach; the remainder of the course
had to be plotted approximately.
The second plement afcer the.hydrographic pattern which could be determin-
_ ed from the space photograph is the character of agricultural use of the
- ter.ritory. On the basis of the c3egree of Iand use exploitation it is easy
to distinguish three soil-geographic regions: light chestnut soils with a
minimum percentage of tilled land, chestnut soils, where exploitation in-
creases sharply to 30-40%, and southern chernozems which are 50-60% tilled..
However, against the image background of chernazems it was impossible to
see micellar-calcareous thick and very thick soils with plantings of ag-
ricultural crops. This is evidently associated with the time of the survey
_ (mid-June). During this period fields with plantings of winter wheat, which
predominate in this region, merge on the photoimage with the soil surface.
All three principal components of the soil cover - micellar-calcareous
chernozems. meadow-chernozem, meadow-chernozem solothized in the ter-
ritory of the Azov-Kuban plain were clearly traced on large-scale aerial
photog�raphs. Using medium-scale aerial-photographs meadow-clzernozem soloth-
ized soils, due to the sma.ll size of the depressions, were interpreted with
difficulty. An analysis af similar soi.ls on a space photograph indicated
_ that in the process of optical generalization the meadow-chernozem soils
_ of 1ic11oGZS and depressions merge into a single contour of a dark gray tone
characteristic for the photoimage of micellar-calcareous chernozems.
136
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- Another experimental sector took in the marginal watershed eroded part of
Sal'sko-Manychskoye interfluve and the terrace of the Manych River. On
the aerial photograph the eroded chernozems with a Iuumus content of ahout
- 4% show up in a light tone. The soil cover of the terrace is complex. Here
there is representation of cfiernozem-�meadow solonetz-like soils with soil-
ground water at a depth of 2 m. On the aerial photographs these soils ap-
pear in a dark gray tone due to increased moisture content and a quite
good supply of humus. Meadow solonchak-like solonetz soils are another
component of the soil cover on the terrace. On aerial photographs they
show up in a light gray tone of an intricate pattern. A still brighter
light tone is characteristic of the image of ineadow solonchaks, which at
the surface have a salt crust. In general, the terrace photograph has a
clearly expressed fine-riFabed intricate pattern characteristic for a com-
plex soil cover with solonetz soils.
- An analysis of a similar territory on a space photograph indicated that
this complexity of the soil cover and the high percentage of participatiQn
of ineadow soils, solonetz soils and solonchaks is reflected in a nonuni-
- form pattern of a gray and dark gray tone on the photoimage of the space
photograph.
Tne third experimental sector is the floodplain of the steppe Don River.
The floodplain surface has a complex relief consisting of sandy crests,
clayey loam depressions between the crests, distributaries, present-day
and ancient ox-bow lakes and flat leveled sectors.
Alluvial meadow sandy and sandy loam soils are formed on the sandy crests.
On aerial photographs these soils are easily interpreted from the curved
form of crests with a bright-light tone. In the more moistened depressions
- between the crests there is development of alluvial meadow qlayey loam
sand-permeated soils. On aerial photographs they have a gray or dark gray
tone, depending on the degree of moistening and the huffius content. On a
relatively flat sector of the floodplain, made up of clayey loam and heavy
clayey loam saline deposits,there are alluvial meadow solonetz-like and
solonetz-solonchak-like soils. On the aerial photographs these soils show
up in a gray tone. Agaiiist the background of these soils, due to a dark
gray tone and a curved crescent shape, it is easy to interpret long, narrow
" troughs, poorly expressed in the relief, greatly leveled depressions be-
tween the crests and silt-filled ox-bow lakes. Alluvial moist-meadow sol-
onetz-like heavy clayep loam soils have developed here. In former ox-bow
lakes, well expressed in the relief, there are alluvial meadow-swampy and
- swampy soils which on an aerial photograph are clearly interpreted due to
_ their affinity to ox-bow lakes and the dark image tone. The photograph
= showed the first terrace above the floodplain with highly solonetzic
= combined soils and solonetz soils. The solonetz compZex shows up in a
nottled pattern with a light gray tone.
A study of the photoimage of this sector from a space photograph indicated
that the soil cover of the floodplain and the territory of the first ter-
race above the floodplain do not differ from one another and show up in a
complex pattern of a gray and dark gray tone.
137
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.
_ The results of a comparative analysis of small-scale soil maps and the
space photograph indicated the following. On the space photograph the
- area of micellar-calcaieous chernozems adjacent to the Gulf of Taganrog
shows up in a dark gray tone of a uniform pattern. Southern chernozems
have a similar image tone. However, in the areas of southern chernozems
_ it is easy to see rectangles of fields with plantiags of agricultural crops.
They are particularly clearly visible in the southeastern part of the Sal'-
- sko-Manychskaya Ridge on the bouadary with chestnut soils.
SoutfieYn chernozems in combination with meadow-chernozem soils, situated
on the high terrace of the Don between its valley and the Lower Don Caaial,
- were reliably interpreted from the darkest photoimage tone. This tone, on
_ the one hand, is associated with a considerable humus content (about 4%),.
and on the other hand, with a high soil moistjxre content, since a consider-
able area between the Lower pon Canal and the Lon val3.ey is a zone of inten-
- sive irrigation.
A considerable area to the south of the Tsimlyanskoye Yeservoir, where
southern chernozems and especially chestnut soils are encountered, is
' covered by noncontinuous cloud cover, but it masks the surface image. Only
in the region of tfie southeastern tip of the Sal'sko-Manychskaya Ridge
does the cloud cover disappear, and from the photoimage oti the space
photograph it is possible to determine clearly and map areas of chernozems,
chestnut and light chestnut soils. With respect to the image tone the
_ chestnut and light chestnut soils with a high participation of solonetz
soils are similar. They show up in a light gray tone, but chestnut soils
have a considerably higher percentage of cultivation in the territory.
There is very reliable interpretation of the boundary in the neighbor-
hood of Lake Manych-Gudilo between light chestnut soils with a high par-
ticipation of solonetz soils and southern chernozems. On a space photo-
graph at the western tip of Lake Manych-Gudilo an area of ineadow-chestnut
soils also stands out sharply against a light gray background of light
cnestnut soils. It shows up in a mottled pattern of a dark tone with
light gray spots.
On space materials a study was also made of the degree of gendralization
- of the soil cover of the dry steppe Zavolzh'ye region. For these; purposes
use was made of a space photograph at a scale of 1:2,500,000 for the ter-
ritory of the Syrtovoye Zavolzh'ye steppe zone, taken from the "Salyut-4"
orbital station, whereas as a"key" use was made of a soil map of one of
the farms of this territory at a scale of 1:25,000 which we compiled
earlie'r (under the editorship of Doctor of Agricultural Scien ces V. A.
Nosina) using aerial photograghs at a scale of 1:17,000. The investiga-
tions indicated that on a space photograph on the basis of the different
tiexture of the photoimage there is reliable discrimination of southern
chernozems developed on watersheds with areas of eroded soils (complex
dendritic texture) and southern chernozems formed on terraces (uniforai or
wideiy spaced dendritic texture). The complex pattern of the photoimage
of the soil cover of terraces, discriminated from aerial photographs
138
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- (sauthern chernozems of different thiclrness, excavated chernozems, meadow-
chernozem soils), on a space photograph had a uniform image of a dark gray
tone. On watersheds and terraces on the basis of a dendritic pattem of a
light gray tone there is reliable interpretaCion of eroded and "washed"
soils of gullies and ravines and meadow-chernozem soils developed on
their bottoms.
As a result of a comparative analysis of the optical generalization pro-
cess it was established that on space photographs at a scale of 1:2,500,000
for the territory of the Syrtovoye Zavolzh'ye it was possible to deter-
mine 5-6 of the soils of the 20 reliably interpreted from large-scale
- aerial photographs. In the course of generalization there is a quantita-
tive and qualitative selection of soil areas and generalization of their
configuration.
In the theory of space interpretation of the soil cover, due to its gener-
= alization, it is possible to introduce the concepts of simple and complex
integration. The first is characteristic for the representation of soil
combinations on a photograph, whereas the second is characteristic of rep-
_ resentation of soil combinations and soil complexes on a space photograph.
The joint use of aerial photographs and space photographs of different
scales indicates that as a result of optical generalization there is rep-
resentation of a different structure of organization of the soil cover. At
- present a study of different types of structures is of theoretical and
practical interest for the needs of agricultural production.
InterpreCation and Checking the Condition of Soils in Different Natural
- Zones from SpaAe Photographs
One of the promising directions in the use of space materials in soil sci-
enceis the development of inethods for the quantitative and qualitztive
inventorying of soil resources, the development of inethods for the visual-
instrunental soils interpretation of space photographs and monitoring the
condition of soils.
The interpretation of soils was carried out with the use of soil maps at
medium and small scales, aerial photographs and materials from field in-
^ vestigations. An analysis of space photographs, based on study of the
soilcover of the steppe and desert zones, indicated that using them
there is reliable interpretation of automorphous, polyhydromorphous,
liydromnrphous, floodplain alluvial and 'irrigated soils.
In the steppe zone of Altayskiy Kray and Kazakhstan, on the basis of space
photographs at a scale of 1:1,500,000 (and enlarged 4-5X), obtained during
the flight of the "Salyut-1" orbital station, there was successful inter-
pretation of a number of soils (Table 24) (in the preparation of this
table-indicator in our investigations we used materials from a complex
geographic interpretation of space photographs for the purposes of special
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mapping, work carried out in 1975 at Moscow State University under the di-
rection of K. A. Salishchev.
An analysis of the table shows that the cited soils are interpreted with a
different degree of reliability. Soils with a different participaCion of
- solonetz are poorly discriminated from one another on small-scale photo-
" graphs. On the basis of absence of plowing of the soils and a lighter
photoimage tone it is possible to make an indirect judgment concerning
an increase in solonetz in the soil cover.
It i.s very easy to see the difference between soddy-slightly podzolic
sandy and the main background soils of this territory chestnut and
southern chernozems; between ordinary chernozems and mountain chernozems
and gray forest soils; between alluvial-meadow and meadow-swampy soils of
- low and high floodplains.
The data in Table 24 show that using interpretation criteria there is a
_ reliable interpretation of ineadow-swampy soils and solonchaks. The photo-
image tone of solonchaks is bright white, for solonetz soils light
gray, for meadow-solonchak-like soils dark gray, for meadow-swampy
- soils dark gray or almost black.
In microphotometric measurements of a space photograph of the territory of
Altayskiy Kray, on the basis oF i.he nature and shape of the spectral curve
there is reliable discrimination of chestnut soils and soddy-podzolic
- sandy soils. Sharp peaks of optical density make possible a clear inter-
pretation of unconsolidated sands subject to deflation. Areas of chestnut
and southern chernozems dif'Ler from one another due to sone decrease (by
0.5-0.7) in the optical density of the latter. Fields with different ag-
ricultural crops have a different optical density and in microphotometric
! measurements a characteristic shape of the curve for each field is obtain-
ed (Fig. 21).
_ A light mechanical composition of chestnut soils (sands and sandy loams) was
also determined from the photoimage of the space photograph; sectors of
_ soil subjected to wind erosion stand out especially clearly.
In a soil-agricultural regionalization of a territory it is possible to
use small- and medium-scale space photographs. Using space photographs of
the territory of the dry steppe zone of the northwestern part of Kazakh-
- stan, obtained during the spring of 1973, we made a study of the soil
_ cover. The interpretation criteria for these soils are given in Table 25.
An analysis of the characteristics of the photoima.ge indicated that using
a space photograph, as a result of its extensive coverage and optical
generalization, it was possible to determine the principal soil-geograph-
ical patterns of this natural region.
- The -2ntire territory, on the basis of the photoimage of the soil cover on
a space photograph, was subdivided into five major soil-geographical re-
gions. We will noia examine the peculiarities of their photoimage.
140
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D '
/,2
1,8 I- i I Yh 1. (II I.. A'
0,8 FiI Y' ' 'v + ! + ? Wi '1I' 1I '
46

Cultivated ~
1 //QWNA /117!!/NR
flae3p k Ila K yroK i~an,a, NCH
30 60 90 120 !Sp 180 ZJO L,,VH
- SiSi er C Si C� ChSC CSS -
Fig. 21. Microphotometric profile obtained from space photograph from "Sal-
yut" orbital station. Soils: SiSi er soddy-slightly podzolic and soddy- -
slightly podzolfc eroded sandy soils.; Ss soddy slightly podzolic sandy
soils; C-- chestnut soils; ChSC soulhern chernozems and chestnut
soils; CSS steppe chestnut and solonetz soils. The fields with a"V" _
are fallow; are plantings of grain cropa; symbols: cornfields;
perennial grasses; X-- deflated sands.
The first region is characteristic for the territory of an undulating-
. sandy plain consisting of dark chestnut sandy loam and meadow-chestnut
solonetz-like soils. The image of these sotls is characterized by a moire
pattern with a light gray and gray tone. The soils are of a light mechan-
ical composition. Considerable areas are occupied by virginland vegeta-
tion. This region is characterized by the presence of a great number of
small lakes whose marginal parts are salina and meadow solonchaks. Against
the gray image background of steppe expanses they are clearly interpreted
from the almost white image tone.
The gecond soil-geographical region takes in the territory of an ancient
runoff trough with a complex soil cover which is represented by dark -
chestnut solonetz-like, meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils,, steppe solon- _
etz and meadow-steppe soils. On a space photograph this soil cover shows
~ up in a complex, sharply defined pattern of a light gray, gray and dark _
gray tone. It is particularly clearly expressed in cultivated sectors
with a direct representation of the soil cover.
' The third region is the principal agricultural region. On the photograph
~ it was interpreted from the clearly visible squares of fields, having dif-
i ferent tonality in dependence o.n the nature.of soil processing. This is a
~ territory of plateaus with dark chestnut 'calcareous and meadow-chestnut _
- calcareous soils associated with swales. In the territory of plateaus
~ the number of sioales with meadow-chestnut soils increases sharply in the direction from northeast to southwest. The plateaus drop off eastward in =
a steep scarp in the direction of the Turgayskaya depression.*
1/+1
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Fig. 22. Space photographs taken from American meteorological satellite
(ITc~S-D) NOAA-2 in April 1973 using two-channel radiometer from an alti-
tude of 1,460 1m (scale about 1:10,000,000) in visible (0.5-0.7m) (at
left) and IR (10.5-12.5 �.m) (at right) spectral ranges: 1) Casp an Sea;
2) Caspian Lowland with gray-brown desext sandy soils; 3) valley and delta
of Ural River with light chestnut, meadow-chestnut solonetz-lika and al-
luvial soils; 4) Ustyurt Plateau with gravelly gray-brown clayey and heavy
clayey loam desert soils; 5) solonchak-salina of Ka.r_a-Bogaz-Gol Gulf.
142
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- On the space photograph it is easy to see this.transition from plateau to
. hi`hly eroded slope. The soil cover of the fourth region is represented
by dark chestnut aolonetz-like eroded, meadow-chestnut solonetz-like and
solonchak-like soils, as well as meadow-steppe solonetz soils. On the
photograph the photoimage of the soil cover has a complex aerrated den-
' dritic pattern of a light gray and gray tone with a great number of ero-
sional troughs, rills and erosional remnants. With respect to tonality
the soil cover is characterized by considerable mottling. Small areas
_ form insular sectors of pine forest having a dark gray photofmage tone.
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~ South of the plateau there is an extensive ancient runoff trough (fifth
region). The space photograph clearly conveys the basic NE-SW trend of
the sandy .ridges and interridge depressions and the direction of the
nutnerous lakes in this part of the territory. Dark chestnut sandy soils and
solonchaks have been formed here. There are sectora of deflatable sandy
masses. On the photograph this natural region shows up in a clearly ex-
- pressed moire pattern with light gray and gray fones. The solonchaks have
an almost.white tone. The transitional sector of lands from the ancient
runoff trough to the plateau on *_he apace photograph has a gray and
dark gray tone of a large-spotted patterno Dark chestnut solonetz-like,
meadow-steppe solonetz and meadow-solonetz-like soils have developed here
under virginland wormwood-sheep's fescue vegetation.
Thus, on a space photograph of the dry steppe zone during the period of a
- spring survey there was reliable determinaCion of: a) dark chestnut cal-
careous and meadow-chestnut calcareous soils of plateaus; b) dark chest-
nut sandy loam and meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils of an undulating
sandy plain; c) complex soil cover of an ancient runoff trough, repre-
sented by dark chestnut solonetz-like, meadow-chestnut solonetz-like and
steppe and meadow-steppe solonetz soils; d) amidst the complex soil
- cover, on the basis of a light tone, areas of steppe solonetz soils, on
the basis of a dark gray tone areas of ineadow and meadow-chestnut solon-
etz-like soils; e) eroded sectors of the soil cover, represented by dark
chestnut solonetz-like eroded soils and meadow-steppe solonetz soils; f)
dark chestnut sandy soils; g) solonchaks.
The possibility of interpreting the soil cover of the desert zone from
space photographs will be examined on the basis of materials obtained from
the "Soyuz-9" and "Soyuz-12" spaceships and the "Salyut-4" orbital station
for territories adjacent to Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf and also from the American
satellite "NOAA-2," which from an altitude of 1,460 km, employing a two-
channel radiometer, probes the soil cover in the visible (0.5-0.7e m) and
I?t (10.5-12.5 ~ m) spectral zones.
A comparative analysis of these photographs, made in the course of our in-
vestigations, indicated the following. The photographs taken in the vis-
ible and IR ranges clearly show the Caspian Lowland with gray-brown des-
ert sandy soils. On the first photograph (Fig. 22, at left) it appears as
a nonuniform pattern of a light gray and gray tone with bright-light a.reas
of solonchaks in the neighborhood of Mertvyy I:ultuk and Kaydak salinas
and in the coastal part of the Buaachi Peninsula.
On an IR photograph the }.owland has a dark gray homogeneous tone, against
which as light gray sectors and small spots it is easy to discriminate
= coastal solonchaks and the E1'ton, Biakunebak and other salt lakes. On a
photograph taken in the visible range these lakes virtuaily merge with
the surrounding territory. In addition, on this photograpYt the northern
boundaries of Ryn sands are sharply defined in the northwest adjacent to
Khaki salina; the valleys and deltas of the Volga and Ural with alluvial
144
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~
Fig. 23. Space photograph of western part of Ustyurt Plateau and Kara-Bogaz- _
Gol Gulf and interpretation of soil cover from it. Scale 1:2.500,000. Sur- -
vey made from "Soyuz-9" spaceship in June 1970. Soils: 1) gray--brown solon- -
chak-like, clayey and heavy clayey loam desert eoils; 2) gray-brown solon- chak-like and leached (elutriated):deaert soils; 3) gray-bxown sellonetz-
like, clayey and heavy clayey lomm soils; 4) graq-brown solonch2.k-like, -
takyr-solonetz-like, leached (elutriated), heavy clayey loam with high gyp-
- sum content; 5) mountain gray so{?s;. light gray soils and light gray soils
and solonetz-l.ike, clayey loam and sandy loam light gray soils; 6) ridged -
semiconsolidated sands and solonc'haks;7) gray-bzown solonchak-like sandy -
loam desert soils, hilly-ridged semiconsolidated sands and solonchaks; 8)
salina solonchaka; 9) meadow solonchaks. _
soils. The considerable sol.onetzicity of the light chestnut and meadow-
chestnut soils situated,along the Ural valley is expressed in a uniform gray -
tone of the photoimage of these areas: On an IR photograph Chese peculiar-
itiea of the soil cover are not traced or are inCerpreted with difficulty. _
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Fig. 24. Space photograph of territory ad3acent to Karx-Bogaz-Gol Gulf.
Survey from "Salyut-4" in June 1975. Scale 1:2,500,000.
At the same time, using an IR photograph, it is considerably ezsier to de- .
termine the boundary between the Caspian Lowland and the Ilstyurt Plateau
' with gravelly gray-brown clayey and heavy clayey loam desert soils (Table
- 26). Against the general homageneous gray image background of the soil
cover over the territory of the Ustyurt Plateau the presence of spots of
a dark tone makes it easy to interpret depressions occupied by solonchaks
and gray-brown solonchak-like sandy loam desert soils and hilly semicon-
- solidated sands.'An analysis of a space photograph taken in the IR spec-
tral zone also indicated that the sandy soils of the Krasnovodskoye Plat-
eau and Karakum sands show up in a dark gray tone similar to the image of
the Ryn sands and the sandy expanses of the Caapian Lowland. -
Accordingly, the completeness and quality of interpretation of the soil
cover from space photographs inarease with the use of photographs taken _
in the visible and IR ranges sinmultaneously.
14/
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Fig. 24a. Interpretation of territory adjacent to Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf
from space photograph. Soils: 1) mountain cinnamon; 2) mountain gray
soils (dark gray so i1s); 3) light gray soils on detritus of limestones;
4) light gray soils on ancient clays; 5) light gkay soils, medium and
slightly clayey loam; 6) light-gray soils and,typical gray soils; 7) typical
gray soils; 8) "blended" saline gray soiZs; 9) takyrs; 10) takyr-like des-
ert soils; 11) desertified solonchaks and takyrs; 12) takyr-iike desert
soils, takyrs and solonchaks; 13) typical gray-brown soils, solonchak-
like, with high gypsum content, takyr-solonetz-1ike; 14) solonchak-like
gray-brown soils; 16) typical gray-brown scils and solonchaks; 17) gray-
brown solonchak-like soils and solonchaks; 18) swampy solonchak-like soils
and solonchaks; 19) marsh solonchaks; 20) solonchaks; 21) sands on Paleo-
gene and more ancient rocks; 22) coastal sands on Novokaspiyskiye depos-
its; 23) sands on Pliocene ancient alluvial deposits; 24) ridged sands an3
solonchaks; 25) skeletal soils. [Symbol 15 not identified in ariginal]
' 148
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- Fig. 25. Spaca photograph of territory of southwestern part of Africa (Na- _
' mib Desert). Scale 1,1,000,000. Survey made in autumn (August) from the
"Gemini" spaceship. Soils: 1) gravelly-rocky tropical deserts; 2) sandy-
gravelly tropical deserts; 3) deflatable ridged sands and semiconsolidated
= sands; 4) solonchak-like sandy soils and solonchaks; 5) alluvial delta
soils; 6} mountain reddish-brown desertified savannas. -
On a photograph (scale 1:2,500,000) taken fxom aboard the "Soyuz-9" space-
ship it was easy to see the salt deposits of the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gu1f and
_ the nature of the soil cover in the western part of the Ustyurt Plateau
(Fig. 23). In a genetic interpretation of the photograph we used a soil
map of Central Asia (scale 1:2,500,000). In a microphotometr'Lc study of
~ this photograph on the basis of the nature of the curve and quantitative -
indices of optical blackening density of the film there was reliable dis-
crimination of gray-brown solonchak-like desert soils and gray-brown
solonetz-like soils and solonch.aks.
