JPRS ID: 9273 USSR REPORT HUMAN RESOURCES

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000300020045-7
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• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 45
• Content Type: REPORTS

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t~UGU~T ~ F~U~ ~ ~ ~

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' JPRS L/9273
27 August 1980
- USSR Re ort
p
HUMAN RESOURCES
CFOiJO 6/80)
FB~~ FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/9273
27 August 1980
USSR REPORT
HUMAN RESOURc;ES ~
(FOUO 6/80)
CONTENTS
~
LABOR
Ways To Increase Manpower Utilization Described
(T. Baranenkova; VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, May 80) . 1
EDUCATION
Certain Problems in Further Development of Secondary _
Education
(L. F. Kolesnikov, V. N. Turchenko; SOVETSKAYA
PEDAGOGIKA, Jun 80) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
' a- IIII - USSR - 38c FOUO]
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LABOR
WAXS TO INCREASE MANPOWER UTILIZATION DESCRIBID
Moscow VOPROSY EKONOMIKI in Russian No 5, i~Iay 80 pp 51-62
- (Article by T. Baranenkova: "Reserves for Saving Manpower"]
[Text] Both the intensive and exten.~ive forms of manpower util ization are
inherent to the present stage of industrial development. The i ntensive
form is characterized by increased efficiency in the functioning of live
labor on the basis of introducing new technology and carrying out the cor-
responding organizational measures. As a resu].t of this there is a decline
in labor expenditures for the production of a unit of product. In the
given instance the growth of labor productivity provides a hypo thetical and
real freeing of manpower. The first indicator chaxacterizes the number of
workers which would be required in industry for ensuring the increasea pro-
duction volume with fixed labor productivity.l The real freeing of the
labor force which is also a consequence of ~the rise in labor productivity
is linked_ to the elimination or substantial transformation of j obs brought
about by a structural reorganization of industry, by the recon s truction of
enterprises, by the modernization of equipment, and so forth.
The manifesting of the extensive form of manpower utilization, as a rule,
is related to an increase in the total a.mount of live labor in industry due
to an increase in the shift factor, more overtime, as well as due to a new
influx of workers into industry, or the greater number of perso ns employed
in it. This is dictated by the necessity of creating new sect ors and types
of industrial production, increasing the demand for employees i n new pro-
fessions, and so forth. However, as has been correctly pointed out in the
economic literature,2 under the conditions of introducing new e quipment,
improving production methods, and raising the cultural and tec hnical level
of the workers, a quantitative grow-th of manpowEr presupposes not only the
extensive but also the intensive use of it.
During the Ninth Five-Year Plan, in contrast to the previous on e~, the num-
_ ber of employees in industry rose by almost 2.5 million person s. In 1971-
1975, there was not only an absolute but also a relative declin e in tt~e
increase of the munber of personnel. Same one-fifth of the tot al increase
in employees went into industry, instead of the agproximate one -third which
1
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has been characteristic for the preceding period. This led to a decline in
the number oF persons employed in industry.3
Regardless of the sharp decline in the increase in the number of workers,
+he overall growth of industrial product in 1971-1975 rem~.ined as before
due to the climb in labor productivity which was responsible f~r 84 per-
cent of the increase in product.
In the ivinth Five-Year Plan the scale of the real release of manpower (as a
result of the more eificient use of live labor and the intensive use of the
_ employees) was significant in a ntamber of industrial sectors. As a restil.t,
at a portion of the enterprises new capacity, production and shops were put
into operation without an increase in the number of personnel, that is, to
a significant degree the demand for manpower was satisfied by a redistribu-
tion of it. Thus, at the enterprises of the USSR Ministry of Ferrous Metal-
lurgy, in 1971-1975, the freeing of employees related to the growth of
labor productivity was over 350,000 persons, of which 270,000 were shifted
to other production areas, including 180,000 persons to staffing new pro~-
ects. In the chemical industry, 56,100 persons were freed alone at the
enterprises employing the Shchekino method.
The experience of the leading enterprises indicates that a substantial rise
in the effectiveness of labor expenditures and a reduction in the number
- of personnel, including servicing, can be achieved by carrying out techni-
_ cal and organizational measures. Thus, at the plants of the Ministry of
Chemical Machine Building, due to the introduction of sectorial maintenance
standards, in 1971-1975, around 10,000 auxiliary workers were reles,sed and
transferred to basic jobs.
`l~he release of a certain portion of the employees in a production proc~ss
in the course of introducirig the achievements of scientific and technical
pro~ress and their use at new jobs (often ir. a new capacity) serve as an
essent~al condition for achieving a quantitative and qualitative propor-
tionali~y between the elements of the productive forces. These also con-
tribute to an improvement in the utilization of personnel and create an
additional, internal source for providing industry with personnel.
Thus, the traditional source of increasing the number of workers, that is,
aa rise in the labor resources, at the present stage has lost its previous
importar.ce, and the role of regrouping the labor force already employed in
social production, as a result of freeing it on the basis of a rise in
labor productivity, has been continuously ~;rowing.
In 1976-1980, the basic directions for the development of the TJSSR national
econorr~y provide that 90 percent of the increase in industrial product is to
come from a rise in labor productivity. However, in 1976-1978, only about
three-a~iarters of the increase in industrial product was obtained as a re-
sult of' the rise in labor productivity. One out of every six industrial
, enterprises did not fulfill the quota for the growth of labor productivity,
and over 1 million workers did not meet the established standards. The
,2.
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plans were r..t fulfilled for introducing new equip:nent, and this told nega-
tively on the rates of technical reequipping and the mechanizing of auxil-
iary production. As a result of the losses of working time due to absences,
counted entire-day and internal shift stop~ages and absences with the per-
mission of tne administration, an average of 170,000 workers was not em-
ployed every day in industry. All of this shows the insufficient effective
use of live labor.
The p~ce of freeing tlie industrial and production personnel as a result of
- a rise in labor productivity is determined by an interacting system of var-
- ious factors including technical, organizational and socioeconomic. Among
these the basic place is held by the introduction of the achievements of
scientific and technical progress which at the sa.me time determines the
changes in the organization of socia.l production and labor.
Regardless r~f the successes achieved in the area of raising the technical
level of prc~duction, in industry there still are great reserves for a rise
in labor prc3uctivity and the release of manpower. These are first of all
the replacin;~ of manual labor by machine labor. According to 1975 data, in
industry more than 50 percent of the workers were employed in manual labor,
including over one-third in heavy physical labor.
The basi~ portion of manual labor occurs in machine building and metalwork-
ing, the ligh~`, food and coal industries, forestry, and the building materi-
a1s industry. In auxiliary production there is also a large number of work-
ers employed in manual labor. In.1975, the proportional amount of workers
employed in mechanized labor in Soviet industry in basic production was,
62.~+ percent, and just 27.6 percent in auxiliary ~obs. The disproportions
in the development oi the basic and auxiliary sections of production still
survive with 20 percen~~ of the equipment available to the enterprises ~oing
into the mec~.anization o~' auxiliaxy production, and 80 percent for the
technical reequipping of basic production. At the same time, according to
the calculations of the Department for the Problems of Raising Labor Produc-
tivity at the Economic Scientific Research Insti~;:ute of the Ukrainian Gos-
plan, the economic effectiveness of ineasures to mechanize labor in auxiliary
production is 2.8-3.5-fold higher than in basic ~.roduction. Thus, with ex-
penditures of 1 million rubles on introducing new equipment in mach ining
(including advanced technology), it is possible to free 137 persons, and
with the same expenditures in foundry work, 170 persons. If this amount
were channeled into r~echani.zing transport and materials handling jobs (in-
cluding interprocess transport), it would be possible to free ~+76 persons.