149.
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rv& vrrll.LttL uon v1vL1
The plateau drops off in steep denuda.tion scarps (chinky) toward the Kara-
- Bogaz-Gol; ti:ese features are clearly visible on space photographs. On the
photograph a high percentage of the Ustyurt Plateau hae a homogeneous gray
photoimage tone. Gray-brown desert solonchak-like, takyr-solonetz-like,
leacbed (elutriated) soils and soils with a high gypsum content are formed
here under wormwood-Russian thistle, wormwood-biyurgunova and wormwood-
bayalyna vegetation.
Uaing space photographs it is easy to see the difference between the soil
cover of the Mangyshlakskoye and Krasnovodskoye Plateaus. North of the Kara-
Bogaz-Gol, in the territory of the Mangyshlakskoye Plateau, on the basis
of the gray and dark gray photoimage tones it was possible to interpret
gray-brown desert solonetz-like and solonchak-like, frequently gravelly
soils predominantly of a heavy mechanical composition (Table 27). A bright-
light tone corresponds to depresaions without external drainage with solon-
chaks. On the eroded sectors of plateaus there are exposed bedrocks: clays,
limestones, gypsums. On the photograph these places can be detected from
the serrated-striated photoimage pattern. These characteristics of the
soil cover of the Mangyshlaksk.flye Plateau are especially clearly interpret-
, ed from a color space photograph taken from the "Soyuz-12." L. N. Kulesh-
ov, et al. (1477) also examined the possibilities of inrerpretation of
soils in the territory of the Mangyshlakskoye Peninsula.
- The soil cover of the Krasnovodskoye Plateau is characterized by the wide-
- spread development of gray-brnwn sandy and sandy loam soils. Here it is
~ common to encounter sectors of hilly and ridged, poorly consolidated and
deflatable sands. Takyrs and solonchaks are formed in depressions. A pho-
- tograph of the soil cover of this territory shows a mottled spotty-tongue-
- like pattern of a gray, light gray and light tone. Difficulties in inter-
pretation of the soil cover from space photographs are attributable to the
- presence of cloud cover. We made a still more detailed interprztation of
the soil cover in this territory from a photograph (scale 1:2,500,000)
taken from the "Salyut-4" (Fig. 24, 24a).
We will also examine a photograph of the desert zone taken from the "Gev-
ini" spaceship and characterizing the photoimage of the soil cover. The
_ space photograph (Fig. 25) covers the territory of the Namib Desert ad-
jacenr_ to the coast of southwestern Africa. We used a soil map of Africa
in its interpretation.

152
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On the basis of tone and type of photoimage the photograph is clearly sub-
divided into three major regions. The upper part of the photograph covers
the southern part of tfie Damaraland Plateau and there are mountain red-
brown soils of savannas and reddish-brown desertified savannasa The photo-
image tone of these soils is gray or dark gray with a characteristic ridg-
_ ed-dislocated type of etructure. The middlE part of the photograph has a
_ ligbt tone of a uniform pattern typical for the image of gravelly-rocky
soils of tropical deserts. The photograph shows a very sharp contrast be-
'`ween a sector of granelly-rocky and sandy deserts. The sandy part of the
Namtb Desext on the photograph has a gray tone of the photoima.ge and a
dune-ridge type of structure characteristic for deflatable and semiconsol-
- idated sands. Tfie space photograph shows that the extent of the sand ridges
can attain even several fiundreds of kilometers.
An investigation of the interpretability of the soil cover from space pho-
tographs of the desert zone indicated that due to the good exposure of the
soil surface the effect of soil identification in this zone is high. On
. space.pfiotograpfis the soil cover of the desert zone is interpreted more pre-
- cisely and more completely than for the steppe zone.
A space survey makes it possible to monitor the state of soils and their
modification under the influence of irrigstion and also identify areas of
secondarily saline soils. On space photographs it is rather easy to deter-
mine irrigated lands of the semidesert and desert zones from the sharply
differing coloration of moist irrigated and dry soils. In the future, using
data on changes in the depth of soil and ground water, plans call for de-
termining the times for the carrying out of irrigation and the quantity of
water necessary for the cultivation of agricultural crops.
Using a space photograph (scale 1:1,500,000) taken �rom the "Salyut-1"
after considerable enlargement it was possible to distinguish an irriga-
tion system from the water intake to the water outlet (Sheyko, 1975). In
gart it was possible to see the main canal, along which a dark gray band
with rounded (festooned) edges corresponds to sectors with the soil-ground
water at a shallow depth.
A space photograph at a scale of 1:1,500,000, taken from an altitude of
300 km from the "Gemini-5" spaceahip, clearly shows the fertile old irri-
gated lands of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. The:highly dissected
folded limestone-marly chains of the Zagros Mountains adjoin them on the
east. A marked periodic increase in the mass of water in the lower reach-
es of the Tigris results in floods and the development of a hydromarphou.s
landscape with alluvial-swampy and solonchak-swampy soils. On a color pho-
tograph swampy areas, have a dark blue color and diffuse, amebalike boun-
daries. The dessicated saline bottoms of lakes and swampy sectors are de-
termined from the lighter color of the salt crust image on their surfaces.
153
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A study of the natural wealth.and proper use of river deltas in agricul-
tural production is of great importance. River deltas, being some of the
recent formations on aur planet, make possible direct observation of the
formation of the earth's present-day surface.
We determined the characteristic delta structure of alluvial irrigated
soils from the next photograph, taken at a scale of 1:700,000 (Fig. 26).
This space photograph covers a considerable part of the Nile delta and
adjacent territories with sos.ls of tte subtropical deserts. Irrigated
soils were represented by a dark gray tone, against whose general back-
ground it aras. easy to detect the meandering channel of the Nile Rivero
The photoimage of the sandy and gravelly-rocky soils of the subtropical
deserts surrounding the delta has a gray and light-gray tone with a char-
acteristic complexly dendritic pattern the image of numerous dry wadis.
For the territory of Ethiopia, using the photographs it is also possible
to determine the soil-plant cover of the valleys and deltas with maximum
detail.
On a space photograph.of the territory of Central Asia, taken from the
"Salyut-4" (scale 1:2,500,000), we interpreted the present-day delta of
the Amudar'ya delta, and also with cartographic accuracy, amidst the sands,
on the basis of the delta form and pattern of the photoimage of different
tonality, it was possible to see several ancient deltas of this river (Fig.
27, 27a)-
- On existing soil maps there axe no representations of soil areas of an-
cient deltas. With respect to genesis, the soil cover of these ancient
delta territories (desert takyrlike soils, solonchaks) is sharply differ-
ent from the genesis of the sands surrounding them. With respect to tone,
pattern and image contrast on the photographs the sectors of the ancient
deltas of the AmLdarlya are nonuniform and differ with respect to age of
forma.tion. This makes it possible to detect tihe age of formation of the
soil cover of these territories.

154
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Fig. 26. Space photograph of territory of northeastern piart of Africa (Nile
delta). Scale 1:700,000. Survey made from spaceship "Gemini." Soils: 1) al-
_ luvi.al irrigated soils of delta (main canals are visible); 2) sandy soils
~ of subtropical deserts; 3) pebbly-rocky soils of mountainous areas of sub-
tropical deserts.
- A space survey, :tn comparison with an aerial survey, is characterized by -
a rapidity in the collec.tion of data for extensive regions of the earth. _
The period of revolution of different space vehiclea around the earth is
about 90-100 minutes. During a 24-hour period the Soviet system of the
"Meteor" artificial earth satellite type is able to take photographs of
half the earth. The television cAmeras `of artificia]: ear.th satellites of
Che "ITOS-2" type daily transmit up to 140-150 images of the earth�a sur-
face. Computations made in the United States show that in a survey from
space the entire territory of the country can be represented on 400 photo-
grapha. In order to carry out this work it is necessary to have about 17 _
_ days instead of lU years of work with an ordinary aerial survey. The rap-
idity of obtaining space materials covering great areas and obtained at
one survey time is of great impertance for the comparative study of opera- -
~ tion of irrigation and drainage systems for individual basins and as a -
whole for detertaining the nature of the soil cover of different natural ,
landscapea, etc.
155
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Fig. 27. Space photograph of the delt$ of the Amudar'ya. Survey from the
"Salyut-4" in June 1975. Scale 1:2,5000000. 1) modern delta of the Amudar'-
ya; 2) ancient delta of the Amudar'ya.
Thus, space photographs can be used in determining the resources of irri-
gated aitd saline lands, for clarifying the nature of moistQning and change
in soils under the influence of irrigation measures, and for determining
the areas of secondary salinization.
.
Agricultural Interpretation of Space Photogxaphs
Space photographs can be successfully used for ascertaining the uae of
soils, clarifying the condition of agricultural crops and determining
their crop yield.
- On black-and-white space photographs of the steppe zone of Kazakhstan and
Altayskiy Kray taken from the "Salyut-1", on the basis of the different
image tone and structure there was reliable determinaCion of plantings of
156 r
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AllAJtbCaCO@
Mope
+ ~ ~3 4 ~5
~7
~13 ~15 16 ~f7 ffm18
~19 ~20 ~21 ~22 ~23 ~nr
~25 ~26 ~27 28 ~29 ~30
Fig. 27a. Soil cover interpretation of Amudar'ya delta region from space
_ photo from "Salyut-4" in June 1975. Soils: 1) gray-brown typical and solon-
chak-like gravelly soils; 2) gray-brown typical clayey loaffi and light clayey
loam soils; 3) gray-brown solonetz-like soils; 4) gray-brown solonchak-like
soils; 5) gray-brown typical.and solonchak-like soils; 5) gray-brown typical
and solonchak-like soils; 6) gray-brown solonetz-like and solonchak-like
soils; 7) gray-brown solonetz-Iike soils and solonchaks; 8) gray-brown sol-
onchak-like soils and solonchaks; 9) gray-brown typical and solonetz-like
soils; 10) desert takyr-like soils; 11) desert takyr-like soils and solon-
chaks; 12) desert takyr-like solonchak-like soils, takyrs and solonchaks;
13) desert takyr-like solonchak-like soils and solonchaksy 14) sands on
y Paleogene and more ancient rocks and solonchaks; 15) sands on Pliocene an-
cient alluvial deposits; 16) sands on Pliocene Quaternary alluvial deposits
of Amudar'ya and desert takyr-like solonchak-like sails; 17) sands and des-
ert takyr-like soils; 18) sands on Paleogene and more ancient rocks and des-
ert takyr-like soils and takyrs; 20) desert takyr-like soils, takyrs and
solonchaks; 21) desert takyr-like soils, takyrs, sands and solonchaks; 22)
desert_takyr-like solonchak-like soils and solonchaks; 23) takyr solonchak-
like soils and solonchaks; 24) solonchaks; 25) solonchaks and sands; 26)
marshy solonchaks; 27) meadow and swampy saline and nonsaline floodplain
soils; 28) swampy saline and nonsaline floodplain soils; 28) swampy saline
and nonsaline floodplain soils; 29) old ixrigated meadow and old irrigated
saline soils; 30) old irrigated meadow saline soils and solonchaks.
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agricultural crops (Tahle 28). The reliability of interpretation for di�-
ferent crops was different. For example, fields with perennial grasses
= are interpreted reliably from tfie dark gray, almost black tone, the rec-
tangular form of tfie units with distinct boundaries and a homogeneous pat-
tern. Grains (wheat, barley, oats) have a similar gray image tone. Fields
with grain crops are clearly interpreted on a plain and somewhat less
clearly in the foothill zone, where with reapect to phototone they merge
_ with mountain pastures. Fields with corn show up in a dark gray tone but
- are not always interpreted because with respect to photoimage they are
- close to pastures. Fa.l?:ow fields, having a light gray tone, of a homogen-
eous or spotty structure, are reliably ir_terpreted, but with reapect to
- tone coincide with the generalized photoimage of solonetz soils.
In carrying.out our investigations from a space photograph of the terri-
tory of Northwestern Kazakhstan with dark chestnut calcareous and meadow-
chestnut calcareous soils it was possible to determine the nature of agri-
cultural worki-77 of the fields. The survey was carried out on 30 April
1973 prior to 'crc carrying out of spring field work over this territory.
Accordingly, the different working of the soils in 1972 was reflected on
the photographs. Ninety-four fields were subjected to visual-instrumental
interpretation using a"Kvantimet-720" image analyzer and subjected to
field checking.
On the basis of the different photoimage tone (Table 29) for the soil sur-
face it was possible to have reliable discrimination of fields in which
there was bare fallow during 1972. These fields accumulated the greatest
quantity of moisture during the sumcner-autumn period of 1972 and the early
spring period of 1973 and on the photographs appeared in a gray tone (av-
erage level of the gray tone 36-41). A light gray tone (39-44) was char-
acteristic of fields in which during the autumn Chere had been deep loos-
ening of the soil to 25-27 cm. During the autumn and early spring periods
these fields also accumulated considerable quantities of moisture, but
less than in fallow sectors.
A light tone (43-48) corresponds to fields in which in the autumn of 1972
there was scuffling by cultivators-cutters to a depth of 8-12 cm. Final-
= ly, the lightest image (46-52) on space photographs was characteristic of
space photogr aphs of unworked fields in which the stubble of grain crops
y' remained in sutumno In an analysis of the photoimage of the two latter
fields it is necessary to take into account not onl.y the nature of the
moistening, but also the state of the soil surface (rough, smooth) and
especially the presence of stubble on its surface. On space photographs
at a scale 1:2,500,000-1:1,000,000 taken from the "Salyut-4," on the basis
- of different tone we reliably determined plantings of agricultural crops.
In the territory of the Saratovskoye Povolzh'ye, where three farms were
subjected to field checking and 146 fields were taken into account, from
a srace photograph for the summer survey period (June) it was possible
to discriminate the following sown areas and land uses. A light, almost
white photoimage tone was characteristic of infrequent fields with plant-
ings of winter rye and winter wheat; light gray tone corresponded to
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fields with melon crops and fields with three-level plowing of the soil;
gray tone corresponded to spring wheat, Taarley, oats and grazing sectors;
dark gray tone corresponded to corn, sunflower and alfalfa; on the photo-
grapha an almost black tone corresponded to irrigated alfalfa and forested
sectors.
- On space photographs of the steppe zone of the Ukraine (Khersonskaya Ob-
last), where two farms were field checked and 137 fields were taken into
account, the following crops were determined for the summer survey period.
A light, light gray tone corresponded to numerous fields of winter wheat;
a gray tone corresponded to spring craps (barley, oats) and sectors of
. pasture; a dark gray tone corresponded to corn, sunflower, alfalfa and
sectors of clean fallow; fields with irrigated alfalfa corresponded to an
almost black tone of the photoimage.
A comparative analysis of the photoimage of agricultural crops on space
photographs (same survey season) of these two soil-geographic regi_ons of
the steppe zone of the European territory of the country indicated their
similarity. With the avaiTability of a small number of key sectors this
- makes possible a routine and rel.iable determination and prediction of the
- types and state of development of the main agricultural crops from space
' photographs for a definite soil-agricultural zone.
- In two space polygons in the United States, located in South Dakota and
Arizona, the problems involved in the interpretation of sown areas and
their condition is the emphasis of a scientific program in the field of
agriculture. For example, in the South Dakota polygon the materials from
joint surface investigations, aerial survey data and data obtained from
space satellites or orbital stations (of the ERTS and "Skylab" types) have
been used for the following purposes: a) estimation of the yield of agri--
_ cultural crops; b) estiraation of the productivity of pastures for domea-
tic cattle; c) establishing a relationship between soil fertility, moisture
- content and local topography.
On one of the space photographs of the Imperial valley in California (in
the United States), taken during flight of the "Apo11o-9" spaceship on 12
March 1969 from an altitude of 240 km for the purpose of studying re-
sources and-including for the identification of soils and agricultural
land use in the territory of the Unite:d States and Mexico, the agricultural
irrigated fields have a bright red color on the photograph in the United
~ States, bat similar territories in Mexico with a high percentage of idle
and saline lands with a reddish-greenish-dark blue color.
Agricultural fields of the irrigated Imperial valley show up most cleaxly
and graphically. Depending on the type of agricultural crops the fields
show up in a red color (from light orange-red to blue-red). Sugarbeet and
alfalfa fields not yet harvested at the time of the survey appear in a
bright red color._,Groves of citrus crops are eharacterized by a darker red
"muffled" Cone. A`,light blue and bluish-green hue corresponds to fields of
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harvested cotton. On the photograph, in an irrigated zone amidst the ag-
ricultural fields, it is easy to see dams, water bodies, main and secondary
irrigation canals. -
One of the important characteristics of use of space materials for agricul-
Cural purposes is the possibility of a rapid repetition of the survey.
This protilem is successfully solved by employing photoelectronic space
methods for collecting information on soil-agricultural phenomena. The
r.outineness of space information is important for judging rapidly develop- -
= ing dynamic processes transpiring at the earth's surface. For the first
time by means of repeated surveys from space it was possible to judge
simultaneously the nature of snow melting over enormous areas of the
- earth and the development :--F the processes of erosion and distribution of _
- seasonally and repetitivaly sasine soils.
The routine data regularly received from artificial earth satellites are es- ;
pecially necessary for determining the condition of agricultural fields,
for checking plant diseases and the distribution of pests afflicting ag-
ricultural crops, as well as for determining the areas of dead crops and
ffeld weediness.
The availability of routine space information on the phases of development ,
and condition of agricultural crops will make it possible to predict their
yield and make a more precise determination of the calendar plan for carry-
ing out agricultural work.
American specialists feel that due to the differences in the image of plant- _
ings of different crops (soy beans, corn, winter wheat, rice, cotton, etc.) _
ERTS photo$ranhs have potentialiti_es for routine computation of the _
yield. For this purpose a semiautomated system for the processing of space :
photographs is being developed for the solution of agricultural problems.
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- Chapter 6
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERPRETATION OF SOILS AND SOWN CROPS FROM
MULTIZONAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPiiS
The use of multizonal photographs has now been initiated in the search
for an increase in the information capacity of aerial and space materials _
for the study of natural resources, including the soil cover and agri-
cultural cro?s. This type of survey is based on obtaining an image of
the soil cover and agricultural crops simultaneously in several narrow -
spectral zoxaes. As a result, for soil and agricultural interpretation
as interpretation criteria it is possible to use the differences in spec-
- tral brightn2ss of different soils and agricultural crops.
In the visual-instrumental interpretation of multizonal photographs use
was made of the following elements of the image of soils and sown crops:
_ 1) spectral (di.fference in image tone different spectral zones); 2)
. textural (distribution of tonal variations within the limits of one zone);
3) landscape (relationship between soil characteristics and the environ-
ment). A study and registry of these image elements, especially the first
= two, will make it possible in the future to approach the machine process-
ing of photographs. _
It is possible to obtain images by detectors having diff erent spectral re-
sponse in the optical, thermal and radio ran.ges of the electromagnetic
spectrum. However, during recent years a multizonal survey in the optical -
range in the visible and near-I.R spectral regions has been developed to
~ the greatest degree.
In our country in the mid-1930's the studies of V. A. Faas (1936) laid the _
basis for'a multizonal survey. Later fundamental investigations in the =
- spectral ciassification of different natural features, including soils,
- were made by Ye. L. Krinov (1947). An important stage in the development
of a multizonal survey was the worlc of A. N. Iordanskiy (1967) for creat-
ing a series of sppctrozonal films. A considerable influence on the de-
- velopment of a multizonal survey of the earth's surface was exerted by
� the work of the Aerospace Methods Laboratory of the Geography Faculty
Moscow State University, where the first special multiobjective survey _
- camera was constructed in the late 1950's.
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Multizonal scanner systems appeared later. In 1973 a multispectral scann-
= ing system (riSSS) and a digital videorecording unit were employed in the
_ study of naCural resources (Khodarev, Avanesov, et al., 1974). The "Foto-
skaner-4" was used in the surveying of geological features; it operates
_ in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared spectral zones (Apostolov, Seli-
. vanov, 1974).
- The use of multizonal materials is affording additional new possibilities
for a more complete and objective interpretation of the soil cover and
plantings of agricultural crops.
Various studies (Andronikov, 1976, 1979; Andronikov, Sinitsina, Shershu-
kova, 1975, 1977; Afanas'yev, et al., 1978; Vinogradov, 1976; Vinogradov, -
Glushko, 1976; Garelik, eC al., 1976; Zonn, 1977; Knizhnikov, Kravtsova,
1976; Labutina, Chechneva, 1976; Miroshnichenko, et al., 1977; Tolchel'-
- nikov, Chukov, 1977) examine the problems involved in the use of multi-
- zonal photographs for the study of natural resources, including for the _
icientificatton of soils and agricultural c�rops. -
_ As an interpretatiou criterion for multizonal images in a microphotometric
analysis use is made of both the absolute optical density and the differ-
_ ence in opCical densities, measured at the boundary of two adjacent fea-
tures. In this case the basis for a successful interpretation of soil-ag-
ricultural features is the different degree of expression of their boun-
dary contrast on photographs taken in different zones of the electromag-
_ netic spectrum. The absence or poor (unreliable) presence of a boundary
_ contrasC on the films of one zone and its appearance on films of other
- spectral zones considerably increase the reliability of interpretation of
soils and a;ricultural crops, inc?uding such an important index as yiel d.
The possibility of determining agricultural crops and soils wus compared
for the territory of the United States using IR color and multizonal.
_ black-and-white films. The correct identification of alfalfa fields from
, color infrared films was 70%, when black-and-white films were used -
40%; for barley fields the corresponding values were 69 and 62%; for
sugarbeet fields 70 and 90%; for plowed fields 64 and 82%; for
saline soils (solonchaks) 67 and 89% (Leamer, Weber, Wiegan', 1975).
- A multizonal aerial survey of the soil cover was made in southeastern Eng-
land in four spectral ranges from blue-green (0.4-0.5 m) to IR (0.7-
0.9~m) at a scale of 1:15,000. Photographs in the red zone surpassed
photographs taken in the blue aud green spectral zones with respect to
information yield (period May through July) . Tne July photographs con-
- tain more information than June photographs, but the best results for the
= study of soils were obtained from aerial pho tographs taken in March-
April (Evans, 1975).
In r investigations for study of the possibilities of inteipretation of
soils and agricultural craps we made use of multizonal photographic aer-
ial phntographs for the territory of the steppe and dry steppe zones and
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multispectral aerial photographs for the desert zone. The "Kvantimet-720"
image analyaer was used in an analysis Qf the photographs and films and
quantitative measurements of the level of the gray tone of the photoimage
of the soil cover, agricultural crops and v.irginland vegetation.
Interpretation of Multizonal Aerial Photographs of Stepps Zone
- The territory of an experimental sector oP tlie Central Russian Highland
~ was a reference area for the stepps zone in which the testing of aero-
- s-oacP methods for the study of soils and agricultural crops was carried
- out. This sector was selected as an experimental area for study of nat-
ural and anthropogenic geosystems of the central part of the wooded
steppe on the Russian plain (Gerasimov, Grin, 1976).
At the present time all the lands convenient for agriculture in this zone
- are cultivated (cultivated area more than 70%) and the natural vegetation of
the meadow steppe has been preserved only in-individual sectors with ad-
j acent forests.
The relief of t�e investigated territory of the Central Russian Highland
is erosi.onal. The water divides have a slightly convex surface. The
- ravines are sodded. The soil-forming rocks are represented by calcareous
loess-like pulverized clayey loams. The soil cover consists o.f thick cher-
_ nazems which can be assigned to typical aad leached subtypes and meadow-
cher.zozem soils. Typical and leached chernozems have the widest occurrence
on the water divide plateaus and slopes and replace ane another at close
distances. Calcareous excavated chernozems hillflcks at the mouth of
marmot burrows occur widely. Podzolized chernozems are rarely enr.oun-
- terpd and are developed in the upper part of gullies and ravines where
the soils rec2ive additional moistening. Headow-chernozem soils are asso-
ciated with microdegressions and the bottoms of steppe ravines. Alluvial
meadow, moist meadow and meadow-swampy soils are formed on the floodplain
of the Seym River.
In 1973 a multizonal aerial survey of this territory was carried out i.n
the second half of September when $rain fields were harvested and sprouts
of winter wheat appeared and a great number of fields were free of sown
crops. Among the different survey zones of the electromagnetic spectrum,
in the interpretation of 1973 we used the green zone with sensitivity
mazima at (520 nm), yellow-green (560 nm), red--urange (610 nm) and near-
IR (840 nm). Three zones were selected for subsequent analysis: green, red,
- IR, having the greatest contrasys with one another in the image of soils
and sown crops.
Data from visual-instrumental interpretation of the soil cover, principal
agricultural crops and virginland vegetatiori from multizonal photographs
(Fig. 28, A, B, C) are given in Table 30.
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_a
Fig. 28. Photoimage of soil cover and agricultural crops on multizonal pho-
- tographs of experimental sector of steppe zone. Early autumn survey period.
- Spectral zones: A) green; B) red; C) IR. 1) fa11 plawing of soil (typical,
leached and excavated calcareous chernozems on watersheds and meadow-chern-
ozem soils in longitudinal troughs); 2) stubble of grain crope; 3) winter
= wheat prior to appearance of sprouts (typical, leached and excavated cal-
careous chernozems on watershed, weakly eroded on slopes and meadow-cherno-
zem soils in troughs); 4) winter rye sprouts (typical, leached and exca-
vated calcareous chernozems on watershed, slightly eroded on slopes and
meadow-chernozem soils in longitudinal troughs); S) sugarbeets (before
harvesting) (typical, leached and excavated calcareous chernozems on water-
sheds and meadow-chernozem soils in swales); 6) corn (harvest time); 7)
. corz (stubble); 8) virginland vegetation; 9) perennial grasses; 10) ravines
(me-!dow-cha-rnozem soils).
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1
- During the autumn period a number of fields are plowed and the soil sur-
face shows directly on the aerial photographs. In these fields, from pho-
tographs in the green and red zones, with an adequate degree of asaurance
it is'poseible to interpret typical and leached chernozems and calcareous
material excavated from meadow-chernozem soils with a sufficient degree
- of reliability in the green and red zones. Thnse cannot be interpreted in
_ the IR zone (840 nm). In this zone the difference in the level of the
gray tone is virtually equal to zero.
Fields with the stubble of grain crops aXe reliably discriminated from
freshly plowed fields with a direct image of typical, leached and calcar-
eous excavated soils in all zones, but especially the red. Whereas fields
with ulinter crops in the sprouting phase 'also-have a good�boundary con-
trast in all zones, except for the'IR, sugarbeet fields1n the green and
red zones differ slightly wi.th respect to the level of the gray tone and
- show up very sharply from an almost white tone in the IR zone. The inter-
pretation of ineadow-chernozem goils formed in microdepressions through
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plantings of sugarbeets was possible from photographs sensitive to the
green spectral zone. Against the image background of winter crops (sprout-
ing phase) meadow-chernozem soils in depressions were successfully inter-
preted from photographs in the green and also in the red spectral zones.
On the floodplains of steppe rivers on the basis of the image of ineadow
and meadow-swampy vegPtation in all spectral zones it was gossible to
interpret alluvial meadow and meadow-swampy soilsa
- The it:terpretability of agricultural crops (difference in levels of gray
tone of individual fields) is different for different spectral zones. The
sharpest difference between winter crops (sprouts) and sugar beets can be
seen in the IR zone (41-47 units versus 3-10 in the remaining spectral
~ zones). This pattern, but with a lesser contrast, is characteristic for
_ f ields of corn, millet and perennial grasses.
The photoimage of wtnter crops (sprouts) is characterized by a gray image
tone in the red and green spectral zones and an alsa st black tone not dif-
= fering from the image of plowed soils in the IR zone.
Sectors of viiginland vegetation (virgin steppe) were reliably determined
- on photographs in the red zone an the basis of a light gray tone, whereas
the steppe, after hay mowing, is characterized by an almost white tone
(similar to the image of sugarbeet fields) in the IR zane of the electro-
- magnetic spectrum.
In 1974 a multizonal aerial survey was carried out in the late autumn per-
iod in mid-October. This is the time of maximum plowing of the fields
and development of winter crops (tillering phase). Data from a visual-
instrumental interpretation of the soil cover, agricultural crops and
- virginland vegetation are given in Table 31. In 1974 a survey was made
in four spectral zones: green (520 nm), red (610 and 690 nm) and IR (840
nm). The red zone photographs ha3 a unifoxm image and the-zone 690 nm re-
mained for analysis.
J The surface of plowed typical and leached chernozems with small variations
(be these fields with fields of grains or cultivated crops) shows up in a
_ dark gray tone in the IR and in a gray tone in the red spectral zone. On
photographs in the red, and to a lesser degree in the green zone, it is
possible to see a�ine �'point" spottiness of a light gray tone which is
associated with the photoimage of excavated calcareous soils. Another
type of fine spottiness of an almost black (dark gray) tone is character-
istic for the image of ineadow-chernozem soils in microdepressions. Such
spottiness does not appear on photographs in the IR zone. In addition, on
the basis of a light gray image tone on IR photographs it is possible to
interpret the appearance of weeds in fields. Whereas in this zone the
difference in the level of the gray tone between fields with and without
weeds is 7-11, in the red zone it is 1-2 and in the green'zone is 2-6.
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- Fig. 30. Change in tone and contrast of photoimage of agricultural crops on
summer multizonal aerial photographs in dependence on development phase and
spectral zone of survey (one and same sector of steppe zone photographed
� during vegetative development of plantings with differjence in survey time
of one month). Survey time: at top beglnniag of�suttlmer; at'bottom
mid-summer. Spectral zones: at left red, at right IR. 1) stubble of
winter wheat harvested in mid-summer; 2) barley; 3) buckwheat; 4) peas; 5)
augarbeets; 6) fodder beets; 6a) fodder beets with weeds; 7) corn (at the
beginning of summer meadow-chernozem soils in longitudinal troughs and
swales can be seen through its photoimage); 8) potatoes;. 9) perennial grasses;
sweetclover with red clover (at top); after a month the grasses are
mown and the soil ie plowed (at bottom); 10) meadow-steppe vegetation in
- ravines (meadow-chernozem soils). ,
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Fig. 31. Aerial photograph of ancient runoff trough of experimental sector
- of dry steppe zone.
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1 8
2 9
3 10
S
9
6 �
7 '
Fig. 31a. Soil map of ancient runoff trough of experi.mental sector of
dry stepge zone. Soils: 1) dark chestnut solonetz-like clayey loam soils
of inedium thickness and deep steppe solonetz soils (50X); 2) dark chestnut
slightly solonetz-like soils, meadow-chestnut solonetz-like heavy clayey
loam soils and deep steppe solonetz soils (10-20%); 3) dark chestnut highly
solonetz-like'SOils, meadow-chestnut htghly solonetz-like soils and fine
m2adow-s*_eppe solonetz solonchak-like clayey loam soils (20%); 4) fine
clayey steppe s6'3one*_z soils with participation of dark chestnut solonetz-
like soils and meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils; 5) fine solonchak-like
clayey loam meadow-steppe solonetz soils with participation of ineadow-
chestnut solonetz-like soils; 6) meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils and
meadaw-steppe clayey loam solonetz soils (20%); 7) solonetz-like clayey
loam meadow-chestnut soils; 8) highly solonetz-like clayey loam meadow-
chestnut soils; 9) solonetz-like clayey loam meadow soils; 10) compact
clayey loam meadow soils.
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A study of the photographs taken in different spectral zones indicated that
using them it is possible to discriminate plantings of winter wheat (tiller-
ing phase), sown on bare and occupied fallow; the greatest difference can
be seen in the IR zone (Fig. 29, A,B). In the IR zone an almoat white tone
- corresponded to �unharvested fields of fodder beets. Differences in the
photo image of ineadow-s~eppe vegetation of steppe ravines with meadow-
chernozem soils and meadow-swampy vegetation with alluvial-meadow and
meadow-awampy soils are interpreted better from photographs in the red
zone and considerably poorer in the IR spectral zone.
_ One of the principal results of carrying out a multizonal survey in late
- autumn (October) is the possibility of: a) a more detailed analysis of
the soil cover; b) determination of the level flf development of winter
crops and prediction of their yield for the next year.
In 1975 a multizonal aerial survey was carried out twice: early in the sum-
mer (S June) and a month later (9 Ju1y), This was a period of intensive
growth and development of agricultural crops and the first half of July
was the beginning of harvesting of winter crops. As indicated by an an-
alysis of summer photographs, at this time there is virtually no open
surface of the'soil cover and soil interpreta'cion is accomplished through
the direct image of agricultural crops. The interpretability of soils in
different spectral zones and through different crops ls different (Table
32).
= On the June photographs in the green and red zones through the photoimage
of sugarbeets, having a light gray tone, it was easy to interpret meadow-
- chernozem soils (Fig. 30). They show up as fine dark dots (in the formation
of so ils in swales) and dark striations (in the case of formation of inead-
ow-chernozem soils in longitudinal troughs). Similarly, on June photo-
_ graphs it is possible to interpret meadow- cherno zem soils successfully
amids t typical and leached chernozems through the direct photoima.ge of
fields of corn and potatoes. In the IR zone they are not interpreted or
- are determined with greater difficulty. Accordingly, during early summer
through the photoimage of cultivated crops against the background of cher-
nozems there can be reliable interpretation of ineadow-chernozem soils in
the red and green spectral zones. On July photographs this possibility is
lacking in all spectral zones. By mid-summer cultivated crops are well-
developed and completely mask the soils.
In addition, an analysis of the July photographs indicated that meadow-
chernozem soils, formed in swales and longitudinal troughs, are inter-
preted on photographs taken in the green and red spectral 2ones through a
planting of spring wheat with an undersowing of clover and especially
through a planting of vetch. In a field occupied by vetch it is easy to
- see the dotted-striated soil cover structure. The data in Table 33 show
that the greatest differences between chernozems and most agricultural
crc: ;P, are observed in the IR zone.
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_ On the June photographs (see Table 32) from the photoimage of winter wheat
in the green and IR spectral zones it was poasible to determine the dif-
ference in the yield of wheat sown on bare fallow 40 centners/hectare
- and wheat sown nn occupied fallow (peas) 25 centners/hectare. The dif-
ference in the levels of gray tone between wheat with yields of 40 and 25
centners was 10-15 units. In the red zone it could virtually not be dis-
cerned at all. At the same time, it was established that on the photoim-
age on multizonal aerial photographs obtained in all three spectral zones
during this moni;h plantings of winter wheat with a high yield are similar
to sectors of ineadow-steppe vegetation, sown perenn3al grasses, as Wei1 as
fields of spring wheat and barleq with an undersowing of perennial grasses.
The investigations indicated that for the reliable identification of agri-
cultural crops a change in their photoimage in different spectral zones
in dependence on survey time is of great importance. For example, spring
- wheat and barley from June to July change tone on photographs in the red
zone from dark gray, almost black, to light gray, almost white, whereas
cultivated crops (sugarbeets and corn) vary from light gray to dark gray.
However, images of ineadow-stepp e and meadow-swampy vegetation, and also
forests, do not experience sharp changes in tonality on photographs from
June and July surveys. For mid-summer (July) we made a comparison of the
- photoimage, of the surface of the analyzed steppe sector, obtained syncliron-
ously on multizonal aerial photographs and a space photograph. A compar-
_ ative analysis of the photoimage indicated that with respect to tone ag-
ricultural crops, forest and soils on a space photograph are similar to the
same features on an aerial photograph taken in the red zone. Accordingly,
the interpreted aerial photographs for one and the same survey time (in
the limits up to two weeks) and photographs from space can serve as a
"key" for the interpretation of space materials.
In conclusion we will give a siTmmarized table-key for the interpretation
af the principal soils (Table 34) in an experimental sector of the steppe
zone which we compiled on the basis of a soil interpretation of multizonal
aerial and space photographs. In working up this table-key we used data
on soil-forming factors (relief, vegetation, soil-forming material), phys-
ical and chemical properties of soils, exerting an influence on their re-
flectivity, and have indicated the soil interpretation criteria.
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Interpretation of Multizonal Aerial Photographs of Dry Steppe Zone
A study of the soil cover and plantings of agricultural crops of the dry
steppe zone from aerospace photographs was made in the territory of one
of the experimental sectors in Northwestern Kazakhstan.
In physiographic respects the analyzed territory covers the southern part
of the West Siberian I.owland the Turgayskaya "tableland" country. The
~ northern part is situa.ted within the limits of an undulati.ng sandy plain
and the southern part is situated within the limits of an extensive plat-
eau. In geobotanical respects this zone is a dry steppe with a predomin-
ance of feathergrass-sheep's fescue-mixed grasses, feathergrass-sheep's
fescue-wormwood associations on dark chestnut soils and sheep's fescue-
wormwood-goldilocks associations on solonetz soils.
The territory has a lowland relief. In geomorphological respects it is
_ possible to discriminate northern, central and southern parts in the con-
sidered region. The no rthern part is a slightly undulating sandy plain,
complicated by numerous mesodepressions, frequently occupied by bitter-
saline lakes. The lakes are slightly incised, with flat bottoms. The ex-
panses between the lakes are flat, sometimes slightly convex water div-
ides with gentle slopes (1-3�) of different length and exposure.
The soil-forming rocks here are unconsolidated sandy and sandy loam Quat-
ernary deposits underlain by a Paleogene sandy-pebbly stratum. The soil
cover of the northern part of the considered territory is represented by
dark chestnut sandy lo am soils on the water divides, meadow-chestnut soils
in depressions and sma.ll contours of solonchaks around bitter-salt lakes.
Due to the light mechanical compoeition most of the lands in this part of
the territory are not plowed and constitute a sheep's fescue-feather`grass-
crested wheatgrass idle land or a virgin land with sheep's fescue-feather-
grass-mixed grass and feathergrass-sheep's fescue-wormwood associations.
The central part of the lands of the experimental sector is an ancient
runoff depression. This is a slightly undulating plain complicated by
numerous forms of ineso- and microrelief in the form of microdepressions,
remanent hill's, ridg es, modern runoff troughs with intermittent water-
courses. The soil-forming rocks here are represented by saline clayey
loams, Tertiary variegated saline clays, in which the prQSence of micro-
crystalline gypsum is discovered beginning a.t a depth of 60-80 cm.
Aleuritic rocks partic ipate in soil farmation in individidual remanent
hills. In the soil cover here there is widespread occurrence of solonetz,
chestnut and meadow-chestnut soloi-ietz-like soils (Figures 31, 31a).
The southern part of the territory occupies an extensive plateau. In its
cenl-ral lowland part there is extensive devel9pment of flat microdepres-
sions and microhills of zoogenic origin hillocks formed at the mouth.
- of marmot burrows, creating a microcomplexity of the steppe surface. The
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soil-forming rocks are covering calcareous rieavy clayey loams underlain
by marine Paleogene deposits in the form of yellow-brown or reddish
_ clays. The soil cover is very homogeneous and is represeitted by dark
chestnut and dark chestnut calcareous excavated soils (mirmot hillocks)
on the plateau and calcareous meadow-cr.estnut soils in microdepressions =
(Figures 32, 32a). This territory.is the principal cultivkited land re-
_ source of the farm. Among the agricultural crops here there is a predom-
inance of plantings of spring wheat and barley. In the central part a
high percentage of the cultivated land is occupied by plantings of per-
ennial grasses (crested wheatgrass).
_ In 1973 a multizonal aerial survey was carried out in the green (520 nm),
red-orange (610 nm), IR (840 nm) spectral aones at the end of July, 60-70 _
days after the sowing of grain crops spring wheat and barley. On the -
territory of the plateau on dark chestnut calcareous and meadow-chestnut
calcareous soils these crops form a dense cover and cover the soil sur-
face. In this case the interpretation is ma.de through the photoimage of
the agricultural crops. '
On the territory of the plateau through the photoimage of spring wheat
and barley in the red spectral zone there is reliable discrimination of
dark chestnut and meadow-chestnut soils; in the green and infrared zones =
they differ slightly (Table 35).. Dark chestnut calcareous excavated soils _
(marmot hillocks) are not masked by plantings of grains; in the green and
especially in the red zone they have a bright-light tone (50-62); these
soils are not interpreted on photographs in the IR zone. _
On the photograph the fields occupied by spring wheat and barley have a
- diff erent tonality, well expressed in the red and SR zones and poorly ex-
_ pressed in the green spectral zone. These differences in overall tonality
are attributable to a nonidentical yield of spring wheat and barley.
- Now we will examine a sector of the territo ry of an ancient runoff trough
with a varied complex soil cover. The analysis shows that in the red zone
through fields of spring wheat there is clear interpretation of dark
chestnut solonetz-like soils, meadow-chestnut solonetz-like and meadow
- solonetz-like soils. Steppe and meadow-steppe solonetz soils have sim-
- ilar photoimages, but differ clearly with respect to their position in
- the relief. In the green zone such a field has a lsss contrasting photo-
image. In the IR zone a field of winter wheat witha complex soil cover
has very weak contrasts. For examvle. whereas in the red zone the differ-

ence in the level of the gray tone between meadow-chestnut soils and
solonetz soils attains 24 units, in the. IR zone this difference is 3. An
= exception is the meadow solonetz-l ike soil, which is reliably interpreted
in the IR zone from the light tone of the photoimage.
From the photoimage of corn in the IR zone it is easy to see the difference
= between fields with a different sowing time. In the red zone it is traced
with difficulty and in the green zone is absent. For example, whereas
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Fig. 32. Aerial photograph of sector of plateau of dry steppe zone.
_ the difference in the level of the gray tone between early and late plant-
inga of corn so-vm on dark chestnut sandy loam and Iight clayey loam soils
in the green zone is virtually equal to zerfl, and ia the red zone 3-5,
in the IR zone it is 8-10 units.
The interpretation of the soil cover through early and late plantings of
corn waa accomplished most successfully from pttotographs in the red spec-
tral zone. In this zone through the photoimage of corn it was possible to
determine dark chestnut sandy loam and light clayey loam arenaceous, meadow-
- chestnut light clayey loam and tueadow-steppe solonetz soils. In the green
= and 1R zones the photoimage of theae soils has a weak contrast (Fig. 33).
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~
t
2
Fig. 32a. Soil map of sector of plateau in dry s.teppe zone. Soi1s: 1) dark
chestnut calcareous, medium-thick.zess, clayey and dark chestnut excavated
(hillocks at mouths of marmot burrows white dots on photograph) soils;
2) meadow-chestnut calcareous clayey soils.
For example, the difference in the level of the gray tone for an earl.y sow-
ing time between the above-mentioned soils in the green zone is 5 and 6
units respectively, in the IR :;one 6 and 8 units, in the red zone
12 and 18 units.