A rise in the rate of freeing worY,ers such as loaders, sling operators,
storekeepers, carriers, inspectors and other of the most widely found voca-
tions of maii.tal labor, is presently impeded both by the shorta.ge of modern
mechanization and automation, particularly for assembly, materials handling
and warehousing jobs, as well as by shortcomings in the system of material
and moral incentives, planning and organizing the process of replacing live
labor by embodied.
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Of great importance for activating the process of releasing manpower, in-
cluding workers engaged in manual labor, is above all a further improvement
in the planning of this process, the primary accounting and reporting. The
standard procedure for working out the five-year plan of a production asso-
ciation (enterprise) in 1976-1980 recommends that for each year of the five-
year plan, a plan be set for the absolute and relative reduction in the
number of workers engaged in manual labor. However, up to now such plans
have not been worked out at a majority of the enterprises.
'Lhe Decree of the CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Ministers "On
Improving Planning and Strengthening the Effect of the Economic Mechanism
on Raisi-ig Production Efficiency and Work Quality" has outlined a system of
indicators which are to be set for the ministries, associations and enter-
prises in the five-year plan (with a breakdown for the years). These indi-
cators include, in particular, a limit on the number of employees and a
q~:ota for reducing the use of manual labor. As an obligatory quota, it is
advisable to limit onesElf to determining the scale or the release of work-
ers engaged in heavy physical and unskilled labor, on the basis of raising
the level of inechanization and automation, including the scale for releasing
workers employed in loading, transport and warehouse jobs. The absence of
quotas for the relEase of manpower in the national economic plans has led
to reduced attention to this problem on the part of the economic bodies.
Planning for the 5 years for the release of a certain contingent of workers
(with an annua]. breakdown) can be viewed as the minimal program. The en-
terprises, in turn, could Get counterplans for releasing employees, in more
fully mobilizing the internal production manpower re~erves. This would
make ic possible to promptly adjust the balance calculations for the addi-
tional need for manpower and the sources of covering it, as worked out
broken down for the enterprises (associations), sectors and territories.
It must be pointed out that the annual planning of quotas f'or the real re-
lease of workers engaged in manual labor and effective control over the
course of fulfilling these require the statisti~al bodies each year to ac-
count for the number of workers engaged in mechanized, manual and heavy
labor (at present the control is run once every 3 years).
The experience acquired in Latvia, in Chelyabinskaya, Kuybyshevskaya and
Zaporozhskaya oblasts in releasing workers engaged in manual, heavy and
unskilled labor has shown that an important condition for successfully reg-
ulating the process of releasing personnel is also an improvement in the
present-day methods of planning and evaluating the level of labor mechani-
zation, and the eliminating of difficulties in determining the heaviness of
manual la~or. Here of great importance is the elaboration by the USSR Gos-
plan to~ether with the USSR Goskomtrud [State Committee for Labor and Wages],
the AUCCTU and other involved organizations, of a list of ~obs which should
be mechP.nized and automated first ori the scale of the national econo~y, the
sector and the region, and the drawing up of long-range and current plans
to reduce (and subsequently fully e?iminate) heavy manual labor.
-4.
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The better use of the labo~ ior�ce and the eliminating oi its scarcity in-
crease the need for a further improvempnt in the reproduction structure of
capital investments and rise in the proportional amount of resources be-
in; channeled into the tec'rinical reequippin~ and reconstruction of operat-
ing enterprises where productior~ will grow with the same or smaller number
of employees. Of important significance in this regard is the changeover
to the plannin~, oi' new construction and existing production as a single
whole and the alloc~.ting first of the resources needed for the technical
reequipping and reconstruction of existing enterprises.
The necessity oi increasing production by reconstruction and technical re-
equipping is particula.rly great in the old industrial centers of the nation,
_ in the labor-intensive sectors and above all in the auxiliary areas of pro-
duction. Of great iMportance ior disclosing the in~ernal production man-
power reserves and ior mobilizing them is a comparative analysis, both in-
ternal plant (in the course of which, for example, the technical level of
shops is compared) and interplant (when simi]~,r shops of different enter-
prises are compa.red). This makes it possible to more correctly determine
the production areas which should be technically reequipped first. An
interplant analysis often shows significant internal production manpower
reserves (see the Table), the mobiliza~ion of which in a ma~ority of in-
s+ances does not require substantial capital expenditures, since the re-
serves are basically caused by shortcomings in labor ~lanning. In this re-
gard it is important to work out the methods of interplant analysis and
- these, although containing much in co~non with internal plant, have a num- _
ber of particular features: ior example, the choice of the criteria for -
comparative eff~ctiveness, the necessity of ensuring comparability of the
indicators, and so forth.
An important role is also piayed by a further ~mprovement in the de~ign
practices for the reconstruction of enterprises. The reconstruction de-
signs often lack such indir_ators as the number of employees and labor pro-
_ ductivity. Close attention must be paid to the proposals voiced in eco-
nomic literature that a comparison must be established by legislation for
the technical and economic indicators of renovation plans with analogous
_ indicators for the leading dcmestic and foreign enterprises considering
the prospect of their development.4
Of great importance is a stronger material incentive for the collectives
of the existing ent~rprises to replace fixed productive capital and to
carry out work in reconstruction and technical reequipping.
� The decree on improving the economic mechanism outlines benefits for the
client enterpris~s and contractors for carrying out work related to the
technical reequippin~ and reconstruction of existing production (paying
bonuses to workers for carr,ying out the given jobs, ti:e possi~ility of in-
creasing in individual insta.nces the wage group for leading workers in
construction-installation organizations, and so forth).
5
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An important element in improving the economic mechanism is an improving
in the entire economic incentive system aimed at saving live labor, and
_ particularly at releasing manpower to outside the given enterprise for
- subsequent employment in other production areas, and in other sectors of _
the national economy. For increasing the economic incentive of the produc-
ti.on cullectives to achieve greater results with a smaller number of work-
ers, the eliminating of the shortcomings in the incentive system is of
crucia.l significance, as tY!ese encourage th.e enterprises to conceal inter-
nal production manpower reserves. It is also essential to strengthen the
economic sanctions placed on enterprises which permit the inefficient use
of live labor and have an above-planned number of employees.
The desire of the enterprises to overstate the number of employees, in hav- _
ing become particularly apparent in recent years,5 is related primaxily to
the fact that tnis indicator determines the amount of the wage fund, the
material incentive fund, the fund for sociocultural measures and housing
construction, the fund for bonuses for the creation and introduction of new
equipment, the total bonus due for incentives undEr the socialist competi-
tion, and the salaries for managers, engineers and technicians (the latter
involves only the enterprises of the machine building and metalworking in-
dustry ) .