On photographs in bare fallow, if it is well worked and not overgrown with
weeds, the surface soil horizon shows up directly. Against the background
of surrqunding fields and crops sectors of bare fallow show up most clear-
ly in the IR zone. In the re.d spectral zone against the general tone of
the photoimage they differ slightly from fields occupied by plantings of
spring wheat and perennial grasses or virtua.lly do not differ from them.
However, within fieids of bare fallow the interpretability of different
soils is most sharply expressed on photographs taken in the red spectral
zone. The difference in the level of the gray tone in this zone (reliabil-
ity of interpretation) for dark chestnut solonetz-like and meadow-chestnut
solonetz-like soils is 12, between dark chestnut solonetz-like and steppe
solonetz soils is 10, between meadow-chestnut solonetz-like and solonetz
soils is 21.
The soil cover of the dry steppe zone is successfully interpreted through
r~
glantings of perennial grasses (cre.sted wheatgrass) and the Photoimage of
virginland vagetation. For example, through fields of crested wheatgrass
dark chestnut sanciy loam and light clayey loams in the red zone were
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reliably discriminated from meadow-chestnut and especially meadow-steppe
solonetz soils. Through the virginland vegetation it was possible to de-
termine meadow-chestnut solonchak-like soils, meadow-mixed and complex
soil units consisting of ineadow-chestnut and meadow-steppe solonetz soils
and sectors of ineadow solonchaks.
Accordingly, in the dry steppe zone, using suumer July photographs taken
_ in different spectral zones, the soil cover is successfully interpreted
through the direct images of spring xaheat, barley, corn and perennial
orasses. This is attributable to the fact that with average harvests in
_ the arid years agricultural c�rops did not mask the differences in the
soil cover, but on the contrary, emphasized them. It is possible that in
moist years this effect w:Lll be different.
Another important conclusion uhich can be dra-,an on the basis of an analysis
of the photoimage of multizonal photographs is that in the case of a uni-
- form soils cover (on dark chestnut calcareous clayey soils of extensive
plateaus) on the basis of the difrerent tonality of one of the leading
crops spring wheat it is possible to ascertain its crop yield.
- Among the spectral zones the best results in the interpretation of the
soil cover and agricultural crops were obtained in the red zone. Photo-
graphs taken in this`zone clearly show dark chestnut calcareous, meadow-
chestnut calcareous and dark chestnut calcareous excavated (at mouth of
marmot burrows) soils of plateaus; there was reliable inrPrnretation of
the complex soil cover with solonetz in the central part of the lands in
the territory of an ancient runoff trough; tonal differences between
plantings of spring wheat, barley and chick peas were noted better than
in the green and IR zones; it was easy to interpret perennial grasses and
the soils beneath them. In the IR and green zones these differences were
appreciably weaker or there were none. An exception,is the photoimage of
bare fallow and planti.rigs of corn sown at different times (with different
' projective covering), which in the IR zone showed up with the greatest
contrast.
In autumn, in mid-September 1973, a repeated multizonal aerial survey of
_ the soil cover and agricultural crops was carried out at a medium scale
in the green (520 nm), red-orange (610 nm) and IR (840 nm) spectral zones.
It coincided with the period of harvesting of grain crops. Therefore, some
of the fields at the time of the survey had already been harvested and the
photogra�phs showed the stubble of corn and grains on which the soils were
being worked with cultivators-levelers. In individual fields it is pos-
sible to see spring wheat and barley in the phase of gold ripeness.
An analysis ofthe characteristics of interpretation of the soil cover and
_ agricultural crops during the autumn survey period indicated the following
(Table 36). In the red anc', IR spectral zones there was reliable discrimin-
atior: of fields of sPring wheat with a yield differing by a factor of 2-
2.5 on dark chestnut calcareous soils. In the green zone these differences
did not exist.
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In sectors of bare fallow with a direct representation of the soil surface
on the photographs in general th.ere is a greater brightness of the photo-
- image of the soil cover (especially solonetz soils) associated with drying
out of the upper soil horizon azid possibly a greater drawing-out of carbon-
_ ates td the surface.
In comparison with the summer survey period, in autumn dark chestnut and
meadow-chestnut soils are diff icult to see under corn in the green and red
specCral zones; in the IR zone they cannot be seen. On the other hand,
meadow-steppe soils can be seen considerably more sharply (except in the
IR zone). This is attributable to the fact that on solonetz soils there is
- virtually no corn and on the photographs it is possible to see the light
surface of the solonetz 5oils, whereas on dark chestnut and meadow-chesfinut
soils corn has a well-developed leaf su-rface which shows up in a dark gray
tone. The soil cover can be interpreted through corn stubble c+nly in the
IR spectral zone.
Durino the autumn period meadow-chestnut soils are slightly distingu:ishable
through fields of perennial grasses with dark chestnut solonetz-like soils
and solonetz soils, especially in the red zone, can be interpreted very
clearly.
In 1974 a multizonal survey in the green (540 nm), red (690 nm) and IR

(840 nm) spectral zones was carried out in early July, 1-1.5 months after
the souring of grain crops. The survey was made on a medium scale. On these
photographs on the basis of the different pnotoimage of the grain crops it
was easy to see the difference in the moisture supply of the soils, related
to their different working. For example, with the sowing of spring wheat
at one and the same time (25-26 May, dark chestnut calcareous soils) on
photographs in the red and IR 9pECtral zones there was reliable interpret-
at3,on of the difference between fields in which in 1973 there had been
deep loosening of the soil (to 25-27 cm), and in the course of 1971-1973 ,
there had only been a''plowing-under of the stubble (to a depth of 8-12 cm)
('Pable 37). Among fields of barley (dark chestnut calcareous soil, sown
29-30 May) a different tone in the IR zone was characteristic ot fields
in which there had been bare fallow in 1972, whereas in 1971-1973 there
had been plowing-under of-the soil. In autwnn the yield ori.these soils
was 12.0 and 8.5 centners/hectare respectively (Fig. 34).
On the photographs it was possible to discriminate fie_,:'s with different
times for the sowing of spring wheat (15-16 May, 25-30 May, dark chestnut
calcareous soils). Fields sown at different tiiAes with the best develop-
menr flf wheat had a darker gray photoimage tone in the red and a lighter
gray tone in the IR spectral zone.
Dark chestnut calcareous and meadow-chestnut calcareous soils, dark chest-
nut solonetzlike, meadow-chestnut solonetzlike, stieppe and meadow-steppe
solonetz soils, meadow mixed and meadow solonchak soils were reliably in-
terpreted through plantings of grains (spring wheut, barley, millet),
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chick peas, corn, perennial grasses (crested wheatbrass) and virginland
vegetation from aerial photographs in the red spectral zone. In fields
where perennial grasses had been mown the interpretability of soils was
~ poor and only areas of ineadow-chestnut soils could be seen.
_ On phoCographs in the IR spectral zone against a background of agricultural
plantings it is very easy to interpret fields with sectors of bare fallow,
but internal differentiation of the makeup of the soil cover in them was
poor (Fig. 34).
Photographs in the green spectral zone do not give additional new informa-
- tion concerning the soil cover and agricultural crops in comparison with
the photographs just considered. With respect to the nature of the photo-
image they are close to photographs in the red zone, but for a number of
soil-agricultural features have a less sharply expressed contrast.
In 1975 a multizonal survey in the green (540 nm), red (690 nm) and IR (840
nm) spectral zones of the experimental sector was carried out in mid-June.
' With respect to moistening conditions in the territory of Kazakhstan this
year was acutely arid. On the photographs, from the state of development
of plantings of winter wheat on dark ehestnut calcareous soil-in the course
of the first month,it can be seen that the phutoimage is influenced consid-
erably by the presowing working of the soil. With one and the same sowing
times. and soil conditions the best development of spring wheat was noted
in fields where the presowing working of the soil was carried out with the
- KPE-3.8 antierosion cultivator to a depth of 12-14 cm and sowing with the
_ SZS-9 drill in comparison with fields where sowing was carried out with
the SZS-2.1 drill. These differences were observed most sharply on photo-
- graphs in the IR spectral zone. The difference in the level of the gray
tone of these fields in the green zone was equal to zero, in the red zone
2, and in the IR, which was most sensitive to the development of plants
12 (Table 38).
On early sumzner photographs in the green and eapecially in the red spectral
_ zones the soil cover was reliably.-:interpreted through plantings of spring
wheat, barley, annual and perennial grasses. Over the territory of plateaus
- it was possible to determine meadow-chestnut soils through plantings of
spring wheat against a background of dark chestnut calcareous soils on the
basis of a dark tone and affinity to swales; the image of small light dots
was indicative of dark chestnut calcareous excavated soils (at the mouth of
marmot burrows). In the red zone these soils had a more sharply expressed
contrast than on photographs ir. the green zone. In the IR zone the excavat-
ed soi]s at the mouth of marmot burrows could not be detected, whereas
meadow-chestnuC soils appeared in a light gray tone similar to the general
image background of fields covered with cultivated vegetation.
- The complex soil cover of the centxal part of the territory to be analyzed,
oc�.,.ipying the dncient runoff valley, could be seen in detail through plant-
ings of barley and annual grasses (foxtail millet) on photographs in the
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green and IR zones, but with special contrast on photographs in the red
spectral zone.
Fielda of freshly plowed bare fallow showed up in all the analyzed zones,
but especially sharply in the IR. On fallow, from the direct image of the
soi1 surface, on photographs in the red and green zones it was easier to
interpret dark chestnut calcareous, dark chestnut calcareous soils excav-
- ated at the mouth of marmot burrows and meadow-chestnut soilsa In all spec-
tral zones on the basis of a light gray tone there was reliable discrimin-
ation of unworked fields in fallow, covered by solonchaks. Against the im-
_ age background of these fields on the basis of a dark gray tone there was
a clear interpretation of ineadow-chestnut soils (especially in the red
zone).
In the IR spectral zone these soils had a light gray tone similar to the
general image background of fields covered with weedy vegetation.
Through ci.xJ_tivated crops (corn fields) the soil cover was readily inter-
preted from photographs in the red spectral zone: sandy loam and light
- clayey loam dark chestnut soils, solonetz-like meadow-chestnut soils and
meadow-steppe solonetz soils were discriminated; in the green and IR zones
soil differences were poorly visible tihrough corn fields (solonetz soils)
or the soils cannot be interpreted (for example, meadow-chestnut soils).
Through plantings of perennial grasses (crested wheat grass) on early sum-
- mer photographs the complex soil cover (dark chestnut solonetz-like, mead-
ow-chestnut solonetz-like and meadow-steppe solonetz soils) showed up very
- sharply in the red spectral zone. In the green zone the soils are visible
but the image contrast is poor. In the IR the soils are not interpreted;
the field has a homogeneous light gray co].or. Some lightening of the tone
can be noted only in solonetz areas.
' The soil cover shows up most differentially on photographs in the red spec-
tral zone through virgi.nland vegetation. In particular, this differentia-
tion is associated with a detailed representation of ineadow-chestnut soils
asaociated with microswales ar.d longitudinal troughs. In the green and IR
_ spectral zones these soils are virtually not interpreted or can be seen
very poorly.
On early summer photographs in the green, red and IR zones meadow and weedy
_ solonchaks are shown in a similar (light or almost white) tone.
Accordingly, for the purposes of objective and reliablE interpretation of
the soil cover, agricultural crops and virginland vegetation in the terri-
tory of the dry steppe in the early summer period it is necessary to use
aerial photographs taken in the red (primary) and IR (secondary) zones.
IR photographs were particularly yaluable material in an analysis of dif-
ferences in the state of agricultural crops (for example, spring wheat)
during initial periods of development of grain crops (tillering and
-I
].81
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stem extension stages). An analysis of the condition of agricultural crops
_ during this period makes it possible to predict their crop yield.
In conclusion wE=wi11 cite a composite key table for interpretation of the
main soils (Table 39) in the dry ateppe zone of Kazakhstan which we pre-
pared on the basis of a soil interpretation of multizonal aerial and space
photographso In the compilation of this table we made an analysis of the
photoimage of both small- and medium-scale sgace photographs.
_ Interpretation of Multispectral Aerial Photographs of Desert Zone
A neGr direction in the study and interpretation of the soil cover and agri-
cultural crops is a multispectral photoelectronic survey of the earth's
surface.
In pilotoelectronic methods for the registry of t1.ie soil-vegetation cover
use is made of multispectral scanning systems (MSSS) radiometers, side-
view radars and other photoelectronic instrument's. Using these methods in-
formation on soils and agricultural crops can be registered on magnetic
tape or registered in the form of an image on the screen of a cathode ray
tube. Photoelectronic methods can be used in the W(0.01-0,4 � m), in the
entire visible zone of the spectrum (0.4-0.76), in the near-IR (0.76-1.1
w m), in the far IR (1.2-25tkm) and in the radiowave spectral region (from
1 mm to several meters).
Using photoelectronic methods it is possible to obtain new additional in-
formation on soil-agricultural resources in comparison with aerial photo-
graphic methods. This occurs, on the one hand, due to a survey in those
parts of the spectrum which are not employed for photography on light-
sensitive materials (the sensitivity limit for infrafilm is 1.1 jAm); on
the other hand, this is due to the use of narrow spectral zones for sur-
veying of the soiZ-vegetation cover with a considerably greater differen-
tiatinn on the basis of their spectral brightness.
At recent congresses of the American Photogrsnmetric Society much atten-
tion has been devoted to the problems involved in interpretation and new
photoelectronic technical means for obtaining information on the earth's
surface. The attention of researchers in this field is being given to ob-
taining information without a photographic image and solution of the prob-
1em of automation of the photointerpretation process (MacDonald, Kristof,
1970).
In the tTnited States, on the basis of an analysis of data from a multispec-
tral scanner obtained during the survey period April-July 1969 it was pos-
sible to obtain interpretation criteria (sign-k,tures) of soils and agricul-
tural crops corn, sorghum, cotton, ciLrus. It was established that their
- identifiability is better during the early parts of the growing season
(Wi.t;-.gand, et al., 1971).
182
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~
Fig. 33. Change in tone and contrast of photoimage of soils and agricul-
tural crops on mult3.zonal photographs in dependence on spectral zone and
season of survey of one of the experimental sectors of the dry stepp'e
territory. Spectral zones: at top green; in middle red; at bottom
IR. Survey season: at left summer; at right early autumn. Mechan-
ical composition of soils sandy loam and light clayey loam. 1) corn
(earlf� planting) on: a) dark chestnut soils; b) meadow-chestnut soils; c)
meadow-steppe solonetz soils (in the early autumn period of the survey the
corn had been harvested and stubble is shawn); 2) corn 'klate planting) on:
a) dark chestnut soils; b) meadow--chestnut soils; c) perennial grasses
(created wheatgrass) on dark chestnut and meadow-chestnut soils.
183
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Fig. 34. Photoimage of soil cover and agricultural crops or: summer multi-
zonal photographs of territory of two experimental sectors of dry steppe
zone of 1974 survey. Spectral zones: at top red; at bottom IR. Sec-
tors: at left flat water divide with swales; at right gentle slope.
Mechanical composition of soils clayey and heavy clayey loam. 1) spring
wheat Saratovskaya 29 (late sowing 25-26 May) (in 1973 the soil was loos-
ened to a depth of 25-27 cm); a) dark chestnut calcaieous soils; b) meadow-
chestnut calcareous soils; 2) spring wheat Saratovskaya 29 (late sowing 25-
26 May) (in 1971-1973 the soil was cut to a depth of 8-12 cm) on: a) dark
chestnut calcareous; b) meadow-chestnut calcareous; 3) chir_k peas on: a)
dark chestnut calcareous; b) meadow-chestnut calcareous (white dots
- image of marmot burrows);~4) barley Yevropeum 353:/.133 (spw.ing at end of
May) on: a) dark chestnut calcareous; b) meadow-chestnut calcareous soils;
4) harvest 12 centners/hectare (in 1972 was fallow); 41 harvest 8�5 cent-
~ ners/hectare (in 1971-1973 Chere was deep cutting of the soil); 5) bare
fallow.
184
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Fig. 35. Multispectral survey of soil cover in desert zone. Photoimage in
zone: at left 0.4-0.45 m; in middle 0.5-0.55 M.m; at right 0.72-
0..82 �m. 1) barchan defla~able sands; 2) small sand hills, partially con-
solidated by psammophytic vegetation; 3) depressions between ridges with
ground water at shallow depth; 4) utilized areas of gray sands.
A comparison was made of soil maps obtained by usual surface methods and
compiled automatically us;ing a;mul.tizonal scanner. There was a good sim-
ilarity for soils differing in~color and a noncorrespondence of soils
differing with respect to structure, mechanical composition and position
in the relief (Baumgardner, e't al., 1970; Kristof, Zachary, 197h).
For the successful use of the method of computer analysis of multizonal
data on the soil cover the survey must be carried out in a period when
the fields are free of vegetation, over a relatively even terrain, with
the sun high in tihe sky (midday) and with availability of data on the
soil cover.
185
FOR QFFICIAL USE ONLY
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rux url"lc;tAL U5E UNLY
Soil Humua CaC03
Mechanical
Reflec-
8elief
Vegetation,
composition
tion co-
land-use area
%
eff-Icient
%
Leached 7.43 None
Heavy clay-
10.2
Central Rus-
Cultivated
rseadow-
ey loam
sian Highland
land. Meadow
cherno-
Ravines,
vegetation in
zems
troughs
troughs and
shallow
ravines
troughs,
swales
Cherno- 6.13
ilone
Heavy clay- 10.4
Central Rus- Cultiaated
zems,
(for ex-
ey loam (for ex-
sian Highland land
typicaZ,
cavated
cavated
S13.ghtly convex
leached
0.93)
11.1)
watersheds and
a,id ex-
their slopes
cavated
(mouth
o~ mar-
mot bur-
rows)
190
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Tahle 34. Surmary Tahle-Key for Interpretation of Soils of Steppe Zone of
European Part of USSR (in Example of Experimental Sector) fror.r Space and
Aerial Photograpfis. Black-and-White Film. Scale of Aerial Photographs
Large and Medium, Scale of Space Pfiotographs Medium and Small
Soil-fozming
rocks
Interpretation criteria
aerial photographs space photographs
Deluvial clayey
Troughed-dendritic or small-spotty Qn small- and medium-
loam
or spotty-troughlike-dendritic
scale photographs of
patterns of dark gray or almost
spring survey period
_
black tone on plowed sectors or
(IR zone) under meadow
under meadow vegetation in green
vegetation these soils
and red spectral zones or on in-
clearly determined
tegral panchromatic photographs.
from almost white tonp
In IR zone under meadow vegetation
of image of steppe
-
they have 3 light, almost white
troughs and gullies.
=
tone; in arable land without vege-
In plowed sectors
~
tation black. From image pat-
neadow-chestnut soils
tern these soils are interpreted
not seen in swales
on early summer photographs
and elongated troughs.
through irsage of cultivated crops
On sumer photos of
but on summer photographs -
visible and IR zone
through spring crops
interpreted less clear-
ly from troughlike-den-
-
dritic pattern
- Loessial ca1-
On panchromatic air photos and
Soils show up in uni-
- careous clayey
photos in green and red zones
form dark gray or al-
loam
soils have monotonic structure-
IDost black tone ir. de-
less image of almost black tone
P?ndence on survey
for fresh plowing or dark gray
time. Differences in
for dry surface of soils; in IR
leaching and excava-
zone, black tone. Sectors of pre-
tion of chernozems
.
dominant occurrence of leached
not visible. OrL summer
chernozems are interpreted only
photos difficult to
in short early spring period
interpret chernoze.ms
(after snow disappears) from
through muitifield im-
large-spotty pattern of almost
age of fields. Beat
black tone (due to increased
results obtained from
soil moisture content in com-
spring-autumn phato-
parisan with surrounding sec-
graphs
-
tors). Excavat.ed thick cherno-
,
zems virtually not visible on
cultivated land
' 191
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Soil Hzanus CaC03
Mechanical
Reflec-
Relief
Vegetation,
composition
tion co-
land-use area
%
efficient
0
Cherno-
Central Rus-
Cultivated
- zems
sian High-
land. Slopes
typical:
land.
with peren-
slighLly
Watershed
nial grasses.
eroded 5.48 5.74
Hea-r
y clayeq
12.6
slopes near
Edges and
moderate-
loam
ravines,
slopes of
ly eroded 2.95 12.39
Same
22.0
sides, am-
ravines un-
-
phitheater
der meadow-
and slopes
steppe
of ravines
vegetation
192
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" Table 34 (continued)
Soil-foxming rock Interpretation criteria
aerial photographs space photographe
I,oessial cal- On photographs of visible (es- On small- and mediuur
careous clayey pecially red) spectral zones scale photographs easy
loam weakly eroded chernozems show to determine gully-
up as low-contrast shallow ravine network on basis
troughs or fanlike-shallow of dendritic-spotty-
trough pattern of gray and multifield pattern. Nat-
light gray tone and medium- ural regions and water-
eroded chernozems show up as sheds with different
clear stri.ated-rill or spotty- dissection of territory
shallow trough-rill pattern; by gully-ravine network
in IR zone this pattern is are discriminated. Good
leveled. On simmer photos results are obtained
rills overgrown with weedy iaith use of photos in
- vegetation show up on cul- red and IR spectral
tivated land through crop zones
image. On large- and mediiun-
scale photos on the basis of
form and size there is reli-
able determination of ele-
ments of linear Qrosion
rills, channels, ravines
193
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Table 35
Boundary Contrast (Interpretability) of Soil Cover, Agricultural Crops and
Virginland Vegetation on Multizonal Aerial Photographs of Experimental
Sector of Dry Steppe Zone. Survey Time 19 July 1973
Name of bordering features
Difj'erence in levels ot gray
tone in spectral zc+nes (sen-
sitivity Nmax, nm)
green red infra
(540) (610) (840)
Spring wheat Saratovskaya 29 on dark chestnut
calcareous clayey soils and on
meadow-chestnut calcareous soils
4
16
3
dark chestnut excavated calcareous soils
(at mouth of marmot burrows)
12
13
0
meadow-steppe solonetz soils
6
5
10
meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils
3
17
11
meadow salonetz-like soils
6
22
3
dark chestnut solonetz-Iike soils
5
10
15
mea3ow-chestnut weakly solonetz-like
1
16
11
steppe solonetz soils
11
4
8
Fallow on meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils
and on
dark chestnut solonetz-like
5
11
6
steppe solonetz soils, light clayey loam and
sand-permeated
13
21
g
Corn (early sowing 20 Ma.y) on dark chestnut sandy
loam and light clayey loam sand-permeated soils
and on
meadow-chestnut solonetz-like light clayey
loam soils
4
10
6
meadow-steppe solonetz soils
8
10
2
Perennial grasses (sweetclover) on dark chestnut
solonetz-like soils and on
m.eadow-chestnut solonetz-like
3
$
5
fine meadow-steppe solonetz soils
20
6
8
Virginland vegetation mixed grass-feathergrass
-sheep's fescue on dark chestnut sandy loam and
light clayey loam sand-permeated soils and
sheep's fescue-wormwood-mixed grasses with
thrift on meadow-chestnut solonchak-like
soils
1
5
3
quack grass-mixed grasses with thrift on
meadow-compact heavy clayey loam soils
5
2
22
wo.rmwood-sheep's fescue with thrift on
meadow-steppe solonetz soils and meadow-
chestnut solonetz-like soils
4
8
3
wornnaood-thrift on meadow solonchaks
7
13
14
194
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Table 37. Boundary Contrast (Interpretability) of Soil Cover and Agricul-
tural Crops on Multizenal Aerial Photographs of Experimental Sector of the
Dry Steppe Zoneo Survey Time 6 July 1974
Name of bordering features Difference in levels of gray
tone in spectral zones (sen-
sitivity a max, in nm)
green red infra
(520) (690) (840)
On dark chestnut calcareous clayey soils
spring wheat (early sowing 15-16 May,
in 1972 fallow) aad
spring wheat (late sowing 25-26 May,
in 1973 deep loosening)
13
2
7
spring wheat (la*_e sowing 25-26 May,
- in 1971-1973 deeply cut)
13
7
17
harley (yield 12.0 centners/hectare, in
1972 fallow, sowing 29-30 May)
17
9
7
barley (yield 8.5 centners/hectare, in
1971-1973, deep cutting of soil, sowing
29-30 riay)
17
7
24
chick peas
8
11
8
fallow
13
2
28
Spring wheat Saratovskaya 29 on dark chestnut
calcareous clayey soils (in 1974 deep loos-
ening of soil, late sowing 25-26 May) and
. deep loosening in 1973, late sowing
= 25-26 May
5
1
2
in 1971-1973 deep cutting, late sowing
, 25-26 May
0
4
9
Barley Yevropeum 353/133 on dark chestnut sol-
onetz=like soils and on
meadow-chestnut solonetz-like
1
6
0
steppe solonetz
8
17
8
meadow-steppe solonetz
5
7
0
meadow solonetz-like
1
9
18
;Lillet on dark chestnut solonetz-like soils
- and on
meadow-chestnut solonetz-like soils
5
3
2
- steppe solonetz
12
21
0
meadow-steppe solonetz
7
5
0
meadow solonetz-like
S
4
1
rallow on dark chestnut calcareous clayey
soils and on
meadow-chestnut calcareous
3
3
0
dark chestnut calcareous excavated soils
5
7
0
(mc.uth of marmot burrows)
196
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il moisture content (10-15%) or it is slight. If the
moisture content is greater than this level, there is a linear dependence
between the value of_ the reflected signal and soil moisture content. In
the case of use of a microwave radiometer with a wavelength of 21 cm for
a soil moisture content from 0 to 35% the reflection is a linear function
of moisture content (Scfimugge, et al., 1974).
In the USSR interesting investigations for measuring the moisture content
of the earth's surface from space and using aerial vehicles are being
carried out using SHF radiometric apparatus. In 1973 Basharinov, et al.
(1974), in a survey from an aircraft using SHF apparatus, studied the
radiation characteristics of soils for unirrigated lands in the middle
(Kurskaya Oblast) and southern (Krymskaya Oblast) zones of the European
USSR.
Soil moisture content and the ir,fluence of vegetation on the radiobright-
ness characteristics of moist soils were studied using radiameters having
_ a res.ponse of about 0.5� and operating in the ranges 0.8 cm and 3.4 cm.
The axes of antennas with angular resolutions 1 and 3� were oriented at
angles 20 and 60� to the horizon. Resolution on the ground was from 1 m
to 10 m because the fligfits were made at fieights from 50 m to hundreds of
meters over the surface of the experimental sectors.
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Figure 49, for the territory of Krymskaya Oblast, shows the results of
measurements ?nade after a rain. They show the infltience of the vegetation
cover on the radiation characteristics of the moistened surface. The dif-
_ ferences are most clearly visiTile wiien using a radiometer operating in
the range 3.4 cm.
In our investigations in the territory of the experimen;:al sector of the
steppe zone during the field period we made determinations of soil mois-
ture content fiy the thermoweight method along the aircraft flight path
in fields with. different moisture content. Differences in surface moisture
content of the fields in the layers 0-5 and 0-10 cm were as follows (megs-
urements made 8 or 9 times): fields in sugarbeets 23.2 and 23.8%; fields
in falloGr, dessicated from the surface 10.3 and 15.3%; fields in fallow
after passage of a drill 19.3 and 21.5%. A comparison of theae data
witfi_traces oTitaineci as a result of not less than 5 aircraft flights over
the mentioned fields indicated that all these results of field moisture
content were registered in cfianges of the instrument curve.
Everything stated above makes it possible to consider this method to be
promising for study of the soil cover, especially for determining the sur-
face moistura content of soils.
Radar Survey of the Soil Cover
_ The use of radar systems is among the new photoelectronic methods for ob-
taining information on soils and agricultural fields. The beginning of use
of side-view radar systems, giving an image, dates back to 1950. This meth-
- od substantial.ly supplements other systems giving an image of the soil
cover.
- IJsing a high-resolution radar, specialists in the United States carried
out a survey of the Amazon and Orinoco basin, a territory in the moist
equatiorial zone usually shrouded by cloud cover. The survey was made at a
- scale of 1:400,000 with.a resolution of about 20 m on the ground. In 1970
the RADAM project was carried out for investigating soils, vegetation, re--
lief and mineral resources by means of a radar sutvey. Radar photographs
are being used successfully for study of the moisture content of soils
and river systems and in agriculture. They are being employed in inveatig-
ating the distritiution of natural vegetation and sown crops, in predicting
_ yields and in planning agronomic measures (Simonett, 1968). In the next
10 years radar surveys of the environment should become one of the prin-
cipal methods for studying dynamic phenomena and processes.
. The most valuable property of this new type of survey of the soil cover is
that a radar apparatus can operate in the absence of visibility through
' fog and clouds and also at nighttime (Komarov, et al., 1973). This is es-
peci111y import�ant in the study of the soil cover of the northern inac-
cess_'ble regions of our country. In comparison with materials from an aer-
ial photographic survey, the scale of radar images is small: from 1:60,000
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to 1:400,000. It ts not determined by the aircraft flight altitude but by
the parameters of tfiE equipment zsed. Yn a radar survey of the soil cover
the sources; of radiation of oraves in the centimeter range and the detector
are situated aTaoard the aircraft. TTie signal reflected from the earth's
- aurface, in the limits of the azi-mutfial angle wl.thin which the irradia-
= tion. occurs, is picked up Fiy an antenna and after tranaformation of the
radar signals. in the transmitter-receiver is registered on a cathode-ray
tutae in the form of one scanning line. The intensity of the reflected sig-
~ nal, determining t:ie brightness of the luminous spot, ie dependent on the
surface roughness, nature of the relfef in the analyzed territory, the
ph.ysical properties of the soil cover, soil moisture content and the em-
ployed wavelengtfi. By means of a ptiotoregistry unit the line image on the
cathode-ray tufie and the intensity of the raflected signal are photogrAph-
ed on a film whose :.ate of movement is propartional to the speed of air-
craft movement.
As a result, signals reflected from the eartFi's surface show up on a photo-
graphic film with different intensity. The radar photoimage of the ground
surface is similar to the aerial photcgraphic image and in its interpreta-
tion it is possible to apply the experience of interpretation of aerial
photographs. Tiie radar images give the detailed structure of local relief,
_ a change of which. is closely linked to formation of the soil cover, its
structure and complexity. Using radar images it is easy to interpret soils
, which are moistened to different degrees; data from a radar survey can be
used in identifying crops.
An analysis of radar photograpfis at a scale of 1:90,000, obtained using
the "Toros" side-view radar system (survey territory northern Balkhash
regi.on (Severnoye Pribalkhash'ye), indicated that at the tops of ridges
- and spurs a light gray tone corresponds to thin, poorly develnped gravelly
brown desert-steppe soils formed on the eluvium of granites and quartz-
porphyrites. A gray tone corresponds to brown desert-steppe poorly devel-
oped soils formed on the fine-grained eluvium of sandstoaes. On proluvial
deposits, from the dark gray image tone and the dendritic form of the
soil contoura there is re7.iabla interpretation of ineadow-brown and meadow-
chestnut soils. Frequently they are solonchak-like. The photoimage of al-
luvial-meadow soils of the low terraces of major valleys is characterized
by a banded pattern of gray and light gray eone in dependence an the de-
gree of expression of the meadow process. A light s_'.7uous narrow band is
the image of an intermittent watercourse.
Using radar photographs of the territory of the semideserts of the northern
Balkhash area it is possible to make a reliable interpretation of differi-
_ ent types of Quaternary depasits, separate soils on the basis of moisten-
ing regime into automorphous, polqhydromorphous and hydromorphous, and al-
so use tfiese materials for soils regionalization (Semenova, Mozhayeva,
k473).
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In our investigations we used radar photograYhs of the territory of an
experimental sector of the dry steppe zone at a small scale taken from
an altitude af 4,500 m using the "Toros" system. The survey was made at
nighttime in late Jul.y 1975 in the presence of stratocunulus clouds. An
analysis of the radar ghotographs indicated that they can be used in re-
liable interpreta.tion of tfie soil-geomorphological characteristics of the
principal natural regions of this territory.
For example, tfie photoimage of an undulating sandy plain is characterized
by the presence of a great many lakes of a dark gray, almost black tone
with a rim of solonchaks of an almost white tone. The image of dark chest-
nut sandy and sandy loam soils has a moir4 pattern. Virginland vegetation
shows up in a dark gray tone. An antierosional contour farming.system oc-
= curs here widely. In the fields strips of an almost black tone cArrespond
to stands of grasses (for the most part crestea wneargrass); strips with a
light gray cone correspond to plantings of cQrn or sunflower. The image of
the contour farming system is interpreted more clearly and with greater
contrast from radar photographa than from materials from a multizanal
- survey. The r.ext soil-geographic.region, occupying the territory of an ancient run-
off trough with a complex soil cover, shows up on the radar photographs
with a lesser contrast than on multizonal materials. Plantings of crested
wheatgrass and virginland sectors show up in a dark gray tone on which
sectors with solonetz soils show up as spots of a light gray tone.
On these photographs of plateaus with dark chestnut calcareous and meadow-
chestnut soils in swales it is easy to see squares of fields (with an area
of 400 hectares) of a light gray tone the image of spring wheat. Against
this background small spots of an almost black tone correspond well to
meadow-chestnut soils; a light image tone corresponds to sectors of exca-
vated dark chestnut soils.
Amidst the squares of fields of a light gray tone, from the dark gray', al-
most black image tone it is easy to interpret infrequent fields of bare
fallow. Fields with plantiAgs of corn and sunflowers are reliably differ-
_ entiated from the fields of spring wheat on these photographs due to their
6right-light image tone. Sectors with different sowing times were deter-
mined amidst plantings of agricultural crops due to the different image
tone.
The eroded slope of plateaus toward the Turgaysl:aya depression was deter-
mined ve:-y clearly on radar photographs from the nonuniform spotty-dendritic
pattern of a light gray (blurred sectors), gray or dark gray tone.
- The effectiveness of a radar survey of the soil cover is increased sharply
when it is carried out during a period when the vegetation is without
lea-,,~_-::,. The proper choice of the angle of inclination of the radar and its
frequencies are also of great importance.
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~
~ - -
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
In order to study the composition of soils by means of side-view radare
the surface is irradiated with radio waves of a definite length. By in-
creasing the wavelength or the radiated power it is possible to determine
the nature of the upper soil horizons. We note that among the principal
advantages of active radio techniques radar systems, in addition to a
nondependence on weather conditions and time of day, we should include
- the possib ilities of determining the properties of the surface and sub-
surface so il horizons, a nondependence of survey scale on altitude, and
also the possibil3t'7 uf obtaining contrasting images of optically noncon-
trasting features (such as soils) and ensuring a considerably better reso-
lution in comparison w'~.tc SvF radiometers.
In conclus ion we note that the effective strudy of the soil and agricultural
resources of the earth is possible when such work is carried out bq com-
bined aerospace metFiods, including aer.ial photographic and photoelectronic.
The developme;v: -if these new- methods will make possible a more effective
inventory and use of land resources and an evaluation of the fertility of
soils and the yield of agricultural crops. There will be more effective
work on soil melioration, better protection of soils against erosion, it
_ wi11 be easier Co detect diseasea of agricultural crops in the early stages,
~ etc.
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Chapter 9
EFFECTIVENESS OF USE OF AEROSPACE METHODS IN STUDYING SOIL RESOURCES
Soil Mapping from Aerial and Space Photographs
At the present-day scientific and technical level of development of aerial
and space surveying of the earth soil mapping ia one of the principal di-
rections in the use of aerospace methods in soil science and agriculture
(where they give a subst antial effect).
Today the progress of soil mapping, the process of study of the soil cover,
correction and compilation of soil maps is inconceivable without the use
of aerospace materials. A soil map is the principal scientific document
characterizing the productive-economic qualities of the land and therefore
it plays an important role in its rational use. In the study of the soil
_ cover and in the compilation of soil maps, carried out in our country by
- a system of land use agencies and scient3fic research ins titutes,there
must be an objective characterization of the natural characteristics of
~ the territory to be mapped, a high accuracy and detail in the represen.ta-
tion of the soil cover and its scientifically sound generalization. The use
of aerospace methods is exerting a revolutionizing j.nfluence in the aolu-
tion of these problems.
The refinement and acceleration of work in the compilation of soil maps
are dependent to a considerable degree on the nature of the base used.
It is entirely obvious that the higher the quality of the base used, the
- greater will be the detail of the natural conditions represented on it and
the better will be the quality of the soil survey results. A geographic
base rich in detail makes it possible for the soil scientist, relatively
simply and rapidly, to determine the position and rather precisely to
- stipulate the sites for soil profiles and samples. A geographic base with
a good representation of relief makea possible a considerably more pre-
cise siting of soil profiles in its individual elements and far more re-
liably define and draw the boundaries of soil units becaus e the spatial
changes of soils are dependent to a considerable degree on relief changes.
Investigations of recent years have shown (METODIKA SOSTAVLENIYA..., 1962;
RUK017ODSTVO PO SOSTAVLENIYU POCHVENNYKH KART, 1964; KRUPNOMASSHTABNAYA KAR-
TOGIta2IYA POCHSI, 1471) that the beat bases for the compilation and correc-
tion of large-scale soil maps are topographic maps or aerial photoplans
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with contours and aerial photographs. The earlier extensively used land use
plans without the representation of relief are unsuitable for this purpose
because soil maps compiled on such a base with respect to accuracy and qual-
ity do not meet modern requirements. In addition, the work input of the soil
scientist is very great when using thie type of base.
The fundamental theoretical principles in the field of interpretation and
- analysis of soil interpretation criteria were used in developing methods
for the compilation of soil maps from aerial and apace photographa.
Methods for the compilation of soil maps from aerial and space photographs
(for territories in which soils have been poorly studied). The compilation
o� soil maps by aerospace methods is subdivided into three stagea: prelim-
inary offi.ce work, field work and final office work. When using aerial and
space photographs, especially multizonal photographs, in this traditional
process of investigating and mapping of the soil cover there is a marked
_ increase in the volume of work on preliminary office procedures. In the
first stage of the work a study is made of the literature and cartographic
materials, including topographic maps of the investigated region. A topo-
graphic map, in accordance with the scale used, makes it possible to obtai.n
data on the characteristics of relief in the territory to be analyzedo How-
- ever, it does noti make it possible to 3 udge the nature of the soil cover
- over the territory of a farm, region or definite natural region to be mapp-
_ ed and affords no possibility, still under office conditions, for defining
the llmits and content of individual soil areas or units. In addition, for
soil mapping the image of relief on topographic maps does not always fully
reflect the microrelief in the territory. An aerospace survey makes possible
the relatively rapid collection of materials with a high accuracy and ob-
jectivity. In comparison with topographic maps they are characterized by a
greater detail of the image of the earth's surfaee and wealth of detail, a
direct or indirect representation of the soii cover and the possibility of
establishing its interrelationahips with other landscape elements.
At the same time, when working with space photographs there is a sharp in-
crease in the role of topographic and soil maps available for the investi-
gated region. This is attributable to threP factors:
First, whereas when using aerial photographs orientation and tie-in are
readily accomplished in the field, when using space photographs this work
is done initially from maps and it must be remembered that the detail of
the space photographs is greater than the detail of the maps (of sitnilar
scales).
Second, the use of soil and topographic maps makes it possible to clarify
the possibilities of interpretation af soils on space photographs, the de-
gree of detail and generalization of the image of soils, relief, hydro-
graphic elements, and also to es.tablish interpretation criteria for a num-
ber of soils.
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~ -
Third, a topographic map (as in the case of aerial photographa) is used in
convey ing the results of interpretation of space photographs (frequently
unrectified) and in compiling a soil map of the corresponding scale.
In Che preliminary period work on the use of serospace photographs for study
of the soil cover begins with a general review from them, using a prelimin-
ary montage of photomosaics of the investigated territory. It is necessary _
that these he constantly compared with materials on available soil maps
and topographic maps. In the course of this work from the photoimage of the
photographs and the nature of the relief on the topographic maps it is pos- _
sible to determine sectors with more or less uniform natural conditions -
and to accomplish orientation and tie-in of aerial and space photographs to
elements of the geographic situation on the topographic maps. This can be _
- done most reliably on the basis of an analysis of the hydrographic and
- gully-ravine network (especially in the case of use of space photographs).
In the case of large- and medium-scale surveys,from land use maps the admin-
istrative boundaries of farms or regions are transferred to topographic maps and photographs during tne preliminary period and the photographs required
for further work within their boundaries are kept. When using aerial photo-
graphs having a 60% end lap within the limits of each flight line they are
divided into two sets (even and odd numbers). One of the sets is used in
defining the woric area; the other set of photographs is necessary �or a _
stereoscopic interpretation of the soil cover. :
The next important stage is carrying out a prelitninary soil interpretation -
on the basis of aerial and space photographs. When using aerial photographs
for the compilation of large-scala (1:10,000-1:25,000) and medium-scale
(1:100,000-1:200,000) soil maps this stage involves the following. -
- By means of stereoscopic instruments (stereoscope, interpretoscope, etc.)
and an analysis of interpretation criteria on photographs, within the lim-
- its of the work area it is possible to define the boundaries of soil areas.
The basis for their interpretation includes tone and'pattern (texture) of
the photoimage, including the siae, shape and shadows of features, the na-
ture of relief and other criteria. A summary of the soil areas is placed
at the boundaries of the work areas. All the soil areas on the basis of the
degree of interpretability dre classified as reliable, doubtful (shown by
a dashed line) and those which cannot be determined under office conditions.
In the stereoscopic interpretation of space photographs taken from altitudes
of 200 km or more it must be remembered that only large forms of relief with
an amplitude of 100 m or more are perceived three-dimensionally.
In the office interpretation of doubtful soil units and those which cannot
b e determined visually the soil scientist is assiated considerably by the
use of an image analyzer the "Kvantimet=720." T?ie'experiments zahich have
beE.: carried out have indicated that when it is used there is additional
differentiation of uniform scil areas and an objective quantitative evalua-
tion is obtained:
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When the soil scientisc has a knoraledge of the soil cover of similar ter-
ritories, when he has samples of the interpretation of soils from photo-
graphs, it is possible to make a preliminary diagnostic determination of
the soil cover which is then nartially checked in the field. If there are
no interpretation samples for similar sails, the soil cover is unfamil.iar
to the soil scientist or he has no experience in the interpretation of
soils, the diagnostic interpretation of the soil cover is carried out only
under field conditions.
- In this connection it is possible to distinguish three principal variants:
a) use of aerial and space photographs for refining existing soil maps for
territories where the soils have been well studied (see next section) ; b)
use of aerospace methods for refining and recompiling soil maps for terri-
tories where the soils are poorly studied; c) use of aerospace methods in
= soil mappir,g of inaccessible teri'itories where the soils have not b een stud-
- ied.
It was established when using multizonal photographs during the prelimin- -
- ary office period that the principal results in soil interpretation should '
be obtained from photographs in the blue-green, red and IR zones, contain-
ing the most soil information. Photographs in the IR and blue-green spec-
tral zones under office conditions, together with photographs in the red
zone, makE possible a mare reliable and obj ective interpretation of soils -
and the obtaining of new information for a number of soil units. -
After carrying out s nreliminary office interpretation of the soil covel
the r.esults of the areal and in part the diagnostic determination of soils
are transferred by means of appropriate proj ection instruments (pho to rec-
tifier, projector, Clara camera, etc.) onto a topographic base. The re-
= sults of soil interpretation are transferred onto a photoplan (if it is
used as a base) using the geographic sjtuation and the photoimage, sim-
ilar to photographs.
In this way a map of the preliminary interpretation of soils is compiled.