With a reduction in the product volume plans, the wage funds initially set
for the enterprises are not always correspondingly adjusted, and with a
fixed volume of produced product they are sometimes un,justifiably i ncreaseu.
Such discrepanc ies in the plan indicators have weakened the attention paid -
to disclosing internal production manpower reserves, and have creat ed for
_ trc enterprises definite opportunitites for maintaining a number of em-
~loyees which exceeds the planned demand, and for further increasing this
number .
The Decree of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers
"~n Improving Planning and Strengthening the Effect of the Economic Mech- ~
anism on Raising Production Efficiency and Work Quality" pays serious at-
tention to achieving stability in the annual and quarterly plans set for the
enterprises. Provision has been made to institute disciplinary and material
liability procedures against leaders of ministries, departments and other
bodies which allow unjustified changes in the plans or an ad,justment of them
downwards to fit actua.l fulfillment. The decree outlines measures to fur-
ther develop cost accounting at the enterprises and intensify economic pro-
duction incent ives. Above all greater significance is given to the norma-
tive planning method. The five-year plans will contain stable economic
standaxds dif:'erentiated for the years (including the wage fund per ruble
of product, profit deductions into the economic incentive funds) guaxantee-
ing an increase in the resources to be left available to the enterprises,
depending upon the end results of economic activities.
A change in the planning procedures for the wage fund, and the direct link-
in~ of its amounts with the amount of produced product and not with the
number of workers create favorable conditions for the effective use of _
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manpower and its release. This has also been aided by extending the rights
of the enterprises to spend the saved money of the wage fund obtained in
comparison with the set standard. For an additional incentive for the
growth of labor productivity and for fulfilling the planned volume of work
with a smaller number of employees, using the given savings, it is possible
to employ higher additions than before to the wage rates and salaries of
workers, engineers, technicians and white collar personnel for combining
jobs, for broadening the work areas, for high professional expertise, as
well as bonuses for initiative in introducing technically sound standards,
their prompt revision, and so forth.
The deduction of money into the material incentive fund will be carried out
at rates set in percent of profits, and only in individual sectors in rela-
tion to the wage fund of the base year of the five-year plan. The unused -
balances of the money in the economic incentive funds are to be carried
over to the following y ear and not confiscated.
Of important significance is the introduction of the indicator of normed
net preduct which is to be used in a ma.jority of sectors as the basic one
in production planning, and in determining the level of labor productivity
and tne planned wage fund.
The further development of cost accounting and the strengthening of the
role of economic levers an3 incentives based upon long-term stable stand-
ards, the revising of the method of evaluating enterprise operations, and
a rise in the enterprises' incentive to improve financial and economic re-
sults, in particular by saving live labor and releasing workers, are par- -
ticularly 3mportant in the existing demographic situation which in the llth
and 12th five-year plans will be characterized by a decline in the increase
of the working-age popul.ation.
- The spread of the Shchekino method plays a ma,jor role in carrying out an in-
creasing amount of work with a smaller number of employees. Over the 11
years of operating under new conditions, the Shchekino Azot [Nitrogen] Asso-
ciation has been able to increase product output by almost 3-fold, labor
productivity has gone up approximately 4-fold, and here the number of work-
ers has declined by 1,570 persons. The creative development of the Shchekino
methad at the Novopolotsk Polinir Association, where brigade ser~ricing of
equipment was employed for the first time, made it possible to reduce the
number of personnel by 492 persons and raise labor productivity by more than
30 percent. Due to the introduction of the Shchekino method in the chemical
industry alone, over the period of operating under the Shchekino method,
over 60,000 persons have been released, and approximately 37,000 at the
_ enterprises of the oil refining and petrochemical industry. While as a
whole for industry in the lOth Five-Year Plan 8~+ percent of the increase in
product output was obtained from a rise in labor productivity, at the 326
enterprises employing the Shchekino method and surveyed by the USSR TsSU
[Central Statistical Administration], it was 92 per~ent.
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A rise ir~ tne ~*`icient use o� employees and a saving of live labor in in-
troducing the Silcne:~ino metnod are achieved as a result of strengthening
the principles of collectivism in ~�roz�k, activating the rationalizer move-
ment, increasin~ :~orker skilis, str~~ngthening :Labor and production disci-
pline, red acing personnel turnover, Lmproving +he organization of labor
and production, and employing more advanced equipment and production
methods. -
The resul ts of the Shchekino expex�iment have aifirmed the close tie between
tne economic interests of the enterprises and individual employees and
manpower utilization, and they have sho~m the possibility of the central-
ized regulation oi the process of freeing the labor force considering ttie
- soc'_a1 need for personnel. 'I^ze Snc:iekino experiment has established the
bases for a new approach to planning the wage funds, and to broadening the
rig~zts of the enterprises in ~rganizing the material incentives for the
workers. Accounting and reporting nave been organized correspondingly. In
the 1977 annual report, for the first time the secti~n was introduced
"Basic Operating Indicators of +he Enterprise (Or~an.ization) for Acceler-
ating the Growth of Labor Productivity and Increasing Product Output with
a Smaller Number oi Personnel." Tilis reflected the indicators o~' the ac- -
tual release of inclustrial-production personnel, including workers (pre-
viously the reports had only the indicators characterizing the conditional
release of employees related to tne introduction of new technology and the
carrying out of 110T [scientific organization of labor] measures).
The basic elements of'the Shchekino experiment have become a component part
in tne new wage conditions introdliced in 1973� The enterprise leaders have
been permitted to employ (from the savings in the wage fund obtained by
freeing employees) various surpayments for combining jobs, broadening the
equipment servicing areas, and so forth. These were tested out for the
first time at the Shchekino Chemica.l. Combine. Although very many enter-
prises had the given right, it did not have a substantial influence on the
reiease of personnel as the enterprise leadersy having received the right
to encourage operations with a smaller number of personnel, basically car-
ried out organizational and technical measures and only at individual pro-
duction areas, often withcut pr:;per prep~.rations.
Regardless of the fact that the use oi the Shchekino method is economically
effective not only for the enterprises but also for society as a whole, as
it makes it possible to accelerate the growth of labor productivity, to re-
duce expenditures on wages in production outlays, to more rationally util-
ize labor resources, and to create a definite reserve of them for manning -
new construction projects, to raise the skill level of the personnel, and
so forth, i+ has spread sloti~l~. In 197~, only around 1,200 plants and fac-
tories operated under this method.