On the basis of this map and available photographs it is possible to de-
termine soil-geomorphological regions for whic.h (when making a medium- `
scale soil survey) it is possible to prepare interpretation "%ays" (area
one or two aerial photographs), select the most rational routes and
siltes for obtaining the principal soil profiies and draw up a plan for a
field soil investigation. -
= Field studies for soil mapping purposes with the use of aerial and space
photographs begin with a general familiarization with the soils in the -
= process of a reconnaissance of the investigated territory. During the ini-
tial period it is especially important, simultaneously with orientation,
_ tie-in and description of tb,e soil profiles, to clarify stable interpreta- _
tion criteria for the soil cover.
In a large-scale soil survey it is customary to use the continuous survey- _
ing method; in medium- and small-scale mapping the xeconnaissance-" key"
survey method is employed. When "keys" a.re available work on soil mapping
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and field interpretation begins from these sectors. Their number is de-
termined during the the preliminary office period and is depe.ndent on
the peculiarities of structure of the soil cover. In the case of a medium-
- scale survey of a:oil-geomorphological region a soil interpretation "key"
is prepared. In the case of "key sectors" the soil units and typical struc-
tures of the soil cover are supported by soil profiles. In the course of
this work there is accumulation of experience on the field interpretation
= of soils, which makes it possible to proceed to the next stage in the
- work on the mapping of the soil cover by the reconnaissance method. The
sites for the soil profiles are determined on the photographs on the ba-
- siG o.� the photoimage tone and pattern.
The re connais sance- "key" method is used when space phetographs are employ-
ed. A knowledge of the interpretation criteria makes possible successful
interpretation of the soil cover between reconnaissance lines, applying
the principle of geographic analogues. In the case of a good interpreta-
bility of soils, especially when using a multizonal survey, the number of
_ soil units discriminated from photographs is usually greater than when
using only topographic maps. Accordingly, with retention of the norms es-
tablished for a definite scale for the digging of the main and secondary
pits a number of soil units will not be supplied with sucYL test pits. When
using photographs their conditionality will be backed up by a slmilar photo-
image with sectors for which there are test pits, as a result of a survey
in "key" areas and along reconnaissance lines and extrapolation of the re-
- sults to territories between field lines for which no data are available.
For territo ries with a complex soil cover the number of main test pits may
even be somewhat greater than set by the present-day norms. However, the
number of test pits needed for clarifying the boundaries of soil unitg is
reduced by several times. As a result, the use of photographs enables the
soil scientist, working in the f-eld, to carry out a higher-quality, funda-
mental study of the soil cover. The result of field work is a field compil-
ation of a soil map with a legend and soil interpret. atiori symbols.
In the post-field office period the materials from the soil survey and the
results of the soil interpretation are formalized in final form. After the
analytical processing of soil samples the legend and soil map are finally
backed up with the writing of an axplanatory text to the map. The results
of soil interpretation are finalized in the form of interpretation samples
for the soil cover. These are usually prepared for the sector of "key inves-
tigations."
Each of the soil interpretation s:3mples consists of the principal photograph
and two adjacent photographs (triplet) for a stereos.copic study of the soil
cover. A sample of photo interpretation in the form of a fragment of the
soil m ap with its legend is appended to them.
The i,axt document is the explanatory text with a brief description of the
= natural conditions, soil cover and characteristics of its interpretation
with a compilation of a table of soil interpretation indicators.
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Interpretation samples, for the purpose of tlieir suUsequent use, are ac-
companied by an indication of the taxonomic unit, in accordance with the
scheme for soil-geographic regionalization of the USSR, the time when the
survey is made, the scale and the type of film. In the case of multizonal
photographs there is an indication of the spectral zone used and photo-
graphs of other survey spectral zones are given.
Methodological procedures for the compilation of inedium- and sma1T-scale
soil maps from space photographs (for agriculturally exploited lands). At
the present time in the agriculturally exploited territories of our country
more than 94% of the kolkhoz and sovkhoz lands are supplied with large-scale
soil maps. Accordingly, it is necessary to generalize this rich material
" from soil mapping investigations of farms and compile medium- and small-
scale soil maps for rayons, oblasts and individual republics in the country
On the basis of investigations made during recent years in the field of
_ medium- and small-scale soil mapping with the use of space photographs and
with the compilation of samples of soil maps for different natural regions
- of the steppe, dry steppe and desert zones, we will cite a number of ineth-
odological instructions on the use of space photographs.
_ 1. Depending on the complexity of the soil cover and the area of land cover-
age, it is desirable that the generalization of data from a large-scale
soil survey be carried out to scales 1:100,000, 1:300,000-1:500,000 and
~ 1:1,000,000.
In the compilation of maps at a scale 1:100,000-1:200,000 it is possible to
recommend aerial photographs at a scale of 1:30,000-1:100,000 and space
photographs at a scale of 1:200,000, as well as original and enlarged photo-
graphs at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
In the compilation of maps at a scale of 1:300,000-1:500,000 it is necessary
to use space photographs at a scale of 1:200,000, black-and-white and color
spectrozonal photographs at a scale of 1:1,000,000, enlarged by a factor of
_ 2-4, and also black-and-white multizonal photographs taken with the MKF-6
camera, and color photographs synthesized from them, enlarged by a facto:
of 4-5 in comparison with their initial (1:2,100,000) scale.
In the compilation of maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 it is recommended that
use be made of black-and-white and color spectrozonal space photographs at
a scale of 1:1,000,000, enl3rged by a factor of 2-3, and multizonal photo-
graphs, taken with a MKF-6 camera with enlargement by a factor of 3-5, as
well as photographs at a scale of 1:200,000-1:300,000 with subsequent re-
duction. It is also possl.ble to use space photographs at a scale of
I:2,500,000 taken from the "Salyut" orbital station and enlarged 2X-5X.
These same space materials can be used in the compilation of sheets of a
soil map at a scale of 1:2,500,000.
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~
Experience has shown that in the compilation of inedinm- and small-scale
soil maps it is desirable to use photographs of this same scale or twice
as large.
- 2. Work on the compilation of generalized soil maps at medium and small
- scales with the use of space information can be divided into three stages:
_ preliminary office, field and final office work.
3. The use in the office period of a complex of stereos,:opic, optical-elec-
tronic apparatus for an analysis of pliotoimages, optical-mechanical projec-
tors, photorectifiers and synthesizers for the synthesis and transfer of
the results from photographs to a map base. Topographic sheets with a
lightened map load, photoplans or photomaps at a corresponding scale are
used as a map base for the compilation of soil maps.
4. In the preliminary office period the work begins with the collection and
systematizing of large- and medium-scale soil maps, sheets of the StaCe
Soil Map, materials from aerial and space surveys, and collection and study
of sources in the literature for the investigated region.
5. Due to the fact that in the agriculturally exploited territories of the
country the materials of the State Soil rfap contain thorough data on the
structure of the soil cover, in a generalization of large- and medium-scale
soil maps with the use of space materials there is a marked increase in the
role of preliminary office work on both areal and genetic interpretation of
soils.
In the case of territories well supplied with soil mapping materials, the
_ central place in the method for work on the compilation of small- and med-
iinn-scale soil maps with the use of space photographs is occupied by a
scientifically sound generalization of the soil cover and the implementa-
_ tion of a high-quality synthesis of available soil data. In this connection
ful.l use should be made of one of the principal advantages of space methods,
specifically the possibility of using them in an analysis of the soil cover
in close relationship to other environmental components; due to the great
field of view of the space photographs and the coverage of consideraUle
areas when they are used there is a considerable increase in the role of
physiographic synthesis of natural phenomena and features, including soils.
6. Idork on the compilation of inedium- and small-scale soil maps with the
use of space photographs begins with their orientation and tie-in to topo-
graphic sheets of a corresponding scale, sheets of the State Soil Map and
available medium-scale soil maps; the orientation and tie-in of space
photographs is accomplished reliably by making use of elements of the oro-
hydrographic network.
7. The first stage in the compilation of inediuTn- and small-scale soil maps
froi, space photographs is their use in carrying out areal interpretation
of soils employing stereascopic and optical-electronic instruments. Apply-
ing in;:erpretation criteria (tone, photoimage pattern, character of relief,
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-I
~ etc.) it is possible to discr3.minate the boundaries of soil units on space
photographs. The experience available in our country shows that in the
i steppe, dry steppe and desert zones on small- and medium-scale space photo-
graphs it is easy to interpret amidst zonal types (chernozems, chestnut
~ soils, brown desert-steppe soils, gray soils) soils of the hydromorphous
_ s.eries: meadow-chestnut, meadow-chernozem, etc.; sandy soils and sands
(ridged, barchan, hilly); soils formed on different soil-forming rocks;
~ alluvial and ancient alluvial, meadow and meadow-swampy; present-day and
~ ancient irrigated soils; eroded soils; takyrs; coastal (marsh) solonchaks,
saline and meadow soils; mou,ztain soils; on medium-scale photographs
_i a complex soil cover with solonetz soils, etc. It is possible to differen-
tiate typical chernozems with moderate humus from those rich in humus; typ-
; ical chernozems can be differentiated from ordinary and especially south-
; ern chernozemss southern chernozems and dark chestnut soils can be dis-
tinguished from chestnut soils; chestnut soils can be differentiated from
' brown desert-stepne soils; a complex soil cover of the dry steppe zone and
-j brown desert-steppe solonetz-iike soils can be differentiated from solon-
chak-like soils, etc. Clayey and clayey loam, sandy loam soils and soil of
sandy mechanical composition cannot be interpreted or are determined doubt-
fully; southern chernozems and dark chestnut soils, species differences of
! soils, etc. fall in the same category.
8. When using materials from a multizonal space survey it is necessary to
use color synthesized photographs or black-and-white photographs in the red
_ zone with additional information obtained from photographs taken in the IR
and blue-green spectral zones. In the case of soil units not clearly ex-
pressed (visually) on the photographs considerable help can be obtained by
the use of image analyzers of the "ISI," "Kvantimet-720," "Densitron" and
other types which with the aid of corresponding densitometric units empha-
size tonal differences in the color or black-and-white scale of soil cover
- images.
9. The results of areal interpretation of soils by the optical or mechan-
ical method are transferred from the photographs onto the sheets of topo-
- graphic maps and are tied-in to relief elements and the results of inter-
- pretation on adjacent photographs. Thereafter the soil areas on the space
photographs obtained in optically generalized form for the corresponding
_ survey scale are compared with the soil units on the State Soil Map. A
' diagnostic interpretation of the soil cover is made on the basis of this
comparison. There can be two principal variantso The first is when the photo-
image detail of the soil cover on space photographs (or some of them) is
less than on the shee;s of the State Soil Map. In this case the soil map
data are used for an interpretation of soils on the space photographs and
their subsequent use for the compilation of general soil maps. The second
case is when the accuracy in discrimxnating soil units and degree of de-
tail of the soil cover photoimage and its structure on the space photo-
graphs (or on some of them) are more detailed than on the sheets of the
_ State Soil Map. In this case, on the one hand, there is a refinement of the
content and detail of this map (on the basis of space interpretation data),
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and on the other hand, for a diagnostic identification of the soil units
discriminat -ad from space photographs use is made of data from a medium-
scale mapp ing of soils. In such cases it is possible to use the results
of generali zation of data from large-scale surveys carried out earlier or
made direct 1y in the course of compilation of small- or medium-scale soil
maps from space photographs.
10. The stage of generalization of materials from large-scale soil maps
(to medium scales 1:50,000-1:100,000 and 1:200,000),to the level of re-
gional soil maps,must be carried out with the use of aerial photographic
surveys at a scale of 1:25,000-1:30,000. In this stage there is refinement
and correct ion of soil units on the basis of aerial photographs and an in-
itial objec tive generalization of the soil cover with a reflection of the
nature of the soil textures shown on the photographs. The generalization,
iihich begins with a generalization of the map legends, is carried out on
the princip 1e of the similarity of soils in genesis and productive sig-
nificance. It is expressed in a combining of small soil units into larger
- units, the compilation (taking the soil aerial photographic image into
_ account) of new generalized units, including soil combinations, complexes
and mosaics . The minimum unit for soils having clear boundaries and dif-
ferent gene sis is 25 mmZ, for units having sharp boundaries and similar
_ genesis 50 mm2> for soils with gradua.l transition boundaries 100 mm2.
When discrirninating complex units from aerial photogra.phs there is refine-
= rtient of the 3r percentage content of secondary and tertiary components,
taking taking into account the general subdivisi:ons for their discrimina-
tion: up to 10%, from 10 to 25%, from 25 to SO%o
11. The pro cess of generalization and conversion from the content of soil
- maps of a larger scale to a mediinn or smaller scale with the correspond-
, ing use of aerial and space photographs should be as 1:2 or 1:3, that is,
from a scal e of 1:25,000-1:50,000 to 1:100,000-1:200,000, then to 1:300,000
or 1:500,00 O and finally to m3ps at a scale of 1:1,000,000. This will make
possible the most complete and precise retention of the characteristics of
structure o f the soil cover,in individual natural regions appearing on pho-
tographs and reflection of the geographical similaritq of the soil cover
in the investigated territory.
In the comp 3lation of small-scale soil maps from space photographs individ-
ual large- s cale soil maps of farms and medium-scale maps of regions sel-
ected for characteristic natural-geomorphological regions can serve as
inserted " keys" necessary for the compilation of more complete and inform-
- ative maps, taking into account the structure of the soil cover.
12. On the basis of areal and genetic interpretation of space photographs,
employing materials from earlier soil investigations and sheets of the
State Soil Map,during the preliminary office period there is compilation
of iiedium- or small-scale soil maps and the places and routes for partial
checking of the content of these maps in the field are selected.
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13. During the field period for soil mapping, with the use of space photo-
_ graphs, there is a general familiarization with natural conditions, soils
- and their field interpretation along the reconnaissance route. Doubtful
sectors of the soil map are checked and refined, a series of primary soil
' profiles is prepared and materials are collected for the compilation of
additional maps and cartograms. Stable interpreCation criteria are estab-
lished fnr the soil cover. Soil samples.are collected for carrying out
genetic analyses and studying the reflectivity of soils.
As a result, the final compilation of the soil map with an appropriate
legend is finalized in the field.
14. In the office post-field period the soil map is put into its final form
and an explanatory note for the map is prepared. The results of the office
and field interpretation of soils are formalized in the form of soil in-
_ terpretation keys, based on space photographs, composite tables and indi-
cators of soil interpretation criteria and an explanatory text devoted to
- the peculiarities of their interpretation applicable to definite natural
and technical survey conditions.
Effectiveness of Compilation of Soil Maps from Aerial Photographs
The matter of the effectiveness of use of materials from an aerial photo-
graphic survey for soil mapping will be examined in the example of compil-
ation of a large-scale soil map of the "Krasnyy Oktyabr kolkhoz in Kur-
manayevskiy Rayon of Orenburgskaya Oblast and medium-scale maps of three
- farms in the territory of the Mongolian People's Repub,lic.
The soil cover of the investigated sector of the territory of Orenburgsk-
aya Oblast was represented by southern (ordinary, terraced, with reduced
effervescence, solonetz-like) chernozems, of different mechanical composi-
tion, formed on different soil-forming rocks, meadow-chernozem soils,
. steppe and meadow-steppe solonetz soils.:and alluvial soils. The use of
materials from an aerial photographic survey was effective for this terri-
tory, complex in its soil geography (it is in the third category of dif-
ficulty). In the course of the work this assumption was completely con-
firmed. In order to characterize the soil cover (area 11,900 hectares,
_ survey scale 1:25,000) a total of 336 test pits were dug, of which 235
were primary (depth 150-200 cm). This number, 1 test pit each 50 hectares,
corresponds to the norms for the number of test pits per unit area in de-
pendence on survey scale and the terrain categoYy appropriate for soil
_ cover complexity.
llowever, not all the soil units were characterized by test pits. A number
of soil units having a similar photoimage on the aerial photographs (pat-
tern, tone) and situated under uniform relief conditions were characteriz-
ed on the basis of extrapolation of data. The sites for the digging of
test holes (primary and secondary) in the terrain and the density of the
reconnaissance lines were determined by the peculiarities of the soil
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photoimage on the photographs and photoplan with contours, which was used
as an up-to-date base.
The use of aerial methods indicated that under the conditions of this nat-
ural region, southern chernozems, southern terraced chernozems of inedium
- and small thickness, meadow-chernozem and alluvial soils are interpreted
with great effectiveness. On w.ter divides there is reliable discrimina-
- tion of homogeneous and complex snil units with the participation of sol-
: onetz soils. Southern chernozems formed on different rocks, thin gravelly
chernozems and steppe solonetz soils were doubtfully discriminated. On the
photoimage it was impossible to discriminate southern clayey, heavy clayey
loam and clayey loam chernozems and meadow-chernozem soils of different
degrees of leaching, etc., that is, soils of close taxonomic ranks, the
characteristics of which are not manifested significantly in the optical
properties of soils, were not discriminated on the photoimage.
The use of aerial photographs made it possible to detect a number of reli-
- able interpretation criteria for the mapping, on their taasis, of such
- peculiarities of the soil cover important for production as discrimination
of areas subject to deflation, areas of different degrees of water ero-
sion, areas with complexes with different quantities of solonetz on old
cultivated lands and areas with different types of intraunit soil nonuni-
formity.
Thus, for the territory of the dry steppe zone there was found to be a
considerable effectiveness of use of aerial methods in the large-scale
mapping of soils. It is expressed in a reduction of, the number of test
holes by a factor of 2-3 with retention of the necessary accuracy in the
discrimination of soil units, a deeper study of the soil cover and its
structure by means of primary and secondary test holes, the number of which
is not lcwer, but even higher than the necessary norms; on the soil map
there is objective expression of characteristics of the soil cover which
are of importance for production. The use of aerial methods made it pos-
sible with a high accuracy (in sectors where the soils were interpreted
reliably the units were discriminated with topographic accuracy) and com-
pleteness to map the soil cover and compile a soil map objectively re-
flecting the soil resources of the investigated region.
- The use of aerial methods is still more effective in the compilation of
medium-scale soil maps. We will examine the use of aerial photographs in
the soil mapping of three farms in the Mongolian People's Republic, which
was carried out during 1971-1974 jointly by L. P. Rubtsova and G. A.
Shershukova under the direction of N. A. Nogina. When this work was done
. use was made of the reconnaissance-"key" survey method with the compila-
tion of a preliminary soil interpretation map on the basis of aerial
photographs during the office period for the entire territory of the farm.
ThP number of test pits and "key sectors," as well as the density of the
fieid reconnaissance lines,was different in dependence on the complexity
of the soil cover in the investigated region and its interpretability on
aerial photographs.
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In a soil survey at a scale of 1:100,000 of the "Tuvshrulekh" farm, locat-
ed in the wooded steppe zone, topographic maps at a scale of 1:100,000
and aPrial photographs at a scale of 1:60,000 were tised as bases. A com-
parative analysis of these materials indicated that under mountainous
conditions the relief image on the aerial photographs is highly distorted
, and it is difficult to interpret ttee soil cover through forest vegetation.
On the other hand, topographic maps in great detail convey the nature of
the relief (steepness, exposure, length of slopes) of a mountainous zerri-
tory. In a steppe loc,rland part of the farm the use of the tone and pattern
of the photoimage on the aerial photographs made possible a reliabZe dis-
crimination of ineadow-chestnut and meadow solonchak-like soils associated
with flat intermontane basins which on the topographic maps had a uniform
pattern of the contour lines. On the other hand, smoothed ridges with
. ch.estnut soils, clearZy noted on the topographic map, were sometimes poor-
ly traced on aerial photographs.
- In order to characterize the soil cover 358 test pits were dug in the four
man-months of the survey. Computations indicated that for the third cate-
gory of difficulty, to which the investigated territory of the farm was
" assigned (nozm 32,000 hectares per month), the soil map was compiled
within the limits of the existing work norms for this survey scale (1 test
hole per 400 hectares).
The somewhat grpater number of test holes dug in this territory in compar-
ison with the adopted norms explains the increased accuracy of tlae map and
iics more complete content as a result of use of aerial methods. With re-
spect to the accuracy and volume of soil information (due to the use of
data from aerial photographs at a scale of 1:60,000) the soil map for the
_ "Tuvshrulekh" farm approaches a scale of 1:50,000. As a result, it can be
assumed that the final compilation of the soil map at a scale of 1:100,000
is twice as complete and is of a higher quality in content due to the use
of aerial methods.
At the "Unzhul" farm, typical for the steppe zone of the Mongolian People's
Republic, a scientific-production soil survey at a scale of 1:200,000 was
carried out over an area of 319,000 hectares using topographic maps at a
scale of 1:100,000 with the use of aerial photographs at a scale of
1:32,000. In natural respects the analyzed territory can be assigned to
the dry steppe with the widespread occurrence of chestnut soils. The re-
connaissance-key research method was employed when carrying out soil map
- work. In the preliminary office period over the entire survey area a pre-
- liminary soil interpretation map was compiled (with the use of a stereo-
scope and aerial photographs). The results of the interpretation were
transferred to a topographic base at a scale of 1:100,000.
An analysis of the photoimage of this territory made it possible to divide
it into three major soil-geomorphological regions and the valley of the
Tola River, for which four "key" sectors were selected, each of which
characterizes a typical dry steppe landscape. nuring the field period
268
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work on the mapping of the territory (after a general reconnaissance) was
begun from these sectors (each with an area 30-60 lmn2) for the purpose of
detecting from photographs at a scale 1:32,000 soil cover structures. Work
in the key sectors was done using a denser network of test pits than else-
where.In a reconnaissance survey (distance between lines 4-5 km) use was
made of the principle of extrapolation of collected data.
A total of 570 test holes were dug in the field period in compiling a field
compilation of a soil map at 1:100,000, which in content had information
from aerial phntographs at a scale of 1:32,000. In order to support a final
_ map at a scale of 1:200,000, in accordance with the third category of dif-
ficulty, to which the investigated territory was assigned, the number of
test pits dug was somewhat greater than according to the adopted norms.
This is related to the more complete map represenltation of the content of
the soil cover and its structure when using aerial photographs. In general,
aerial methods increased the qua.Iity of the investigations made and the
soil map and the completeness of its content was doubled or tripled.
Soil interpretation keys or samples were prepared during the final office
period; the basis for these was the "key" sectors. It was established
that the specific nature of soil interpretation in this territory is relat-
ed, on the one hand, to the fact that this is a natural region with clear�-
, ly expressed features of macro- and mesorelief, and on the other hand, that
- this is a zone of steppe virginland vegetation, poorly affected by agri-
cultural exploitation. Accordingly, the basis was an indirect interpreta-
tion of the soil cover, accomplished through the direct image of relief
and steppe vegetation.
In the semidesert zone of the Mongolian People's Republic a soil survey at
a scale of 1:200,000 was carried out in the territory of the "Bulgan" farm.
As a base for compilation of the soil map use was made of sheets of a
topographic map at a scale of 1:100,000 and aerial photographs at a scale
of 1:32,000. The survey was made over a two-year period. During the first
year a total of 360,000 hecCares was mapped of a total area of 830,000 hec-
tares. The good surface exposure of the territory (the projective coverage
of the soil surface by vegetation here is from 3-4 to 12-20%) made it pos-
sible to have`a very clear contrasting image of the soil cover on the aer-
ial photographs. _
The method f.or compiling the soil map was as follows. During the prelimin-
ary office period aerial photographs were obtained on which after delin-
esting the work areas by means of a mirror-lens stereoscope it was pos-
sible to carry out visual-instrumental soil interpretation. On rhe basis
of an analysis of the aerial photographic image for the first year of the
_ soil survey it was possible to'define five "key" sectors taking in differ-
ent geomorphological territories: a foothill area, a sloping proluvial-
denudational plain with absolute elevations of 1,700-1,350 m(here three
"key" sectors were selected) and an erosional-de.nudational plain of an av-
erage level with absolute elevations of 1,300-1,100 m(two "key" sectors),
269
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- FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
= In the preliminary office period, using aerial photographs for the entire
survey area, it was possible to compile a preliminary soil interpretation
. map with the soils being transferred from aerial photographs to sheets of
a topographic map at a scale of 1:100,000.
During the field period work on compilation of the soil map began from the
"key" sectors, each of which covered an area of 25 kmz. Work in these
areas for study of the soil cover, its structure and the different charac-
ter of the photoimage was carried out using photographs at a scale of
1:32,000 and a grid of test pits of increased density (up to 1-2 km).
Thereafter, a reconnaissance soil survey was made with the distance be-
tween reconnaissance lines being 4-5 km. The investigations indicated
that for tfie territory of the foothill plain it was possible to extrapolate
- successfully the interpretation criteria for brown desert-steppe and water-
shed soils determined in "key" sectors to a distance of SO km or more. In
- the territory of the erosional-denudational plain it was easy to determine
different forms of sand (barchan,.ridged, hilly) from the photographs and
extrapolate them for tens and hundreds of kilometers. It was easy to de-
termine highly eroded sectors of the soil ro�,rer with surface outcrops of
Tertiary reddish rocks and erosional deflation basins.
According to the existing production norms, for a scale of 1:200,000 one
- worker is assigned 120,000 hectares per mor.th. Therefore, the work area of
3605000 hectares called for 3.5 man-months. Taking into account that a field
copy of the map was compiled at a scale of 1:100,000, the work productiv-
ity was'twice as great. This.effect during the field period is attribut-
able, on the one hand, to the fact that a soil map was compiled first,
- and on the other hand, to the use of materials from an aerial photographic
survey with good interpretability of the soil cover. A total of 376 test
pits were dug for compilation of an interim soil map during field work.
According to the existing norms (1 test pit per 1,200 hectares) for ter-
- ritories of the second category of difficulty, to which the lands of the
farm were assigned, it would be adequate to have 290-300 test pits. The
somewhat greater number of soil test holes dug is attributable to the
high information content of the aerial photographs with respect to the
photoimage of the soil cover and its structure. The following year this
soil survey work was continued; full use was made of the earlier experi-
ence in office and field work in this territory. About 700 soil test pits
were dug in an area of 830,000 hectares during two field seasons. The
use of aerial photographs made it possible to create a precise soil map,
complete in content. Somewhat generalized information from aerial photo-
graphs at a scale of 1:32,000 was used in creating a field compilation
of a soil map at a scale of 1:100,000. If it is taken into account that
_ the final compilation of the soil map was at a scale of 1:200,000, the
completeness of the content and the quality af the map, as a result of
the use of aerial methods, increased not less than two- or threefold.
The scientific-productive irivestigations which were made indicate a con-
siderable effectiveness of use of aerial methods in soil science in the
study and mapping of the soil cover. A further inerease in effectiveness
270
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of soil aerospace methods involves an improvement in the interpretability
- of the soil cover, the formulation of soil interpretation keys and an in-
tensification of the role of preliminary office soil interpretation, and
also during this period a more thorough study of the soil cover from aero-
space photographs with the use of modern instruments and apparatus.
MO 03.
3. -
flCacbikkonb
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y ' ' � ~ . .
Y II n r�.
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-
= II �
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II II II
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n i . . . .
03. Anakonn
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Fig. 50. Small scale soil map of the territory of the southeastern part of
Kazakhstan.
271
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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KEY TO FIGURE 50 (page 272): 1) medium-thick chernozems with average hum- -
us content iii intermontane basins; 2) chestnut clayey loam soils; 3) light
- chestnut sandy loam soils; 4) light chestnut calcareous sandy loam soils;
5) brown desert-steppe sandy loam soils underZain by sandy gravels; 6)
brown desert-steppe soils; 7) gray-brown desert sandy loam soils; 8) gray-
brown desert sandy loam soils with outcrops of siliceous sandstones; 9)
gray-brown desert solonetz-like soils; 10) gray-brown desert solonetz-
like soils, locally highly gravelly; 11) gray soils with low carbonate con- -
tQnt; 12) meadow-gray soil complex; 13) meadow solonchak-like solonetz
soils; 14) solonchaks; 15) salina solonchaks; 16) meadow-swampy soils; 17)
alluvial-meadow soils; 18) mountain-meadow alpine soils; 19) mountain-mead-
ow subalpine soils; 20) podzolized mountain chernozems; 21) leached moun-
_ tain chernozems; 22) mountain chesfinut soils; 23) outcrops of crystalline =
- rocks; 24) ridged-hiJ.ly sands; 25) brown mea3ow-steppe soils, solonchaks -
and desert solonetz soils; 26) solonchaks and residual solonetz soils; 27) _
meadow solonchak-like soils, meadow solonchaks, meadow solonetz soils; 28)
- meadow solonchak-like and meadow solonchaks.
KEY TO FIGURE 50a (page 273): 1) medium-thick chernozems with average hum-
us content in intermontane basins; 2) che5tnut clayey loam soils; 3) light -
chestnut sandy loam soils; 4) light chestnut calcareous sandy loam soils;
- 5) brown desert-steppe sandy loam soils on sandy pebbles; 6) brown meadow-
steppe soils; 7) gray-brown desert sandy loam soils; 8) gray-brown desert
soils with outcrops of siliceous sandstones; 9) gray-brown desErt solonetz-
like clayey loam soils; 10) gray-brown desert solonetz-like clayey loam
and sandy loam soils; 11) gray-brown desert solonetz-like, locally highly
gravelly; 12) gray soils with low carbonate content; 13) irrigated meadow-
gray soils; 14) meadow solonchak-like solonetz soils; 15) solonchaks; 16) .
- salina solonchaks; 17) meadow-swampy soils; 18) alluvial-meadow soils; 19)
= sands; 19a) moist sands; 20) sands on ancient altuvial deposits; 21) sands
= and solonchaks; 22) sands, desert takyr-like soils and solnnchaks; 23) gray-
brown desert sandy loam soils and desert residual solonetz soils; 24) gray-
- brown desert soils with participation of solonetz-like soils and desert
solonetz soils; 25) brown meadow-steppe soils, meadow solonchak-like sol-
- onetz soils, solonchaks; 26) brown meadow-steppe soils, solonchaks, meadow -
- solonchak-like solonetz soils; 27) meadow-gray soil complex, meadow solon-
chak-like solonetz soils; 28) mPadow-gray soil complex, meadow solonchak-
_ like solonetz soils on ancient alluvial-proluvial deposits; 29) meadow-
gray soil complex, solonchaks, meadow solonchak-like solonetz soils; 30)
meadow solonchak-like, meadow solonchak-like soils; 31) meadow solonchak-
like, meadow solonchak-line solonetz soils, solonchaks; 32) meadow solon-
chak-like, meadow solonchak--liUe colonetz soils on ancient alluvial-proluv-
_ ial deposits; 33) meadow solonchak-like soils, meadow solonchak-like solon-
etz soils and solonchaks on ancient alluvial-proluvial deposits; 34) meadow
solonchak-like soils, desert solonetz soils and solonchaks; 35) meadow sol- _
- onchak-like soils, alluvial soils and meadow solonchaks; 36) meadow solon-
chak-like and meadow-swampy soils; 37) meadow solonchak-like and meadow-
swai::;>y soils, meadow solonchak-like solonetz soils and meadow solonchaks;
38) meadow solonchak-like :oi1s, meadow solonchaks, meadow solonchak-like,
[continued at bottom of page 2741
273 -
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i HaP
1
iiiiiii2
3
3v
M4
~7
~8
~9
Fig. 51. Fragment of soil map of territory of lower course of Indus River.
Sca1e 1:6,000,000 (see soil map of Asia): 1) mountain cinnamon; 2) moun-
~ tain gray soils; 3) typical desertified gr ay soils of ephemeral steppes;
- 3a) same, with participation of sands and saline soils; 4) typical gravelly
desertified gray soils of ephemeral steppes; 5) typical desertified gray
soils of ephemeral steppes an1 reddish soils of deserts; 6) solonchaks;
7) floodplain alluvial; 8) flondplain alluvial and inundated (rice) soils;
� 9) sands '
Table 46
Effectiveness of Jse of Space Photographs :Ln Special Mapping
Types of mapping work Decrease in work output, in %
original edit- compil-
- compila- ing ation
t ion
Preparation of special maps 50-60 20-30 10-20
= Revision of special maps 60-70 40-50 30-40
KFY TO FIGURE 50a (continued) : meadow solonchaks, meadow solonchak-like sol-
~ onetz soils on ancient alluvial and proluvial deposits; 39) alluvial and
meadow-swampy soils on alli.v3al deposits; 40) residual solonetz soils and
soloncilaks; 41) meuntain chestnut soils; 42) leached mountain chernozems;
43) leached mauntain chernozems and outcrops of crystalline rocks; 44)
leached and podzolized mountain chernozems; 45) podzolized mountain cherno-
- zems; 46) mountain alpine and subalpi.r.e soils; 47) mountain alpine and sub-
- alpine soils, sr.ow covered.
274 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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-
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Effectiveness of Compilation of Soil Maps from Space Photogr.aphs
The use of space materials makes it possiUle to increase effectiveness in
~ the compilation of soil maps. According to data published by Yu. G. Kel'-
ner and G. N. Romankevich, specialists at the "Priroda" State Scientific-
Production Center of the Main Arlministration of Geo desy and Cartography
_ of the USSR Council of Ministers, the saving of work expenditures in dif-
ferent stages of compilation and revision of special maps from space pho- _
tographs is from 10 to 70% (Tablz 46). -
These data show that the economic effectiveness of use of space photographs
- in special, including soil, mapping, is quite high. It wi11 be still high-
- er as the methods and instrumentation of a space survey continue to im-
prave and as the mapping method is improved.
The real annual economic effect from the use of space materials in the
study of soils and special mapping in the UnitedStates and Canada even
today is reckoned in the tens of millions of dollars (Table 47).
- The use of space photographs in the study of soil resources in soil mapp-
ing increases the effectiveness of work of the soil scientist with re-
spect to the accuracy and completeness of the inves tigations.
A small-scale soil map was compiled for the territory of southeastern Kaz-
akhstan using multi2onal space photographs from the "Soyuz-22." Sheets
from a medium-scale soil map of Kazakhstan were used in the interpretation
and in the compilation of this map. Areas of sands are shown more precise-
_ ly and completely on the map compiled from the photographs; areas of soils '
situated on the alluvial fans of mountain rivers and in the territories L
adjacent to thEm were clearly defined cartographically with topographic
accuracy'. On a photograph in the IR zone tIiere was more reliable plotting
of an area of ineadow-swampy and alluvial meadow soils, etc.
The soil map compiled as a result of interpretation of multizonal photo-
;raphs was compared with a smail-scale soil map (the map scales were sim-
ilar) available for this territory. The anaZysis indicated that the inter-
pretation of the soil cover from space photographs made it possible to
_ compile not only a more precise, complete and detailed (48 soil subdiv-
- isions and their complexes were discriminated instead of th.e 26 determin-
ed, earlier), but also qualitatively new map, most completely reflecting
the principal geographic patterns of structure of the so il cover in this
territory of southeastern Kazakhstan (Fig. 50, 50a).
= A similar soil mapping investigation was carried out in the territory of
the lower course of the Indus River. A comparative analysis of t`.z soil
map of this territory with the soil map obtained,as a result of interpret-
ati_on of space photographs from the ERTS satellite indicated that the
- initial map reqiiired refinements of the boundary of mountain cinnamon and
mountain gray soils, gray soils of typical desertif ied ephemeral steppes,
_ 275
~
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
}4a
~3
40
5
~7
9
~10
11
~12
13
Fig. 51a. Interpretation of soil cover of territory of lower course of
Indus River from space photographs taken from the ERTS-i.. Soils: 1) moun-
tain cinnamon; 2) mountain gray soils; 3) mountain gray soils and gravelly
desertified typical gray soils of ephemeral steppes; 4) desertified typical
chernozems af ephemeral steppes; 4a) same, with participation of sands and
saline soils; 5) desertified typical gray soils of ephemeral steppes and
reddish soils of deserts; 6) meadow solonchak-like and solonchaks; 7) sol-
onchaks; 8) f].oodplain alluvial and inundated (r.ice) soils with participa-
tion of secondarily saline soils; 9) sands and gray soils of deserts; 10)
sands; 11) ridged sands; 12) hilly sands; 13) deflatable sands
Table 47
Annual Saving from Use of Space Materials in 1974 (in Millions of DoJ.lars)
IndicPS Unj.ted States Canada
Agriculture:
agricultural crops 5.6
- pasture 39.7
Soils and land use 26.9
Mapping and special mapping
276
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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floodplain alluvial soils and solonchaks. Using space photographs with a
topographic degree of accuracy it was possible to interpret an area of
- floodplain alluvial soils along the valley of the Indus River, constitut-
ing an important land resource of Pakistana On the photographs it is easy
to see the internal nonuniformity of the photoimage of these soils the
presence of sectors of secondary salinization. The soil cover in the des-
ert shows up more differentially on the space photographs. Whereas on the
soil map of the lower course of the Indus River it had earlier been pos-
sible to discriminate nine soil subdivisions, after the interpretation 13
_ could be discriminated. As a result, tiie new soil map began to reflect the
land resources of the analyzed territory more completely and objectively
_ (Fig. 51, Sla).
- Experience in study of the possibility of using small-scale sFace photo-
graphs (scale 1:1,000,000-1:2,500,000) for refining existing soil maps
(of similar scales) for different natural zones indicated that the inter-
- pretability of the soil cover and the effecti.veness of map compilation
for the territory of the dry steppe and desert zones is several times
greater than fox the steppe zone.
Space photographs, as a result of their greater coverage and image gener-
alization, for the first time made it possible to interpret and carto-
graphically more precisely discriminate ancient deltas and their soil
cover on maps.
- It was demonstrated on the basis of investigations with the use of multi-
zonal space photographs that in small-scale soil mapping there can be a
marked improvement in the principle of geographic similarity of the image
of soils and their complexes on a map of soil cover structure in the ter-
rain. In most cases the geographic base for the compilation of soil maps
is topographic maps, on which there is no image of the soil cover. Ac-
cordingly, in its generalizati.on without the use of space photograpYts
' the specific structure of the soil cover of individual natural regions and
geographic zones is represented i:icompletely. One of the principal advan-
_ tages of use of space photographs in the field of soil mapping is the ef-
fect from a space classification of the soil cover. This theoretical prin-
ciple is particularly important because soil mapping is a spec3al method
for spatial investigation and representation of structure of the environ-
ment.
- In conclusion we will cite data on investigations of the effectiveness of
space photographs for compilation of a small-scale soil map of the Caspian
_ area (Table 48).
Promising Directions in the Use of Aerospace Methods for Study of Soil and
Agricultural Resources
ln soil science and agriculture, taking into account the needs of our coun-
try in the immec'iate future, it is necessary to develop the following fun-
damental direc:.ions in the field of use of aerospace materials.
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_ 1. Compilation and correction of ohlast and republic soil maps, sheets of
the State Soil iriap of the USSR, compilation of the soil map of the USSR
at a scale of 1:2,500,000. Compilation and refinement of a soil map of the
- world with the use of a great number of color and black-and-white photo-
graphs taken from space for the territory of foreign countries; in this
work it is important to investigate the process of optical generalization
of the soil cover image on photographs and determination of the possibil-
ity of interpreting types, subtypes, genera and possibly, species of soils.
Aerospace photographs make it possible to map soils of different regions
utith.a greater accuracy and completeness with respect to content and rep-
_ resentation of the soil cover structure. Accordingly, they make it pos-
siFale to compile soil maps at medium and small scales at a qualitatively
new 1eve1.
2. Development of a new type of soil maps. Tao new soil mapping solutions
are possible here.
Compilation of photosoil maps at a scale of 1:100,000-1:1,000,000 on which
the soil content of the map will be shown against the background of the
photoimage of space photographs.
Compilation of synthetic soil maps; the materials from a space survey
clearly reflect the soil cover and its interrelationship to.the environ-
ment, uzhich makes them an important base for synthesis of phenomena in a
- study of the soil cover and compilation of synthetic soil maps.
3. Study of the composition and properties of soils on the basis of re-
mote sensing. Dynamic measurement of soil temgerature and moisture con-
tent in different natural regions with the use of IR radiometers. Deter-
mir_ation of the humus content in surface soil horizons by means of scann-
ing detectors. By the use of remote investigation methods there can be
automatic compilation of thermal maps of the terrain, maps of soil humus
_ and moisture content.
4. Investigation of the dynamic properties of so:Lls and preservation of
- their fertility. The formulation of investigations in this direction
- is related to a peculiarity of zn aerospace survey of the earth's surface
the possibility of a rapid and regular. repetition of the survey. This
is especially important in judging the rapidly developing processes
transpiring in soils.
Aerospace materials can be used in solving the following problems: a) de-
termination of the intensity of water and wind erosion; mapping of eroded
soils from space photographs and ascertaining the effectiveness of pro-
tective measures for the conservation of soils; determination of centers
of propagation of sand and dust storms; b) detection of areas of soils
disrupted by industrial development and monitoring of ineasures for their
r.t:atoration; c) investigations of shore destruction of canals and reser-
voirs, determining areas of inundativn of soils in the zone of their
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activity; d) determining the resources of swampy, eroded, saline lands,
especially in inaccessible regions of the country; e) development and
- improvement aF the method for the study of soils requiring melioration
from space survey photographs; determination of areas of seasonally and
periodically saline soils; monitoring of the functioning of irrigation
and drainage systems using materials from repeated space surveys; inven-
torying the state and change in the quality of soils and areas of cultiv-
ated lar.3s under the influence of irrigation and drainage improvements; de-
tecti.on of overdried lands; ascertaining the nature of moistening, times
of the next irrigation and leaching.
Under conditions of ineliorable, drainable and irrigable lands it is promis-
ing to make use of aerospace methods for solution of the following prac-
tical problems in agriculture: determination of sown areas; determining
and inventorying present-day drained and irri.gated areas; determination
of the general condition of agricultural croFis in drained, irrigated and
nonirrigated areas; detection of possible anomalies in the development of
agricultural crops caused by different factors (soils becoming swampy,
soils becoming saline with detection of regions of secondary salinization,
absence of drainage, diseases and predators of agricultural crops, inade-
quacy of nutrients in the soil, etc.); determination of areas with leak-
age from irrigation canals; observations of implementation of the plan for
agricultural melioration; evaluations of different methods for drainage
and irrigation, their influence on the development of agricultural crops;
- determination of soil fertility and yield of agricultural crops under ir-
- rigated conditions and on drained lands.
5. Inventorying of different types of land use and methods for their cul-
tivation. Determination of their quality for the purFose of ensuring
rational use of lands and creation of conditions for increasing their ef-
fectiveness. Use of space photographs for compiling maps of the types of
use and preservation of lands with clarification of long-term soil re-
sources. The widecpread use of aerospace materials will make possible
not only the organization of a rigorous ir.ventory of land use, but also
the finding of additional land resources for increasing the production
of agricultural crops.
6. Soil-agricultural regionalization of the territories of our country and
_ foreign countries. Soil-melioration regionalization of lands in the irri-
_ gated zone and drained territories. Soil-erosion regionalization. Use of
space materials in soil regionalization will favor a deeper study of the
land resources of our country."
In addition to strictly soil problems, the.application of space photographs
in branches of agricultural science bordering on soil science is of great
importance for solution of fundamental agricultural problems. Among these
- we can mention the foliowing.
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7. Detection of areas of different agriculturaJ_ crops and determination
of their yield. This direction in research is one of the key directions
in the aerospace agricultural program. Maps of food and forage crops can
- Ue compiled for different periods in the growing season. It is possible
tc establish the relationship between crop yield, soil fertility and nat-
ural terrain conditions. In the future provision must be made for carry-
ing out an automated survey of agricultural crops from spaceo
8. Determination of cultivated hayfields and pastures and their condition.
Mapping and evaluation of the productivity of natural hayfields and pas-
tures for soil-geographic zones of the country. Determination of the in-
terdeDendence of natural vegetation, soils, geology, relief and hydro-
- graphy. Determination of the principal types of ineadows. Determination of
hayfields and pastures requiring superficial or radical improvement in
the natural grass stand. The problem of generalization of the plant cover
and the characteristics of its interpretation from space photographs,
9. Detection of centers of damage to agricultural crops. Determination of
an early diagnosis of diseases of grain crops, cotton, sunflowers, potato-
es, sugarbeets and other agricultural crops. Determination of centers of
- contamination of agricultural crops and their mapping. Determination of
the relationship between the diseases of agricultural crops, nature of the
soil cover and natural conditions.