The reasons for such a situation, i.n oux view, are numerous. First of a11
they are caused by the contradictions bPtween the new methods of organiz-
in~ and planning plant production and t,he old, customaxy way of sectorial
planning based, in partic~~]_as, on trP rri.ncinle of "from the achieved level:'
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- One cannot help but note also the imperfections in the instructions for
introducing the Shchekino method, and these over the 10-year period have
undergone eight amendments, and not each of them, as practice has shown,
has been of' a positive character. There have been numerous instances of ~
viola.ting the established rules of the experiment. Thus, even its basic
foundations such as a stable production plan for the 5 years with a divid-
ing of' the quotas by years, the fixed wage fund (subsequently this princi-
ple was ad~justed somewhat in lirie with the introduction of new shops, units
and assembles at the enterprises, and other circumstances) and the right to
establish surpayments from the savings of the wage fund, in practice were
, often not observed. In the procedure of "ad,justing" the plan indicators,
often th~ entire wage savings was taken away from the enterprises. _
The last variation of the conditions for employing tne ShcheKino method for
improvirig the ~rganizatior_ of labor, material incentives r~.nd planning as
approved in April 1978 has maintained a number of provisions of the 1977
regulation (on simplifying the paperwork for converting to the Shchekino _
method, on raising the role of the ministries in the planned introduction
of the given method), and has restored a number of provisions eliminated
by the 1970 and 1977 conditions such as the possibility of transferring to
the material incentive fund the ~~ntire unused savings of the wage fund, to
establish surpayments for workers engaged in ~obs involving equipment re-
pairs, and in individual instances to pay bonuses to the piece and time -
workers within the limits of up to 60 percent of the piece rate or wage
- rate, to encourage a reduction in the number of personnel at operating en-
terprises not only in comparison with ihe sectorial and intersectorial _
standards, but also in comparison with the actual number in the instance
if ttie rates for the labor expenditures have not yet been set. New types
of material incentives are also to be introduced, and provision has been
. made for increasing the amoul;ts of the previously set ones.
~ In our view, the new conditions will contrib~zte to a further extension of
the Shchekino method. At the same time, the granting of greater rights to
~ the enterprises in disposing of the wage fund, in controlling the staff
schedule, and in dismissing surplus workers would encourage the development
of initiative among the production collectives to increase the output of
product with a smaller number of personnel. Due to the fact that at the
enterprises employing the Shchekino method a significant portion nf the
savin~s in the wage fund remains unspent, in the economic literature pro-
- posals have been raised on various ways for using this, and in particular,
- for creating on the basis of the given savings a special fund for establish- ~
~ ing surpayments for continuous length of employment.6 In our view, it is
impossible to agree with such a proposal as the savings of the wage fund
~ should have a specific purpose, that is, compensate for the increased labor
e:cpenditures and the growth of its quality related to carrying out a larger
volume of work with a smaller number of workers.
In the inc~ntive system it is important to consider not only the interests
of the employees who improve their professional and skill level and the
amotuit of work performed, but a.lso the interests of the workers who are _
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t~c~t; c~i~t~ i~;ini. trs~~: utvt,v
released, and ~,tove ti.l'L tliose ~~Y-~o ;aust ad~.pt to another collective, and
sor?etimes chante profession and residence. Here of important significance
is the prelimina-ry el~,boration of ineasures and the implementin~ of speci-
fic means in accord with the interests of society and the individual. As
;iet a system ot effective incentives has not been created on this level,
, and tliis impede~ the spread of t.he given method and holds up the actual re-
lease of personne7..
It is r~ssential to iniplemen~t tlle long supported proposals to work out legal
er_a.ctments which release the enterprises from the job placement of released
employees and provide the latter with preierential conditions for retrain-
ing and reassionment (an increase in the amount of leave aid, preferences
in obtaining work throu.;h tne job placement bodies, the maintaining of
registration at the former place of residence in moving to another local-
i~f, the establishing of reduced7cutput norms for the period of mastering
a new profession, and so fortn).
The achieving of high -rates of saving manpower, including the release of it,
is also attained on the basis oi employing other progressive forms for the
or.ganiza+ion of l~,bor a,nd mai,er�ial incentives, in particular the brigade
contract as the basic form for the development of earnings according to end
results.
^_'he above-mentioned decree empnasizes the r.eed for the broad development of
t?:^ bri_ga.de ~oz�m of organizing and encouraging labor, and in the llth Five-
Year P1an this should become the basic one. For these purposes the rights
of the br�igade collectives will be substantially broadened in the area o.f
the organization oi labor and its material and mor~,l incentives. -
;p
In industry, predomiria,ntly in machine building, the briga,de contract method
began to be introduced in 1973. The essence of the given method is in ex-
tending the principles of cost ~,ccounting to the activities of the brigades
which assume an obligation (contract) to carry out a certain amount of work
of. a stipulated quality at the designated time. At the same time provi-
sion is made for the amount of expenditures on the production of the prod-
uct, and the fcrms ~nd methods of encouraging the emplo,yees to fulfill the
assumed obligations. Every month each brigade is given a production plan
in volume and procluc~t range, a wage fund, average wages, the number of
workers, the growth of labor productivity, and a plan for ~;he expenditure
of basic ma.terials and tools.
Tne bri~ade is organized by a decision of a worker mee~;ing.8 The size and
skill composition of the brigades are set proceeding from +,he content and -
nature of the production process, the volume and complexity of the jobs,
the employed technical and organizational means, the material and technical
supply of the jobs, the requirements of the organization of labor, and
other factors.
The brigades can be specialized or integrated; the latter bring together
workers of different professions for carrying out a range of jobs which are
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tecYinologically different but interrelated and encompass the full cycle of _
;,roduct production or a certain completed portion (an articl~, a set of
}~arts, and so forth).9 The in~te~,ated brigades have praven effective when
~ they include not only production workers but also auxil~~_ary workers (re-
pairmen of production equipment, sling workers, crane operators, and so
:'ortl~ ) , 10
In making up the brigades, in addition to production necessity, considera-
tion is given to the desire of the people to work collectively and their
psychological compatibility. Ordinarily initially as an experiment in a
number of shops specialized brigades are set up and definite cooperation is
provided between them in production. The formation of the integrated bri-
~ades basically with a complete production process is a higher degree of
the ~ollective organization of labor.
The brigade form of the organization and encouragement of labc-~ ~:io~; o~ly
broadens the range of jobs performed collectively, but also helps ~;o
a_chieve a fundamentally new, higher level of production management in-
volved primarily with a change in the executive and management functions
within the brigade and the broadening of internal collective democracy.
The brigade (cost accounting) system is a system for the collective solu-
tion to questions both production and social, and it is aimed at ~.eepening
the collective principles inherent to socialism in labor activit'=s. Al1
the most important questions of the brigade such as the ad.miss~~ri of new -
workers to the collective, the distribution of collective earnings, the
determining of the measures of social and material action against the vio-
lators of labor discipline, the questions of improving production methods
and supplying the workers with stock, tools, and so forth, are ta.ken up at
its meetings.
The advantag,es of the brigade form are manifested also in the greater role
- of the primary labor collective in indoctrinating a cammunist attitude to-
ward labor. In p~,rticular, guidance for new workers assumes qualitatively
new forms as virtually the entire brigade acts as a collective guide for a -
worker admitted to the brigade. With the brigade organization of labor,
the effectiveness of the socialist competition is increased, since the is-
suing of monthly and annual plans (in terms of volume and range) to each
brigade make~ it possible to concretize the ac:cepted socialist obligations
a.nd establish strict control over their fulfillment.
The brigade form of work with payment for the final result provides a more
orga.nic linking of personal and collective interests and a more effective -
realization of personal interest through the collective. This, on the one
hand, strengthens the dependence of each brigade member upon the overall
work results, and on the other, confronts the brigade collective with the
need to create conditions for highly productive labor of each brigade work-
er. A rise in the collective interest and responsibility of the brigades
for fulfilling the plan quotas and obligations to associated workers helps
to r..reate rhythmical operations, a more correct placement of the personnel
and a rational equipment load factor, and to increase the shift coefficient,
as a result of which labor productivity rises.