10. Methods for the compilation of maps of land use areas, maps of the
boundaries of land use by agricul.tural enterprises, cadastral maps from
space materials. On the basis of study and mapping of different land use
areas and organization of agricultural production, use of space photo-
graphs in discriminating territories with different types of agricultural
production.
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SUMMARY
During the 50 years from the time of formation and development of aerial
methods for the study of soils there have been fundamental investigations
of the interpretation and mapping of the soil cover with the use of black-
and-white and color spectrozonal photographs in different soil-geographic
zones of our country.
A qualitatively new jump in the study of the soil-agricultural resources-
of the earth has occurred during the last 5-10 years in connection with
the use af space and multizonal aerospace research methods. Both photo-
graphic and photoelectronic methods have been successfully developed.
The investigations which have been carried out with the use of aerospace
methods for the study of soils and generalization of the Soviet and for-
- eign experience have made it possible to obtain the following results.
~ 1. It has been established that aerospace methods are of great importance
for objective (reliable), precise and thorough routine collection and in-
terpretation of information on land (soils-agricultural) resources. Space
photographs, covering extensive territories of the earth, ma.ke it possible
to see and map the latitudinal and vertical zonality of soils and also to
compile and refine soil maps of inedium and small scales which are more
complete in content. This effect is 1.5-2 times greater for the dry steppe
and desert zones in comparison with the methods used earlier.
On space photographs there is an objective optical generalization of the
soil cover, and as a result the concept of simple and complex integration
- has been introduced into space interpretation theory. The first is char-
- acteristic for the reflection of combinations of soils on photographs, and
the second for the photoimage of soil complexes.
- Space methods constituta an important tool for monitoring the state of
soils for the purpose of presexving and predicting the soil medium and
soil fertility. On phot-.ographs there is reliable interpretation of irri-
gated lands from the contrast in color of moist irrigated and dry unirri-
gat?d soils. Due to the extensive coverage of space photographs and the
ge:ieralization of details on them there is a clear representation of sec-
tors of the soil cover of modern deltas and it is possible to interpret
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soils of ancient river deltas of different age which earlier could not be
clearly detected car to graphically by other methods.
Space photographs are used in agricultural interpretation for ascertaining
the processing of soils and for determining the type of agricultural crops.
We have introduced the concept of the effect of space classification of the
soil cover into the theory of soil interpretation.
2. An examination of the theoretical principles of interpretation of the
soil cover from aerospace materials indicated that at the present time the
basic method is the visual-instrumental method for investigating soils in
which there is the most complete use of the logical inferences of the in-
terpreter and a quantitative analysis of the photoimage of the photographs
is employed.
- A quantitative visual-instrumental method has been proposed for the inter-
pretation of soils and agricultural crops (with use of a"Kvantimet-720"
image analyzer) using aerospace photographs. The interpretability of fea-
tures is evaluated in relative units from the difference in the level of
the gray tone of adjacent soil and vegetation units. A quantitative scaJ.e
for evaluating the degree of interpretability of objects has been proposed
within the limits of the instrument operating range (64 levels of gray
_ tone). Using this instrument, on the photographs amidst visually seemingly
homogeneous almost white, gray or almost black images of soils or crop
areas, it is possible to detect tone differentiation, which is of great
importance in the mapping of soils. A machine analysis of photographs made
using the "Kvantimet-720" made possible a differentiated, precise and ob-,,
jective compilation of soil maps.
The objectives of soil interpretation are, first of all, the detection of
genetic varieties of soil cover on aerial and space photographs and their
outlining, and second, determination and analysis of the soil units detect-
ed on the photographs. An important and independent task is the extrapola-
tion of the soil results to similar territories. An analysis of the complex
of interpretable criteria (direct tone, color, texture, shape, size of
the soil units; indirect characteristics of relief, hydrography, vege-
tation, man's agricultural activity) is the basis for the successful in-
cerpretation of soils.
. A classification of textures (parterns) of the photolmage of the soil cover
- on aerial and space photographs, a necessary condition for reliable inter-
pretation of soils, was developedo In connection with the automation of
- interpretation a new direction is developing study of the language of
the photoimage of photographs by the recognition of characteriatic struc-
- tures. The basis for the class ification of textures of the soil cover image
is the objective difference in the patterns registered on the photographs,
in -?ependence on the genetic sotl varieties to which they correspond. This
principle makes it possible, in an extrapolation process, to use the dis-
criminated textures of the photoimage for a successful diagnostic interpret-
ation of the soil cover of similar territories.
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A study of the spectral reflectivity of soils in the steppe and dry steppe
zones,,taking into account the total reflection coefficient and in a defin-
ite narraw snpc:-ral zone,indicated that the lesser the humus content in
the soil, the greater the content of carbonates, the lighter the nechanical
composition, the greater is the reflectivity and the lighter ia the soil
image on the photographa. The calcareous nature of the soils and rocks is
_ manifested quite sharply in the blue-green spectral zone where the soils
usually have lcw reflecticn coefficients. A joint analysis of the reflect-
ivity of soils and multizonal photographs made it passible to diagnose the
soils developed en different rocks.
Color is a reliable interpretation criterion for soils. Photographs of the
SN-6, SN-23 and SN-8 types were the l:zst of the color spectrozonal mater-
_ ials for soil purposes.
On the basis of the extent of -he soil units there is reliable discrimina-
tion of sectors with a uniform soil cover and soil complexes; on the basis
of extent and shape it is possible to ascertain different elements of gully
erosian. The extent and shape of the soil contours are governed by the
nature of the relief and serve as a component part of the different tex-
tures of the photoimage of the soil cover.
The largest relief elements (geotexture and morphoatructure of the earth's
surface) are shown in optically generalized form on medium- and small-scale
space photographs. Morphoscu!.ptural elements, which constitute the basis
- for indirect interpretation o`'soils on the basis of aerial survey mater-
_ ia1s, frequently cannot be seei: on space photographs.
It was established in the interpretation of soils through culti sated vege-
tation that dense full-grown plantings conceal the surface and the struc-
ture of the soil surface. However, in a number of cases they can emphasize
the differences in thc: degree of exosion, moisture content, solonetzifica-
tion and fertility of soils. Grain crops from the sprouting phase to the
phase of stem extension and young tilled crops exert virtually no influence
on the soil photoimage. The soil cover of steppe areas is reliably inter-
preted through meadow and steppe virgin land vegetation on the basis of
tone and especially the pattern of its photoimage on photographs.
3. The specifir_ nature of use of interpretation criteria in the interpreta-
tion of soil-agricultural features from space photographs involves the fol-
lowing.
In the interpretation of soils from space photographs, due to the great
areal coverage of considerable territories, ther.e is a marked increase in
the role of physiographic synthesis allowance for indirect criteria,
interrelationships and intercausalities of'all environmental components.
When using tone it must be remembered that on spa::e photographs it is com-
mon to have to contend with the integral phototone of the soil cover image.
B
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On space photographs there is clear interpretation of a spotty form of
soil areas with a contrasting soil cover (solonchaks, meadow-swamp soils of
depressions), but 1 inear, meandering and dendritic forms are determined
still more reliably. Whereas on aerial photographs there is representa-
_ tion of individual forms of soil units, space photographs show entire re-
gions of similar shapes and dimensions.
On space photographs the image texture of the soil cover is also specific;
it is caused by the generalization of individua.l details of structure of
_ the earth's surface; it was established that the very same geometrical
form of texture (pattern) on aerial and space photographs can have a dif-
- ferent content.
4. It has been established that new possibilities for a mpre complete and
objective interpretation of soils and areas of agricultural crops are be-
ing affordad by the use of mul.tizonal aerial and space ghotographso
Investigations have shown that when using multizonal aerial photographs
the highest quality of interpretation (accuracy, completeness, reliabil-
ity) of the soil cover and agricultural crops u*as obtained with the joint
- use of photographs taken in the green, red and IR spectral zones.
In the steppe zone, using multizonal aerial photographs taken in the IR
region in the autumn period of a survey, it is possible to detect the
greatest difference between fields of winter wheat scwn in clean and oc-
cupied fallow. This makes it possible to predict its crop yield for the
- future year. Using autumn aerial photographs taken in the red zone there
is reliable determination of typical chernozems, eroded chernozems and
- meadow- cherno zem so ils in plowed fields, as well as plantings of perennial
grasses and sectors of unmown steppe amidst areas of mown steppe. Meadow-
chernozem soils associated with microdepressions were interpreted through
the photoimage of cultivated crops (sugar beets) on the basis of the
spotty-d~tted pattern on autumn photographs taken in the green zone. These
could not be seen through cultivated plantings on autumn photographs tak-
en in the red and IR spectral zones. On aerial photographs of surveys made
in the early siunm:Ftr (June) chernozem soils were visible in all three spec-
tral zoites through the image of cultivated crops. They were not interpret-
ed through plantings of grain crops.
In the dry steppe zone, using multizonal aerial photographs taken in the
red zone, there was successful interpretation of the soil cover (dark
chestnut,'meadow-ch estnut, solonetz) through the direct image of grain
and cultIvated crops. In the green and IR spectral zones it shows up less
clearly or cannot b e interpreted at all. Using summer and autumn photo-
graphs takzn in the green and especially in the red and IR zones it was
possible to determine fields of spring wheat and barley diffexing in crop
yield by a factor of 1.5-2. Using July pbotographs of the IR spectral zone
there is reliable interpretation of the Field of grain crops in dependence
on the nature of the preceding working of the soils (fallow, deep loosening
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and leveling). In this spectral zone there was also reliable determina-
tion of fields with different times of sowing of grain and cultivated
crops and fields of bare fallowo
In the desert zone, in irrigated lands, using multispectral aerial pho to-
graphs, it was possible to make reliable interpretations of gray soils and
gray-brown gypsum-bearing soils of adyry (low foothills surrounding a de-
pression), old irrigated, meadow gray soils and newly zrrigated highly
saline soils with the participation of solonchaks and gray sands. Amidst
the sandy complexes in the blue-green zone there is reliable interpreta-
tion of barchan deflated sands, small mounds of sands, depressions between
ridges with ground water at a shallow depth and masses of consolidated
gray sands. Among the agricultural crops plantings of cotton and grasses
(alfalfa, Sudan grass) are readily distinguished.
5. During recent years a multizonal space survey has been coming into in-
creasingly broader use in study o.f the soil cover.
_ On one of the multizonal space photographs for the first time obtained in
- our country fr.om the "Soyuz-12, for the territory of the Mangyshlak P lat-
eau it was possible to have reliable interpretation of gray-brown solonetz-
like (gray and light gray tones) and gray-brown solonchak-like (dark gray
tone) soils, as well as chestnut soils in the Raratau Range.
They were poorly interpreted or not interpreted at all in the blue zone of
the spectrum and had the sharpest image contrast in the yellow-orange-red
(0.58-0.64p.m) spectral zone. Solonchaks and sands were determined with
- the joint use of photographs in the blue and yellow-orange-red spectral
zones.
The use of space photographs from the "Salyut-4" for the interpre_aticn of
soils in a mountainous territory indicated that the best result was ob-
tained using color synthesized photographs and b lack-and-white photographs
taken in the zone 0.5-0.6 and 0.6-0.7m.
An interpretation or the soil cover of the steppe and desert zones using
multizonal space photographs taken from the ERTS (United States) indicated
that photographs in the range 0.6-0.7� m have the sharpest contrast of the
photoimage of soils and agricultural crops. On photographs in the zone 0.8-
1.1um it is easy to interpret the channels of r ivers along which alluvial
soils are reliably determined. Irrigated fields are reliably determined
amidst arid lands on photographs in this IR spectral range. In general,
for successful soils-agricultural interpretation from multizonal photo-
~ graphs of the ERTS-Landsat it is necessary to make joint use of photographs
in the spectral zones 0.5-0.6, 0.6-0.7 and 0.8-1.1 pm.
An analysis of multizonal space photographs taken from the "Soyuz-22" indi-
cated that the most precise vljual-instrumental discrimination of soil
units and a thorough image of the soil cover was obtained with the jo int
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use of photographs in the blue-green, red and IR (0.82pLm) spectral zones.
A densitometric processing of the multizonal photograpFis taken with the
MKF- 6 camera: made it possible to determine diagnosLic spectral soil curves
a new and important criterion for interpretation of the soil cover.
Multi zonal color space photographs synthesized with the! MSP-4 instrimment
have great possibilities. Due to the more easily distinguishable color
range of the photoimage of the soil cover they give the maximum effect
for both outlining soii areas and for the diagnostic interpretation of
- soils.
6. A new valuable source by means of which it is possible to obtain infor-
mation on the radiated energy of thA soils and plantings in the entire
- range of the electromagnetic spectrum is photoelectronic research methods.
The data from a radiothermal survey in the range 0.8-3.4 cm were effect-
ively used in studying the surface moisture content of soils.
An infrared radiometer (operating in the range 8-12 � m) was used in regis-
tering several different thermal anomalies of the soil cover in the terri-
toYy of the European USSR. Against the backgrosnd of thermal anomalies
characteristic for the territories of Steppe Crimea and the Prichernomor-
skaya Lowland there was clear discrimination of the colder sectors of al-
luvial-meadow and meadow-swamp soils of the lower reaches of the Kuban and
Danub e. Against the background of the warmer sectors of the Sal'sko-Man-
- ychs kaya Rldge with southern cherno zems and dark chestnut soils it was pos-
sible to discriminate colder sectors of the territory of the K�ama-Manych-
skaya depression.
Side-view radars considerably supplement other methods because this equip-
ment operates successfully at nighttime and in the presence of cloud covere
- Radar photographs have been used successfully in the recognition of soils
and agricultural crops. By changing the signal direction and strength this
metho d makes possible an approach to study of the mineralogical composi-
tion and penetration into the depth of the soil layer. The use of radar
photographs in the territory of Northern Kazakhstan from the moird' pattern
of a dark gray tone made it possible to determine dark chestnut sandy and
sandy loam soils formed under virgin land grassy vegetation of different
_ types; eroded soils were interpreted very clearly from the spotty-dendritic
pattern. Visible in contrast on the photographs is the antierosion strip
system of agriculture (fields with ar~ alternation of cultivated crops and
grasses); fields of bare fallow; fields with plantings of spring grains
(wheat, barley) and grasses (crested wheatgrass).
7. For soils-agricultural purposes it is promising to carry out an aero-
space survey in diffarent seasons of the year. The early spring period is
an important time for studying the mois~ture content of soils using remote
- methods. ~The best time for a survey for the purpose of mapping of.,the soil
, cover^iahen the soil surface is dried out and the fields are plowed. Two
= successiVe summer periods (one in the phase of stem extension of grains
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c
_ - - - L - - - -
~

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and formation of fruits of agricultural crops and the other in the -
phase of maturing of plants) are effective for determining the develop-
_ ment of agricultural crops (depending on soil fertility, application of
_ fertilizers, irrigation) and in the last analysis in determining their -
crop yield. The autimmn period is the time for determining the autimmn mois- =
ture reserves of soils and study of the state of development of winter
- crops and so il mapping.
; Using a space photograph of the territory af the steppe zone (typical -
chernozems) for the spring survey pe�tiod there was reliable determination
_ of freshly plowed fields and lands on which cultivated crops had been
_ sown. Against this background fields of winter wheat and grasses �meadow- `
chernozem sails of steppe ravines and guliies, as well as gray forest soils
and sectars of eroded soils and paorly consolidated sands stand out in con-
trast. The different character of erosional dissection of soils was espec-
= ially reliably determined from the photoimage or this photograph. On a sum- -
mer space photograph it was virtually impossible to determine plowed meadow .
_ -chernozem soils of depressions in the region of occurrence of chernozem
_ soils. Against the image backgroun.d of gray forest soils the degree of
_ erasion of the territory is determined clearly.
- The time of carrying out the space survey in the course of the day exerts
_ a significant influence on the photoimage of the soil cover and sown crops.
In the steppe zone in the morning hours of a suxvey from space (June) it
- is easy to interpret fields with different sown crops. In a survey at mid-
day the gully-ravine network stands out in great contrast.
An analysis of long-term changes of the soil-vegetation cover revealed a
stable, modified (in part) and highly modified (meliorated territories)
- nature of the photoimage of the soil cover. The use of aerial pho*_ographs
and space photographs of different survey years for one and the same ter-
~ ritory is affvrding new possibilities for studying the dynamics of erosion-
aI processes, objective detection and prediction of changes in the soil =
- cvver accompanying melioration work.
Routine surveying at different times is the basis for objective inventory-
= ing of soils and agricultural crops, their state, development, determina-
- tion and pre3iction of crop yields. _ 8. Keys for soil interpretation are prepared on the basis of an investiga-
- tion and analysis of the photoimage of th e soil cover of key sectors on
aerial and space photographs. They include:
- a) aerial and space photographs with the results of interpretation in the
- form of a sample of a soil map frequently compiled on a transparent base;
_ the photographs and maps are at the same scale and when they are matched
it is easy to determine the soil units and the characteristics of their
phetoimage; for each photograpli data are given on the scale, time and form
of the survey (black-and-white isopanchromatic or infrachromatic; color
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"natural" or spectrozonal; mult4zonal, nultispectral with an indication
of the surveyed spectral regions; IR, radar); in addition, there is indi-
cation of the natural region, in accordance with the soil-geographical
regionalization, to which the photograph belongs; b) tables and keys for
the interpretation of soils which contain the names of the soils and the
properties of their upper horizons exerting an influence on the ghotoim-
age (content of humus, carbonates, iron oxide.s, salt3, moisture; mechan-
ical composition); coefficient of soil reflectivity; data on relief, vege-
tation and geology (soil-forming rocks) and soil interpretation criteria;
- explanatory text with a description of the natural conditions and the soil
cover and an indication of the peculiarities of soil interpretation of the
analyzed photograph; with the use of multizonal photographs there is an
effecz from the use of individual spectral zones or their combinations
for soil identification.
9. In the present stage of development and use of aerospace methods frr
the study of soil resources an important economic effect is noted from the
creation and revision of soil maps. The use of these methods makes it pos-
sible to compile soil maps which are more precise and more complete in
_ content. At the same time, using remote techniques it has become possible
_ simultaneously over extensive territories to study the properties of soils
- in the field, which earlier was not possibie in research.
Ir. the campilation of soil maps from multizonal aerospace photographs with
use vf an image analyzer ("Kvantimet-720") there is an increase in the role
of pre'Lininary office interpretation of soils and detection of their prop-
erties, having great importance for increasing fertility. When samples of
soil interpretation and soil maps of a similar or larger scale than the
future map compilation are available for the investigated region, a map
of preliminary soil interpretation is compiled in the office period and
is then refined.
In the case of a large-scale soil survey with the use of aerial methods
there is a reduction in the number of test pits by a factor of 2-3, with
some increase in the r.umber of primary and secondary pits as a result of
more complete information on the soil cover which is provided by aerial
photo graphs.
- It was established that in medium-scale mapping of soils in the dry steppe
and desert zones with the use of aerial methods the complete-ness of the
content and quality of the ma.ps increase by a factor of 2-3.
In tne sriall-scale mapping of soils with the use of space photographs the
soil maps were compiled more completeYy with respect to content with an
- objer:tive representation of the generalized structure of the soil cover
- on tiiem. In comparison with available methods (for the dry steppe and
desei't zones) the effect is increased by a factor of 1.5-2. Space photo-
grap~,s, as a result of their extensive coverage and the optical general-
- ization of details of soil structure, made it possible to interpret and
289
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precisely map the complex soil cover of floodplains and deltas of rivers,
alluvial fans of mountain rivers, areas of dry channels in the south and
inaccessible meadow lowlands in Yakutia, etc. It was established that the
- interpretability of the soil cover and the effectiveness of study of soils
and the compilation of soil maps of the territory of dry steppe and desert
- zones from space photographs is several times greater than in the steppe
zone. This is atLributable to the greater contrast of the soil cover and
the lesser agricultural exploitation of soils in the deserts and semides-
erts.
Taking into account international data, especially from the United States,
it is assumed that in the study of the soil-agricultural resources each
ruble invested in the technology of remote investigations and new direc-
tions for their use will give an economic effect five times as great.
10. In the long run, for the effective use of aerospace materials in soil
- science and agriculture it is i.mportant to make investigations of the fol-
lowing scientific-methodological problems:
further evaluation of the information content of aerospace materials on
soils and agricultural crops in different parts of the spectrum - from
the ultraviolet to the radiorange; further levelopment of ineans for remote
sensing of the earth's surface, qualities of soils, condition of sown
crops;
creation of aerospace interpretation keys for soils and agricultural
crops and formulation of criteria for the reliability of office interpret-
ation;
investigation of the spectral brightness of soils and agricultural crops
for the entire range of the electromagnetic spectrum for different natural
- and technical survey conditions;
formulation of a classification of soil cover images based on study of
their texture for the purpose of enhancing the information possibilities of
the used materials;
study of the peculiarities of the ptotoimage of soils and plantings of
agricultural crops on aerospace materials in dependence on survey time and
season;
development of inethods for the automated (using an electronic computer)
computer identification of soils and crops from aerospace photographs.
On the hasis of the data collected in study of the soil cover and the con-
dition of agricultural crops from aerospace materials it is possible to
make an approach to evaluation of tfie fertility of different soils, the
yield of agricultural crops and the productivity of mown fields and pas-
tures.
- 290
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COPYRIGHT: "Kolos", 1979
[3144/1698-5303]
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CSO: 8144/1698 - END -
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