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The Decree "On Further Strengtherlin~ Labor Discipline and Reducing Person-
nel Tur�nover in the i~Ta~ional Economy" approved by the CPSU Central Com-
mittee, the USSR Council of Nlinisters and the AUCCTU notes the important
significance of progressive forms for the organization of labor and wages
in strengthenin~ labor discipline and raising labor productivity. The
ministries and departments, the leaders of the associations and enterprises,
the party and ti�ade union organiza~tions have been instructed to implement
measures for a consistent conversion to collective forms of the organiza-
tion ~f labor and wages. They are to systematically provide the necessary
aid to the brigades in improving their work in the recruitment and place-
ment of personnel. They are to raise the role of the councils of the pro-
duction brigades and tne councils of brigade leaders. They are to improve
the material and technical equipping and raise the power-to-labor ratio,
and improve the organization of wages and rate setting. They are to more
widely i.nv~lve the labor collectives and social organizations in solving
these questions.
In our view, the connection of the process of. freeing the labor force with
the brigade form of the organization of labor and wages is expressed pri-
marily in a redaction in the number of workers in the brigade with an in-
creasing or fixed amount of wor�k. Thus, a selective analysis of the pro-
duc+ion activities o~ ten brigades working under the conditions of a bri-
gade contrac~t, as carried out by us at the Gomsel'mash [Gomel' Agricultural
P4achinery~ Production Association snowed that in the first quarter of 1979,
in compar�ison with the analogous period of 1978, the number of personnel in
these brigades declined by an average of 9.1 percent, and the output per
worker rose by 13.2 percent, while the amount of the maximum and minimum
wage rose, respectively, by 1.7 and 8.3 percent. In indi~idual brigades,
with a stable production volume, the release of manpower over the year was
10-13 percent.
The influence of the brigade form in the organization an3 encouragement of
la.bor on the intensification of the release of manpower is also indirectly
m~,nifested, that is, due to the simplification of norm setting, facil.itat-
ing the setting of production quotas and accountin~, and to reducing the
payment and planning docwnents in the brigades and the partial or complete
elimination of product quality control. All of this creates the prerequi-
sites for reducing the staff of rate setters, inspectors and production
chiefs.
The brigade form of the organi2ation of labor and wages is still spreading
slowly. For example, in the industry of Minskaya a.nd Vitebskaya oblasts,
a survey of over 200 industrial enterprises has shown that in 1975 only
28 percent of the workers had ~oined brigades, and 33 percent in 1977,
while there were no brigades at all at one-fifth of the enterprises.ll
The further forming of the new type of brigades, as caused not so much by
the requiremer.ts of technology as by considerations of an economic, or~sni-
zational and social nature, requires the very rapid solution to a nuraber of
questions, including the most important one of the distribution of earnings
in the brigades.
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At present in the brigades working on one common contract, three types of
wage distribution are used: Equally between all the workers (this is
usually practiced in sma11 brig~.les, where the difference in skills and
experience is slight); in accord with a firmly established category; in
terms of the coefficient of labor participation or a hypothetical cate-
gory.12 The last method is the predominant one.
The distribution of the brigade earnings or a porti~n of it (as part of the
piece earnings and bonuses) using the coefficient of labor participation
- more accurately considers the labor contribution of each to the overall
amount of work done by the brigade, and this is its positive aspect. In
working on a common contract, it is also essential to consider individual
output which makes it possible to better reconcile personal interests W1'tIl
the interests of the collective, to organize the competition, and to more
fully disclose the organizational reserves for raising labor efficienc~�.
At the same tir~e, the introduction of accounting for indivir?:a;:1_ output re-
quires consideration to the nature of the job done (including its "advan-
tage" or "disadvantage") and the corresponding adjustment of the labor par-
ticipation coefficient for the purposes of strictly observing the socialist
principle of wages in accord with the quantity and quality of labor.
It is becoming essential to work out sectorial provisions which would con-
tain reco~endations on the quantitative membership of brigade~,, the prin-
ciples of making up the brigades, considering the sectorial and other pax-
ticular features. It is essential to clarif~ the questions of the role
and functions of the brigade leader and his relationships with the foreman.
At present it is important to organize a broad network of courses and
schools for the leaders ~f the brigades, sections and shops, and to im-
prove the system of information on the size of the brigades and the indi-
cators of their production and social activities.
FOOTNOTES
� l. Thus, the growtn of labor productivity in 1971-1978 provided a savings
of the labor of l~+ million persons in industry.
2. See, f~r example, N. S. Kistanova, "Regional'noye Ispol'zovaniye
_ Trudovykh Resursov" [Regional Use of Labor Resources], Izdatel'stvo
Nauka, 1978, p 15�
3. In the first 3 years of the lOth Five-Year Plan, the tendency for an
absolute and relative decline in the increase in the number of persons
in industry (in relation to the increase of employed persons in the
national economy) has been maintained.
See, for example, A. S. Pavlov, "Sotsial'no-Ekonomicheskaya Effektivnost'
Tekhnicheskogo Perevooruzheniya Predpriyatiy" [Socioeconomic Effective-
ness of the Technical Reequipping of Enterprises], Izdaniye LGU, 1973,
P 92.
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5. In 1976, the number of employees determined from the total of the
enterprise plans exce=ded the actual number by 1.9 million persons,
and iri 1977 and 1978, by more than 2 million persons. An aralogous
comparison of indicators for labor productivity in USSR industry, for
example, in 1978, shows an understating of this indicator by approxi-
mately 1.5-~old (3.8 and 2.5 percent).
6. See VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No 10, 1977, p 111.
7. See, for example, VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No 6, 1965; No 10, 1969.
8. A changeover to the brigade form of the organization of labor is car-
ried out according to the request of the shop chief or the shop trade
union committee by an order of the director with the agreement of the
plant trade union committee. The brigade leader is appointed by an
order of the shop chief upon suggestion of the foreman. The brigade
council the functions af which include a reviewing of questions re-
lated to improving the organization of labor, the allocating of wages,
the development of the socialist competition, and so forth, is elected
by open voting from among the leading workers.
9. For the purposes of reducing intershift losses of working time and the
more efficient use of equipment, specialized or integrated brigades of
the complete type are set up, that is, brigades which bring together
workers employed on two or more shifts and working under a common con-
tract.
10. The collective earnings of these brigades consists of the piece eaxn-
ings (determined by the product of the piece rate of a machine set by
the total number delivered to the other shops or the warehouse) and the
wage rate of the time workers.
11. See SOTSIALISTICHESKIY TRUD, No 8, 1979, p 93.
12. The labor participation coefficient can be increased (in definite, pre-
set a.mounts): for initiative in the development and use of advanced
labor methods, for the systematic performing of jobs in a related pro-
fession; for labor activeness aimed at the maximum use of equipment and
the most rapid introduction of new technology, and so forth. Converse-
ly, the given coefficient can be reduced for the violating of labor
discipline and for failures in work. The amount of it is set monthly
by the brigade council for each worker.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Pravda", "Voprosy ekonomiki", 1g80
10272
cso: 1828
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EDUCATION
� ~ CERTAIN PR~BLEMS IN FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
Moscow SOVETSKAYA PIDAGOGII{A in Russian No 6, Jun 80 pp 24-29
IArticle by L. F'. Kolesnikov and Y. N. ~rchenko: "Certain Probleaas in the
F~rther Development of Secondary Education',~
~Text~ Under present-day conditions in determining the future prospects
for the developaent of education{we should obviously proceed from a recog-
nition of the feasibility of the outstripping develop~ent of the field of
education in relation to all the other fields of the national economy. This
means that the gzrowth rate of invest~ents in this sphere ou~l.�. to be higher
tha.n the groxth rate of capital investments in the sectors �,f material pro-
duction. The need for precisely such an approach is jusiified today by
. many ma3or economists and is confiimed by worldxide experience.
The society's outlays being pla.*ined for the development of education must
be correlated not only with the expected pedagogical result but also with
the proposed increase in their economic yield. Here it is necessary to pre-
cisely delineate the direct ~ture efficiency xhich Will be manifested in
the future by means of the increase in the skills and vocational competence
of xorkers xho have raised the level of their general and specialized edu-
cation~ the direct efftciency xhich the educational system can yield in
the process of its function3ng by means of�combining instruction with pro-
ductive labor and research work of the pupils and the indirect efficiency
which is manifested in the fact tha.t impmving the conditions of the educa-
tion and instruction of the rising generations facilitates the retention
of their pa.rents in enterp~ises, a more complete utilization of labor re-
sources, azui so forth.
The implementation of secondary education in our country and especially its
further improvement require large financial and material-technical outlays.
Und.er present-day conditions, hoKever, secondaa.y education is an important
factor facilitating an increase in labor praiuctivity. Thus, according to
data from speciallzed investigations~ the output indicators of workers who
have a complete secondary education exceeded the output no~ss of xorkers
xho have an eight-year education by a total of 25 percent. Increasing the
skills of a worker xith a 10-year education by one category requires one-
fifth the time than for a vrorker xho has an education of five or six grades.
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Similax ratios nave been traced ws well between labor results and the level
of success in school (by ~eans ol ~he avera,ge ma.~ks on dip�lomas). We can
also assume that a substantial inerease in outlays for the further improve-
ment of secondary geneLal educat~on would prov~ to be extremely effective
not only from a social but aiso from an economic point of vi~w. Unfortu-
nately, up to now the methods neccssa-ry for calculating this have not ex-
isted even an the most approxima~e lev~l. Nioreover, the interrelationship
between the level of education and il^.e production indicators is far from
unitary in its values~ and it is complex and con~radictory in nature. On _
this ba.sis and on that ciz certair. specific reseaxch studies a conclusion
was drawn concerning tihe e;eistence of a law of correspondence between the
level of' a worker's educati.~n and the nature of the work being perfo~med~
according to which the crF�ation of "reserve ~~apply~'of education" which
excaeds the production requiremants is~ so to speak, an unnecessary extra-
vagance from an economic point of view (5ee Solov'ev, A. V.~ "The Znfluence
of Workers' General-Educational ~~evel on Labox Froductivity," in the col-
lections "Sotsial'no-ekono~aicheskia problemy raaochei sily pri sotsiali~ne"
~ocio-economic ProblEms of P4anpower under Socialisn~~ I,eningrad, 1972,
PP 37~-371).
It seems that such an interpretation of the facts is not completely adequate
and requires to be made substantially more precise: here it must be a ques-
tion o� whether the speci~ic content of today's secondary general edueation
often turns out to be not in acco2~�ance with thP actual requirements of
pxoduction. Education which is not connected with a systematic inclusion
of the pupils in productio~ work frequently forms a negative attitude to-
- waxds p~jrsical labor. Certain sociologists suppose ihat the intensified,
vocatioxial.ly oriented work has already lc-d, so to speak, to a situation
whereby a turning-point has occurred in the life plans of yo people: if
in the mid-1960's the overtirhelming majority of schoolchildren ~75--90 per-
cent and more) were oriented toxaxd i:he WZ (higher educational institu-
tion), then already by 1975 there had occurred an essential reorienta.tion
to the xorkir?~ accupa.tions, and thereby a large concordance was ensured be-
tween the plans of the seoonda.-ry-school ~radua.tes and society's economic
requirements. Is this really the case? If we consider ~.he relative indi-
cators--the proportion of -tize total mass of gradua.tes--' then such a con-
clusion does indeed suggest itself. In 1965 the day complete secondary
school in the cot:ntry was g-raduated by only about 20 percent of the young
people of the appropriate ~e (9i3,000 pe-rson~), whereas in 1975 the pro-
por-tion was already more than half (2,7~6 per~~ons). Consequently, even if
we consider that the propoz~~cion of school gr~adua.tes oriented toward the
WZ was reduce3 fxom 90 to 50 percent~ in this case as well the absolute
number of young people desir~.ng to study in WZ's after gradua.ting from
secondar~~ scl-;ool did not clecrease but, on the contrazy, has grown by more
than 6U pe~ent (See "Nsxodnoe khozyaystvo" CNational. Economy~~ Moscow~
1975~ p 670). For 1Vo~vosibirskaya Obla~t, for example~ in 19b5 75 percent
of the 10th-gracie gra~clua.tes who xere oriented ~oKaxds the WZ amounted to
slightly more than b,000a xhile in 1975 the corresponding figures ~ere 57
percent and more than 14,OQQ graduates. The tota,l number of graduates
oriented towards professior,s involving mental work amounted. ap~roximately
- � - , ~
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to 7,400 persons, while in 1976 this figure was about 20~000. Prior to
1965 the WZ's of the city of Novosibirsk were able to accept more stu-
dents for beginning courses +,;ian the secondary schools were gradua~ing.
But now the acceptance into Y"tJZ'~ is less by a factor of 1.8 than the num-
ber graduating from the oblast's scyools. In 196~ the principal mass of
those desiring to stuc~y at VIJZ's (75 percent) realized this desire, b~xt in
~975 less than 50 percent of those desiring to enroll at WZ's 31d so. ~
Thus, the degree of concurrence of desires to study in a WZ and the ac-
tual requirements of society for student~ and specialists was much greater _
here in 1965 than it xas in 1975� ~~'~lar conc~~ision5 may be draWn from
an analysis of the results of res~dxch studies conducted in other regior.s
of the country.
If we consider that during the 1960's those Who did not intend to enroll
' at higher or secondary specialized educational instiitutions (i. e.~ the -
greater paxt o~' the population from 14 to 17 years of agP) xere oriented
_ principally to the working occupa.tions and to physical la'bor in a.gricul-
ture and that in the national economy the "demand" for such occupations
now remaing much greater than for occupa.tions involving mental work, then
we must conclude that the non-concurrence of the actual requirements of
society for specific occupations and the desires of the young people has
not decreased~ as certain researchers suppose, but, on the crt1trary~ has
increased. The fact of the matter is that a significant pc~~~iion of those
graduating from secondazy school (especially the evening sc:hool), soberly
evaluating their own possibilities, in fact do choose for th~?selves more
realistic paths for entering a self-supporting life (through tekhnikums,
the sys~em of vocational-technical education~ or by setting to xork di-
- rectly). Here personal plans for enrolling at a WZ are most often merely
postponed. to a later time. For example, about half of the pupils polled
from secondary PTLT's (vocational-technical schools) declaxed their inten-
tions of subsequently enrolling in WZ's or tekhnikums. Undoubtedly,
young people take into consideration the fact that, when they enroll for
studies, production xorkers are granted considerable advantages. Thus, _
the increase in the n~aber of those enrolling in vocational-technical
schools and courses reveals merely the fact that there is a substantial
groxth in the proportion of young people xho desire to acquire a special-
ization before they start to xork. This is conditioned both by the in-
- creased technical level of piroduction and by the broadened possibilities
for appropriate instruction within the syst~a of secondaxy vocational-
technical education on full state grants.
All this testifies to the fact that the total proportion of young people
aged 17 who are oriented in the actual life plans xhich they have chosen
toxards the xorking occupations has not increa.sed during the past 15 years
but, on the contrary. has decreased. Consequently, the system of voca-
tional orientation~ in the form in xhich it has existed and continues to
exist toc~,ay, has proved to be quite ineffective. The key to solving this
problem is a.fforded by combining instruction with productive labor. Thus,
during the last fe~r years 43 percent of the gra,duates of Kostromska,ya Ob-
last's rural schools have entered the field of agriculture in this oblast.
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Counting those.who have enrolled ir. vocational-technical schools, secondary
specialized, and hi~er educational institutions in 1978~ 73 Pe~ent of ru- . -
ral-school graduates ?.inked their subsequent destinies xith agriculture.
During the last two years alone the number of young people belox the age of
30 in the oblast's na.tional econoa?y has grown by 11.8 peraent, Khile in
; agriculture the corresponding figure is 45,1 percent. More than 50 per-
cent of the rural secondary-school gra.dua.tes ha.ve r~nained to work in the `
rur~l axeas. This is 3.5 times sore than in 1971 (See SOYETSKAYA PEDAGO-
GIKA, 1979, No 5, pp� 57-59)� ~ the villages of Novosibirskaya Oblast
~ during the 1960's among the sECOndary-school graduates only 5.3 percent ex-
pressed a desire to choose occupations connected with agriculture. But now
in those schools where student production brigades have been organized and.
- are operating well, as much as half and more are being turned to.
An analogous principle is also to be observed in the cities as wells the or-
ganiza.tion of serious practical la'bor by the students and their practical
inclusion in the position of the working class have proven to be the decid-
ing factor in the turning of their social orientation towa~.tds working oc-
cupations. As is well known,~labor productivity in present-da.y enterprises
is connected with the need for vocational training. Life has convincingly
proved the follorring propositions the better general-educational schools, -
precisely on the basis ox combining instruction xith productive labor and
general education with vocational education, are successfully solving the
entire complex of ed.ucational-tra,ining problesns. For example, in the city
of Novosibirsk's School No 10, Which is well known as one of the best in
the city xith regard to many basic indicators, genuine production has been
functioning for many yeaxs alrea,dy. In a planned system and on orders �rom
the material-t,echni,cal supply administration of the Western Siberian Region~
varied. (28 types) of fitting and installation tools ag well as universal
woodworking power tools are produced here. Moreaver, a great deal of other
small-series output is also produced here. All labor instruction in this
school is built on the foundation of productive labor--from the 4th through
the lOth grades inclusive. In the learning process the schoolchildren ac-
quire the know-how to work on many metal-working machine tools and become
practically acquainted with 15 or 16 specializa.tions. Every yeax this
school produces an output worth 140--160,000 rubles.
Unfortunately~ this experience has still not been xidely dissennina.ted. But
practical experience has shown that even if a atudent~ when he takes a job~
goes to work in a specialization which is different from the one which he
acquired in school, then the ma.stery of the nex occupa.tion will last only
from one to three months, instead of the usua.l six to txelve months. In
1977 the Soviet Union already had 845~000 (about 30 per~ent of the gradu-
ates of the day genera.l-e~.ucational schools) who were certified in the cor-
responding labor occupations, i. e., the general-educational school ensured
the vocational training of a contingent xhich amounted to approximately 50
percent of the total number of graduates of the day vocational-technical
educational institutions of all types. Certainly there are excesses here
and there--foxmal and incorrect attribution of work categories to school-
childrsn. Hoxever, it frequently happens that pupils fully deserve merit
the raised work categories which they receive even before they graduate
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frcm the eight-year school. In Novosibirsk's Secondary School No 10 some
eighth-grade students have Category II and are winners of the municipal com-
petition for youn~ lathe operators, while individual graduates of this
school, when they go to work at plants, successfully perfonn work of Cate-
gories IV--V. Nox~ xhen in accordance with the decree of the CPSU Central
Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers on schools the number of h~urs
spent on labor training in Grades 9--10 is being doubled, there are increas-
ing possibilities for full-valued vocational training of pupils on the ba-
sis of cooperation between the school and enterprises. In this connection
it seems appropriate to recall tha.t V. I. I,enin, who axgued decisively
against early vocational specialization, nevertheless considered it neces- _
saxy for schoolchildren, along with general-educational and polytechnical
skills, should master cextain "trade-type" occu tions which were very ne-
cessary at tha.t time (joiner~ carpenter~ fitter~ but also with their un-
failing orientation toWards industrial labor. As the experience of pro-
gressive pedagogues has shoxn~ polytechnical and vocational. insLruction cal2
not contradictory but ra.ther dialectically~supplement each other.
V. I. Lenin was a determined foe of do~natic~ disadvantageous attitudes to-
wards theory. He sharply criticized a11 kinds of "general reasonings" and
the setting forth of "abstract slogans," demanding instead a constant turn-
ing to progressive practical experience so that, by relying on it, the mat-
ter could be moved fozward, expanding local experience, as~~r suitable trial
by testing, to a na.tionwide scale. Following this directive, let's turn to
the present-day practical experience of the "Yeremeevskiy" Sovkhoz and the
secondary school which is located on its territory (Omskaya Oblast). Based.
on their many years of joint work~ as approved by the CPSU Obkom, and test-
ing of an experimental program here, they hav~ come to a conclusion rega.rd-
ing the usefulness of a much earlier than usu,~al familiarization of the pu-
pils with fann equigaent--from Grades 5--6 on. This a.llows the schoolchil-
dren to acquire certain specializations, also opening up certain other fa-
vorable conditions for solving the complex of problems under consideration
(See SOVETSKAYA PEDAGOGII{A, 1979, No 5). The experience of many progres-
sive schools ~nd children's crea.tive associations in Novosibirskaya Oblast
alloxs us to speak convincingly tha.t even children as young as 1i--14 can,
xithout any kind of excessive strain~ with benefits for their health and
moral develo~mment~ as well as the quality, of their learning, basically mas-
' ter not just one but even many working occupations. In Akade~ngorodok in
the Siberian Division of the USSR Academy of Sciences schoolchildren who
axe studying ir~ the young technicia.ns' clubs have created various types of
apparatus and ins�truments which are on a level with present-day engineering
solutions, and their manufacture requires a high degree of working skills.
One of the principal objections against any substantial increase i:~ schools -
of the hours devoted to vocational training and productive labor is con-
nected xith rema.~ks oa the overloading of pupils. It seems extremely rea-
sonable to assert that learning 'by itself is a sufficiently great and stre-
nuous work~ excluding the possibility of any sort of additional load, and
that the introduc~ion in any substantial amount Khatsoever of productive
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labor into the schoals will mean an overloading, which will threaten the
health and over-all develop~ent of the schoolchildren. In our opinion,
horrever~ these idea.s are too exaggera~ed. Behind the high "average" fi-
- gures for the outlays of study time are hidden a great mat~y schoolchildren
_ who spend considerably less time on their studies than is allowed for this
purpose (5ee "Vo rosy NOT v shkole" ~Proble~ns of Scientific Organization of
Labor in School~ Edited by N. I. Sotserdotov, Moscox, 19?0~ p 154). The
excessively large expenditures of time taken by individual. schoolchildrer~
in preparing for their lessons is caused priinarily by the lack of knoWing
hoK to study and by the inability to rationa.lly organize their own home-
work. Therefore~ no matter how paradoxical it may seem, overloading is
' combined with a.n underloa.ding of the schoolchildren, and this brings about
the exceptionally harmful custom of Korking at half-power and cultivates
laziness of thought and a passive attitude towaixds study. _
At the same time, progressive experience has convincingly shoxn that the or- -
dinaxy secondaryr schoolchild can, without any kind of over-strain and, on
the contraxy~ with benefits for his physical and psycholo~ical health,
stnc~y more rapidly and effectively tTzan usual. Present-day experlmental
data brilliantly affinns the theoretical conclusions of physiologists and
psychologists that most people actively utilize only an insignificant por-
tion of their intellectual potential. In connection with this~ the clo~
sest attention is merited by the research studies of scientists and practi-
cing specialists which show the genuin.e possibility of substantially in-
creasing the effectiveness of the educational process in the schools by
means of activating leaxning. Moreover, such an intensification , accord-
ing to the testimony of physician-hygienists~ has a positive effect on the
health and emctional n~ood of pupils. Children�'~ extreme business xith their ~
studies is an argument not "against" increasing the time to be spent on pro-
ductive labor in the schools but, on the contr~axy, "for" such an increase.
_ A simple adding up of the time spent in physical labor and in studying in
deteimining the dimensions of the optimum loads of a schoolchild is mettho-
dologically erroneous, inasmuch a.s these are qualitativply different types
of activity. The productive labor of pupils may serve ~.s a unique catalyst
for intensifying the learning processes. Well-organized productive labor
and labor instruction, as shown by the expeMence of the best schools, fa-
cilitate the cultivation among schoolchildren of a conscientious attitude
toxard their studies and a striving to acquire a secondary education. Also
well known is the fact that in those sacondary vocational-technical schools
where a literate and organic combination of instruction and productive la-
bor is provided, the quality of the pupils' knoxled.ge and skills With re-
gard to the genera.l-educational disciplines proves to be at the level of
progressive da.y second~xy schools.
The combination of instruction xith praductive labor today has acquired an
extremely grea.t importance ~om the standpoint of providing a universsal se-
condary ed.ucation. The universality and obligatory nature of the young
people's secondaxy education is not linked xith saa~e kind of administrative-
compulsory measures aimed at youths and girls xho do not xant, for some
reason or other, to continue their studies beyond ~the eighth grade. .
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~rthez~aore, ma.ny schoolchildren because of family traditions and other
factors axe oriented at ~his age at the most rapid acquisition of a simple,
xorking specializa.tion, self-supporting work on the production line~ and~
therefore, they do not want to receive a scholastic-type, secondary edu-
cation. In the eyes of this portion of the young people the organization
of serious productive labor and instruction in specific occupations sharp-
ly increases the prestige of scholastic education and arouses than to take -
a more serious attitude toxa.rds their studies. At tha same time, a well-
organized, production-type, physical labor, connected with serious national
_ economic tasks~ is~ as experience has shoxn, a splendid and effective edu-
cational means for those who are often relegated to the category of "la-
borers." We consider that the statements against draxing all children in-
to serious productive labor and the xorker training of a11 children ai~ the
vocational level to be lacking in a.qy kind of scientific foundation. More-
over~ there is quite a goad deal of evidence to support the concept that
young people xho have acquired skills in the schools, where it was manda-
tory for them to ta,ke a labor education, work well and remain on the job
(especially agricultural work).
As is knoxn, three basic types of secondary educational institutions have
~ taken shape in the USSR: secondary general-ediucationa.l schools, secondary -
_ vocational-technical schools, and tekhnikums. Is such a divisior~ of types
obligatory, and should it be retained in the ~ture? In our opinion~ the
simple bringing of a11 types of secondary educational institutions into
the fonn of some averaged-out model could hard.7.y be prog~:essive. In or3er
to solve this problem, we need to go beyond the limits of the closed circle
of abstra.ct-logical reasonings and unlea.sh a broad. experimental search.
. It xould obviously be feasible to facilitate in a maximum xay the differen-
tiation of secondary education~ Khile taking all possible mea.sures to sti-
mulate integral trends. Moreover, the general-educational school must more
and more basically tra.in its oxn pupils for life on the ba,sis of combining
instruction with productive labor and impiroving vocational training. Com-
- bining ~roductive labor with instruction represents the richest but still
too weakly utili~ed,source ~f internal self-development for the secondary-
- educational syste~a. If all the general-educational and vocational-techni-
cal educational institutions eame up to the level of the most progressive
ones in organizing productive la'bor for the pupils, then the material-tech-
nical and financial resources of secondary education xc~uld at least be
doubled~ xhile the country's national income for this rea.a~n alone xould
glrox by approximately 3.5--4 percent. And most importantly, by means of
combining instruction xith producti~re labor in the secondary? school the
skills of the aggregate xorker can be sharply increased.. and this will
provide a difficult-to-evaluate~ but even more si~nificant, economic ef-
fect. At the same time~ this xill also be an essential factor in the in-
tensification and increase of the socio-pedagogical effectiveness of the
tra.ining and educationa.l processes. Therefore, the combination of instruc-
tion and productive labor constitutes a key link in the developaent of uni-
versal seconda.ry education.
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Any new trends in the matter of public education, even the wisest and poten-
tially highly effective ones, can turn out to be ineffective and discre-
dited in practice, if the deciding factor in the training and educational
- process--the teacher's personalyty--is not prepared to caxry them out in
a11 regards. Meanwhile~ serious contradictions have grown up in the pro-
cesses of the functioning and fonnation of pedagogical staffs nowa,da,ys.
Therefore, a top-priority task in the develo~?ent of secondary eduoation
must be a program for the further upgrading of the socioeconomic status of
the teachers, improved conditions for their work, daily lives~ rest and re-
creation, providing for a substantial increase in their responsibility and
role in the communist education of the coming generations.
COPYRIGHT: "Sovetska.ya pedagogika" ~ 1980
2384
_ CSO s 1828 END
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